Wate Supply 4 EOHS

Water supply
For
EOHS 2nd yr.
students
Instructor:
Laekemariam B.
Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B.
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter you are expected to know:
 Historical background of water supply
 Some important water related technical terms
 Public health significance of water
 Occurrence of water
 Importance of water (General use of water

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 2
 Water is invaluable natural resource
 Water is the most abundant compound on Earth's surface.
 Fundamental for proper functioning of entire ecological and
biological system
 Without water there would have been no life.
 Water is very unevenly distributed over the surface of the earth.
 Due to this reason in early times, man had the tendency to settle near
sources of water.
 Water is the medium in which all living process occur-
 It dissolves nutrients and distributes them to cells,
 Regulates body temperature
 Supports structures, and
 removes waste products, etc.
 About 60-70% of our body is water.
 Man can survive for weeks without food, but only a few
days without water.

Global occurrence of water
 The worlds water exists naturally in different forms and

locations: in the air, on the surface, below the ground and in
the oceans.
 Earth is the only place where liquid water exists in
substantial quantities.
 about 97.2% is in the form of ocean and seawater, and is
not useful for human consumption and domestic use.
 Even the remaining 3% is not all available for human use

since another 2% of it is locked in the form of ice in the
polar regions of the world.
 Therefore only about 1% (0.8%) is the fresh water, which is
found in the form of ground water and surface water.
 This tiny usable portion is neither evenly distributed nor

properly used.
[
 In some regions it is abundant and properly utilized, while in

some others it is wasted and polluted,
 The level of pollution can reach to a water unfit for human
contact; not just consumption, and
 In the remaining regions it is scarce or completely lacking.

 Humans have spent most of their history as hunting and food gathering beings.
 Only in the last 9,000 to 10,000 years they discovered how to grow crops and
tame animals.
 Such revolution probably first took place in the hills to the north of Mesopotamia.
 From there the agricultural revolution spread to the Nile and Indus Valleys.
 During this agricultural revolution, permanent villages replaced a wandering
existence.
 About 6,000 to 7,000 years ago, farming villages of the Near East and Middle East
became cities.
 During the Neolithic age (5,700–2,800 BC), the first successful efforts to control
the flow of water were driven by agricultural needs (irrigation) and were
implemented in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
 Remains of these prehistoric irrigation canals still exist.
 Urban hydraulic systems are dated at a later stage, in the Bronze Age (ca. 2,800–1,100
BC).
 There are several astonishing examples of urban water systems in major urban center of
the Indus Civilization, developed a sophisticated system for water supply and sewage.
 Water came from more than 700 wells and supplied not only domestic demands but also
a system of private baths and a Great Bath for public use.
 The Mesopotamians were not far behind.
 An example is the city of Eshnunna (80 km Baghdad) dated in the same period, where
archaeological excavations exposed sewers constructed of brick, with laterals
connecting to houses.
 Rainwater harvesting and collection in cisterns for urban water supply was practiced at
about the same period in Jawa in northeastern Jordan.
 Another collection system, this time for groundwater, was developed in Persia, again in
the same period.
 This is a subterranean system of tunnels connecting wells and dug using vertical shafts,
designed to collect and transport water, sometimes over long distances, from highlands
to low-lying farming land.
 Amazing characteristics of the latter technology are its
application over a tremendously long period up to modern
times and the durability of the systems constructed.
 For instance, in Iran, more than 270,000 km of underground
channels.
 In the 1960s, 75% of all the water used in that country for
irrigation and domestic consumption was provided by such
systems.
 Over the centuries, the technology was transferred to all
civilizations: Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, UAE and North
Africa.
 According to UNESCO recommendations, some of those
projects are protected as monuments of world heritage.
 Starting from the Bronze Age, hydraulic technologies were
developed further in Greece during several stages of the Greek
civilization.
 They developed and applied various technologies for collecting,
transporting and using water from rainfall, and surface and ground
resources.
 The advanced water distribution systems were based on the use of
pipes.
 New more advanced water technologies were also invented there,
with a peak in the period that follows Alexander the Great,-
 -during which they spread over a geographical area from Greece to
India to the east and Egypt to the south.
 The Romans, whose Empire replaced the Greek rule in most part of
this area, inherited the technologies and developed them further-
 -also changing their application scale from small to large and
implementing them to almost every large city.
 The Greek and Roman water technologies are not only a cultural
heritage but are the underpinning of modern achievements in water
engineering and management.
 The durability of some of the constructions that operated up to
modern times, as well as the support of the technologies and-
 -their scientific background by written documents enabled these
technologies to pass to modern societies.

 The Romans built what can be called mega water supply systems including many
magnificent structures.
 Water flowed by gravity through enclosed conduits, which typically were
underground, from the source to a distribution tank.
 Above ground aqueducts were built on an arcade or bridge.
 Settling tanks were located along the aqueducts to remove sediments and foreign
matter.
 Secondary lines were built at some locations along the aqueduct to supply
additional water.
 Also subsidiary or branch lines were used.
 At distribution points water was delivered through pipes made of tile or lead.
 These pipes were connected to the distribution tank by a fitting or nozzle.
 These pipes were placed below ground level along major streets.

 After the fall of the Roman Empire, the concepts of science and technology related to
water resources declined.
 Water supply systems and water sanitation and public health declined in Europe, which
entered a period called the Dark Ages.
 Historical accounts tell of incredibly unsanitary conditions – polluted water, human and
animal wastes in the streets, and wastewater thrown out of windows onto people in the
streets.
 Various epidemics ravaged Europe.
 During the same period, several Byzantine sites in Greece and Asia Minor kept a high
level of civilization whereas –
 Islamic cultures, on the periphery of Europe, had religiously mandated high levels of
personal hygiene, along with highly developed water supply, sewerage and adequate
sanitation systems.
 Europe acquired again high standards of water supply and sanitation only in the 19th
century.

 1.1 billion people lack access to an improved drinking water supply
 80% of all illnesses in developing countries are water-
associated. (Acc. to WHO )
 Use of unsafe water causes high prevalence of diarrhoeal

diseases among children resulting in high infant and child
mortality rates.
 Water and sanitation have emerged as a primary health care

component
 so that it will be able to alleviate the associated morbidity and
mortality.
 Despite international and local efforts towards improving these
conditions, changes are not satisfactory in many African
countries.
 This is because water supply is generally linked with or
affected by factors such as:
 economy
 population growth
 educational status
 customs, traditions
 governmental concern, etc.
 Hence, the provision of safe and adequate water supply

programs requires integrated efforts of different concerned
sectors including the community to be benefited for its effective
achievements.

 Aquifer: an underground zone or layer, which is a body of
permeable rock that can contain or transmit groundwater.
 It is a rock formation that bears and yields water when
penetrated by wells.
 Impermeable: not allowing passage of, for example, a liquid.
 Permeable: able to be passed through or penetrated by a fluid.

 Confined water: groundwater held between two layers of
impermeable rock.
 Eye of a spring: opening where the water comes out of the
earth.
 Free water; groundwater which can move without
hindrance in response to the force of gravity.
 Infiltrate: to pass through a permeable substance, usually
slowly, as if through a filter.
 Palatable water: water that is pleasant to drink because its
taste is good but it may not be safe to drink.
 Potable: safe for drinking, free from pathogens which are

introduced to the water through feces, dirty containers, etc.
 Per capita: literally “by needs” by unit of population by
person.

 Pollution: the presence of matter whose nature, location, or
quantity produces undefined environmental effects.
 Porosity: the quality of being full of pores and therefore
absorbent and permeable.
 Raw water: water that has not been purified.
 Sedimentation: the action of settling down or depositing
matter in a liquid by gravitational force by slowing down
the flow of water.
 Turbidity: is muddiness or cloudiness appearance of
water caused by large numbers of suspended particles that
are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in
air.
 The measurement of turbidity is a key test of water quality.
“Whoever wishes to investigate medicine properly
should consider the seasons of the year, the winds
and the waters in relation to health and diseases”
(Hippocrates, 460 – 354 B.C., as quoted by Miller)
 Water is a basic necessity of life.
 Man, animals and plants cannot survive without water.
 Man can live without shelter, clothing, and even without food for
some time, but without water he soon perishes.
 The normal functioning of man’s body depends entirely upon an
adequate quantity of safe water.

 Furthermore, most of the foods that we eat contain water.
 For Ex.: milk contains about 88% water, meat = 60% and fish=80%.
 The atmosphere that surrounds us contains an enormous quantity of
water in form of moisture,
 which greatly influences our comfort and the productions of food.
 Unfortunately not all water helps man to survive.
 Contaminated water or Water from contaminated sources causes

numerous diseases and untimely deaths.

 Since water is a necessity for human survival, in absence of safe
water sources, they are forced to drink or use water from any source,
whether pure or contaminated,
 As a result, many people suffer or die from waterborne diseases.
 Hence, every country has to purify and take preventive measures to
avoid pollution and contamination of the available water resources.
 Therefore, public water supply must be potable, palatable and
wholesome.
 Water must not have disagreeable physical change and must be
chemically and microbially safe.

 It is impossible to have a clean and sanitary environment without
water.
 Water is necessary in promoting personal hygiene and in cleaning
man’s environment.
 Without an adequate and wholesome water supply, health cannot be

maintained.
 The provision of a good, clean, plentiful water supply in a community
is therefore of the greatest importance in public health service.

 Water was the root of man’s civilization.
 Ancient civilizations sprang up only where abundant water supply
was available.
 Ex. of such civilizations are those on the banks of the Nile, the Tigris,
the Indus and the Romans.
The following are importances of water:
 For survival and normal functioning of human and other organisms.
 For promotions of sanitation and hygiene.
 For moderation of global weather condition and heat regulations and
distribution.
 For food production

 For the balance in ecology (i.e. the balance in relationship between
living things and the environment in which they live).
 Animal life depends directly or indirectly upon vegetation for food,
and
 vegetation will not grow without water.
 Vegetable matter, such as leaves and steams, can be converted to
soil by bacterial action.
 Bacteria need water in order to thrive.
 New plants growing in this soil take up nutrients through their roots
in the form of a solution in water.
 Any break in this ecological chain can mean failure of the whole
ecological system.
 Water is a valuable source of energy. For generating hydroelectric
power.

 For transport and navigation.
 Water bodies plays an important role in recreational activities.
 Water is crucial for nearly all industries.
 This is why industries are located wherever there is abundant
water.
 It is used as a solvent or coolant or for cleaning; and
 For various other processes in industries.

