PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVOUS

SYSTEM
 CONTENTS
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
2. NEURONS
3. MECHANISM OF PROPAGATION OF NERVE IMPULSE
4. CNS
5. PNS
6. ANS
7. PHYSIOLOGY OF SENSORY & MOTOR NSS
8. FUUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF BRAIN
9. SPECIAL SENSES
10. INTELLIGENCE, MEMORY, LEARNING & MOTIVATION
11. SLEEP
12. EEG
13. SPEECH & ARTICULATION
14. TEMPERATURE REGULATION
 INTRODUCTION
• Nervous system controls
all the activities of the
body.
• quicker than other
control systems.
Divisions of NS
1. CNS
2. PNS
 CNS

• Includes Brain & spinal cord.

• Formed by neurons & neuroglias (supporting
cells)
• Structures of brain and spinal cord are
arranged in two layers, namely gray matter
and white matter.
• Grey matter – nerve cell bodies & proximal
parts of nerve fibre.
• White – remaining parts of NF
 Nerve fibre
Grey matter – neuronal
bodies, axon terminals
(endings) and dendrites.

White – nerve fibers

(axons), which are
extensions of nerve cells
(neurons). Many of these
nerve fibers are
surrounded by a type of
sheath or covering called
myelin. Myelin gives the
white matter its color.
In brain, white matter is placed in the inner
part and grey matter is placed in the outer
part.
In spinal cord, white matter is in the outer
part and grey matter is in the
inner part.
 Brain and spinal cord are surrounded
by three layers of meninges called the outer
dura mater,
middle arachnoid mater and inner pia mater.

The space between arachnoid mater

and pia mater is known as
subarachnoid space. This space is
filled with a fluid called
cerebrospinal fluid.

Brain and spinal cord are actually

suspended in the cerebrospinal
fluid.
 PNS
•PNS is formed by neurons
and their processes present in
all regions of the body.

•It consists of cranial nerves,

arising from brain and spinal
nerves, arising from the spinal
cord.
 SOMATIC NS
• Somatic functions.
• Includes nerve supply to skeletal muscles &
are responsible for muscular activities, body
movements.
 AUTONOMIC NS
• Regulation of visceral or vegetative functions.

• Also know as vegetative or involuntary ns.

• Divides into sympathetic

& parasympathetic.
NEURON
 NEURON
• Is a structural and functional unit of nervous
system.

• it is different from other cells by two ways:

1. Neuron has branches or processes called axon
and dendrites
2. Neuron does not have centrosome. So, it
cannot undergo division.
 Classification of neurons
A. Depending upon the number of poles
B. Depending upon the function
C. Depending upon the length of axon.
 A. Depending upon the number of
poles

1. Unipolar neurons
2. Bipolar neurons
3. Multipolar neurons.
 1. Unipolar Neurons
• One pole.
• From single pole, both axon & dendrite arise.
• Present only in embryonic stages.
 2. Bipolar Neurons
• Neurons with two poles are known as bipolar
neurons.
• Axon arises from one pole and dendrites arise
from the other pole.
 3. Multipolar Neurons
• Multipolar neurons are the neurons which
have many poles.
• One of the poles gives rise to axon and all
other poles give rise to dendrites.
 B. Depending upon the function

1. Motor or Efferent Neurons - Motor or efferent

neurons are the neurons which carry the motor
impulses from central nervous system to peripheral
effector organs like muscles, glands, blood vessels,
etc. Generally, each motor neuron has a long axon
and short dendrites.

2. Sensory or Afferent Neurons - Sensory or afferent

neurons are the neurons which carry the sensory
impulses from periphery to central nervous system.
Generally, each sensory neuron has a short axon and
long dendrites.
C. Depending upon the length of axon
1. Golgi Type I Neurons - Golgi type I neurons
have long axons. Cell body of these neurons
is in different parts of central nervous system
and their axons reach the remote peripheral
organs.

2. Golgi Type II Neurons- Neurons of this type

have short axons. These neurons are present
in cerebral cortex and spinal cord.
 STRUCTUREOF NEURON
1. Nerve cell body
2. Dendrite
3. Axon.

