IGCSE 0625 PHYSICS Quick Revision (Theory)

1 Motion, forces and energy

Length can be measured using a ruler.
The period of one oscillation can be measured by measuring the time for
20 oscillations and then dividing the time by 20.
The volume of a cube or cuboid can be found by measuring the length of
the three sides and multiplying the measurements together.
The volume of a liquid can be measured using a measuring cylinder where
the bottom of the meniscus appears on the scale when looked at
horizontally.
All objects that sink in water displace their own volume of water.
The volume of an irregularly shaped object can be found from the change
in the height of liquid in a measuring cylinder when it is immersed in the
liquid.
m
Density is the ratio of mass to volume for a substance: ρ = V
.
The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 or 1.0 g/cm3.
Anything less dense than water will float in water and anything denser
than water will sink in water.
Ice floats because it is less dense than water.
One liquid will float on top of another liquid if it is less dense.
Time can be measured using a clock or watch.
An analogue clock has hands and can only measure time to the nearest
second.
A digital clock displays numbers and records time to a precision of at least
one hundredth of a second.

Speed is distance divided by time.

Average speed is total distance divided by total time.
Light gates and interrupt cards can be used to measure speed in the
laboratory.
The equation that relates speed, distance and time can be re-arranged to
find any one of the variables, given the values of the other two.
The gradient (slope) of a distance–time graph represents speed.
Acceleration is a change in speed.
The greater the gradient (slope) of a speed–time graph, the bigger the
acceleration.
Distance travelled can be calculated (worked out) from the area under a
speed–time graph.
Speed can be calculated from the gradient of a distance–time graph and
acceleration can be calculated from the gradient of a speed–time graph.
Speed is a scalar and velocity is a vector.
Acceleration can be calculated from the change of speed divided by time
and a negative acceleration is the same as a deceleration.

The unit of force is the newton (N).

Forces appear when two objects interact with each other.
A force can be represented by an arrow to show its direction, while length
is proportional to the size of the force.
Solid friction, air resistance, and drag act in the opposite direction to the
object’s motion and can produce heating.
The resultant force is the single force that has the same effect as two or
more forces.
A resultant force can change the speed and/or direction of an object.
The force of gravity pulls objects downwards and is normally called the
weight of the object.
The acceleration caused by the pull of the Earth’s gravity is called the
acceleration of free fall or the acceleration due to gravity. It is given the
symbol g and its value is 9.8 m/s2 close to the surface of the Earth.
The mass of an object, measured in kilograms, tells you how much matter
that object is composed of.
The weight of an object, measured in newtons, is the gravitational force
that acts on that object.
Terminal velocity is the name for the maximum constant speed reached
when the resultant force acting on an object becomes zero. It is often
applied to parachutists when the upwards force of air resistance becomes
equal and opposite to weight.
If an object moves in a circle, a force must be acting towards the centre of
the path, perpendicular (at right angles) to the speed of the object.
For motion in a circular path, a bigger force is required if the body is more
massive, moving faster or moving in a tighter circle.
Force = mass × acceleration, F = ma.
Momentum is the quantity mass × velocity, p = mv.
The principle of the conservation of momentum means that the total
momentum after an interaction between bodies (for example, a collision)
is the same as it was before the interaction.
The impulse (of a force) can be defined as the change in an object’s
momentum (mv ‒ mu) or the force acting on an object multiplied by the
time for which the force acts (Ft), so impulse = FΔt.
Δp
Force can be defined as the rate of change of momentum, F = Δt
.
The resultant of two vectors that do not act along the same line can be
found by drawing a vector triangle or by calculation.

The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect.