 Fresh water is essential for the survival and well-being of
humankind.
 Access to safe water is a pre-requisite for the realization of
many human rights, including those relating to people’s
survival, education and standard of living.
 To a greater or lesser extent, these rights are denied where
people are unable, for whatever reason, to access safe
water.
 And, compared to water, rather less emphasis is placed on
a related human necessity that is too often overlooked or
taken for granted – the right to sanitation.
 The right to water (and implicitly sanitation) is not explicitly recognized as a human
right in itself.
 The right to water is recognized in General Comment No.15 (GC15) of the UN
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted during its 29th session in
November 2002.
 The Comment provides guidelines to states on how to interpret the right to water
implicit in two articles of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights:
 Article 11 (the right to an adequate standard of living) and
 Article 12 (the right to health).
 While GC15 is not legally binding in itself, it is an official and legal interpretation of
these articles.
 GC15 affirms that: ‘the human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe,
acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic
uses’.
 According to national report and some “scholars” water supply problems of
our country are attributed mainly to:
 lack of maintenance of the previously constructed systems,
 lack of community involvement when the earlier water systems were built,
 lack of spare parts and local maintenance capabilities, etc.
 These problems are magnified particularly in the rural parts of the country
and
 greatly hamper the operation even of the minimal water supply systems
available in these areas.
 And they say…
 Because of these facts, the problem still persists and has contributed a lot to
the low safe water coverage in the country.

 According to the health indicators of MOH, the safe water coverage in 1992
E.C. for urban areas was 83.5%, and 24.7% in the rural parts of the country
where the majority of the population is living.
 According to Ministry of Health (MOH Ethiopia), overall access to safe

drinking water 35.9% in 1996 E.C.
 According to the International monetary Fund (IMF) report 2004 of Poverty
Reduction, overall access to safe drinking water coverage increased from
about 19% in 1996 to 35.9% in 2004/05.
 According to World Bank in 2000, safe drinking water coverage of Ethiopia

was:
- 7 of 50 million in rural areas (13%) &
- 8 of 11 million in urban areas (73%) had access to safe drinking water.
 Acc. to world development indicator Database, August 2003, access to an
improved water source 13% in rural and 77% in urban areas.
 In 2005, the national coverage figures for access to safe rural water supply within
1.5km are quoted to be 41% and
 access to safe urban water supply within 0.5 km to be 78%. (MoH report)
 According to the Ethiopian government in 2005, 40 % of the population had access to
safe water;-
 -however, according to World Health Organization (WHO) and local non-governmental
organizations, the figure was closer to 22 percent. (USAID ETHIOPIA WaSH profile)
 To respond to the big Water and Sanitation Hygiene (WaSH) access challenge, the
government of Ethiopia launched an ambitious universal access plan in mid 2005 to
enable the country achieve 100% access to safe and sustainable WaSH by the year
2012. (MoH Internal report)
 Ethiopia’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for improved water and sanitation
access are 70 percent and 56 percent respectively. (USAID ETHIOPIA WaSH profile)

POPULATION AND HEALTH STATISTICS WATER AVAILABILITY IN ETHIOPIA
Population (2006) 81 million Renewable water resources

per capita, m3/person/year 1,355
Proportion of population living in urban 16% (1960-2007)
areas Water withdrawals, 81
Urban/Rural population growth rates m3/person/year (2000)
(1980-2000) 5.3 / 2.3%
Projected water resources per
Diarrheal deaths/year (2004) 57,000 capita, m3/person/year in 1,006
2015
166/1000 Note: 2015 projected water resources per
Under age 5 mortality rate live births capita is a straightline regression
calculation based on population growth
Under age 5 mortality rate due to
17.3% rates with no adjustment for
diarrheal disease (2000) consumption or technology changes
 According to a report prepared and released in April 2013 by Minister of Water
Resources (MoWR), indicates to parliament that 52 % of Ethiopians have access to
drinking water supply. (MoWR to parliament- available at www.ethiopiaobservatory.com)
 This shows 26% drop from projection 78% of coverage in the water sector;
 However, after few weeks-according to Prime Minister Hailemariam Dessalegn, the water
coverage was 61% reducing the drop to 17%, still huge percentage.
 Why does the Prime Minister changed the percentage 52% by MoWR to 61%???
 But, before 3 years, in February 2010 that the revised working program in the water
sector, according to the Ministry of Finance’s Ethiopia:
 Country Report on the Implementation of the Brussels Program of Action (BPOA),
announced success in “liberating girls” and women’s time from the unproductive
hours spent fetching water,- by making water supply available within 0.5 km. for 85
percent of the population by 2010.”
 Similarly, already on September 21, 2011 Ethiopia announced to the world that it had
attained the United Nation’s millennium development goals (MDG) regarding access to
clean water for its citizens. 2013 MoWR (www.ethiopiaobservatory.com)
??? Where does this discrepancy in report come from???
April, 2013 MoWR (www.ethiopiaobservatory.com)
 It is in realizing this problem that, for instance, in the context of the MDG reviews
the United Nations in July 2012 reminded member states that progress in ensuring
access to improved drinking water is reduced by 1.2 percent because of
population factors.
 In other words, 96 percent of the urban population that benefited from receiving
improved water in 2010 is reduced to 81 percent in 2012 due to the population
growth factor. (www.ethiopiaobservatory.com)
 Ethiopia has made remarkable progress in water and sanitation over the last two
decades.
 According to WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme 2014 report, the country
has improved water supply by 57% (97% in urban areas and 42% in rural areas),
thus achieving the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 7 target 7C. (WHO.
Ethiopia | Water, Sanitation and Hygine (WASH) available from www.afro.who.int)

 Despite the progress seen in Ethiopia, 43% of the population does not have access
to an improved water source and 28% practice open defecation.
 The National WASH Inventory (NWI) report of 2012 also indicates that the majority
of health facilities in Ethiopia lack access to clean water and only about 32% have
access to safe water.
 Moreover, 17% of childhood deaths are associated with diarrhea (EDHS 2011)
which remains the third leading cause of under-five mortality attributed to poor
water, sanitation and hygiene. (WHO. Ethiopia | Water, Sanitation and Hygine
(WASH) available from www.afro.who.int)

Learning Objectives
 At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:
 List the important properties of water.
 Describe the hydrologic cycle.
 Identify impurities of water.
 Describe the geology of the earth.

 Pure water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen chemically combined.
 The chemical symbol is H2O and the chemical name is
hydrogen monoxide.
 Water exists in three states: as a liquid, as a solid (ice and
snow), and as a gas (water vapor).
 It is a very stable chemical substance.
 Water has the ability to dissolve solids and to absorb gases
and other liquids.
 Hence, it is often referred to as the “universal solvent”.

 Because of this solvent power, all natural water contains
minerals and other substances in solution,-
 -which have been picked up from the air, the soil, and rocks
through and over which it passes.
 Water has very high molecular attraction both for its own
molecules (cohesion) and for molecules of other substance
(adhesion).
 Because of this particular characteristic, a large quantity of
water is held in rock particles and by plant roots in the soil.
 The PH of pure water is 7 (neutral).

 Upon freezing to ice, water expands in volume by about one
tenth (1/10) and -
 -exerts a pressure of15,000 kg per square inch (6.45 sq. cm).
 It is this pressure that bursts water pipes in freezing water. or-
 -bottles in freezer.
 In liquid form weighs approximately 28.41 kg per cubic foot. –
 - This is 830 times heavier than air.
 However, in the form of vapor, water is 133 times lighter than
air, (volume for volume), -
 - which partly explains why water vapor rises in the
atmosphere to form clouds.

 To understand water pollution, treatment and supply,-
 -it is first necessary to have an appreciation of chemical
phenomena that occur in water.
 Aquatic environmental chemical phenomena involve
processes, including:
 acid-base,
 solubility,
 oxidation-reduction, and
 complexation reactions . *
 Biological processes play a key role in aquatic chemistry.
*Complexation reactions-
 A complexation reaction can be described as a reaction that forms a "complex".
 For instance, in adding a cobalt salt, such as CoCl2 (s), to water, we form [Co(H2O)6]2+
 The part of this substance written in brackets is called a complex ion; it involves more
than one species but still carries an overall charge (making it an ion) while in solution.
 The entire group has a charge, much like a polyatomic ion (ex: [Cu(CN)2]-,
[Mn(OH2)6]2-).
The list below helps describe complexation reactions in more detail:
 Complexes generally form around a transition metal cation (ex: Ni2+, Au3+, Cu+).
 Whether or not a complex forms depends on concentration, among other factors.
 A reaction between two compounds may proceed normally until it is "flooded" by one of
the reagents, at which point a complex ion is more likely to form.
 The formation of a complex is generally indicated by a color change. In fact, most compl
ex ions are very brightly colored.

 Compared to the carefully controlled conditions of the laboratory, it is
much more difficult to describe chemical phenomena in natural water
systems.
 Such systems are very complex and a description of their chemistry must
take many variables into consideration.
 In addition to water, these systems contain mineral phases, gas phases,
and organisms.
 As open, dynamic systems, they have variable inputs and outputs of
energy and mass.
 Therefore, except under unusual circumstances, a true equilibrium
condition is not obtained, although an approximately steady-state aquatic
system frequently exists.

 Most metals found in natural waters do not exist as simple hydrated cations in the
water, and oxyanions often are found as polynuclear species, rather than as simple
monomers.
 The nature of chemical species in water containing bacteria or algae is
strongly influenced by the action of these organisms.
 Thus, an exact description of the chemistry of a natural water system based upon
 acid-base,
 solubility, and
 complexation equilibrium constants,
 redox potential,
 pH, and
 other chemical parameters is not possible.

 Therefore, the systems must be described by simplified models, often based
around equilibrium chemical concepts.
 Though not exact, nor entirely realistic, such models can yield useful
generalizations and-
 - insights pertaining to the nature of aquatic chemical processes, and-
 - provide guidelines for the description and measurement of natural water
systems.
 Though greatly simplified, such models are very helpful in visualizing the
conditions that determine chemical species and their reactions in natural waters
and wastewaters.

GASES IN WATER
 Dissolved gases—O2 for fish and CO2 for photosynthetic algae—are crucial to the
welfare of living species in water.
 Some gases in water can also cause problems, such as the death of fish from
bubbles of nitrogen formed in the blood caused by exposure to water
supersaturated with N2.
Oxygen in Water:
 Without an appreciable level of dissolved oxygen, many kinds of aquatic organisms
cannot exist in water.
 Dissolved oxygen is consumed by the degradation of organic matter in water.
 Many fish kills are caused not from the direct toxicity of pollutants but from a
deficiency of oxygen because of its consumption in the biodegradation of
pollutants.