Dendrites are short processes and the axons are

long processes.
Dendrites and axons are usually called nerve
fibers.
NERVE CELL BODY
• also known as soma or perikaryon.

•irregular in shape

•cytoplasm here is called neuroplasm

•Cytoplasm – has nucleus, nissl bodies & neurofibrils, mitochondria &

golgi appartus.
Nucleus
• Each neuron has one nucleus, which is
centrally placed in the nerve cell body.

• Nucleus has one or two prominent nucleoli.

• Nucleus does not contain centrosome. So, the

nerve cell cannot multiply like other cells.
 Nissl bodies
• are small basophilic granules found in cytoplasm of
neurons and are named after the discoverer.

• These bodies are present in soma and dendrite but

not in axon and axon hillock.

• Nissl bodies are called tigroid substances, since

these bodies are responsible for tigroid or spotted
appearance of soma after suitable staining.

• Dendrites are distinguished from axons by the

presence of Nissl granules under microscope.
• It has ribosomes in it for synthesis of protein
which are transported into axon from soma by
axonal flow.
• During injury to neuron these disappear
reappear after recovery or after regeneration.
Neurofibrils

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are present in soma and in axon. As in
other cells, here also mitochondria form the powerhouse
of the nerve cell, where ATP is produced.

Golgi Apparatus
Golgi apparatus of nerve cell body is similar to that of
other cells. It is concerned with processing and packing
of proteins into granules
 GOLGI APPARATUS
• Golgi apparatus of nerve cell body is similar to
that of other cells. It is concerned with
processing and packing of proteins into
granules
 DENDRITE

• Dendrite is the branched process of neuron

and it is branched repeatedly.
• It may be present or absent, if present it may
be one or many in number.
• Dendrite has Nissl granules and neurofibrils.
Dendrite transmits impulses towards the nerve
cell body.
• The dendrite is shorter than axon.
 AXON

• Axon is the longer process of nerve cell. Each neuron

has only one axon.

• Axon arises from axon hillock of the nerve cell body and
it is devoid of Nissl granules.

• Axon extends for a long distance away from the nerve

cell body. Length of longest axon is about 1 meter.

• Axon transmits impulses away from the nerve cell body

• Each nerve is formed by many bundles or
groups of nerve fibers. Each bundle of nerve
fibers is called a fasciculus.
 Coverings of Nerve
• The whole nerve is covered by tubular sheath,
which is formed by a areolar membrane. This
sheath is called epineurium. Each fasciculus is
covered by perineurium and each nerve fiber
(axon) is covered by endoneurium
AXON
Axon has a long central core of cytoplasm called
axoplasm.

Axoplasm is covered by the tubular sheathlike

Membrane called axolemma (Continuation of cell membrane)

Axoplasm along with axolemma is called the axis

cylinder of the nerve fiber.

Axoplasm contains mitochondria, neurofibrils and

axoplasmic vesicles. Because of the absence of Nissl
bodies in the axon, proteins necessary for the nerve
fibers are synthesized in the soma and not in axoplasm. After
synthesis, the protein molecules are transported
from soma to axon, by means of axonal flow.

Some
neurotransmitter substances are also transported by
axonal flow from soma to axon.

Axis cylinder of the nerve fiber is covered by a

membrane called neurilemma
 MYELIN SHEATH
• is a thick lipoprotein sheath that insulates the
myelinated nerve fiber.

• Myelin sheath is not a continuous sheath. It is

absent at regular intervals. The area where myelin
sheath is absent is called node of Ranvier.

• Segment of the nerve fiber between two nodes is

called internode. Myelin sheath is responsible for
white color of nerve fibers.
 FUNCTIONS OF MYELIN SHEATH
• Faster conduction
• Insulating capacity
 NEURILEMMA
• Neurilemma is a thin membrane, which surrounds the
axis cylinder. It is also called neurilemmal sheath or
sheath of Schwann. It contains Schwann cells, which
have flattened and elongated nuclei.

• Cytoplasm is thin and modified to form the thin sheath

of neurilemma.