Increasing force or distance from the pivot increases the moment of a
force.
Moment of a force = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot.
An object is in equilibrium when the forces on it are balanced (no resultant
force) and the turning effects of the forces on it are balanced (no resultant
turning effect).
The centre of gravity is the point at which the weight of an object appears
to be concentrated.
The location of the centre of gravity affects stability.
Forces can change the size and shape of an object.
An object (for example, a spring) will stretch when a load is attached to it.
To calculate the extension of a spring for a given load, its original length
must be subtracted from its new length.
Stretching a spring beyond its limit of proportionality permanently
deforms it and it will not return to its original size and shape.
The extension on a spring is proportional to the load applied to the spring
until the spring reaches the limit of proportionality.
On a load–extension graph, the extension on a spring is proportional to the
load applied to the spring where the line is straight.
The graph starts to curve at the limit of proportionality; beyond this point,
the extension on a spring is not proportional to the load applied to the
spring.
F
The spring constant is defined as the force per unit extension, k = x
.
The bigger the spring constant, the more difficult it is to stretch the spring.
We say that the object is stiffer.
Rubber returns to its original size and shape unless the load is increased
after it has stopped stretching.
Pressure is the force (for example, weight) per unit area (perpendicular to
the surface).
Pressure in a fluid (liquid or gas) is caused by the weight of fluid above it.
Because the pressure is greatest at the greatest depth, a dam is thickest at
its base.
For pressure in a fluid, it is more usual to use the equation change in
pressure = density × gravitational field strength × depth, Δp = ⍴gΔh.
Transfers between different stores of energy can occur because of an event
or process.
A collision is an event that will change the kinetic energy of a body.
Heating a body will increase its internal energy.
Changing the shape of a body will change its elastic (strain) energy.
Lifting a body will increase its g.p.e.
Burning a substance will reduce its chemical energy.
Energy can be transferred between energy stores, which can be illustrated
using an energy flow diagram.
Mechanical work can transfer g.p.e. to an object, by lifting it.
Electric currents transfer energy electrically.
Thermal energy can transfer internal energy from a hot object to a cold
object.
It is important to increase efficiency to reduce waste, reduce
environmental damage, and save money.
When a process is not 100% efficient, the wasted energy spread outs and
is not useful (usually thermal energy).
Energy is conserved. It cannot be created or destroyed; it can only transfer
from one store to another.
A Sankey diagram illustrates the principle of conservation of energy.
Efficiency is the fraction of the total energy that is useful.
change in gravitational potential energy = weight × change in height or
change in gravitational potential energy = mass × gravitational field
strength × change in height or ΔEp = mgΔh.
1
kinetic energy is Ek = 2
mv 2 .
When working out kinetic energy, only the speed is squared.

Solar panels are used to collect energy from the Sun.

Solar cells (also known as photocells) generate electricity using energy
from the Sun.
Oil, coal and natural gas are all examples of fossil fuels.
Coal forms from trees, and oil and natural gas form from microplankton.
Non-renewable energy resources will run out. This includes fossil fuels
and nuclear fuel but not biofuel.
Renewable energy resources are replenished (replaced) after they have
been used.
Biofuels are renewable, reliable, cheap to set up and use, but are diffuse.
Geothermal energy is harvested (collected) where hot rock is close to the
Earth’s surface.
Wind power, wave power and solar power are renewable but unreliable
and dilute energy resources. Running costs are low but they are expensive
to set up.
Hydroelectric power, tidal power and geothermal power are renewable,
reliable and concentrated energy resources but suitable locations are
limited, and they are expensive to set up.
Nuclear power stations use nuclear fuel, which produces thermal energy
by nuclear fission when heavy nuclei break apart.
The Sun is the origin of all our energy resources except geothermal,
nuclear and tidal.
The source of the Sun’s energy is nuclear fusion, when hydrogen fuses
(joins) together to form helium.
We are trying to develop nuclear fusion reactors.

Energy transferred by a force is called work done.

The amount of work done is the amount of energy transferred.
The amount of work done depends on the size of the force – the greater
the force, the more work is done.
The amount of work done depends the distance moved in the direction of
the force – the further it moves, the more work is done.
To calculate the energy transferred by the force of gravity, we must use
the vertical height moved.
Work done = force × distance in the direction of the force.
The work done to move a weight vertically upwards is equal to g.p.e.
Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, or the rate at which work
is done.
Power can be increased by increasing the work done in a given time.
Power can be increased by reducing the time over which the same work is
done.
ΔE
Recall and use the equation P = t
in simple systems.
2 Thermal physics

Matter can exist in three states – solid, liquid and gas.