 Most elemental oxygen comes from the atmosphere, which is 20.95% oxygen by
volume of dry air.
 Therefore, the ability of a body of water to reoxygenate itself by contact with the
atmosphere is an important characteristic.
 Oxygen is produced by the photosynthetic action of algae, but this process is really
not an efficient means of oxygenating water because some of the oxygen formed by
photosynthesis during the daylight hours is lost at night when the algae consume
oxygen as part of their metabolic processes.
 When the algae die, the degradation of their biomass also consumes oxygen.
 The solubility of oxygen in water depends upon water temperature, the partial
pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere, and the salt content of the water.

 It is important to distinguish between oxygen solubility and dissolved oxygen
concentration-
 oxygen solubility -which is the maximum dissolved oxygen concentration at
equilibrium, and
 dissolved oxygen concentration- which is generally not the equilibrium
concentration and is limited by the rate at which oxygen dissolves.
 the concentration of oxygen in water at 25°C in equilibrium with air at atmospheric
pressure is only 8.32 mg/L.
 Thus, water in equilibrium with air cannot contain a high level of dissolved oxygen
compared to many other solute species.
 If oxygen-consuming processes are occurring in the water, the dissolved oxygen
level may rapidly approach zero unless some efficient mechanism for the
reaeration of water is operative, such as turbulent flow in a shallow stream.

 You need to have a general understanding of:
  Carbon dioxide in water/ water acidty /
 Alkalinity of water- Highly alkaline water generally contains elevated levels of
dissolved solids.
 These characteristics may be detrimental for water to be used in boilers, food
processing, and municipal water systems.
 Alkalinity serves as a pH buffer and reservoir for inorganic carbon,-
 -thus helping to determine the ability of a water to support algal growth and
other aquatic life,-
 -so it can be used as a measure of water fertility.
 Generally, the basic species responsible for alkalinity in water are bicarbonate
ion, carbonate ion, and hydroxide ion

 Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure (25 degrees
Celsius and 1 atm, for liquids).
 Water is is tasteless and odorless.
 Water is transparent in the visible part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
 Water can act as either an acid or a base – AKA Amphoteric – which
refers to -
 -A molecule that can act as either an acid or a base depending on its
chemical environment. For example, water (H2O) is amphoteric*.
Water is a universal solvent, dissolving many substances found in

nature.
 Pure water is virtually colorless and has no taste or smell. But
the hidden qualities of water make it a most interesting subject.
 The anomalous properties of water are those where the
behavior of liquid water is quite different from what is found
with other liquids.
 Water is unique in that it is the only natural substance that is
found in all three states -- liquid, solid (ice), and gas (steam) --
at the temperatures normally found on Earth.
 Frozen water (ice) also shows anomalies when compared with
other solids. Although it is an apparently simple molecule
(H2O), it has a highly complex and anomalous character due to
its inter-molecular hydrogen bonding.
 As a gas, water is one of lightest known,
 as a liquid it is much denser than expected and
 as a solid it is much lighter than expected when compared
with its liquid form.
 Earth's water is constantly interacting, changing, and in

movement.

 The high cohesion between molecules gives it a high
freezing and melting point, such that we and our planet are
bathed in liquid water.
 Water freezes at 32°Fahrenheit (F) and boils at 212°F (at sea
level, but 186.4° at 14,000 feet). °F= 9/5°C+32
 The large heat capacity, high thermal conductivity and high
water content in organisms contribute to thermal regulation
and prevent local temperature fluctuations,
 thus allowing us to more easily control our body
temperature.
 The high latent heat of evaporation gives resistance to
dehydration and considerable evaporative cooling.
 In fact, water's freezing and boiling points are the baseline with which
temperature is measured: 0° on the Celsius scale is water's freezing point,
and 100° is water's boiling point.
 At 4 °C water expands on heating or cooling.
 Water is unusual in that the solid form, ice, is less dense than the liquid form,
which is why ice floats.
 This density maximum together with the low ice density results in
 (i) the necessity that all of a body of fresh water (not just its surface) is
close to 4 °C before any freezing can occur,
 (ii) the freezing of rivers, lakes and oceans is from the top down, so
permitting survival of the bottom ecology, insulating the water from
further freezing, reflecting back sunlight into space and allowing rapid
thawing, and
 (iii) density driven thermal convection causing seasonal mixing in deeper
temperate waters carrying life-providing oxygen into the depths.
 Water has a high specific heat index.
 This means that water can absorb a lot of heat before it begins to get hot.
 This is why water is valuable to industries and in your car's radiator as a
coolant.
 The high specific heat index of water also helps regulate the rate at which
air changes temperature, which is why the temperature change between
seasons is gradual rather than sudden, especially near the oceans.
 The large heat capacity of the oceans and seas allows them to act as heat
reservoirs such that sea temperatures vary only a third as much as land
temperatures and so moderate our planet's climate (for example, the Gulf
stream carries tropical warmth to northwestern Europe).
 The compressibility of water reduces the sea level by about 40 m giving
us 5% more land.
 Water has a very high surface tension.
 In other words, water is sticky and elastic, and tends to
clump together in drops rather than spread out in a
thin film.
 Surface tension is responsible for capillary action,
which allows water (and its dissolved substances) to
move through the roots of plants and through the tiny
blood vessels in our bodies.
 Water's high surface tension plus its expansion on
freezing encourages the erosion of rocks to give soil
for our agriculture.
 Water on Earth, whether as water vapor in the atmosphere, as surface
water in rivers, streams, lakes seas and oceans or as groundwater in the
subsurface ground strata, is for the most part not at rest but in a state of
continuous recycling movement.
 This is called the hydrologic cycle or water cycle.
 This schematic of the hydrological cycle illustrates how elements can be
grouped as part of a conceptual model that has emerged from the new
discipline of ecohydrology,-
 -which stresses the important relationships and pathways shard among
hydrological and ecological systems.
 This conceptual model takes into consideration the detail of the fluxes
of all waters and their pathways while differentiating between two
components: ‘blue water’ and ‘green water’.

 Blue waters are directly associated with aquatic ecosystems and flow in
surface water bodies and aquifers.
 Green water is what supplies terrestrial ecosystems and rain-fed crops
from the soil moisture zone, and it is green water that evaporates from
plants and water surfaces into atmosphere as water vapor.
 This water circulation depends on temperature and humidity of the
environment or atmosphere.
 The sun’s heat acts upon the surface of the earth and bodies of water
and as a result, water evaporation takes place from oceans, seas, etc.,
and water transpiration takes place from leaves of trees and plants.

 The process acts continuously to form dense rain clouds in the lower
atmosphere.
 After condensation, the rain clouds precipitate and release water to the
surface of earth in the form of rain, snow, dew, etc.
 As the rain reaches the ground surface a portion of it evaporates back
immediately.
 Some percolates into the soil to become groundwater.
 The remaining portion of the rain flows over the earth’s surface as run-off,
streams, and rivers and finally joins the oceans, lakes, seas, etc.
 This cycle repeats again and again.
 The amount of water involved in water cycle varies from place to place.
 But the total amount of water in the world is constant.
Where and in what forms is water available on Earth?
Nature, Variability and Availability
 The Earth’s hydrological cycle is the global mechanism that
transfers water from the oceans to the surface and from the surface,
or subsurface environments, and plants to the atmosphere that
surrounds our planet.
 The principal natural component processes of the hydrological
cycle are: precipitation, infiltration, runoff, evaporation and
transpiration.
 Human activities (settlements, industry, and agricultural
developments) can disturb the components of the natural cycle
through land use diversions and the use, reuse and discharge of
wastes into the natural surface water and groundwater pathways.

2.3.1. How does water move from the atmosphere to the ground
and back?
- Precipitation
- Evaporation and transpiration
Precipitation
 The Earth’s atmosphere contains approximately 13,000km3 of water.
 This represents 10% of the world’s freshwater resources not found in
groundwater, icecaps or permafrost.
 This is similar to the volumes found in soil moisture and wetlands.
 However, of more importance is the fact that this vapour cycles in the
atmosphere in a ‘global dynamic envelope’, which has a substantive
annually recurring volume, estimated to be from 113,500 to 120,000 km3 .

Precipitation….
 Precipitation occurs as rain, snow, sleet, hail, frost or dew. ???
 These large volumes illustrate precipitation’s key role in renewing our natural
water resources, particularly those used to supply natural ecosystems and rainfed
crops.
 About 40% of the precipitation that falls on land comes from ocean-derived
vapour.
 The remaining 60% comes from land-based sources.
 It is particularly pertinent to recognize that snowfall can contribute a large % of a

region's total precipitation in temperate and cold climate regions.
 For Ex., in the western US, Canada and Europe, 40 to 75% of regional precipitation
can occur as snow.

Precipitation….
 The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has published the international
reference for each country’s average annual precipitation, based on the period of
record from 1961 to 1990.
 Countries’ precipitation ranges from 100 mm/yr in arid, desert-like climates to over
3,400 mm/yr in tropical and highly mountainous terrains.
 Together with temperature, they define the significant variables in global climatic
and ecosystem biodiversity settings.
 This long-term record base determines averages and defines predictable
variability both in time (monthly, annually, seasonally) and place (nations,
monitoring locations).
 This record is significant as its 30-year standard is commonly compared with actual
annual amounts to define the relative current variability, frequently tied to regional
and global evaluations of drought and climate change.

Precipitation….
 IAEA has initiated several projects to study and distinguish among
moisture sources and to better understand the cycle transport
patterns using applied isotope techniques.
 Particular case studies have been carried out in India, Southeast Asia
and with twenty-one research groups participating globally to
monitor many other major rivers.
 This approach is of further significance as it assists in the evaluation
of the hydrological cycle’s response to climatic fluctuations and can
be used to calibrate and validate atmospheric circulation models
used in climate change studies.

Evaporation and transpiration
 The processes of evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration) are closely
linked to the water found in soil moisture;
 -these processes act as driving forces on water transferred in the hydrological cycle.
 Movement through soil and vegetation is large and accounts for 62% of annual
globally renewable freshwater.
 Evapotranspiration rates depend on many locally specific parameters and variables
that are difficult to measure and require demanding analyses in order to calculate an
acceptable level of accuracy.
 Other hydrological, cycle-related and meteorological data are also considered in the
estimation of the rates.
 Today, however, local water management in basins or sub-basins can better calculate
transpiration rates.

Evaporation and transpiration….
 Evaporation from surface water bodies such as lakes, rivers, wetlands and
reservoirs is also an important component of the hydrological cycle and integral to
basin development and regional water management.
 In the case of artificially-created reservoirs, it has been estimated that, the global
volumes evaporating since the end of the 1960s have exceeded the volume
consumed to meet both domestic and industrial needs.
 From the standpoint of food production and ecosystem maintenance, -
 -soil moisture is the most important parameter to net primary productivity (NPP)
and to the structure, composition and density of vegetation patterns.
 Near-surface soil moisture content strongly influences whether precipitation and
irrigation waters either run off to surface water bodies or infiltrate into the soil
column.