Functions –
1. Helps in formation of myelin sheath.
2. In non myelinated it acts as covering.
3. It is absent in CNS, so neuroglia’s will help[ in
myelinogenesis.
 Properties of Nerve Fibers
1.EXCITABILITY:
Defined as the physiochemical change that occurs in a tissue when
stimulus is applied.

when a nerve fiber is stimulated, based on the strength of stimulus,

two types of response develop:
1. Action potential or nerve impulse :develops in a nerve fiber when it
is stimulated by a stimulus with adequate strength (threshold or
minimal stimulus).
* It is propagated

2. Electrotonic potential or local potential: When the stimulus with

subliminal strength is applied, only electrotonic potential develops
and the action potential does not develop. it is nonpropagated.
2.CONDUCTIVITY:
• Ability of nerve fibers to transmit the impulse from
the area of stimulation to the otherareas.
• Action potential is transmitted through the nerve
fiber as nerve impulse.
• Depolarization occurs first at the site of stimulation
in thenerve fiber. It causes depolarization of the
neighboring areas. Like this, depolarization travels
throughout the nerve fiber, followed by
repolarization.
1. Absolute Refractory Period :period during which
the nerve does not show any response at all,
whatever may be the strength of stimulus.

2. Relative Refractory Period :It is the period, during

which the nerve fiber shows response, if the
strength of stimulus is increased tomaximum.

4. SUMMATION: if two or moresubliminal stimuli are

applied within a short interval of about 0.5
millisecond, the response is produced in nerve fiber.
It is because the subliminal stimuli are summed up
together to become strong enough to produce the
response. This phenomenon is known as summation
3. REFRACTORY PERIOD: period at which the nerve does not give any
response to a stimulus.

5. ADAPTATION:While stimulating a nerve fiber continuously, the

excitability of the nerve fiber is greater in the beginning. Later the
response decreases slowly and finally the nerve fiber does not show
any response at all. This phenomenon is known as adaptation or
accommodation

6. INFATIGABILITY:Nerve fiber cannot be fatigued, even if it is

stimulated continuously for a long time.
The reason is that nerve fiber can conduct only one action potential at a
time.At that time, it is completely refractory and does not conduct
another action potential.

7. ALL-OR-NONE LAW:states that when a nerve is stimulated by a

stimulus it gives maximum response or does not give response at all.
 NEUROGLIA
1.Introduction
• Neuroglia or glia (glia = glue), also called non-
neural cells or glial cells.
• It is the supporting cell of the nervous system.
• Non-excitable and do not transmit nerve
impulse (action potential).
• They support in form of Nutrition, protection
and provision for function of neuron.
 2. CLASSIFICATION OF NEUROGLIAL
CELLS
CCENTRAL NEUROGLIAL CELLS PERIPHERAL NEUROGLIAL CELLS

1 ASTROCYTES 1. SCHWAN CELLS

2. MICROGLIA 2. SATELITE CELLS

3. OLIGODENDROCYTES
 Neuroglial cell S tructure Functions
1. Astrocytes *Star-shaped cells present in all i. Form supporting network in brain
the parts of the brain and spinal cord
ii. Form the blood-brain barrier -
regulate the entry of substances from
blood into brain tissues
iii. M aintain the chemical
environment of ECF around CNS
neurons
iv. Provide calcium and potassium and
regulate neurotransmitter level in
synapses
v. Regulate recycling of
neurotransmitter during synaptic
transmission.

2.MICROGLIA *Smallest neuroglial cells. 1. Engulf and destroy the

* derived from monocytes and microorganisms and cellular debris by
enter the tissues of nervous means of phagocytosis
system from blood ii. M igrate to the injured or infected
area of CNS and act as miniature
macrophages
3.oligodendrocytes. *have only few processes, i.Provide myelination around the
which are short. nerve fibers in CNS where Schwann
cells are absent
ii. Provide support to the CNS
neurons by forming a semi-stiff
connective tissue between the neurons