Solids have a fixed shape and volume. Liquids have a fixed volume but
take the shape of their container. Gases expand to fill their container.
The kinetic model explains the behaviour of materials by describing what
is happening to the particles of which they are made.
According to the kinetic model, matter is made of moving particles that
are close together in solids and liquids, and far apart in gases.
There are attractive forces between particles that act strongly when the
particles are close together.
In Brownian motion, the movement of water or air particles is revealed by
their effect on visible grains of pollen or smoke particles.
As the temperature of a substance increases, the kinetic energy of its
particles increases.
The particles of a gas bombard the walls of its container. This causes
pressure. Increasing temperature increases pressure. Decreasing the
volume increases the pressure.
Temperature can be measured using the Kelvin temperature scale which
has its zero at −273 °C.
Pressure and volume are related by the equation pV = constant.

Solids, liquids and gases expand when their temperatures rise.

Solids, liquids and gases contract when their temperatures drop.
Solids expand least because their particles are held together by strong
attractive forces.
Gases expand most as their particles are free to move.
Expansion can cause problems such as the bending of train tracks, but can
also be useful, for example in thermometers.
Melting is the change from a solid to a liquid without any change in
temperature.
Boiling is the change from a liquid to a gas without a change in
temperature.
Supplying heat energy increases the internal energy of a substance and its
temperature rise.
The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of a
substance by 1 °C is called the specific heat capacity of the substance.
The energy needed to heat a mass m of a substance by ∆θ degrees can be
ΔE
calculated using the equation c = mΔθ .
During a change of state, energy is supplied or given out but the
temperature does not change.
When a liquid evaporates the most energetic particles escape from the
surface, so the liquid cools.
Evaporation occurs at temperatures below the boiling point of the liquid. It
happens faster at higher temperatures, with a larger surface area or if there
is a draught across the surface.

Metals are good thermal conductors. Most non-metals are good insulators.
Metals are good thermal conductors because they have free electrons.
Hot fluids are less dense than cold fluids. This causes convection currents.
Infrared radiation transfers thermal energy using electromagnetic waves.
Infrared radiation does not require a medium (it can travel through a
vacuum).
Shiny, white surfaces reflect infrared radiation. They are poor emitters and
absorbers of infrared radiation.
Dull, black surfaces are good absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation,
but poor reflectors.
The amount of infrared radiation emitted also depends on the surface area
and temperature of the object.

3 Waves
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
Waves can be clearly seen in water and springs.
Waves can be transverse or longitudinal.
Wave speed, frequency and wavelength are related by the equation v = f λ.
Waves can be reflected and refracted.
Waves can be diffracted when they pass through a gap or round an
obstacle.
The wave model can be used to explain reflection, refraction and
diffraction.
The law of reflection: angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
The image in a plane mirror is upright, as far behind the mirror as the
object is in front and swapped round left to right.
The image in a plane mirror is virtual.
Refraction is the bending of light as it goes from one substance to another.
Refraction is caused by light travelling at different speeds in different
materials.
When light passes from air to glass it bends towards the normal. When it
passes from glass to air it bends away from the normal.
When light travelling through glass hits a boundary with air, some light
passes from glass to air, some light is internally reflected back into the
glass.
When the angle of incidence in glass is equal to, or greater than, the
critical angle, all the light is reflected back into the glass. This is total
internal reflection.
The refractive index is a measure of how much light is slowed, or bent, by
a material.
sin i
Refractive index can be calculated using the equation n = sin r
1
Refractive index = sin c
.
Optical fibres can transmit information rapidly and efficiently using total
internal reflection. This is useful in telecommunications and medicine.
Converging lenses bend parallel rays together so they meet at a point
called the principal focus.
Drawing a ray parallel to the axis, and a ray which strikes the centre of a
lens allows us to draw a ray diagram and find the type of image formed.
A magnifying glass produces a virtual image.
Our eyes use a flexible convex lens to form images.
A short-sighted eye has a lens which is too powerful. This can be
corrected using a diverging lens.

A long-sighted eye has a lens which is too weak. This can be corrected
using a converging lens.
White light can be dispersed by passing it through a glass prism. This
creates the visible spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum is a group of waves which have similar
properties to light.
In order of increasing frequency, the waves in the electromagnetic
spectrum are: radiowaves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet,
X-rays and gamma rays.
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed – the speed of light.
The speed of light is 300 000 000 m/s.
Electromagnetic waves have different wavelengths and this gives them
different properties and makes them suitable for different uses.
High frequency electromagnetic radiation can be hazardous. It can damage
cells and cause cells to mutate.
Radio waves, microwaves, visible light and infrared are used in
communication systems.
Signals can be analogue or digital. Digital signals transmit data more
accurately and faster.

