N 4
N 4
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Professor, Physiology
Neuron and nerves are related to the nervous system. However, somatic nerves
send signals for muscle contraction; autonomic nerves control the cardiac &
smooth muscle. Hence, the nerve structure and biophysics is discussed in the
present chapter which mainly deals with muscle physiology.
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INTRODUCTION:
A terminally differentiated tissue is the one which is no more in the cell growth
cycle.
Characteristic features:
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Section 1
Learning objectives:
NEURON:
Nerve nucleus: Any localized collection of cells within the central nervous system
is called the nucleus.
Nerve ganglion: Any collection of nerve cells in the course of a peripheral nerve is
known as the ganglion. It acts as a relay station in a nervous pathway.
Structure of a neuron-
It consists of a nerve cell body (soma or perikaryon), many small extensions all
around it (the dendrites), and a long process at one side (the axon/axis
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cylinder/nerve fiber). The nutrition of the axon and the preservation of its
structure depend on its intact connection with its cell body.
[Fig: It shows the nerve cell and its extensions. The dendrites are the small extensions all
around the nerve cell body. One long extension at one end is the axon. The axon or the axis
cylinder is covered with myelin sheath. Myelin sheath is broken at regular distances where
the axonal membrane is exposed; these points are called nodes of Ranvier. Axon hillock or
initial segment is the first point where an AP is generated and then transmitted down the
axon. Refer to the section of action potential for further details. Also note: When a neuron
passes the impulse to another neuron, axon of the first neuron ends on the dendrite of the
next neuron; this is called excitatory synapse. When a neuron is making an inhibitory
connection with another neuron, then the axon of the first neuron ends on the cell soma of
the next neuron.]
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nerve, or action of certain poisons, the Nissl granules disintegrate into
a fine dust and eventually disappear (“chromatolysis”).
Neurofibrllae: The fibrillar, thread-like structures in the cytoplasm of
nerve cells.
Dendrites: They branch out extensively as they leave the nerve cell
body. They are the receptor zones for a nerve; receive signals from
another nerve and send it to the axon of the nerve.
The axon (axis cylinder/nerve fiber): Arises from one end of the nerve
cell body. It arises from the part of the nerve cell called axon hillock
(the initial segment of the axon).
Note: The axon is the nerve fiber. It carries impulse over long distances.
(i) Majority of nerve fibers have a covering of a myelin sheath. Such cells
are called the myelinated nerve fibers. Myelin sheath is formed from
Schwann cells. The neurilemma (sheath of Schwann) is the outermost
cell membrane of the Schwann cell.
(ii) Surrounding the neurilemma of nerve fibers is a thin layer or covering
called the endoneurium.
(iii) The nerve fibers are arranged in bundles or fascicles. These bundles are
enclosed in a connective tissue capsule called the perineurium.
(iv) A number of bundles/fascicles are bound together by connective tissue
covering called the epineurium.
Note: A nerve fiber is a single axon. Often, the bundles of axons run together. A
bundle of nerve fibers may be differentially called as tract, fasciculus, funiculus,
or, lemniscus.
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Myelin sheath is not a continuous covering. At regular intervals, the nerve
fiber is devoid of this cover. These gaps are called the nodes of Ranvier. The
average internodal distance is about 1 mm.
Myelination of the peripheral nerves is by Schwann cells; myelination in
the CNS is by oligodendrocyte.
One Schwann cell myelinates the distance between two nodes of Ranvier.
Myelin is lipid-rich; it is composed of protein and several lipids, such as
cholesterol, lecithin, and cerebrosides (sphingomyelin).
Function of myelin sheath: due to the presence of lipids, the myelin
sheath acts as an insulator and prevents flow of all ions across the
nerve fiber membrane.
Myelinogenesis: Myelin sheath is formed by the double-layered
infolding of Schwann cell membrane which spirally wraps up the axon in
a few concentric layers.
Myelinogenesis in the CNS: The nerve fiber tracts/pathways achieve fully
functional status only when their myelination is complete.
The sensory tracts are myelinated first; the dorsal columns of
spinal cord are myelinated between 4th and 5th month of the
intrauterine life.
The spinocerebellar tracts are myelinated subsequently.
Myelination of the motor tracts begins at the 2 nd month of the
infant life (i.e. starts after birth). Pyramidal tract myelination is
completed between 18 months and 2 years of age. (A child can
attempt to walk only when pyramidal tract begins to function.)
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Section 2
Classification of neurons-
a) Motor or efferent neurons- it may further divided into upper motor neuron
(UMN) and lower motor neuron (LMN).
b) Sensory or afferent neurons- carry impulses from periphery to center
c) Interneurons (or internuncial neurons or intercalated neurons)- small
neurons that connect afferent and efferent neurons
a. Golgi type I – long axons that establish connection with remotely placed
organs or cells
b. Golgi type II – small cells with short axons
a) Multipolar neurons – axon arises from one end and dendrites arise from
all other sides of the nerve cells. They are widely distributed in the
cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and the spinal cord.
b) Bipolar neurons – the cells are in fusiform in shape and have two poles;
axon arises from one end and dendrites from the opposite end. They are
found in the ganglion of VIII cranial nerve, retina, and olfactory nasal
epithelium.
Pseudounipolar neuron ~ This type has only one extension from its cell
body. The extension is a single axon that splits into two branches. E.g.,
neuron whose cell body lies in dorsal root ganglion (DRG).
c) Unipolar neurons – have only one pole; dendrites and axon arise from
same side. This type is found only in fetal brain; in adults, only the
sensory nucleus of the V cranial nerve has unipolar neurons
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-
d) Anaxonal neurons – Have no axon; not required to send impulses over a
distance. E.g., amacrine cell in retina, post-ganglionic parasympathetic
nerve
Classification of nerves:
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a. Sensory nerves: they carry sensory impulses from the periphery
toward the spinal cord/brain. (afferent nerves – starting from
periphery and going to the center)
b. Motor nerves: they carry motor impulses brain/spinal cord to the
effector organ. (efferent nerves – starting from center and going to
the periphery)
c. Mixed nerves: sensory fibers & motor fibers
(III) According to the myelination status-
a. Myelinated or medullated nerves: they have myelin sheath covering
b. Non-myelinated or non-medullated nerves: they do not have myelin
sheath.