4.S CHWANN CELLS major glial cells in PNS i.Provide myelination (insulation)
around the nerve fibers in PNS
ii. Play important role in nerve
regeneration
iii. Remove cellular debris during
regeneration by their phagocytic
activity.
5.S ATELLITE CELLS present on the exterior surface i. Provide physical support to the PNS
of PNS neurons neurons.
ii. Help in regulation of chemical
environment of ECF around the PNS
neurons
 RECEPTORS
1.Introduction:
Sensory nerve endings that terminate in the
periphery, give response to stimulus
When stimulated,these produce a series of
impulses which are transmitted through the
afferent nerves.
2. Definition
Receptors are defined as the biological transducers,
which convert (transducer) various forms of
energy (stimuli) in the environment into action
potentials in nerve fiber
3.Classification
Exteroceptors ;give response to stimuli arising
from outside the body
Interoceptors ;give response to stimuli arising
from within the body.
 4.PROPERTIES OF RECEPTORS
1. SPECIFICITY OF RESPONSE – MÜLLER LAW
Specific response to specific stimuli.
For example, pain receptors give response only to
pain sensation.

2. ADAPTATION – SENSORY ADAPTATION

Decline in discharge of sensory impulses when a
receptor is stimulated continuously with constant
strength. 2 types:
1.Phasic receptor- adopt rapidly. Eg: Touch
2. Tonic receptor- Adopt slowly. Eg: Pain,cold
3. RESPONSE TO INCREASE IN STRENGTH OF STIMULUS
During the stimulation of a receptor, if the response given by
the receptor is to be doubled, the strength of stimulus must
be increased 100 times.

4. SENSORY TRANSDUCTION
It is a process by which the energy (stimulus) in the
environment is converted into electrical impulses (action
potentials) in nerve fiber (transduction = conversion of one
form of energy into another).

5. RECEPTOR POTENTIAL
It is a nonpropagatedtransmembrane potential difference
that develops when a receptor is stimulated, also called
asgenerator potential.

Receptor potential is short lived and hence, it is called

transient receptor potential.
6. LAW OF PROJECTION
• When a sensory pathway from receptor to cerebral cortex
is stimulated on any particular site along its course, the
sensation caused by stimulus is always felt (referred) at
the location of receptor, irrespective of site stimulated.

• Sensation complained by amputated patients in the

missing limb (phantom limb) is the best example of law
of projection.

• For example, if a leg has been amputated, the cut end

heals with scar formation. The cut ends of nerve fibers
are merged within the scar. If the cut end of sensory
fibers are stimulated during movement of thigh, the
patient feels as if the sensation is originating from
nonexistent leg. Sometimes, the patient feels pain in
nonexistent limb.
 SYNAPSE
• INTRODUCTION
• SYNAPSE ???
• FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF SYNAPSE
• TYPES OF SYNAPSE
• PROCESS OF SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
• PROPERTIES OF SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
• PLASTICITY OF SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
 INTRODUCTION

• Synapse ; The term was introduced in nineteenth

century by the British neurophysiologist Charles
Sherrington.
• man Brain has about 1011 neurons and 21014
synapses, an average of 2000 synapses per neuron .
 WHAT IS SYNAPSE
• The junction between two neurons.
• Nervous System Function is based on interactions that
occur between neurons at specialized junctions called
Synapses.
• Process of communication between two neurons across a
synapse – synaptic transmission.
 TYPES OF SYNAPSE
Axoaxonic
synapse