All sounds are caused by vibrating sources.

Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
Sound waves consist of a series of compressions and rarefactions.
Sound waves need a medium to travel through.
Sound travels at between 330 m/s and 350 m/s in air.
Sound travels fastest in solids and slowest in gases.
An echo is a reflected sound.
The greater the amplitude of a sound, the louder the sound.
The greater the frequency of a sound, the higher its pitch.
Humans can hear sounds between 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz.
Ultrasound can be used in medical scans, testing materials and depth
calculation.
4 Electricity and magnetism
Magnets have a north pole and a south pole.
Magnetic field lines are drawn with an arrow from north to south, which is
the direction of the magnetic force.
Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
Magnetic elements include iron, cobalt and nickel. Metal alloys (for
example, steel) containing these elements are also magnetic.
Magnetic materials can be magnetised while non-magnetic materials (like
rubber and glass) cannot be magnetised.
A permanent magnet can attract unmagnetised magnetic materials by
inducing magnetism in them.
A hard magnetic material like steel is difficult to magnetise and
demagnetise.
A soft magnetic material like soft iron is easy to magnetise and
demagnetise.
A magnetic field is a region of space around a magnet or electric current in
which a magnet will feel a force.
A magnetic field pattern around a (bar) magnet can be produced using a
plotting compass.
A magnetic field line is the line (direction) of force on the north pole of
the magnet, which is why a magnet (for example, a compass needle) lines
up with it.
An electromagnet (or solenoid) is a magnet created when a current is
passed through wire, which is usually shaped into a coil.
The strength of an electromagnet increases with the number of turns in the
coil, the strength of the current and if it has a soft iron core.
The advantages of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet are that its
strength can be changed, it can be switched on and off and it can be
reversed.
The magnetic forces of attraction and repulsion between magnets are
caused when their magnetic fields interact (affect each other) and produce
a new pattern of magnetic lines of force.
The closer together magnetic field lines are to each other, the stronger the
magnetic field.
There are two types of charge: positive and negative.
Like charges repel, opposite charges attract.
Conductors allow charge to flow. Insulators do not allow charge to flow.
Insulators can be charged by friction, which causes the loss or gain of
electrons.
An electric field is the area around a charged object in which a charge will
experience a force.
Electric fields can be represented by field lines which show the direction
of the force on a positive charge.
Insulators are materials in which electrons are fixed in place. Conductors
have free electrons.

An electric current will flow only if there is a supply of energy (for

example, a battery) to push it around a complete circuit (that is, if there are
no gaps in it).
Conductors (for example, metals) allow electric current to flow through
them while insulators (for example, plastic) resist the flow of current.
Current is a flow of electric charge (for example, electrons) in a circuit.
Electric current is measured in amperes or amps (A).
Current is measured with an ammeter connected into a circuit in series.
Conventional current flows from the positive terminal of a cell or battery
to the negative terminal. Electrons flow in the opposite direction.
Current is the rate at which electric charge (for example, electrons) passes
Q
a point in a circuit: I = t .
Voltage or potential difference (p.d.) is like the difference in height that
makes a ball roll downhill.
The p.d. across a cell is called the electromotive force (e.m.f.).
Voltage (and p.d. and e.m.f.) is measured with a voltmeter connected in
parallel across the relevant component and they are all measured in volts
(V).
Voltage is the work done or energy transferred per unit charge given by
the equation V = W Q
The resistance of a component is measured in ohms (Ω).
The resistance of a circuit component is the p.d. across it divided by the
current passing through it given by the equation R = VI and it can be
found by experiment.
The resistance of a wire increases when it gets longer and resistance
decreases as the diameter of the wire gets wider.
The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area.
A current–voltage (I–V) characteristic is a graph with current plotted on
the vertical axis and the voltage on the horizontal axis.
When the gradient of an I–V characteristic is smaller, the resistance is
bigger.
The resistance of an ohmic resistor is constant because the current through
it is directly proportional to the voltage across it. The I–V characteristic of
an ohmic resistor is a straight line through the origin.
A filament lamp is an example of a component that is non-ohmic. As the
current through the filament increases, it gets hot and so its resistance
increases.
Electric circuits transfer energy from the battery or power source to the
circuit components and then the surroundings.
Electrical power is current multiplied by voltage (P = IV) and electrical
energy is E = IVt.
The equation for working out the number of units of electrical energy
being used is:
Energy transferred (kWh) = power (kW) × time (hours)
The cost of electricity can be worked out using: total cost of electricity =
number of units × cost per unit
A resistor can control the amount of current flowing around a circuit.
A variable resistor can alter the current flowing in a circuit.
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is a device whose resistance decreases
when light shines on it.
A thermistor is a device whose resistance decreases with increasing
temperature.
A relay is a switch controlled by an electromagnet.
A diode is a component that allows conventional current to flow only in
the direction of the arrow.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that gives out light when current
flows through it.
Resistors in series are connected end-to-end.
For resistors in series, the total resistance is the equal to the sum of the
resistors.
The current is the same at all points around a series circuit.
The voltage of the source is shared between resistors in a series circuit.
A potential divider circuit uses a pair of resistors to obtain a smaller p.d.
than provided by the source.
For resistors arranged in parallel, the effective resistance is less than the
value of the smallest resistor.
To calculate the effective resistance, R, for two resistors in parallel, we
use the equation R1 = R1 + R1 .
1 2