(IV) According to the type of function they perform-
a. Somatic nerves: they perform voluntary (conscious) function, such as
skeletal muscle contraction
b. Autonomic nerves: they perform involuntary function, such as
control of heart rate.
Autonomic nerves are of two types – sympathetic nerves and
parasympathetic nerves
Ganglion is a relay station for the two nerves: the nerve that ends in a
ganglion is “preganglionic”; the nerve that starts from there is
“postganglionic”.
According to the neurotransmitter released, the nerves may also be
classified as: (i) adrenergic – release noradrenaline and adrenaline; (ii)
cholinergic – release acetyl choline; the other nerves are dopaminergic,
serotonergic, GABAergic, etc.
The classification is based on the diameter of the fiber and the conduction
velocity of the impulse transmitted through the fiber.
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Fiber type Function Fiber diameter Conduction
(mm) velocity (m/s)
A
Proprioception; 12-20 70-120
somatic motor
Touch, pressure, 5-12 30-70
motor
Motor to muscle 3-6 15-30
spindles
Fast pain, cold, 2-5 12-30
touch
B Preganglionic <3 3-15
autonomic
C
somatic Slow pain, 0.4-1.2 0.5-2
temperature
autonomic Postganglionic 0.3-1.3 0.7-2.3
sympathetic
{ is the thickest nerve fiber with fastest conduction velocity; proprioceptive
impulses into the CNS and motor impulses to skeletal muscles are transmitted by
these fibers. A B, and C are in descending order, in terms of
thickness and conduction velocity.}
Numerical classification:
Only the sensory fibers are taken out from the above classification, and are
grouped under numerical classification ~
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Type Erlanger & Gasser type Function
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- Injury to a peripheral nerve, and its consequent degeneration, may occur if a
nerve is sectioned, crushed, or if its blood supply is blocked.
[Fig: It shows a nerve trunk, with 3 fascicles (bundles) of nerve fibers. 1 st and 2nd degree injury
is caused by the pressure/compression of the nerve trunk. 3 rd degree is when a single axon is
disrupted. 4th degree injury refers to disruption of a bundle. 5th degree injury is when the
entire nerve trunk is transected.]
With a 5th degree injury, following degenerative changes occur in the nerve – (The
changes are called Wallerian degeneration; described by Augustus Waller.)
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Wallerian degeneration:
(When a nerve is sectioned, there will be two parts of its axon:- the part
toward the nerve cell body is called the proximal stump, and the other part
away from the nerve cell body is called the distal stump.)
Changes in the nerve proximal to the injury: (from the site of injury toward
the cell body of the neuron, there is degeneration up to the nearest node
of Ranvier.)
- Up to 3 days, the distal stump can conduct an impulse. After that, it does
not function.
- The axis cylinder breaks up. The distal stump and its associated synaptic
endings disintegrate by 6th day.
- Repair of the nerve begins by about 20 days after the injury and is complete
by 80 days.
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- Schwann cell proliferation: Schwann cells in the distal stump proliferate
and grow in all directions from the cut end. Eventually, the gap between
the cut ends is bridged by the Schwann cells.
- Myelin sheath begins to develop in about 15 days and follows the course of
the growing fibrils. Myelination is completed within a year.
- Increase in fibre diameter takes place very slowly. Regenerated fibres may
attain a diameter 80% of the original (or even less).
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Section 3
NERVE BIOPHYSICS:
Learning objectives:
Introduction:
An electrical potential (voltage) difference exists across the membranes of
all cells. This potential is called membrane potential. The membrane potential is
negative; i.e. inside of all cells is negative (voltage) compared to the exterior. This
negative potential on the inside of cell membrane is of different value for
different cell types in the body.
Red cell, epithelial cell ~ (less negative) – 8 to – 20 mV
Smooth muscle cell ~ – 35 to – 45 mV
SA nodal cell ~ – 55 to – 65 mV
Nerve ~ – 70 mV
Skeletal muscle, Purkinje fiber ~ – 90 mV
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For the cells like red cells or epithelial cells (non-excitable cells), this
potential remains unchanged.
There are cells in the body for which the negative membrane potential
briefly turns positive. This happens whenever these tissues are
stimulated. It is called membrane excitation. (The potential immediately
recovers to its original negative value.)
(i) When they are not stimulated, they are said to be resting. Hence,
their negative membrane potential then is called “RESTING
membrane potential”.
(ii) When they are stimulated, their membrane potential turns
positive. This is called their excitation, and the potential is called
“ACTION potential” (AP).
Thus, nerve and muscle are said to be “excitable” tissues. They exhibit electrical
excitation of their cells.
(Some other cells are also excitable ~ receptors in CNS, pancreatic beta cells, etc.
However, the present chapter deals with nerve & muscle excitation.)
A nerve fiber has to send ‘signals’ over long distances. The signaling by the nerves
is in the form of this membrane excitation or AP.
Muscles have to contract, and for that, they have to receive a signal. The signal for
muscle contraction is in the form membrane excitation. That is, a signal will travel
through a nerve, it will enter a muscle, muscle membrane will excite, and this will
result in muscle contaction.
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Intracellular recordings of membrane potentials are made with glass
microelectrodes.
Extracellular recordings usually are made with metal electrodes that are
placed on or near the nerve or muscle.
Extracellular recordings are useful in clinical situations when the
electrical activity of excitable tissues must be monitored. For example,
electroencephalograms (EEGs) are used to aid in the diagnosis of brain
disease, electrocardiograms (ECGs) are used to detect damage to the
heart, and electromyograms (EMGs) are used to aid in the diagnosis of
neuropathies.
Two points may be noted here ~ (1) The membrane potentials (RMP & AP) are the
potentials on the inside aspect of the membrane. (2) The values for membrane
potentials are considered with respect to the ECF which is taken as 0 mV.
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(i) Diffusion of ions; concept of “diffusion potential” or equilibrium
potential:
[Recall the concept of equilibrium. An ion is said to have reached
equilibrium when there is no net movement of the ion. Also remember
that the diffusion of ions occurs due to concentration gradient as well as
electrical gradient.]
- Let us consider a typical cell, with concentrations of Na +, K+, and Cl- inside
and outside of it.