Axodendritic
Anatomical
synapse

Axosomatic
Synapse synapse

Electrical
synapse
Functional
Chemical
synapse
 STRUCTURE/FUNCTIONAL
ANATOMY OF SYNAPSE
• Presynaptic Neuron – transmits messages
• Postsynaptic Neuron – receives messages
• Synaptic knobs/terminal boutons – small
dilated/enlarged ends of presynaptic fibres;
• Synaptic cleft – narrow space between pre and post
synaptic membrane ( 20-40nm)
• Postsynaptic density – membrane thickening/
prominent structure
• Presynaptic neuron terminal consist of Mitochondria,
membrane -enclosed vesicles(synaptic vesicles) which
contains NEUROTRANSMITTERS.
• Synaptic vesicles are of 3 kinds,
Small vesicles (dense core) - catecholamines;
Small Clear vesicles - acetylcholine, glycine, GABA or
glutamate;
Large vesicles (dense core) - neuropeptides;
 CHEMICAL SYNAPSES
• Almost all synapses used for signal transmission in the
CNS of human being are chemical synapses.
• i.e. first neuron secretes a chemical substance called
neurotransmitter at the synapse to act on receptor on
the next neuron to excite it, inhibit or modify its
sensitivity.
 ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE
• Membranes of the pre- and post-synaptic neurons
come close together and gap junctions forms → low
membrane borders which allow passage of ions .
– Are less common than chemical synapses
– Correspond to gap junctions found in other cell types
– Are important in the CNS in:
Arousal from sleep
• Mental attention
• Emotions and memory
• Ion and water homeostasis
 PROPERTIES OF SYNAPTIC
TRANSMISSION
• Unidirectional
• Synaptic delay
• Spatial Summation
• Temporal Summation
• Facilitation & Occlusion
 synaptic DELAY
• The minimum time required for transmission across the
synapse.
This time is taken by
✓ Discharge of transmitter substance by pre-synaptic terminal
✓ Diffusion of transmitter to post-synaptic membrane
✓ Action of transmitter on its receptor
✓ Action of transmitter to increase membrane permeability
✓ Increased diffusion of Na+ to increase post-synaptic potential
Usually between 0.5 and 1 msec;
 SUMMATION
▪ Spatial summation
✓ If a number of fibres converging on a single neuron and
if all fibres are stimulated simultaneously with same
strength , the postsynaptic neuron may fire
✓ The summated effect of individual EPSPs may cross the
threshold for excitation.
✓ The phenomenon involves summation of EPSPs
developing at different points on the postsynaptic
membrane.
 ▪ Temporal Summation
✓ If a subthreshold stimulus is repeated several times in
quick succession, the postsynaptic neuron may fire.
✓ The individual stimuli which are given at different points
summate in time.
✓ Phenomenon is seen because the EPSP in response to
each individual stimulus,
 Process of synaptic transmission

Release of
Action potential Influx of Ca ions Neurotransmitte
rs

Development of Excitatory and

inhibitory Action potential
postsynaptic neurotransmitters in the axon
potential acts
• Action potential :
• Fate of neurotransmitters:
 EPSP(Exciatatory post synaptic
potential)
When excitatory neurotransmitter bind to its receptor on
post-synaptic membrane → partial depolarization [ Na
influx] of post-synaptic cell membrane immediately under
presynaptic ending, i.e. EPSPs

If this potential rises enough to threshold level → Action

potential will develop and excite the neuron (central or
neuronal summation)
The excitatory neurotransmitter opens Na+ or Ca++
channels → depolarization of the area under the pre-
synaptic membrane.

EPSPs:
•Graded response
•Proportionate to the strength of the stimulus
•Can be summated
•If large enough to reach firing level → Action potential is
produced

Post-synaptic potential of +10 to +20mV is needed to

produce Action potential
 Ipsp ( inhibitatory post synaptic
potential )
Stimulus of some inputs [=pre-synaptic terminals] →
hyperpolarization of the post-synaptic membrane which is the
IPSP.

Causes:
It is produced by localized increase in membrane permeability
to Cl¯ of post-synaptic membrane (produced by inhibitory
neurotransmitter) →  excitability and membrane potential
Also IPSP can be produced by:-
-Opening of K+ channels → outward movement of K+
-Closure of Na+ or Ca++ channels
-IPSP = −5mV
 PLASTICITY OF SYNAPTIC
TRANSMISSION

✓ Presynaptic inhibition and facilitation

✓ Fatigue
✓ Post – Tetanic Potentiation
Fatigue:

• Exhaustion of nerve transmitter

• If the pre synaptic neurons are continuously stimulated
there may be an exhaustion of the neurotransmitter.

• Resulting is stoppage of synaptic transmission.

• The post synaptic membrane become less sensitive to

the neurotransmitter.