The current from the source divides to pass through parallel resistors.
The current from the supply is the sum of the currents flowing through
parallel resistors: I = I1 + I2 + I3.
Lights in a house are arranged in parallel so that each has the supply
voltage across it and can be controlled by its own switch.
The metal case of an electrical appliance is earthed by connecting it to the
earth wire to prevent current passing through anyone touching a faulty
appliance.
Excessive current through a wire can melt insulation, causing it to emit
poisonous fumes or catch fire.
Using multi-plug adapters (multi-way bar extensions and block adapters)
increases the risk of overloading plugs and sockets.
A fuse contains a thin section of wire, designed to melt and break the
circuit if the current gets above a certain value.
A circuit breaker is a safety device that automatically switches off a circuit
when the current becomes too high.
A trip switch is a safety device that includes a switch that opens (trips)
when a current exceeds a certain value.

There is a magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.

The magnetic effect of a current has many practical uses including the
electric bell and relay.
The field around a wire is strongest near the wire.
The field in a solenoid is strongest inside the coil.
The strength and direction of the field depends on the size and direction of
the current.
When a current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, there is a
force on the conductor. This is called the motor effect.
The direction of the force can be reversed by reversing the field or the
current.
A coiled conductor in a magnetic field experiences a turning force. This is
the basis of the electric motor.
The strength of a motor can be increased by increasing the field, the
current or the number of turns on the coil.
Fleming’s left-hand rule allows you to find the direction of the force on a
current-carrying conductor.
Fleming’s left-hand rule can also be used to find the direction of the force
on a beam of charged particles in a magnetic field.
An electric motor uses a split-ring commutator to produce continuous
rotation.
When there is relative movement between a conductor and a magnetic
field, an e.m.f. is induced across the conductor.
The induced e.m.f. may cause an induced current to flow.
The e.m.f. induced in a coil of wire can be increased by:
• increasing the magnetic field strength
• increasing the number of turns on the coil
• increasing the speed of movement.
The direction of the induced e.m.f. opposes the movement which causes it.
The direction of the induced e.m.f can be found using Fleming’s right-
hand rule.
Direct current flows in one direction. Alternating current reverses
direction repeatedly.
The output of an a.c. generator depends on the position of the coil in
relation to the magnetic field.
A transformer, consisting of a primary coil, a secondary coil and a soft
iron core can be used to change alternating voltages.
A step-up transformer increases voltage, a step-down transformer
decreases voltage.
The number of turns on transformer coils and the voltages across them can
be calculated using the equation.
Vp Np
V
= N
s s

Transformers increase voltage for transmission by the national grid then

reduce the voltage to a safer level for consumers.
a.c. in the primary core of a transformer creates a changing magnetic field
which, in turn, induces a.c. in the secondary coil.
When a transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient, the primary and
secondary currents and voltages are related by the equation Ip × Vp = Is ×
Vs.
The power losses in cables can be calculated using the equation P = I2R.
5 Nuclear physics

The atom consists of a tiny positive nucleus surrounded by mainly empty

space with negative electrons orbiting.
Positive or negative ions are formed when an atom loses or gains
electrons.
The nucleus contains two types of nucleons: positively charged protons
and neutral neutrons.
Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment provided evidence to
support the nuclear model of the atom.
Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass. This is nearly
2000 times the mass of an electron.
Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charge.
Z X, where X is the
A nucleus can be described using the notation A
chemical symbol, Z the number of protons and A the number of nucleons.
Isotopes are nuclei of the same element which have the same proton
number but different nucleon numbers.
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large nucleus, which releases a lot of
energy.
Nuclear fusion is joining together of small nuclei, which releases even
more energy than fission.
Nuclear fission and fusion can be described using nuclear equations.