 Regionally, mapping soil moisture deficit is becoming a widely used technique to

link climatological and hydrological information in agriculture (e.g. Illinois, US)
and to reflect drought conditions (US Drought Mitigation Center, 2004).
 Soil moisture distribution is now identified as a prerequisite for effective river-flow
forecasting, irrigation system maintenance, and soil conservation (Haider et al.,
2004).
 Its distribution in time and place are now viewed as essential to hydrological,
ecological and climatic models – both at the regional and global level (US NRC,
2000).

 Satellite data can provide broader coverage with current results that can be more
closely representative when combined with ground validation.
 From 2002, NASA’s climate-monitoring ‘Aqua’ satellite has daily records of 50 to 60
km resolution data, readily obtained from NOAA.
 Since, 2010, the ‘Hydros’ satellite has started exclusively monitoring daily soil
moisture changes around the globe with an improved spatial resolution of 3 to 10
km.
 This will be an important upgrade for remotely-sensed soil moisture data, which
are becoming increasingly relied upon by:
 agricultural marketing and administrative boards,
 commodity brokers,
 large-scale farms,
 flood- and drought-monitoring and forecasting agencies,
 water resources planning and soil conservation authorities and
 hydroelectric utility companies.

2.3.2. How much freshwater is found at the Earth’s surface?
- Snow and ice
- Lakes
- Rivers and streams
- wetlands
Snow and ice

 About three-quarters of the world’s entire natural freshwater is
contained within ice sheets and glaciers.
 However, most (97%) is not considered as a water resource as it is
inaccessible, located in the Antarctic, Arctic and Greenland ice sheets.
 However, land-based glaciers and permanent snow and ice – found on
all continents except Australia – cover approximately 680,000 km2 and
are critical to many nations’ water resources.
Snow and ice….
 Even in situations where ice covers only a small percent of a basin’s upland
mountainous terrain (e.g. in the Himalayas, Rockies, Urals, Alps, Andes),
glaciers can supply water resources to distant lowland regions.
 Thus, glacial ice and snow represents a highly valuable natural water
reservoir.
 Typically it affects stream-flow quantity in terms of time and volume since
glaciers temporarily store water as snow and ice and release runoff on
many different time scales.
 Glacial runoff characteristically varies with daily flow cycles that are melt-
induced and seasonal since concentrated annual runoff occurs in summer
when the water stored as snow in winter is released as stream flow.

Snow and ice….
 The seasonal runoff benefits occur principally in nations in the mid-

and high latitudes8- where there are otherwise only periods of low
flow, but benefits also occur in many semi-arid regions.
 Glaciers can also affect long-term annual water availability since
runoff either increases or decreases as their mass balance decreases
or increases, respectively.
 Finally, glaciers tend to act as stream-flow regulators that can
minimize year-to-year variability when catchment areas are
moderately (10 to 40 percent) glaciated.
 Runoff variability rises as glaciated percentage both increases and
decreases.
 Glacier conditions are now monitored globally since climate change
is affecting their size and mass balance.
Lakes:
 Surface waters include the lakes (as well as ponds), reservoirs, rivers and streams
and wetlands our societies have depended upon and benefited from throughout
history.
 The flow into and through these surface water bodies comes from rainfall, runoff
from melting snow and ice and as base-flow from groundwater systems.
 While surface waters volumetrically hold only a small volume (0.3%) of the Earth’s
total freshwater resources, they represent about 80 % of the annually renewable
surface and groundwater.
 Ecosystem services from surface waters are widespread and diverse as well as
being of critical importance.
 Reservoirs and large lakes effectively counteract high seasonal variability in runoff
by providing longer-term storage.
 Other services supported by surface waters include shipping and transport,
irrigation, recreation, fishing, drinking water and hydropower.

Lakes….
 Lakes store the largest volume of fresh surface waters (90,000 km3) – over forty
times more than is found in rivers or streams and about seven times more than is
found in wetland areas.
 Together with reservoirs, they are estimated to cover a total area of about 2.7
million km2, which represents 2 % of the land’s surface (excluding polar regions).
 Most lakes are small.
 The world’s 145 largest lakes are estimated to contain over 95 % of all lake
freshwater.
 Lake Baikal (Russia) is the world’s largest, deepest and oldest lake and it alone
contains 27 % of the freshwater contained in all the world’s lakes.
 Lake waters serve commerce, fishing, recreation, and transport and supply water
for much of the world’s population.
 However, detailed hydrological studies have been conducted on only 60 % of the
world’s largest lakes.

Lakes….
 LakeNet is one example of an organization working with local and regional

governments, NGOs and IGOs in over 100 countries in order to address this
knowledge deficit, to tackle degrading conditions, and to develop lake basin
management programmes that include important protection strategies.
 Recently, a global database of lakes, reservoirs and wetlands (GLWD) has been
created and validated at the Center for Environmental Systems Research,
University of Kassel (CESR, Germany) in cooperation with the World Wildlife Fund
(WWF).
 The primarily digital map-based approach, complete with fully downloadable data,
facilitates the linking of existing local and regional registers and remotely sensed
data with the new inventory.
 As such, it is an important achievement related to global hydrological and
climatological models.

Rivers and streams
 An estimated 263 international river basins have drainage areas that cover
about 45 % (231 million km2) of the Earth’s land surface (excluding polar
regions).
 The world’s twenty largest river basins have catchment areas ranging from
1 to 6 million km2 and are found on all continents.
 The total volume of water stored in rivers and streams is estimated at about
2,120 km3.
 The Amazon carries 15 % of all the water returning to the world’s oceans,
while the Congo-Zaire basin carries 33 % of the river flow in Africa.

Rivers and streams….
 Variability in runoff is depicted by river/stream flow vis-à-vis time graphs

(hydrographs).
 In terms of variability, the three low and three high runoff periods that were
experienced in the twentieth century by documenting the natural fluctuations
in river runoff in terms of both time and place.
 These types of periodic variations are not particularly predictable as they
occur with irregular frequency and duration.
 In contrast, we are commonly able to predict runoff variability on an annual
and seasonal basis from long-term measurement records in many river
locations.
 From this climatic zone perspective, tropical regions typically exhibit greater
river runoff volumes-
 -while arid and semi-arid regions, which make up an estimated 40 % of the
world’s land area, have only 2 % of the total runoff volume.

 Monitoring networks for river flow and water levels in rivers, reservoirs and
lakes, supplemented by estimates for regions where there is no extensive
monitoring, help understand runoff and evaluate how to predict its variability.
 Measurement networks are relatively common in many developed populated
areas.
 Most of the world’s major contributing drainage areas have relatively adequate
monitoring networks in place.
 The Global Runoff Data Center (GRDC, Germany), routinely acquires, stores,
freely distributes and reports on river discharge data from a network of 7,222
stations, about 4,750 of which have daily and 5,580 of which have monthly data.
 Other international programs such as the European Water Archive and national
data centers supplement this (data from private institutions are not included).
 The longer the flow record, the better we can predict variability in runoff- input
that is especially important in the context of flood forecasting, hydropower
generation and climate change studies.
 The quality and adequacy of data records for runoff vary tremendously.
 While some records extend back 200 years in Europe and 100 to 150 years on other
continents, in many developing nations-
 - the data record is generally of insufficient length and quality to carry out either
reliable water resources assessments or cost-effective project designs.
 As a result, for these regions, data is rarely compiled or distributed effectively on a
global scale.

Wetlands:
 Wetlands are water-saturated environments and are commonly characterized as
swamps, bogs, marshes, mires and lagoons.
 Wetlands cover an area about four times greater than the world’s lakes.
 However, they contain only 10 % of the water found in lakes and other surface waters.
 During the last century, an extensive number of wetlands were destroyed or converted
to other forms of land-use.
 However, because they total about 6 % of the Earth’s land surface, -
 - they are critical areas to consider and protect in terms of surface water and, in some
regions, groundwater resources.
 Currently, extensive work is being done through the ‘Wise Use’ campaigns sponsored
principally by Ramsar*, WWF and UNEP.
 These campaigns seek to maintain critical services in water and related livelihood and
food production areas.
*Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance- is the intergovernmental treaty that provides the ramework for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources; adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975.
since then, almost 90% of UN member states, from all the world’s geographic regions, have acceded to become “Contracting Parties”.
Wetlands….
 A study on variability in the role of wetlands was carried out in 2003,

wherein they assess the differences in wetland water quantity functions
based on 169 worldwide studies conducted from 1930 to 2002.
 They conclude that ‘there is only limited support to the generalized
model of flood control, recharge promotion and flow maintenance
portrayed throughout the 1990s as one component of the basis of wetland
policy formulation’, noting that support is confined largely to floodplain
wetlands.
 They also note that: ‘Less recognized are the many examples where
wetlands increase floods, act as a barrier to recharge or reduce low flows’
and that ‘generalized and simplified statements of wetland function are
discouraged because they demonstrably have little practical value’.

Wetlands….
 Overall they conclude that wetlands cannot be considered to have

the same role in every hydrological setting.
 They recommend that future water management actions for both
basins and aquifers carefully evaluate each wetland’s characteristics
as they will exhibit different performance and functional roles
according to:
 their location in the watershed,
 their climate, and
 the extent of other development features.

2.3.3 How much freshwater can be found underground?
 Global groundwater volume stored beneath the Earth’s surface represent

s 96 % of the Earth’s unfrozen freshwater.
 Groundwater provides useful functions and services to humans and the e
nvironment.
 It feeds springs and streams,
 supports wetlands,
 maintains land surface stability in areas of unstable ground, and
 acts as an overall critical water resource serving our water needs.
 International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre (IGRAC)
estimates that about 60 % of withdrawn groundwater is used to support
agriculture in arid and semi-arid climates.
 Study report that groundwater systems globally provide 25 to 40 % of
the world’s drinking water.
 Today, half the world’s megacities and hundreds of other major cities
on all continents rely upon or make significant use of groundwater.
 Small towns and rural communities particularly rely on it for
domestic supplies.
 Even where groundwater provides lower percentages of total water
used, it still can serve local areas with relatively low-cost good-
quality water where no other accessible supply exists.
 Finally, groundwater can bridge water supply gaps during long dry
seasons and during droughts.