- Let us take the example of Na+, to understand the concept of equilibrium
potential. (Also refer to the figure below.) Note: While we consider
equilibrium potential for an individual ion, it is assumed that only this ion is
allowed to diffuse, whereas all the other ions are not moving.
- Na+ has concentrations of 141 mEq/L and 14 mEq/L in ECF and ICF,
respectively. This is the starting point. Now, by concentration gradient, Na +
starts diffusing from outside to inside of the cell.
- Na+ brings positive charges into the cell; these positive charges now line up
just on the inside of the membrane.
- Thus, the movement of Na+ will cause two things ~ (1) The concentration
gradient for Na+ (outside to inside) will decrease, and (2) an electrical
gradient will get created across the membrane, with more positive charges
lined up inside the membrane, as compared to just outside.
- Narrowing of the concentration gradient (outside to inside) and creation
and widening of the electrical gradient (inside to outside) will lead to a
stage when both the forces will become equal.
- At this stage, due to the equal but opposing forces, there will be no net
movement of Na+. Na+ is said to have reached equilibrium.
- What will be the charge on the inside of the membrane at this stage? This
charge or potential is called equilibrium potential for Na+.
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[Fig: Na+ reaching equilibrium. Green arrow = concentration gradient; red arrow
= electrical gradient. (1) Na+ starts moving down its concentration gradient, from
outside to inside. It brings into the cell the positive charges which then line up
on the inner aspect of the membrane. (2) An electrical gradient is now created
with more positive charges on the inside of the membrane. This causes Na + to
diffuse out. (3) Eventually, the concentration gradient and electrical gradient are
equal (but in opposite directions), as shown by red & green arrows. No net
movement of Na+; it has reached equilibrium.]
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The Nernst equation: (calculation of diffusion potential or equilibrium
potential for an ion)
Conc. outside
EMF (millivolts) = ± 61 X log.
Conc. inside
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REASON:- In the resting state, the membrane permeability for K+ is about
almost 50 times as great as it is for Na+. So, if both Na+ and K+ are allowed
to move simultaneously, K+ movement will be much much more, and Na+
movement will contribute very less to the development of RMP.
Cl- equilibrium potential is – 89 mV, which is very close to the RMP. So, Cl-
hardly moves (remains in equilibrium) when the cell is at RMP.
EXPLANATION: Equilibrium potential for an ion is that membrane
potential at which the ion will be in equilibrium. So, if a cell is at RMP ( -
90 mV) which is almost the same as EP for Cl- (- 89 mV), Cl- will remain in
equilibrium.
When all the ions (Na+, K+, and Cl-) move simultaneously, their respective
movements will be dictated by two factors: (a) their respective
concentration gradients and (b) relative permeability of the membrane for
these ions.
The charge produced on the membrane, by the diffusion of these ions, can
be calculated by Hodgkin & Huxley equation: (also called Goldman’s
constant field equation) (It is an expanded version of the Nernst equation
in which the concentrations {C} of the ions are multiplied by their
membrane permeabilities {P}.)
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Na+, K+, and Cl-, comes out to be – 86 mV.
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(ii) Contribution of the Na+ - K+ pump: ( - 4 mV)
Since the pump is causing 3 Na+ ions to go out of cell but only 2 K + ions
come in, there is a deficit of one positive charge on the inside. Thus, as
the pump continues its activity, it causes a deficit of positive charges on
the inside of cell, causing relatively excess negative charges. It amounts
to – 4 mV being contributed to the RMP.
In summary, – 90 mV is the RMP of skeletal muscle cell. Of this, – 86 mV is
contributed by diffusion of Na+, K+, and Cl- (greatest contributor is K+
diffusion), and – 4 mV is by Na+/K+-pump (that is, by active transport).
- RMP – 90 mV – 70 mV
- EP for Na+ + 61 mV + 60 mV
- EP for K+ – 96 mV – 90 mV
- EP for Cl- – 89 mV – 70 mV
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- In electrotonic conduction, positive charges enter from one point on the
nerve, and then these charges flow passively over some distance. There will
be leakage of charges across the membrane as they flow inside the nerve;
hence, this type of signal will die out after having travelled over a certain
distance. From dendrite to axon hillock, the signal travels electrotonically.
- In AP propagation, a point on the nerve will excite by the entry of positive
charges. Then, every next point on the nerve will have the same changes of
excitation (by entry of positive charges).
[Fig: In electrotonic conduction, Na+ channel opens at one point; the positive
charges enter through the point and then spread passively over a certain
distance. In AP propagation (unmyelinated nerve), Na+ carries positive charges
through a point, resulting in membrane excitation at the point. Same events
occur at every next point of the nerve.]
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ACTION POTENTIAL (AP):
Definition:
Action potential in a nerve may be defined as: “excitation of the
membrane, with transient reversal of membrane potential, which travels
through the nerve in a self-propagated and non-decremental manner.”
{Electrodes are applied to a nerve, and then are connected to an amplifier. The
electrodes pick up the electrical events in the nerve. The electrical events are
transferred to the metal plates in the CRO. A cathode in the CRO emits electrons
that pass through the metal plates and those electrons strike the face of the glass
tube of CRO. The deflections of the electron beam give a graphic representation of
the potential changes in the nerve.}
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[Fig: It shows a graphic depiction of the events occurring during action potential
development at one point of a nerve. The events are described in the text below.]
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axon. The inside of the axon becomes positive. This is called
“DEPOLARIZATION”.
(iii) Repolarization: {potassium efflux out of the nerve}
The sodium channels close, thus inside potential stops becoming any
more positive. Potassium channels begin to open more and more now.
Potassium ions leave the nerve, thus causing positive charges to go out.
This causes the interior of the membrane to again become negative. It is
called “REPOLARIZATION”.
{Note that: sodium and potassium are moving along their concentration
gradients; higher-to-lower concentration.}
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Reaching of threshold potential:- The positive feedback cycle of Na+ entry
[Fig: Positive feedback cycle of Na+ channel opening and Na+ influx. Read the
text below.]
As the stimulus causes some Na+ channels to open initially, Na+ enters the nerve.