We are surrounded by ionising background radiation from natural and

man-made sources.
Unstable isotopes decay randomly.
Radioactive decay leads to three types of emissions – α-particles, β-
particles and γ-rays.
α and β emissions change the nucleus to that of a different element.
α and β emissions can be described using balanced nuclear equations.
The half-life of a radioactive source is the time taken for half its
radioactive nuclei to decay.
α, β and γ-radiation can all ionise cells, leading to mutations and tumours.
Safety precautions must be taken when using radioactive materials.
When used safely, radioactive materials have many uses, particularly in
medicine and engineering.
 6 Space physics

The Earth spins on its axis every 24 hours causing day and night.
The Earth is tilted on its axis. This causes the seasons as the Earth orbits
the Sun every 365 days.
The Moon orbits the Earth every 27.5 days, causing the phases of the
Moon.
The Sun is orbited by four rocky inner planets, four gaseous outer planets
and minor planets, moons and comets.
All objects orbiting the Sun are kept in orbit by its gravitational attraction.
Light from the Sun takes approximately eight minutes to reach the Earth.
The distances for sunlight to reach other planets can be calculated using
the equation speed = distance/time.
The speed of an object in orbit can be calculated using the equation
v = 2Tπr where r is the radius of the orbit and T is the orbital duration.
The orbits of the planets are slightly elliptical. The Sun is not at the centre
of the ellipse. Comets have highly elliptical orbits.
The Sun contains almost all of the mass of the Solar System and so has a
very strong gravitational field.
As distance from the Sun increases, its gravitational field strength
decreases and the orbital speed of any orbiting object decreases.
When an orbiting object is at its closest to the Sun, it has its maximum
kinetic energy and minimum gravitational potential energy.
Planetary data about orbital distance, orbital duration, density, surface
temperature and gravitational field strength can be analysed to show
patterns in the properties and behaviour of the planets.

Our Sun is an average star and is made mainly of hydrogen and helium.
Stable stars shine because of the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen.
The Sun shines in the infrared and ultraviolet as well as the visible light.
A light-year is the distance that light travels in one year.
A light-year is defined as 9.5 × 1015 metres.
The Sun is of one of many billions of stars in our Milky Way Galaxy.
The distance between stars is thousands of times bigger than the distance
between a star and planets in its solar system, if it has one.
Our Milky Way Galaxy is one of billions of others in the Universe.
Our nearest galaxy is more than 25 000 light-years from Earth. So,
galaxies are much further apart than stars, and stars are much further apart
than planets.
All stars begin as protostars from the collapse of interstellar (molecular)
gas clouds and then start using hydrogen as their fuel.
A stable star uses hydrogen as its fuel and the outward force of radiation
pressure due to its high temperature balances the inward force of gravity.
Low mass stars (less than eight times the mass of the Sun) swell into red
giants when they run out of hydrogen fuel for their nuclear reactions.
When red giants run out of helium, they form a planetary nebula and
shrink into white dwarfs.
High mass stars (more than eight times the mass of the Sun) will explode
as supernovae that create elements heavier than iron and send this material
into the interstellar medium as a nebulae that form the raw material for
new stars and solar systems.
A star that explodes as a supernova collapses to become a neutron star or,
if it has a bigger mass, a black hole.
Redshift is the increase in the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation
(including visible light).
Light from distant stars and galaxies is redshifted, which suggests that
they are moving away from us.
The fact that galaxies are moving away from us suggests that the Universe
is expanding and supports the Big Bang theory.
The speed that a galaxy appears to be moving away from us can be found
from the redshift in the starlight.
The Hubble equation describes how the speed of galaxies is proportional
to their distance from us.
The reciprocal of the Hubble constant tells us the age of the Universe.
The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) is electromagnetic
radiation from the early Universe that has been redshifted and its
wavelength stretched into the microwave region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
The distance to a distant galaxy can be determined by the brightness of a
type 1a supernova.
Electrical symbols
cell