Groundwater….
Occurrence and renewability:

 Groundwater publications, point out that large variations in groundwater
exist in terms of occurrence, rate of renewal and volumes stored in different
types of aquifers. Geological characteristics are also an important factor.
 While shallow basement aquifers contain limited storage, large volumes of
groundwater are stored in thick sedimentary basins.
 Aquifers in folded mountain* zones tend to be fragmented, while volcanic
rock environments have unique hydraulic conditions.
 Shallow aquifer systems have near-surface water tables that are strongly
linked to and interchange with surface water bodies.
 Groundwater, as a potential resource, can be characterized by two main
variables:
 its rate of renewal and
 its volume in storage.
* Folded mountains are mountains that form mainly by the effects of foldig pm ;auers within the upper part of the Earth’s
crust.
Groundwater….
 Much of groundwater is derived from recharge events that occurred during

past climatic conditions and is referred to as ‘non-renewable groundwater’
(IAEA).
 The actual recharge of these aquifer systems is negligible.
 The world’s largest non-renewable groundwater systems are located in arid
locations of Northern Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and Australia, as well as
under permafrost in Western Siberia.
 Their exploitation will result in a reduction in stored volumes.
 A debate has arisen about how and when to use these groundwater
resources as sustainable groundwater development is understood as
‘exploitation under conditions of dynamic equilibrium leaving reserves
undiminished’.
 However, nations may decide that the exploitation of such reserves is
justified where undesired side-effects would not be produced.
Groundwater….
Transboundary groundwater:
 In terms of shared water resources, groundwater does not respect
administrative boundaries.
 However, in addition to these aquifer systems, there are numerous
smaller renewable transboundary aquifers located worldwide.
 Attention to shared groundwater resources management is increasing
with strong support from several international organizations that are
addressing sustainable management strategies which would enable
shared socio-economic development of such aquifers.
 At present, the UNESCO Internationally Shared Aquifer Resources
Management (ISARM) project is compiling an inventory of
transboundary aquifers.

Groundwater….
Natural groundwater quality:

 Most renewable groundwater is of a high quality, is adequate for domestic use,
irrigation and other uses, and does not require treatment.
 However, it should be noted that uncontrolled development of groundwater resources,
without analysis of the chemical and biological content, is an unacceptable practice
that can (as in the example of fluoride in Ethiopia Riftvally area) lead to serious health
problems.
 Some waters have beneficial uses owing to naturally high temperatures and levels of
minerals and gas.
 This is the case for thermal waters where these properties have been created by high
geothermal gradients, volcanic settings or natural radioactive decay.
 In most cases, these groundwaters are highly developed and used for health and
recreation (spa) and geothermal energy services.

Groundwater….
Groundwater monitoring networks:

 Groundwater levels constitute the most observed parameter, whereas widespread and c
ontinuous water quality and natural groundwater discharge and abstraction networks are
operational in only a few countries.
 Several large-scale efforts are underway to upgrade monitoring and networks.
 However, groundwater assessment, monitoring and data management activities are for th
e most part minimal or ineffective in many developing countries and are being downsize
d and reduced in many developed counties.
 Lack of data and institutional capacity is endemic, making adequate groundwater develo
pment and management difficult.
 UNEP programme is currently adding national groundwater data to its international wate
r quality database.
 This will supplement the current global knowledge of groundwater quality information c
ollected and displayed by IGRAC, which includes special reports on both arsenic and flu
orides in groundwater.
 Water is not absolutely pure in nature.
 Impurities in water vary from dissolved gases, chemicals, minerals,
suspended matter and disease-causing micro-organisms.
 Some can be seen with the naked eye, while others that cannot be seen
are detected by taste or smell or other laboratory methods.
Sources of Impurities:
 Water gathers impurities as it goes through its natural cycle.
 First it may pick up micro-organisms, dust, smoke, and gases from the
atmosphere as it comes down as rain, hail, etc.
 As rain touches the earth’s surface, it becomes surface water.
 As it flows over the earth’s surface, it may pick up dirt, micro-
organisms, chemicals and anything else in its path which can be moved
or dissolved.
 Water which percolates into the ground loses many of its suspended
impurities as it filters through the earth.
 Impurities of water may be divided into two classes:
 Suspended Impurities and
 Dissolved Impurities.
1. Suspended Impurities
 a. Micro-organisms: they may get into water from the air with dust, etc., as rain falls,
or commonly when soil polluted with human and animal wastes is washed into the
water source.
 The latter type of impurity in water is the most dangerous one because a good
number of microorganisms are pathogenic and cause disease.
 b. Suspended solids: Minute particles of soil, clay, silt, soot particles, dead leaves
and other insoluble material get into water because of erosion from higher ground,
drainage from swamps, ponds, top soil, etc.
 Toxic chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides are also included in this
category.
 They are introduced to streams either as industrial wastes or drained in after rain
from land treated with these chemicals. Generally, suspended solids cause taste,
color or turbidity.
 c. Algae: Algae are minute plants that grow in still or stagnant water. Some algae
are green, brown or red, and their presence in water causes taste, color and
turbidity.
 Some species of algae could be poisonous both for aquatic animals and humans.
 There are different types of algae found in water:
 i. Asterionell – Gives water an unpleasant odor.
 ii. Spirogyra – Is a green scum found in small ponds and polluted water. It grows in
thread like groups. It is slippery and non-toxic.
 Iii. Anabaena – Is blue- green and occurs in fishponds, pools, reservoir, and clogs
filters.

2. Dissolved Impurities
 a. Gases: Oxygen (02), carbon dioxide (C02), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), etc, find
their way into water as it falls as rain or, in the case of the latter two, from the soil as
water percolates through the ground. All natural water contains dissolved oxygen,
and in certain circumstances carbon dioxide. The presence of C02 and H2S (but not
02) causes acidity in water. In addition, H2S imparts a bad odor to the water.
 b. Minerals: minerals get into water as it percolates downward though the earth
layers.
 The type of minerals dissolved will depend on the nature of the specific rock
formation of an area.
 Most common dissolved minerals in water are salts of calcium, magnesium, sodium,
potassium, etc.
 Salts of the first two elements cause hardness in water, while salts of the latter two
elements cause alkalinity.
 Salts of toxic elements, such as lead, arsenic, chromium, etc, get into water mainly
as industrial wastes dumped into streams.
 The three zones of earth corresponding to the three states of
matter (solid, liquid and gas) are:
1. Lithosphere- solid central zone
2. Hydrosphere- The zone of water – cradled in the ocean
basins and distributed across the surface of the land.
3. Atmosphere – gaseous envelope surrounding them.
 The earth was originally a molten mass. Through the ages its
upper portions have cooled and solidified gradually to form
an earth crust. The interior of the earth is variable, consisting
of concentric shells which differ in composition, density and
elasticity.
 Classification and characteristics of formations:
Rocks are divided into three major classes.
1. Igneous rocks: are those formed by the cooling and
hardening of molten rock masses.
 The rocks are crystalline and contain quartz, feldspar,
mica, hornblende, pyroxene, and olivine.
 Igneous rocks are not usually good sources of water,
although basalts are exceptions.
 Small quantities of water are available in cracks and
fissures.
2. Sedimentary rocks: are those resulting from the
deposition and accumulation of materials.
 Weathered and eroded remains of plants, animals, or
material precipitated limestone, fossils, gypsum, peat,
shale, loess, and sandstone are examples of sedimentary
formations.
 Deposits of sand and gravel generally yield large
quantities of water.
 Sandstones, shale, and certain limestone may yield
abundant groundwater, although results may be erratic.
3. Metamorphic rocks: are produced by the alterations
of other rocks, generally by means of heat and pressure.
 Gneisses and schist, quartzite, slates, marble,
serpentines, and soapstones are metamorphic rocks.
 A small quantity of water is available in joints,
crevices, and cleavage planes.

 The rock cycle: This shows how the three major classes
of rocks are formed.
Ingenious rock weathering Magma
Erosion transporting Melting metamorphic
Sediment rock Metamorphism
Lithofication (solidification) Sedimentary

Porosity and texture of rocks
 Porosity: Openings in rocks may contain water between individual mineral or

sediment grains called pores.
 The porosity of rocks or soils is the ratio of volume of the pore space to the total
volume of the material including its pores.
 Porosity varies with type of rock that makes up the water bearing stratum.
 Porosity varies from 1% in unfractured granite to more than 40% in a poorly
cemented sand stone.
 Examples of porosity percentages of common rocks are depicted in Table below.

Type of rocks Porosity (%) Grading pore space
1 Top soil 37 – 65 Very high
2 Clay 44 – 47 Very high
3 Sand and gravel compacted 35 – 40 Very high
4 Chalk 14 – 45 High
5 Sand stone 4 – 30 High
6 Lime stone 0.5 – 17 Fairly high
7 Granites Schist (Igneous and 0.02 - 2 Very low

metamorphic
 The size and addition of the openings exerts a strong influence upon rate of
flow.
 The course sands and gravel permit rapid flow of water and these are
referred to as highly permeable materials.
 But the clay form will obstruct the flow of water because of their microscopic
openings, thus their formation is impermeable.
 Specific yield: is the quantity of water that a formation will yield in
proportion to the total volume it holds.
 If a sandstone has a porosity of 20% but will yield only half of this water, then
the rock is said to have a specific yield of 10%.
 A specific yield of 10%, however, represents a great volume of available
water in storage.
 Topsoil with 50% porosity will have yield of 25%.
Movement of water within the soil
 In the process of water movement underground or in the soil, two
forces are involved: capillary and gravity.
1. Capillary: is the tendency of a liquid to cling to the surface of a
solid material and draw the liquid up against the pull of gravity.
2. Gravity: is the movement of water towards the pull of gravity.
 Water table: is the upper top limit of the zone of saturation in the
groundwater formation.
 Rain and run-off water filters into the soil, passes through the margin
of water table and reaches the lower zone called the zone of
saturation.

 If the side rock is faulted as shown in Fig 2.2, (i.e. a place where there is a break),
-the water may collect/ or pass in the faults and flow in quantity for long distances.
 Wells drilled between faults, as at “A”, may have a very weak flow because the
water moves slowly through the rock.
 A shallow well, as at “B”, may go dry in dry weather.
 A well which strikes faults with flowing water, as at “C”, may have a very strong flow,
but is more likely to be contaminated than water which filters through soil or rock.
CHAPTER THREE
Learning Objectives
 At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:
 Identify what determines water consumption
 Relate water supply system design to quantity of water for different purposes
 Describe the relation between water and diseases.
 Identify waterborne, water-washed, water-based and water-related diseases.
 Describe the prevention and control of waterborne, water-washed, water-based
and water-related diseases.

 The availability of an adequate and safe supply of water is one of the
major requirements for:
 the control of a large number of diseases, and
 to advance the standard of good general health within a community.
 One of the main duties of a health worker and community
development worker, should be to see that-
 -a safe and plentiful water supply is available to all segments of the
community at a reasonable cost.