Membrane potential drops to a less negative value. This change of voltage causes
some more sodium channels to open, causing some more Na + to enter, which
causes a further depolarization of the membrane. This causes some more sodium
channels to open.
The positive feedback cycle of Na+ channel opening and more & more
depolarization eventually causes the membrane potential to reach the threshold
value.
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At threshold: A critical number of Na+ channels is open now. There is a
massive influx of positive charges (Na+), almost in an explosive fashion,
causing the potential to rise very rapidly to zero and become positive.
This part of the graph is called upstroke and overshoot. (The graph
shoots past zero; hence the term “overshoot”.) The potential of the
membrane reaches approximately + 35 mV.
Na+ channels are now inactivated, so further entry of Na + will not occur. The
membrane potential has now reached about + 35 mV.
As the sodium influx has stopped, and potassium ions (positive charges)
start leaving the fiber in large numbers, the membrane potential
becomes negative again (repolarization). The sharp rise and rapid fall of
the potential in the graph are called the spike potential.
Toward the end of repolarization, the fall of potential is slower. This is
called after-depolarization.
After reaching the previous resting potential, the graph overshoots
slightly in a more negative direction. This is called after-
hyperpolarization or simply, hyperpolarization.
Na+ channels:
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[Fig: It shows the gates and the gating behaviour of voltage-gated Na+ channels.
Only when both ‘m’ and ‘h’ gates are open, Na+ influx would be possible.]
Sodium channel has “m gate” that covers the extracellular side of the channel. It
is the “activation” gate for the channel.
It has “h gate” that covers the intracellular side of the channel. It is the
“inactivation” gate for the channel. Na+ can diffuse through the channel when
both gates are open.
Voltage dependence:
The sodium channels are said to be “voltage-gated”; that is, the gates of
the channel open or close according to the voltage changes of the
membrane.
(i) In the resting state of the nerve:
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The activation gates (“m” gates) are in a closed state. The inactivation
gates are open. This is the “resting” state of the channels.
(ii) Depolarization:- activation gates are opened :
When a stimulus is applied, the activation gates (“m” gates) open.
Since both “m” and “h” gates are now open, Na+ influx will occur.
(iii) Inactivation gates closed: Na+ channels inactivated (Refractory
period)
At the threshold, there is a sudden and massive influx of Na +. It
causes the membrane potential to shoot up instantly to + 35 mV.
As this is happening, the inactivation gates begin to close. The
membrane potential has reached a value of about + 35 mV. Na+
channels are now in an inactivated state. They will remain in this
inactivated state until the membrane repolarises to about – 40
mV. Once the membrane has repolarised to this potential, the
inactivation gates begin to open and the Na+ channels again go
into the “resting” state. As long as the Na+ channels are in the
inactivated state, the nerve can not be excited once again. Then,
when the Na+ channels recover and again go into “resting” state,
the nerve can be excited again.
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Resting state
Inactivated (at RMP):- “m”
state: “h” gates gates are closed;
are closed. “h” gates are open
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As the membrane begins to depolarize, and sodium starts flowing in,
potassium channels also begin to open but very very slowly. Thus,
potassium (positive charges) leaving the nerve is in a miniscule amount,
and has almost no effect because sodium is coming into the nerve in
relatively large numbers. This will cause depolarization.
However, as the time has lapsed and membrane is completely
depolarized, now the potassium channels begin to open in large
numbers. At this time and at this potential, sodium entry has already
stopped. Now, as the potassium starts leaving the nerve in large
numbers (positive charges leaking out), inside of the fiber again
becomes negative and reaches its original resting potential.
(Note: K+ channels also show “voltage-dependence”. At the negative
voltage of the RMP, they open very slowly. Their opening gains
momentum when the membrane is depolarised (positive potential).
Hyperpolarization:
{It should be noted that potassium channels are slow to open and slow to
close.}
As the potassium channels are slow to close, they allow excess potassium (that is,
positive charges) to leave the nerve fiber during repolarization. This creates
excess negativity on the inside of the fiber, at the end of repolarization. This
state is called “hyperpolarization”. The potential inside would be more negative
that the normal resting value ( - 80 or – 90 mV, instead of original resting value of
– 70 mV).
Reason for the refractory period: From the resting state, the Na+ channels
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are “activated”, and the Na+ influx causes depolarization. One more
stimulus cannot cause the channels to be “activated” again. Then, the
channels go
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into “inactivated” state. In this state also, another stimulus cannot open
them. Hence this period is absolutely refractory.
Long refractory period for a tissue means the tissue cannot be stimulated at high
frequency.
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(4) Action potential is SELF-PROPAGATED and NON-DECREMENTAL:
Clinical application:
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Propagation of the action potential through a nerve-
Propagation occurs because the AP generated at one point on the axon acts
as a stimulus for the production of an AP on the adjacent region of the
axon. Thus, AP is conducted through the axon. The propagated AP is called
impulse.
(a) Propagation in unmyelinated axons: the “local circuit”
- Conduction of an AP is a self-propagating process. Once it is generated at
one point, it propagates by itself without any further stimulation. It moves
along the nerve at a constant amplitude and velocity.
- When AP is generated at one point on the nerve, the membrane becomes
positive due to sodium entry at that point. The adjacent point is still resting
(negative). Hence, the sodium that entered from the previous point will
flow to the adjacent (negative) point – (positive-to-negative) “local circuit”
current flow.
- The adjacent resting point will reach the threshold due to the positive
charges that came in from previous point. As it reaches threshold, it
explodes into an AP. The sodium now flows in from this point, and will carry
positive charges to the next resting point. The next point too will reach the
threshold due to these positive charges, and an AP will be fired at this point
now.
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[Fig: AP propagation in unmyelinated nerve.]
[Fig: Saltatory conduction. AP develops at each node of Ranvier, and the positive charges
entering, through the node, travel electrotonically, up to the next node.]
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Voltage-gated Na+ channels are highly concentrated in the nodes of
Ranvier. Myelin sheath acts as an insulator, does not allow leakage of
charges across the nerve membrane.
In myelinated nerves, the AP is fired only at a node of Ranvier. The Na +
that enters through this node, carries positive charges in substantial
amounts up to the next node of Ranvier. This is because the overlying
myelin sheath acts as an insulator, so there is no leakage of charges
across the membrane.