battery of cells

power supply
d.c. power supply
a.c. power supply
fixed resistor

variable resisitor

thermistor

light-dependent resisitor

heater

potential divider

magnetising coil

transformer

switch

earth or ground

junction of conductors
lamp

motor

generator

ammeter

voltmeter

diode

light-emitting diode

fuse

relay coil

Symbols
Core Supplement
Usual Usual Usual
Quantity Usual unit Quantity
symbol symbol unit
l, h, d, s, km, m, cm,
length
x mm
area A m2, cm2
volume V m3, cm3, dm3
weight W N
mass m, M kg, g mass m, M mg
time t h, min, s time t ms, μs
density ρ g/cm3, kg/m3
km/h, m/s,
speed u, v
cm/s
acceleration a m/s2
acceleration
g m/s2
of free fall
force F N
gravitational
field g N/kg
strength
spring N/m,
k
constant N/cm
momentum p kg m/s
impulse FΔt Ns
moment of
Nm
force
work done W J, kJ, MJ

J, kJ, MJ, kW
energy E
h
power P W, kW, MW
pressure p N/m2, N/cm2 pressure p Pa
temperature θ, T °C, K
specific
J/(g°C),
heat c
J/(kg°C)
capacity
frequency f Hz, kHz
wavelength λ m, cm wavelength λ nm
focal length f m, cm
angle of
i degree (°)
incidence
angle of
r degree (°)
refection
angle of
r degree (°)
refraction
critical
c degree (°)
angle
refractive
n
index
Potential
difference/ V V, mV, kV
voltage
current I A, mA
e.m.f. E V
resistance R Ω
charge Q C
count/s,
count rate
counts/minute
s, minutes, h,
half-life days, weeks,
years
Hubble H0 s-1
constant
Key equations
change in velocity
acceleration = time taken
Δv
a = Δt

gradient
acceleration of free fall (m/s 2) = 2

acceleration of free fall = g = w

m

average: the average of 12, 15 and 16 is 14.3:

12+15+16
3
= 14.3

2 × π × orbital radius
average orbital speed = orbital period
2πr
v = T

ΔE
c= mΔθ

change in pressure = density × acceleration due to gravity × depth

Δp = ρgΔh

conversion between Kelvin temperarure and degrees Celsius

T (K) = θ(°C) + 273

critical angle:
1
n= sin c

charge
current = time
Q
I = t

mass
density = volume
 useful energy output
efficiency = total energy input

energy transferred = current × p.d. × time

E = IV t
work done on the charge
e.m.f. = charge
W
E = Q

ΔEk = 12 mv2

ΔEp = mgΔh

4π2
g= G

w
g= m

gravitational potential of the lead = mass of lead × g × height of tube

impulse = force × time for which force acts

impulse = F Δt = Δ(mv)

image height u
magnification = object height
= d

moment of a force = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot

momentum, ρ = mv
useful energy output
percentage efficiency = total energy input
× 100%

ΔE
power, p = t

power = current × p.d.

P = IV
power in to primary coil = power out of secondary coil
I p × Vp = I s × Vs

power loss = square of current in the cable × resistance

P = I²R.
force
pressure = area
F
P = A

work done by the charge

p.d. = charge
W
V = Q

refractive index:
sin i
n= sin r

relationship between pressure and volume for gas at a constant temperature:

pV = constant
p.d.
resistance = current
V
R = I

resistance for two resistors used as a potential divider:

R1 V1
R2
= V2

chang in momentum
resultant force = unit time
Δp
F = Δt

energy required
specific heat capacity = mass × temperature increase
ΔE
c = mΔθ
 ΔE
c= mΔθ

specific heat capacity = energy required

ΔE
c = mΔθ

distance
speed = time
v = s
t

force
spring constant = unit extension
F
k = x

voltage across primary coil number of turns on primary

voltage across secondary coil
= number of turns on secondary
Vp Np
Vs
= Ns

wave speed = frequency × wavelength

v = fλ

weight = mass × g

work done by a force = force × distance moved by the force in the dire
W = F d = ΔE