 Water is used for various purposes domestic, industrial,
agricultural, public use, firefighting and others.
 Therefore, the requirement of water is of prime
consideration for design of all water supply units including:
 the intakes,
 pumps,
 treatment plants, and
 pipelines of the distribution system.

quantity/requiremen….
The amount of water required for daily domestic use varies greatly from one
community to another depending mainly on these conditions/factors:
 Availability & accessibility of water
 Cost of water
 Type of supply (continuous or intermittent)
 Climate
 Distance of water
 Pressure in pipe lines
 Population
 Financial position of population
 Standard of living
 Educational status
 Habit of people- like frequency of washing
 Existence of washing facilities
 Type of excreta disposal system
 Estimation of demand of water by a community is important because it fixes the
size and capacity of water supply units.
 The total quantity of water can be estimated by ascertaining different purposes for
which the supply is necessary and the quantity likely to be used under each item of
supply.
 Requirement is generally expressed in terms of average number of liters of water
per capita per day throughout the year.
The guideline suggested for domestic use are as follows
Purpose Consumption (l/c/d)
Drinking 2.3
Cooking 4.5
Ablution 18.2
Washing of utensils and houses 13.6
Flushing of W. C. 13.8
Bathing 27.3
TOTAL 106.8
City Year Consumption

(l/c/d)
Nairobi 1966 143
Lagos 1964 123
Abidjan 1967 85
Douala 1967 74
Kinshasa 1965 56
Addis Ababa 1967 28
 With increase reservoirs and better piping since then (1967), in 1995 the average consumption for
Addis Ababa was reported to be 50 l/c/d.
 In 2008, 63% of the population in Addis Ababa, in its service area, have in house connections and use
an average 80 to 100 l/c/d;
 while the remaining 37% are served by public taps or buy water from neighbors, these residents
use between 15 to 30 l/c/d.
 And currently, some argue that it is about 14 l/c/d; and is one of the lowest in subsahran Africa.

Water requirements for institutional use
 The water needs for institutions such as hospitals, health centers,

schools, prisons, office buildings, hotels, etc., vary with the type of
institution.
 A hospitals, health centers or school must have a sufficient supply at
all times to encourage the liberal use of water, and-
 -consequently to prevent the spread of disease and to promote the
health of vulnerable groups.
 Look the guideline suggested for institutional use in your lecture note
series.

Water requirements for industrial use

 The presence of industries in towns has a great effect upon total consumption.
 Any kind of industry requires a lot of water for cooling, heating, processing, sprinkling,
boiler make-up (replacement of evaporated water), removing wastes, etc.
 The actual amount and quality of water required varies with the type of industry;-
 -We must emphasize the point that, adequate water is an essential raw material for an
industrial enterprise.
 There is no direct relation of this consumption with the population and hence the actual
requirement for all industries should be estimated.
 Look the guidelines suggested for different purposes in your lecture note series.
 The guidelines are very important to consider for the design of various units; such as:-
-main pipelines for distribution should be capable of meeting the these demands;-
-if we are to meet those guideline recommendations.
Loss and wastage

 Leakage from water sources as a result of careless and lazy habits of consumers and
inefficient management may create a loss of about 20% of a well-maintained system.
Variation in demand from average
 Water consumption varies throughout the year.

 In certain hours, days and months, the demand is maximum. There are peak hours and
days.
 Thus, the total water supply should be adequate for this peak demand.
 The average daily consumption of a particular city can be found by dividing the total
amount of consumption by 365 days.
 The variations are very important to consider for the design of various units.
 The main pipelines conveying the water for distribution should be capable of meeting
the maximum demand.

 In general, the world's water requirement for all purposes is increasing
at an alarming rate in both developed and developing countries.

 The main reasons are:
i. The rise in population growth in practically all countries of the world.
ii. Industrial growth and expansion.
iii.Increase in overall per capita consumption of water. The higher the
living standard, the more water is required.

WATER SUPPLY AND HUMAN HEALTH
 Water is essential to life. Unfortunately not all water helps
man to survive.
 Clean and adequate water is an absolute prerequisite for
healthy living.
 Contaminated water or from contaminated sources causes
numerous diseases and untimely deaths.
 Water is necessary in promoting personal hygiene & in
cleaning man’s environment.
 In the developed world, water-associated disease are rare,
due to the presence of effective and efficient water supply
and waste water disposal systems.
 However, in the developing world, the majority of people are
without a safe water supply and adequate sanitation.
Water and health….
A WHO survey has highlighted the following facts:

 1.1 billion people lack access to an improved drinking water
supply
 80% of all illnesses in developing countries are water-
associated & sanitation related.
 Each day, 30,000 people die from water-associated diseases.
 Large majority of people in Ethiopia get their water supply from

unprotected sources; such as: streams, ponds, wells, etc.
- Water associated diseases are common and
- it is one of the most significant public health problem of the present.
???”Therefore, water supply is taken as an essential component of primary health care.”???

Water and health….
 Safe, adequate and accessible water supply is essential to reduce many of the
disease affecting under-privileged populations especially those who live in
rural and urban fringe areas.
 A wide range of natural and human influences affects water quality.
 The most important of the natural influence are geological, hydrological and
climatic conditions,-
-these affect the quantity and the quality of water available.
 The effect of human activities on water quality are both widespread and
varied in the degree to which they disrupt the ecosystem and/or restrict
water use.
 Collectively, there are two main types of water pollution:
 Chemical pollution
 Biological pollution
1. Chemical pollution of water and diseases
 Almost every known element existing normally in the environment can

become poisonous when introduced into the human system in larger
than normal quantities.
 One major way of introducing these elements into the environment and
later into the human system is through the discharge of industrial
effluents into water sources such as rivers.
 These pollutants include detergents, solvents, nitrogenous substances,
dyes, ammonia, etc.
 This can affect human health directly or indirectly by accumulating in
aquatic life.

Chemical poll….
 Some elements or chemicals maybe found in water in excessive or

inadequate amounts.
 (ex., excess fluorine in water causes dental flourosis or mottled enamels while
lack of fluorine in water causes dental cavities (decay).)
 Therefore, maintaining the optimal level (1(mg)/l) is essential.
 Here is why one of the objectives of drinking water treatment is-
 To regulate essential elements or chemicals - that are in excess or lacking in
certain water
 It has been observed that surface water is often low in fluoride
content but the concentration is high in underground water sources.
 A concentration of 10 PPM of nitrate nitrogen is thought to be harmful.
 It causes infant methaemoglobinaemia (blue baby syndrome).

2. Biological pollution of water and diseases
 Water can be polluted by a number of biological organisms; but-

 The most serious water pollutants in terms of human health are
pathogenic organisms.
 Water may contain numerous pathogenic organisms and thereby
become a means of transmission for many diseases.
 The main source of these pathogens is from untreated or improperly
treated human wastes.
 Animal feedlots or fields near waterways also are sources of disease
causing organisms.
 All water-associated disease require an infectious agent, a transmission
route and the exposure of a susceptible host for their spread.

THE DISEASE TRIANGLE
 It is a conceptual model that shows the interactions
between env’t, the host & Pathogens.
Used to represent:
 The key factors that lead to the development of disease
and
 In an indirect way, clues about how to manage a
particular disease.
 The graphic depiction of this is called the disease
triangle.

 The primary means to define any disease is by
naming a pathogen or agent that negatively
affects the health of the host organism.
 Another assumed, but often overlooked, determinant
of disease is the environment which includes:
 -deleterious physico-chemical, biological and social
effects on mankind.
- It is through which the pathogen passes from reservoir to the
host.
 This model can be used to predict -epidemiological

outcomes in public health.
disease triangle…
The host- is the man itself.

 Some individuals can host any disease, while
others only entertain specific ones.
-- For instance, immune compromised individuals are
highly susceptible to opportunistic diseases.
 Once you know the pathogen, its hosts and the

environment that favours the disease, you can
employ appropriate prevention and/or control
methods.

disease triangle…
 Whether dealing with plants, animals or people is

that,-
For disease to occur, there must be the right mix of
environmental conditions, a host that is susceptible
and a pathogen capable of inciting disease.
 The host must be susceptible to attack by the

pathogen.
 The pathogen must be able to attack the host.
 The environment must favour the development of

the pathogen.
disease triangle…
 If any one of these is not present,

disease will not occur.
Disease is most severe when:

 The environment favours pathogen
growth and development over the host.

WATER ASSOCIATED DISEASES
 Water-associated disease can be defined as a disease in
relation to water supply, natural availability /occurrence/ of
water and sanitation.
Diseases associated with water are categorized in to:
 Water-born diseases
 Water-washed diseases
 Water-based diseases and
 Diseases transmitted by water-related insect vectors

1. WATER-BORN DISEASES
- Are diseases that contract by consuming water which is
contaminated with toxic chemicals or pathogenic organisms
 -are essentially fecal-oral transmitted &
 -can also be contracted from food or beverage contaminated
with feces or sewage.
 Most common pathogenic contaminant agents of water are
human excreta & sewage.

 Examples:
- parasitic - Ascariasis
- bacterial –typhoid fever, cholera, etc.
- protozoan – amoebic dysentery
- viral – hepatitis A virus
Prevention:
 To prevent the occurrence of waterborne diseases, water treatment is
very essential.
 Preventing or avoiding water contamination during distribution and
at household level is also essential.

2. WATER-WASHED DISEASES
- Occur as a result of poor hygiene of oneself & clothes.
 - Are related to scarcity of water for personal hygiene..
 Keeping personal hygiene or regular washing of clothes
can reduce transmission.
Examples:
Skin disease – scabies
Eye disease – trachoma and conjunctivitis
Louse-born – typhus & relapsing fever
 For these diseases the quantity of water is more important

than its quality.
Prevention:
 provision of an ample (adequate) amount of water and
 personal hygiene and washing of clothes are very essential.

3. WATER-BASED DISEASES
 - Are diseases in which the causative agents spend a certain
part of their life cycle in water or in an intermediate host which
lives in water.
 Many of the diseases in this class are caused by worms, which
infest the sufferer and produce eggs, which are then
discharged in feces or urine.
 Examples:
 Shistosomiasis (Bilharzia)
- Infectious agent gets into the body by penetrating the skin.
 Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm)
- Infectious agent has to be ingested with infected water
containing infected Cyclops.
Prevention:
 Avoidance of contact with and ingestion of contaminated water.
 Avoid contact or bathing in stagnant or slow flowing waters.
 -Storage of water from 24 to 72 hours to kill the cercaria.
 ???”Reduction of intermediate hosts (snail) by using “endod” or Lemma toxin.”???