Na+ (positive charges) that reach the next node of Ranvier will cause that
node to reach the threshold voltage; AP will now be fired at this node.
Na+ that enters from this node will then travel to the next node of
Ranvier. Thus, depolarization occurs only at the nodes of Ranvier. It
looks like AP is jumping a long distance, from node to node. Hence, this
propagation is called “saltatory conduction”. (saltare = leap/jump)
(It may be noted that, the principle of propagation is the same for both
myelinated and unmyelinated nerves. But, in unmyelinated nerves, every
adjacent point fires the AP due to the Na+ entering from previous point; whereas
in myelinated nerves, Na+ is travelling a long distance to cause AP at next node.)
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~ Advantages of the saltatory conduction:
{Now, in APs: Na+ and K+ are moving along their concentration gradients, that is, it
is their diffusion. Diffusion does not require energy. How come then we are saying
that energy consumption is less in saltatory conduction, compared to
unmyelinated nerve propagation? The answer is “recharging”.}
Clinical Application:
Multiple sclerosis:
- It is a demyelinating disease of the nervous system.
- CNS neurons lose their myelin sheath. Since insulation is lost, there is
leakage of charges across the nerve membrane during AP conduction. It
results in conduction blocks.
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- Conduction blocks manifest as tingling & numbness, paresthesias, loss of
motor function.
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[Fig: Compound action potential.]
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C. Utilization time: Time taken by a tissue to elicit a response when a
stimulus of a rheobase strength is applied.
Strength-duration curve:
It is the graphic representation of the relation between strength of a stimulus
applied and the time taken by a tissue to excite.
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Section 4
Muscle Physiology
Learning objectives:
~ Introduction:
Muscle tissue constitutes almost 50% of the body – 40% is skeletal muscle +
10% is cardiac and smooth muscle.
All types of muscles have one unique property: contractility. As the nerve impulse
enters the muscle, the muscle first excites electrically, and then it contracts.
Skeletal muscle contracts to move the limbs and body parts voluntarily. Cardiac
muscle contracts to pump the blood coming in chambers of the heart. Smooth
muscle is in the walls of viscera (G.I.tract, blood vessels, etc). It contracts to cause
viscera perform its functions (G.I. movements/peristalsis; blood vessel
constriction, etc).
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Introduction:
[Synapse is a broad term that describes junctional region between a nerve and
another cell; that another cell could be a nerve cell, or a muscle cell, or a gland.
Thus, neuromuscular junction is a type of synapse. For the sake of clarity, the
nerve- nerve junction is referred to as synapse, and a nerve-muscle junction is
called neuromuscular junction.]
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[Fig: Structure of NM junction. Motor neuron has an expanded ending on the
muscle. Motor end plate is that area of the muscle membrane which comes in
close contact with the nerve ending. Read the text below for description of NM
junction.]
A. Neuronal contents:
The muscle fiber membrane where the motor neuron ends is called the
“postjunctional membrane” or “motor end plate”.
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The space between the prejunctional membrane and the motor end plate is
called synaptic cleft or gutter. Its width is about 20-30 .
There are two important structures present in the motor nerve ending:
The prejunctional membrane also has “release sites”. The Ach vesicles fuse
here and discharge acetyl choline into the cleft.
B. Muscle contents:
The postjunctional membrane (“motor end plate”) has the receptors for
acetyl choline.
- 51 -
Impulse arrives at the motor nerve terminal
Voltage-gated Ca++ channels open; ECF Ca++ enters the nerve terminal
ACh vesicles migrate toward presynaptic membrane; they fuse with the membrane and
release ACh into the synaptic cleft by EXOCYTOSIS
ACh traverses the synaptic cleft and reaches the post-junctional membrane
Increased conductance of Na+ & K+ through the channel; Na+ influx predominates over K+ exit.
Net influx of positive charges, resulting in depolarization of the muscle membrane
- 52 -
End-plate potential (EPP): (develops at motor end plate; stays at motor end
plate)
When the Na+ influx occurs through the postjunctional membrane, it does
not immediately burst into an action potential. Rather, it first causes
development of a localized, depolarizing potential which does not
propagate. It is called the “end-plate potential” (EPP).
Properties of EPP –
Even when the impulse is not arriving at the nerve terminal (that is, at rest),
some Ach vesicles at the terminal burst occasionally into the cleft. This gives rise
to a very small (“miniature”) potential (in V) on the motor-end plate. This is
MEPP. It is incapable of producing AP.
- 53 -
Destruction of Ach:
Clinical application:
- It is an autoimmune disorder.
2. Anticholinesterases –
- E.g. neostigmine.
- 54 -
Excitation-contraction coupling
[E-C coupling]
The concept –
- 55 -
[Fig: Sarcotubular system and the proteins involved in E-C coupling.
Depolarization travels into the muscle via T-tubule —> sensed by DHPR —>
DHPR interacts with RyR —> Release of Ca ++ into sarcoplasm —> Ca++ combines
with troponin C —> actin-myosin interaction starts (i.e., mechanical event).]
(1) The T-tubules run transversely in the muscle. They begin at the muscle
fiber membrane and penetrate all the way from one side of the fiber to the
opposite side.
- 56 -
membrane, a potential change also spreads along the T-tubules to the deep
interior of the muscle fiber.
(2) The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) in the muscle is composed of the L-tubules
or longitudinal tubules. The L-tubules run parallel to the myofibrils (or along
the length of the fiber). The enlarged terminal portions of the L-tubules are
called “terminal cisternae”. Ca++ is stored in these terminal cisternae.
A T-tubule and one terminal cistern on each side of the T-tubule together
compose the so-called “triad”. It is said that this is the place where
“coupling” occurs.
2. Depolarization travels deep down into the muscle via the T-tubules. The
voltage-sensitive DHPR undergoes a conformational change. It then
interacts with the RyR in the SR membrane.
- 57 -
3. RyR (which is a Ca++ release channel) causes release of Ca++ from the
terminal cisternae into the sarcoplasm. This Ca++ then goes on to
combine with “troponin C” present on the thin (actin) filament in the
muscle fiber.