4. DISEASES TRANSMITTED BY WATER-
RELATED INSECT VECTORS
 These are diseases transmitted by insects that live close to water.
 Infections are spread by mosquitoes, flies and other insects that breed in
water or near it.
 Diseases which are spread by insects that breed or feed near water so that
their incidence can be related to the proximity of suitable water sources.
 Infection with these diseases is in no way connected with human consumption
or contact with the water.
- for these diseases the existence of water is essential for completion of the
life cycles of the vectors.
 Examples:
- Malaria
- Yellow fever
- Filariasis
Prevention:
 Personal protection
 Use of larvicides- chemical or biological
 Use of adulticides- indoor spray with insecticides
 Biological controls
 Chemical methods
 Elimination of breeding places???
– does it mean “making the water unsuitable for breeding of insects” ???
or literally “elimination = Destroying” ??? – Ecological???
Vs
 Environmental management
Vs
 Integrated Vector Management (IVM):
- Multi-sectoral, multi-disease approach, environmental soundness, cost
effective, etc.
CHAPTER FOUR
Objective:
 At the end of this chapter the students will be able to understand and describe:
 Impurities of water
 Sources of impurities
 Types of impurities
 Health effects of impurities

 Throughout history, the quality of drinking water has been a factor in
determining human welfare.
 Fecal pollution of drinking water has frequently caused waterborne diseases
that have decimated the populations of whole cities.
 Unwholesome water polluted by natural sources has caused great hardship
for people forced to drink it or use it for irrigation.
 In Ethiopia, there are epidemics of bacterial and viral diseases caused by
infectious agents carried in drinking water.
 Drinking water in technologically advanced countries is now remarkably free
of the disease-causing agents and-
- waterborne diseases have in general been well controlled.
- Although there are still occasional epidemics of bacterial and viral diseases
 Currently, waterborne toxic chemicals pose the greatest threat to the safety of
water supplies in industrialized nations.
 This is particularly true of groundwater in the U.S. and other industrialized nations.
 In some areas, the quality of groundwater is subject to a number of chemical threats.

 There are many possible sources of chemical contamination. These include:
 wastes from industrial chemical production,
 metal-plating operations, and
 pesticide runoff from agricultural lands.
 Some specific pollutants include industrial chemicals such as:

 chlorinated hydrocarbons;
 heavy metals, including cadmium, lead, and mercury;
 saline water;
 bacteria, particularly coliforms; and
 general municipal and industrial wastes.

 Since World War II, there has been a tremendous growth in the manufacture and
use of synthetic chemicals.
 Many of the chemicals have contaminated water supplies.
 Two examples are insecticide and herbicide runoff from agricultural land, and
industrial discharge into surface waters.
 Also, there is a threat to groundwater from:
 waste chemical dumps and landfills,
 storage lagoons,

WATER POLLUTION
• Water is regarded as “polluted” when it is
changed in its quality or composition, directly
or indirectly as a result of human’s activities;
- so that it becomes less suitable (or unsuitable) for

drinking, domestic, agriculture and recreational,
fisheries or other purposes.

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION:
Point-source pollution – pollutants which enter waterways

from a specific point through a pipe, ditch, culverts, etc.
Non-point source pollution – pollutants those which enter

into waterways from broad areas of land;
-rather than entering the water through a discrete pipe or
conduit.
- runoff or seep

TYPES AND EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTANTS:
i. Infectious Agents
 The most serious water pollutants in terms of human health are pathogenic
organisms.
 Among the most important waterborne diseases are typhoid fever, cholera,
bacterial and amoebic dysentery, polio, hepatitis and shistosomiasis.
 The main source of these pathogens is from untreated or improperly treated
human wastes.
 Animal feedlots or fields near waterways also are sources of disease causing
organisms.
II. ORGANIC MATTER POLLUTION/OXYGEN
DEMANDING WASTES/:
 The addition of certain organic materials, such as sewage, paper
pulp, or food processing wastes, to water stimulates oxygen
consumption by decomposers.
 The amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water is a good
indicator of water quality and the kinds of life it will support.
 Oxygen is added to water by diffusion from the air, especially
when turbulence and mixing rates are high, and by
photosynthesis of green plants and algae.
 Oxygen is removed from water by respiration and chemical
processes that consume oxygen.

 The impact of these material on water quality can be
expressed in terms of biological oxygen demand (BOD)
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) – the amount of
oxygen required degrading (stabilize) waste.
- a standard test of the amount of dissolved oxygen

utilized by aquatic microorganisms over a five-day period.

iii. Plant Nutrients and Eutrophication
 Aquatic plants require certain nutrients for healthy
growth and metabolism.
 An excess of these essential elements from sources
as: sewage treatment plants, runoff from animal
feedlots or fertilized agricultural lands, however,
 can result in a plant population explosion; which
leads to serious degradation of water quality and
 -radical changes in the species composition of the
over-fed lake, pond or stream.
 The process by which a body of water becomes over enriched with
nutrients and as a result produces an over-abundances of algae and

plant life is known as eutrophication.
 Although eutrophication can occur in sluggish streams, bays and
estuaries, it is most common in lakes and ponds.
 This is because lakes, unlike flowing bodies of water, flush very
slowly;
 -thus nutrient-laden wastewaters or runoffs introduced into a lake
tend to remain there for many years.

IV. TOXIC INORGANIC CHEMICALS
 Toxic inorganic chemicals introduced into water as a result of
human activities have - become the most serious forms of water
pollution.
 Among the chemicals of greatest concern are heavy metals, such

as: mercury, lead and cadmium.
 Other inorganic materials such as: acids, salts, nitrates and

chlorine that normally are not toxic in low concentrations - may
become concentrated enough-
 - to lower water quality or adversely affect biological
communities.

V. ORGANIC CHEMICALS
 Thousands of different synthetic organic chemicals are used in
the chemical industry to make pesticides, plastics, pigments and
other products.
 Many of these chemicals are highly toxic.
 Exposure to very low concentrations can cause birth defects,

genetic disorder and cancer.
 They also can persist in the environment because they are

resistant to degradation and toxic to the organisms that ingests
them.

 Contamination of surface waters and
groundwater by these chemicals is a serious
threat to human health.
 Important sources of toxic organic chemicals in

water are:
- improper disposal of industrial and household wastes and
- runoff of pesticide from farm fields, forests,
- roadside and other places where they are used in large
quantities.

VI. THERMAL POLLUTION
 Many industrial processes create problem of
thermal pollution by discharging heat (in the form
of hot water, air or effluent) into aquatic
environment.
 Such industries use a lot of water for cooling

purposes and return this water to a stream at a
higher temperature

THE ADVERSE EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION INCLUDES:
 Change in species composition;
 Fish may migrate or be killed by suffocation (because warm
water holds less oxygen than cold water);
 The BOD of the water rises
 Increase the susceptibility of aquatic organisms to disease;
 Reproductive cycles of fish and other aquatic organisms may be
disrupted.

 It is clear that water pollution should be a concern of every citizen.
 Understanding-
 the sources,
 interactions, and
 effects of water pollutants
- is essential for controlling pollutants in an environmentally safe and
economically acceptable manner.
 Water pollution can be studied much more effectively with a sound background in
 the fundamental properties of water,
 aquatic environmental chemistry,
 aquatic microbial reactions,
 sediment-water interactions, and
 other factors - involved with the reactions, transport, and effects of these
pollutants.
Class of pollutant Significance
Trace Elements Health, aquatic biota, toxicity
Heavy metals Health, aquatic biota, toxicity
Organically bound metals Metal transport
Radionuclides Toxicity
Table. General categories water pollutants types
Inorganic pollutants Toxicity, aquatic biota

Asbestos Human health
Algal nutrients Eutrophication
Acidity, alkalinity, salinity (in excess) Water quality, aquatic life
Trace organic pollutants Toxicity
Polychlorinated biphenyls Possible biological effects
Pesticides Toxicity, aquatic biota, wildlife
Petroleum wastes Effect on wildlife, esthetics
Sewage, human and animal wastes Water quality, oxygen levels
Biochemical oxygen demand Water quality, oxygen levels
Pathogens Health effects
Detergents Eutrophication, wildlife, esthetics
Chemical carcinogens Incidence of cancer
Sediments
Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. Water quality, aquatic biota, wildlife 156
ELEMENTAL POLLUTANTS
 Trace element is a term that refers to those elements that occur at very low levels
of a few ppm or less in a given system.
 The term trace substance is a more general one applied to both elements and
chemical compounds.
 The following table summarizes the more important trace elements encountered in
natural waters.
 Some of these are recognized as nutrients required for animal and plant life, -
including some that are essential at low levels but toxic at higher levels.
 This is typical behavior for many substances in the aquatic environment,-
 -a point that must be kept in mind in judging whether a particular element is
beneficial or detrimental.

 Some of the heavy metals are among the most harmful of the elemental pollutants
and are of particular concern - because of their toxicities to humans.
 These elements are, in general - the transition metals.
 Heavy metals include essential elements like iron as well as toxic metals like
cadmium and mercury.
 Most of them have a tremendous affinity for sulfur, and disrupt enzyme function by
forming bonds with sulfur groups in enzymes.
 Protein carboxylic acid (–CO2H) and amino (–NH2) groups are also chemically
bound by heavy metals.
 Cadmium, copper, lead, and mercury ions bind to cell membranes, hindering
transport processes through the cell wall.
 Heavy metals may also precipitate phosphate biocompounds or catalyze their
decomposition.

 Some of the metalloids* are significant water pollutants.
 Arsenic, selenium, and antimony are of particular interest.
 Inorganic chemicals manufacture has the potential to contaminate water with
trace elements.
 Among the industries regulated for potential trace element pollution of water are
those producing:
 hydrofluoric acid, sodium dichromate, aluminum fluoride, chrome pigments, copper
sulfate, nickel sulfate, sodium bisulfate, sodium hydrosulfate, sodium bisulfite, titanium
dioxide, and hydrogen cyanide.
*Metalloids- elements on the borderline between metals and nonmetals

HEAVY METALS
Cadmium
 Pollutant cadmium in water may arise from industrial discharges and mining wastes.
 Cadmium is widely used in metalplating.
 Chemically, cadmium is very similar to zinc, and these two metals frequently
undergo geochemical processes together.
 Both metals are found in water in the +2 oxidation state.
 The effects of acute cadmium poisoning in humans are very serious. Among them are:
 high blood pressure,
 kidney damage,
 destruction of testicular tissue, and
 destruction of red blood cells.
 It is believed that much of the physiological action of cadmium arises from its
chemical similarity to zinc.
 Specifically, cadmium may replace zinc in some enzymes, thereby altering the
stereostructure of the enzyme and impairing its catalytic activity.

Lead
 Inorganic lead arising from a number of industrial and mining sources occurs in
water in the +2 oxidation state.
 Lead from leaded gasoline used to be a major source of atmospheric and
terrestrial lead, much of which eventually entered natural water systems.
 In addition to pollutant sources, lead-bearing limestone and galena (PbS)
contribute lead to natural waters in some locations.
 Despite greatly increased total use of lead by industry, evidences indicates that
body burdens of this toxic metal have decreased during recent decades.
 This may be in part the result of less lead used in plumbing and other products that
come in contact with food or drink.