Note: Up to the release of Ca++ from the SR, the events are electrical (APs). After
the release of Ca++, the mechanical events (of contraction) begin. Hence, Ca++ is
said to be the “coupling agent” between electrical excitation and mechanical
process of contraction.
~ Clinical application-
Malignant hyperthermia:
In some people, there is a genetic defect; the gene that encodes the RyR
protein in the SR membrane is defective.
- 58 -
Section 5
Learning objectives:
The skeletal muscle is made up of muscle fibers (or muscle cells). The
cell membrane of the muscle fiber is called sarcolemma. The
sarcolemma consists of a true cell membrane, called the plasma
membrane, and an outer coat made up of glycoprotein. The tight
connection between the sarcolemma and the surrounding connective
tissue structures makes it possible for the force developed by the
muscle fibers to be transmitted effectively to the tendons.
Each muscle fiber is surrounded by a sheath called endomysium. About
20 muscle fibers are grouped into fascicles which are covered by a
connective tissue sheath called perimysium.
~ Sarcomere:
- 59 -
[Fig: It shows a sarcomere, with filaments, bands/zones in the sarcomere. Note:
1 sarcomere = 1 full A-band + 2 half I-bands. Refer to text for details.]
Each myofibril extends from one end of the muscle fiber to the other.
Each myofibril is composed of muscle filaments which are actually
responsible for muscle contraction. Each myofibril is composed of about
1500 myosin/thick filaments and 3000 actin/thin filaments; the
filaments are large, polymerized protein molecules.
The myofibrils are divided into functional units, or sarcomeres, by a
transverse sheet of protein, called the Z disc. The Z discs of neighboring
myofibrils are lined up with each other so that a Z line is created which
spans the entire width of the fiber. Thus, myofibrils are attached to one
another all the way across the entire muscle fiber.
The Z discs are placed at every 2 distance in the fiber. Portion of the
fiber between two successive Z discs is called sarcomere. Arising on
either
- 60 -
side of the Z disc are ACTIN or thin filaments. One end of the thin
filament is attached to the Z disc and the other end extends toward the
center of the sarcomere.
The thick filaments or MYOSIN filaments are interspersed between the
thin filaments; they are not attached to the Z disc. Projections from the
thick filaments called cross-bridges extend toward the thin filaments.
Interaction between these cross-bridges and the actin filaments causes
muscle contraction.
The side-by-side relationship between the myosin and actin is
maintained by a large filamentous protein called titin. This is the largest
protein molecule in the body.
The interdigitating thick and thin filaments create the pattern of light
and dark bands which gives striated appearance to the muscle.
On either side of the Z discs, for some distance, there are only thin
filaments. This creates light areas called I bands. (I = isotropic to
polarized light)
Toward the center of sarcomere, overlap of thick and thin
filaments creates dark areas called A bands. (A = anisotropic to
polarized light)
At the very center of A band, there are only thick filaments. This
area is called H zone. At the very center of H zone is the area of
darkness called M line, here the thick filaments do not contain
any cross bridges.
The dark M-line plus the light areas on either side constitute the
so- called pseudo-H zones.
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- Muscle contraction involves shortening of the muscle fibers; there
would be shortening of all the sarcomeres.
- All the Z-lines are pulled inward. This decreases the length of the
sarcomere.
- Thin filaments slide over the thick filaments. The thin filaments are
pulled to each other, toward the centers of their respective
sarcomeres.
I-band shortens
H-zone disappears (as ends of the thin filaments begin to overlap near the
center of the sarcomere)
- 62 -
M-line becomes prominent (due to the overlapping ends of the thin
filaments)
A-band remains unchanged. (Length of the A-band is same as length of
thick filament. There is no change in the length of thick filaments during
contraction.)
(It describes the molecules that constitute thick & thin filaments, and their
interaction which results in muscle contraction.)
- 63 -
The two heavy chains wrap spirally around each other to form a double
helix. One end of each heavy chain is folded into a globular polypeptide
structure called the myosin head. The four light chains are present in the
myosin head. The remaining part of the molecule is the double helix –
the body and tail.
The tails of the myosin molecules are bundled together to form the
body of the thick filament; and the heads and some parts of the
molecules hang out from the filament. These protruding portions are
called “cross- bridges”.
Myosin head has ATPase activity. It cleaves ATP to energize the
contraction process.
(2) Actin (thin) filament-
It is composed of three protein components: actin, troponin, and
tropomyosin.
Actin - The backbone of the thin filament is formed by two chains of actin
molecules, which wind around each other. (These are called “F-actin”
- 64 -
helix; each F-actin strand is made up of polymerized G-actin molecules.)
Each actin molecule has a myosin binding site or “active site”.
Interaction between these active sites of actin and the heads of the
myosin leads to muscle contraction.
Tropomyosin - In resting state, the myosin binding site or the “active
site” is covered by another thin filament protein: tropomyosin. This long
molecule coils around the actin chain. When muscle is relaxed,
tropomyosin covers the active sites of actin so that they do not interact
with myosin heads.
Troponin – The position of tropomyosin on the thin filament is
controlled by another protein: troponin. It is a complex of 3 subunits. (i)
troponin C
: has high affinity for Ca++;
(ii) troponin T : has high affinity for tropomyosin; and
(iii) troponin I: has high affinity for actin.
When Ca++ combines with troponin C, troponin undergoes a
conformational change that causes tropomyosin to move away from its
position covering the active sites on actin.
When muscle is in a relaxed state, the “active sites” over the thin filaments
are kept covered by the troponin-tropomyosin complex.
When impulse arrives in the muscle, Ca++ from terminal cisternae is
released in sarcoplasm. The Ca++ then combines with troponin C. This
initiates the actin-myosin interaction.
- 65 -
[Fig: It shows cross bridges. Myosin heads, coming in contact with the ‘active
sites’ over thin filaments, form the cross bridges.]
- 66 -
filament; then the head tilts again to cause a new power stroke, and actin
filament is pulled inward.
Thus, the heads of the cross-bridges bend back and forth and step by step walk
along the actin filament, pulling the actin filaments toward the center of the
sarcomere. This is called “walk-along theory” of muscle contraction.
The cross-bridges attach to actin, then detach and again attach to the next active
site of actin. This is called “cross-bridge cycling”. The greater the number of cross-
bridges in contact with the actin filament at any given time, greater will be the
force of contraction or tension in the muscle.
Applied Physiology:
- 67 -
~ Role of ATP:
Before contraction begins, the heads of the cross-bridges bind with ATP. The
ATPase activity of the myosin head cleaves the ATP but the cleavage products
(ADP & Pi) remain bound to the head. Now, as the contraction begins, heads
attach to the actin filament. This generates tension in the muscle. For the
detachment of the head from actin, the cleavage products of ATP must be
removed from the myosin head and a new molecule of ATP put in their place.
{Note two points here: (i) Ca ++ concentration of sarcoplasm should fall, to cause
muscle relaxation. (ii) Ca++ removal is an active transport process, by Ca ++ - ATPase
pump. Thus, muscle relaxation is an “active” process.}
- 68 -
[Fig: The SERCA pumps the Ca++ out of the sarcoplasm, back into the terminal
cisternae. As sarcoplasmic Ca++ falls, cross-bridge cycling stops and muscle
relaxes.]
- 69 -
Section 6
Learning objectives:
- 70 -
stretched, that is its resting length is increased, the length of the sarcomere
also increases. Now, there is more and more actin – myosin interdigitation
possible, resulting in stronger and stronger contraction. At 2.2 length of
the sarcomere (which is called LO or length optimum for sarcomere), there
is strongest contraction of muscle. If the sarcomere length is increased
further, however, the actin – myosin interaction will be reduced.
(2) Frequency – tension relationship: (staircase, tetanus, etc)
An isolated contraction of a muscle is often called a “twitch”. If the muscle
is connected to a writing lever, the lever moves up during muscle
contraction and goes down as the muscle relaxes. If this movement of the
lever is recorded on revolving drum, it gives a curve form – the “simple
muscle curve”.
[Fig: Single stimulus was applied to muscle. There is a single muscle contraction
followed by relaxation. C-H is the height of contraction, which indicates strength
of the contraction.]
- 71 -
Now, if the muscle is stimulated twice, in quick succession, two contractions and
relaxations will record two curves. All factors are the same, and are held constant.
Just, in place of a single stimulus, two stimuli were given in quick succession.
[Fig: Two successive stimuli applied to the muscle. Two contractions occurred;
second contraction was stronger (as indicated by its height). If all the factors
were the same, and just that two stimuli were given instead if one, how is it that
the second contraction automatically became stronger?]
Note that: Second curve has more height compared to the first one. It means,
second contraction was stronger compared to the first one. If same stimulus was
applied, and all other things were also constant, then why second contraction was
stronger?
- 72 -
When a muscle is stimulated twice, in quick succession, it produces two
contractions. The first contraction causes some changes in the muscle which are
said to be “beneficial” for the second contraction. The changes are – decreased
viscosity and increased temperature in the muscle due to the first contraction.
The possible explanation is: decreased viscosity causes easier sliding of filaments,
thus better actin-myosin interaction possible for second contraction. Increased
temperature would increase the activity of the channels.
Staircase/treppe:
If the muscle is stimulated with increasing frequency, 5 or 10 stimuli per
second in quick succession, the beneficial effect will be further
extended. Each successive contraction will be stronger than the
preceding one. This gives a record which resembles staircase.
This is called “staircase effect”. (Bowditch was the research worker who called it
“treppe” (German word: it means staircase).
- 73 -
to combine with troponin C to initiate contraction. STRENGTH OF CONTRACTION
IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE SARCOPLASMIC Ca++ LEVELS.
Tetanus:
If the muscle is stimulated with even higher frequency (say, 20 times in a
second), then a sustained state of contraction of the muscle is observed.
This sustained contraction and failure of relaxation of the muscle is
called tetanus.
- 74 -
[Fig: Tetanus, resulting from high frequency stimulation of a muscle.]
The graph shows initiation of first contraction, and then all the further
contractions have fused. There is no relaxation seen.
Reason: Let us recall that, for the muscle relaxation to occur, Ca ++ that came into
the sarcoplasm has to be pumped out by a Ca ++ - ATPase pump. If we stimulate a
muscle with very high frequency, each stimulus is very close to the previous
stimulus. The Ca++ that comes in the sarcoplasm with first stimulus cannot be
pumped out; in fact, with every stimulus Ca ++ keeps coming into the sarcoplasm.
Obviously, muscle will remain contracted and will fail to relax. (A somewhat
similar phenomenon is observed when one is writing exam papers. Due to high
frequency stimulation of hand muscles, the muscles sometimes remain
contracted for a while.)
- 76 -
Motor unit:
A motor neuron, all its branches, and the muscle fibers supplied by
them are together called a motor unit. In the muscles which react rapidly
and perform fine activity, the motor units are small; only 2-3 fibers in a
motor unit. In large muscles that perform gross activity, there may be 200-
300 fibers in a motor unit.
The point that should be noted is: all the muscle fibers in a motor unit
always contract together.
Recruitment of the motor units:
With weaker stimulus, a few motor units will contract. As the
stimulus strength is increased, more and more motor units will start
contracting; thus contraction will become stronger. At some point, all the
motor units in the muscle will be involved in contraction. This is the
strongest possible contraction for the muscle. That is, contraction strength
cannot increase further.
Most of the energy required for muscle contraction is required for cross-
bridge cycling during the contraction. Small amount of energy is also required to
bring about muscle relaxation (Ca++ - ATPase; to pump calcium out of sarcoplasm).
There are stores of ATP in the muscle. However, they can sustain muscle
contractions only for 1- 2 seconds. Once this ATP is cleaved and ADP is formed,
the ATP will have to be reconstituted so that muscle contraction can continue.
This ATP resynthesis or formation occurs due to following sources:
- 77 -
(i) Phosphagen system (creatine phosphate in muscle/phosphocreatine):
It consists of creatine with high energy phosphate attached to it. It
donates this high energy phosphate to the ADP that was formed early.
Thus, ATP will be reconstituted instantly. This ATP can continue to
energize the muscle contraction further. This reaction is called
“Lohmann reaction”. (This reaction is similar to a water tank which is
getting filled from above and its tap is open so that water is flowing out
also. ATP is being formed and utilized simultaneously.)
This can energize muscle contraction only for next 5 to 8 seconds.