 Acute lead poisoning in humans may cause:
 severe dysfunction of the kidney,
 reproductive system,
 liver, brain, and
 central nervous system leading to sickness or death.
 Lead poisoning from environmental exposure is thought to have caused mental

retardation in many children.
 Mild lead poisoning causes anemia.
 The victim may have headaches and sore muscles, and may feel generally fatigued
and irritable.
 Except in isolated cases, lead is probably not a major problem in drinking water,
although the potential exists in cases where old lead pipe is still in use.

Mercury
 Because of its toxicity, mobilization as methylated forms by anaerobic bacteria, and
other pollution factors, mercury generates a great deal of concern as a heavy
metal pollutant.
 Mercury is found as a trace component of many minerals, with continental rocks
containing an average of around 80 ppb, or slightly less, of this element.
 Fossil fuel coal and lignite contain mercury, often at levels of 100 ppb or even
higher,
-a matter of some concern with increased use of these fuels for energy resources.
 Metallic mercury is used as an electrode in the electrolytic generation of chlorine
gas, in laboratory vacuum apparatus, and in other applications.
 Organic mercury compounds used to be widely applied as pesticides, particularly
fungicides.
 Because of their resistance to degradation and their mobility, the alkyl mercury
compounds are generally considered to be more of an environmental threat than
either the aryl or inorganic compounds
 Mercury enters the environment from a large number of
miscellaneous sources related to human use of the element. These
include:
 discarded laboratory chemicals,
 batteries,
 broken thermometers,
 amalgam tooth fillings, and
 fungicides and
 pharmaceutical products.
 Taken individually, each of these sources may not contribute much of the
toxic metal,
 -but the total effect can be substantial.

 Sewage effluent sometimes contains up to 10 times the level of mercury found in
typical natural waters.
 The toxicity of mercury was tragically illustrated in the Minamata Bay area of
Japan during the period 1953–1960.
 A total of 111 cases of mercury poisoning and 43 deaths were reported among
people who had consumed seafood from the bay that had been contaminated with
mercury waste from a chemical plant that drained into Minamata Bay.
 Congenital defects were observed in 19 babies whose mothers had consumed
seafood contaminated with mercury.
 The level of metal in the contaminated seafood was 5–20 ppm.
 Because there are few major natural sources of mercury, and since most
inorganic compounds of this element are relatively insoluble, it was
assumed for some time that mercury was not a serious water pollutant.

 Among the toxicological effects of mercury are:
 neurological damage, including irritability, paralysis, blindness, or
insanity;
 chromosome breakage; and
 birth defects.
 The milder symptoms of mercury poisoning such as depression and
irritability have a psychopathological character.
 Because of the resemblance of these symptoms to common human
behavior, mild mercury poisoning may escape detection.
 Some forms of mercury are relatively nontoxic and were formerly used as
medicines, for example, in the treatment of syphilis.
 Other forms of mercury, such as soluble Hg(II) salts and methylmercury
compounds, are highly toxic.
METALLOIDS
 The most significant water pollutant metalloid element is arsenic.
 Acute arsenic poisoning can result from the ingestion of more than about 100 mg of
the element.
 Chronic poisoning occurs with the ingestion of small amounts of arsenic over a
long period of time.
 There is some evidence that this element is also carcinogenic.
 Arsenic occurs in the Earth’s crust at an average level of 2–5 ppm.
 The combustion of fossil fuels, particularly coal, introduces large quantities of
arsenic into the environment, much of it reaching natural waters.
 Arsenic occurs with phosphate minerals and enters into the environment along
with some phosphorus compounds.

 Some formerly used pesticides, particularly those from before World
War II, contain highly toxic arsenic compounds. The most common of
these are lead arsenate, Pb3(AsO4)2; sodium arsenite, Na3AsO3; and
Paris Green, Cu3(AsO3)2.
 Another major source of arsenic is mine tailings.
 Arsenic produced as a by-product of copper, gold, and lead refining
exceeds the commercial demand for arsenic, and it accumulates as
waste material.
 Like mercury, arsenic can be converted by bacteria to more mobile
and toxic methyl derivatives
 There are also - ORGANICALLY BOUND METALS AND METALLOIDS

INORGANIC SPECIES
 These include Cyanide, ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrite, and sulfite.
Cyanide
 Cyanide, a deadly poisonous substance, exists in water as HCN, a weak acid.
 The cyanide ion has a strong affinity for many metal ions, forming relatively less-toxic
ferrocyanide, Fe(CN)64-, with iron(II), for example.
 Volatile HCN is very toxic.
 Cyanide is widely used in industry, especially for metal cleaning and electroplating.
Ammonia and Other Inorganic Pollutants
 Excessive levels of ammoniacal nitrogen cause water-quality problems.
 Ammonia is the initial product of the decay of nitrogenous organic wastes, and its
presence frequently indicates the presence of such wastes.
 It is a normal constituent of low-pE groundwaters and is sometimes added to drinking
water, where it reacts with chlorine to provide residual chlorine.
 Since the pKa of ammonium ion, NH4+, is 9.26, most ammonia in water is present as
NH4+ rather than as NH3.
Hydrogen sulfide
 Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, is a product of the anaerobic decay of organic matter
containing sulfur.
 It is also produced in the anaerobic reduction of sulfate by microorganisms and is
evolved as a gaseous pollutant from geothermal waters.
 Wastes from chemical plants, paper mills, textile mills, and tanneries may also
contain H2S.
 Its presence is easily detected by its characteristic rotten-egg odor.
 In water, H2S is a weak diprotic acid.
 The sulfide ion has tremendous affinity for many heavy metals, and precipitation of
metallic sulfides often accompanies production of H2S.

Carbon dioxide
 Free carbon dioxide, CO2, is frequently present in water at high levels due to
decay of organic matter.
 It is also added to softened water during water treatment as part of a recarbonation
process.
 Excessive carbon dioxide levels may make water more corrosive, therefore,
damaging to water distribution systems, and may be harmful to aquatic life.
Nitrite ion
 Nitrite ion, NO2-, occurs in water as an intermediate oxidation state of nitrogen
over a relatively narrow pE range.
 Nitrite is added to some industrial process water as a corrosion inhibitor.
 However, it rarely occurs in drinking water at levels over 0.1 mg/L.

Sulfite ion
 Sulfite ion, SO32-, is found in some industrial wastewaters.
 Sodium sulfite is commonly added to boiler feed-waters as an oxygen scavenger
 -where it reacts to remove potentially corrosive dissolved molecular oxygen from
the water

ALGAL NUTRIENTS AND EUTROPHICATION
 The term eutrophication, derived from the Greek word meaning “wellnourished,”
describes a condition of lakes or reservoirs involving excess algal growth.
 Although some algal productivity is necessary to support the food chain in an
aquatic ecosystem, excess growth under eutrophic conditions may eventually lead
to severe deterioration of the body of water.
 The first step in eutrophication of a body of water is an input of plant nutrients from
watershed runoff or sewage.
 The nutrient-rich body of water then produces a great deal of plant biomass by
photosynthesis, along with a smaller amount of animal biomass.
 Dead biomass accumulates in the bottom of the lake, where it undergoes partial
mineralization, recycling nutrient carbon dioxide, phosphorus, nitrogen, and
potassium.
 If the lake is not too deep, bottom-rooted plants begin to grow, accelerating the
accumulation of solid material in the basin.
 Eventually, a marsh is formed that finally fills in to produce a meadow or forest.
 Eutrophication is often a natural phenomenon; for instance, it is basically
responsible for the formation of huge deposits of coal and peat.
 -However, human activity can greatly accelerate the process.
 The nutrients most likely to be limiting are the “fertilizer” elements: nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium.
 These are all present in sewage and are, of course, found in runoff from heavily
fertilized fields.
 They are also constituents of various kinds of industrial wastes.
 Each of these elements can also come from natural sources—phosphorus and
potassium from mineral formations, and nitrogen fixed by bacteria, cyanobacteria,
or discharge of lightning in the atmosphere.

 In most cases, the single plant nutrient most likely to be limiting is phosphorus.
 Household detergents are a common source of phosphate in wastewater, and
 -eutrophication control has concentrated upon eliminating phosphates from
detergents,
 -removing phosphate at the sewage treatment plant, and preventing phosphate-
laden sewage effluents (treated or untreated) from entering bodies of water.
 In some cases, nitrogen or even carbon may be limiting nutrients. This is
particularly true of nitrogen in seawater.
 The whole eutrophication picture is a complex one, and continued research is
needed to solve the problem.
 Ironic??? - in a food-poor world, nutrient rich wastes from over fertilized fields or
from sewage are causing excessive plant growth in many lakes and reservoirs.
 This illustrates a point that, in many cases, pollutants are resources (in this case,
plant nutrients) gone to waste.
End of Chapter

Wate Supply 4 EOHS

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wate Supply 4 EOHS

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wate Supply 4 EOHS

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Water supply

At the end of this chapter you are expected to know:

 Historical background of water supply

 Some important water related technical terms

 Public health significance of water

 Importance of water (General use of water

 Water is the most abundant compound on Earth's surface.

 Fundamental for proper functioning of entire ecological and

 Without water there would have been no life.

 Water is very unevenly distributed over the surface of the earth.

 It dissolves nutrients and distributes them to cells,

 Regulates body temperature

 Supports structures, and

 removes waste products, etc.

 About 60-70% of our body is water.

days without water.

 The worlds water exists naturally in different forms and

 Even the remaining 3% is not all available for human use

 This tiny usable portion is neither evenly distributed nor

 In some regions it is abundant and properly utilized, while in

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 6

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 13

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 14

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 17

 Use of unsafe water causes high prevalence of diarrhoeal

 Water and sanitation have emerged as a primary health care

 Hence, the provision of safe and adequate water supply

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 19

 Permeable: able to be passed through or penetrated by a fluid.

 Potable: safe for drinking, free from pathogens which are

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 21

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 23

 Contaminated water or Water from contaminated sources causes

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 24

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 25

 Without an adequate and wholesome water supply, health cannot be

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 26

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 27

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 28

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 29

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 32

 According to Ministry of Health (MOH Ethiopia), overall access to safe

 According to World Bank in 2000, safe drinking water coverage of Ethiopia

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 34

Population (2006) 81 million Renewable water resources

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 39

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 40

 At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:

 List the important properties of water.

 Describe the hydrologic cycle.

 Identify impurities of water.

 Describe the geology of the earth.

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 41

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 42

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 43

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 44

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 46

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 47

Water Supply Lecturer: Laekemariam B. 48