(ii) Glycogen – lactic acid system:
The next important source of energy is glycogen stores in the muscle.
Rapid enzymatic breakdown of the glycogen to pyruvic acid and lactic
acid liberates energy that is used to resynthesize ATP and
phosphocreatine.
It can energize muscle contraction for next upto 1 minute.
Significance:
These reactions can occur in the absence of oxygen.
They are very rapid reactions.
(iii) Oxidative metabolism:
The third and final source of energy is oxidative phosphorylation. More
than 95% of energy used by muscles for sustained, long-term
contraction is derived from this source.
It can energize muscle contraction for hours.
The skeletal muscles are composed of a mixture of muscle fibers. There are
mainly two types of muscle fibers: (i) fast glycolytic or pale, and (ii) slow oxidative
or red fibers.
The muscle fibers that are involved in rapid contraction are “fast” type of fibers.
They are fast because energy is mainly derived from glycolysis (rapid energy
source). The fibers that induce slow but sustained contractions are “slow” type of
fibers. Main energy source for these is oxidative metabolism.
- 78 -
Fast glycolytic fibers Slow oxidative fibers
Large fibers for strong contraction Small fibers
Extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum for Comparatively, less extensive
rapid release of Ca++ to initiate sarcoplasmic reticulum
contraction
Large amounts of glycolytic enzymes Lesser amounts of glycolytic enzymes
(relatively)
Less extensive vascularity because Extensive blood vessel system to supply
oxidative metabolism is less important extra amounts of oxygen
(less oxygen required)
Fewer mitochondria (because More number of mitochondria
oxidative metabolism, which occurs in (because energy is derived from
mitochondria, is less important oxidative metabolism which occurs in
mitochondria)
Less amount of myoglobin (myoglobin More amount of myoglobin (an iron-
in muscle; for uptake of oxygen and to containing protein similar to
deliver it to mitochondria); hence hemoglobin; it stores oxygen in
fibers look pale muscle); it gives red appearance to
fibers
Rapid contractions, smaller duration Slow contractile activity of long
(100 m sprint event) duration (10 km marathon)
(Recall here, that a muscle contraction involves two changes – (i) tension is
generated in the muscle, and (ii) muscle shortening happens.)
- 79 -
Once a certain tension is built up in the muscle, muscle shortening will
occur for the same amount of tension. Thus, tension remains the same.
During isotonic contraction, muscle is shortening. Thus, it moves the load through
a distance. Hence, work is done during such contraction. (Work done = load ×
displacement)
During isometric contraction, only tension is generated in the muscle. But, muscle
shortening does not occur. It does not displace a load. Hence, work is NOT done
during isometric contraction. Most of the energy is spent as heat.
- 80 -
Section 7
Smooth muscle
Learning objectives:
• Since actin-myosin filaments are not arranged into sarcomeres, the cells
appear non-striated/smooth. Smooth muscle is not under voluntary control.
• Types: (1) single-unit (unitary) smooth muscle, and (2) multiunit smooth
muscle.
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- No gap junctions; each fiber is innervated separately (as in skeletal
muscle).
- Iris, ciliary muscle, vas deferens, arrector pili in the skin have this
type of smooth muscle.
[Fig: Sarcomere in a smooth muscle fiber. Instead of Z-lines, there are dense bodies at regular
distances. Thin filaments arise on either side of the dense bodies (though shown only on one
side, in the diagram).]
• No Z-discs; thin filaments are attached to dense bodies. Actin : myosin ratio
is about 15:1. (in skeletal muscle ~ 2:1)
• T-tubules are absent or rudimentary. The sarcolemma has tiny sac-like in-
pocketings called caveolae.
- 82 -
• No troponin-tropomyosin complex to prevent myosin binding of actin.
Myosin cross-bridges need to be activated; the activation requires that one
of the light-chain proteins in the myosin head be phosphorylated. Myosin
phosphorylation is catalyzed by myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK). When
Ca++ combines with calmodulin, there is activation of MLCK. (Another
difference: instead of troponin C, Ca++ combines with calmodulin.)
CARDIAC MUSCLE:
• The basic organization of thick and thin filaments in cardiac muscle cells is
similar to that seen in skeletal muscle. Hence, cardiac muscle is classified as a
striated muscle.
- 83 -
• Each thick filament is surrounded by six thin filaments, and each thin filament
receives cross-bridge attachments from three thick filaments. This complex
array of thick and thin filaments is characteristic of both cardiac & skeletal
muscle and helps stabilize the filaments during muscle contraction.
• Excitation-contraction coupling:
- 84 -
The AP in cardiac muscle, as it travels along the T-tubules, is sensed by the
voltage-gated L-type Ca++ channel in the sarcolemma. As these channels open, a
relatively small amount Ca++ from ECF enters the cardiac muscle. It triggers the
release of further Ca++ rom the SR (“Ca++ sparks”). The influx of Ca++ is responsible
for the plateau phase of the AP, and is also critical for triggering release of Ca ++
from the SR and thus initiating contraction.
o
The L-type Ca++ channel is composed of five subunits ∼ α1, α2, β, γ, and δ.
The α1 subunit is also called the dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR) because it
binds the dihydropyridine class of Ca++ channel blockers (e.g. nifedipine).
Although this channel complex is present in both skeletal and cardiac
muscle, it serves very different functions in the two muscle types. In skeletal
muscle ∼ Ca++ release from the SR does not involve entry of Ca++ across the
sarcolemma but instead results from a voltage-induced conformational
change in the DHPR. Thus, E-C coupling in cardiac muscle is termed
ELECTROCHEMICAL COUPLING (involving Ca++-induced Ca++ release),
whereas E-C coupling in skeletal muscle is termed ELECTROMECHANICAL
COUPLING (involving direct interactions between the DHPR in the T tubule
and the RYR in the SR.)
o
Ryanodine receptors (RYRs) ∼ In each cardiac muscle sarcomere, terminal
regions of the SR abut T tubules and the sarcolemma. These junctional
regions of the SR are enriched in ryanodine receptors (RYRs). The RYR is a
Ca++-gated Ca++ channel; influx of Ca++ during an AP is able to initiate release
of Ca++, via this channel, from the SR into the sarcoplasm.
- 85 -