TUNING FORK

Audio service guide No.6

PIONEER'
CONTENTS
Parts Information
New Resistors and Capacitors . . . • 1
Basic Theory of Electricity
Ohm's Law for AC Circuits.. 13
First Step in Audio
Specifications... 25
Measuring Instrument
Audio Frequency Generator (RC Oscillator) . 31
Quality Information System (3)
Calculation of Field Failure Rate.... 41
New Products
Laser Disc System 45
 Parts Information
New Resistors and Capacitors

The requirements of higher performance, quality, versatili­ already been discussed in ' T a r t s Information, No. 1 and
ty and easy assembly by robots along with smaller dimen­ No. 2, TUNING FORK (T.F.)", its revision and some ad­
sions for audio equipment have brought us new com­ ditional description on the newly employed components
ponents. Therefore, although resistors and capacitors have have become necessary.

Photo 1 New resistors and capacitors

1
 ACN-130

ACN-079

ACN-064
Photo 2 Chip type metal oxide f i l m resistors

Photo 5 Special resistors

RDH1/8P123J

RDH1/8P4702F CEXA221M100

RDH1/4P101J

CEXANP471 M25

RDH1/4P4702F

CEYA471M50
Photo 3 Carbon f i l m resistors for audio equipment

RFA1/4PS221J
Photo 6 A l u m i n u m electrolytic capacitors for audio
equipment
RFA1/4PL221J

CCPCH3R3K50

RF1/4PS120J

CCPRH270J50

RF1/2PS4R7J

CCPUJ8R2K50

RF1PS471J

Photo 4 Fusible resistors

CCPSL680J50

Photo 7 Axial leads type ceramic capacitors for thermal

compensation

2
 CKPYB221K50 ACE-065

CKPYX682N25

ACE-095

CKPYD1 2 2 M 5 0

ACE-097
CKPVYV152K50

Photo 8 Axial leads type ceramic capacitors w i t h high

dielectric constant
ACE-501

ACG-019

ACH-444

Photo 9 Chip type ceramic capacitors

Photo 11 Special capacitors

CMA121J500 CMA020D500

Phot 10 Mica capacitors for audio

equipment

3
1. Registers 1.2 C a r b o n Film R e s i s t o r s f o r A u d i o E q u i p m e n t (RDH)
This type of resistor is a carbon film resistor specially
designed for precision audio circuits such as equalizers
1.1 C h i p T y p e M e t a l O x i d e Film R e s i s t o r s (RS) (RIAA) and signal processors.
This type of resistor is popularly used in audio equipment The structure is the same as that of the conventional car­
which has limited space. bon film resistors. The cap material, however, is brass in­
The description of this type is: stead of iron for eliminating magnetic distortion. Noise
reduction has also been considered, resulting in the same
characteristics as NL (low-noise) type resistors.

L 0D

0d
W

A
H

Body color: Brown

1. Base B o a r d ( A l u m i n a , A l 0
2 3 ) Tolerance
2. Metal O x i d e F i l m Resistor Multiplier
3. Internal Electrode
4. Terminal Electrode S i g n i f i c a n t resistance v a l u e
L 3.0-3.4 5. Protective coating

W 1.4 - 1.8 1/8W 1/4W

H 0 . 5 ~ 0.7 L 10.5±2.0 13.5±2.0

A 0.2 - 0.8 0D 3.5±1.0 3.8+1.0

Unit: m m 0d 0.6±0.05 0.7±0.05

Unit: m m
Fig. 1 Dimensions and structure of
chip type RS resistors.

RS 1/8 S 123 J Example 1

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

(1) Type.
" R S " denotes metal oxide film resistor.
(2) Rated power (in watts).
Here it is 1/8 W. All resistors of this type now available
is 1/8 W. No. Name Material

(3) Shape. 1 Core Mullite porceleaim

" S " denotes square chip (see Photo 2 and Fig.l) 2 Resistor Carbon Film

(4) Resistance. 3 Caps T i n - p l a t e d Brass

The first two digits indicate significant figures while 4 Lead w i r e Solder-plated Copper

the last digit indicates the power of 10 or the number 5 Coating Epoxy-paint, T h i c k coating

of zeros following the significant figures. (See No. 1,

T.F. for details). "123" denotes " 1 2 " and "000", that
is, a resistance of 12k0.
Note that the significant figures in the resistance of Fig. 2 Dimensions and structure of
this resistor adopts for the E-24 series. (Page 5. No.l, RDH resistors.
T.F.). The resistance range is 2.20 thru 3.3MO.
(5) Tolerance.
J: ±5% K: ± 1 0 %
Pioneer resistors are mainly in the rank of J ( ± 5 % ) .

4
 1.3 Fusible R e s i s t o r s (RF a n d RFA)
RDH 1/4 P 101 J ...Example 2
The resistor of this type ordinarily works as a resistor and
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
when the current in the circuit becomes excessive, it works
as a fuse. It is usually used in power amplifiers, DC
(!) Type. stabilizers and other circuits which handle a large current.
RDH denotes carbon film resistor for audio equipment However,unlike ordinary fuses, its specification is based
to distinguish this from ordinary carbon film resistors. on its consumption power, not current.
(2) Rated power (in watts). Note: It is difficult to check this type visually because its
In addition to the 1/4 W type shown in Example 2 surface color does not change even when the resistor
above, a 1/8 W type is also available. is blown out. RD and RS nonflammable resistors,
however, turn white.
(3) Shape.
" P " denotes pole (axial leads) type resistor (see Photo The mark A found on some component parts indi­
3 and Fig. 2). All of this type have this shape. cates the importance of the safety factor of the part.
(4) Resistance. Therefore, when replacing, be sure to use parts of
identical designation.
The resistance of carbon film resistors is indicated by
either three or four digits. The resistor in Example 2
has a three-digit indicator, making the resistance 1000 L (J)D
(the first two digits indicating the significant figures,

(pd
and the last digit the number of zeros following the
significant figures). Where four digits are used, the
first three digits indicate the significant figures while
the last digit indicates the number of zeros. Rnriv r o l o r R F A : G r e e n

For example, 10R0 for 100,1000 for 1000, and 1001 Body color R F . S k y b l u e

Tolerance
for IkO. Note that the E-24 series has three-digit, and
Multiplier
the E-96 series has four-digit. The resistance range is
from 5.60 to 2.7MO. S i g n i f i c a n t resistance v a l u e
(5) Tolerance
J: ± 5 % F: ± 1 %
In J (±5%) resistors, the resistance is indicated in three
RFA1/4 RF1/4 RF1/2
digits, while in F ( ± 1 %) resistors, the resistance is in­ RF1
+1.5
dicated in four digits. And the resistance range of J L 6.5±1.0
6 3
b J
' -1.0
q+1.5 19+1.5
1 2
y
-1.0 -1.0
resistors is from 5.60 to 2.7MO while that of F resistors or 7.5±1.0

is from 100 to 1M0. 0D 2.3±0.5 2.3±0.5

2.8±0.5
4±1.0
or 3±0.5

0.8±0.05
4>d 0.55±0.05 0.6±0.1 0.6±0.1
or 0 . 7 + 1 . 0

Unit: m m

No. Name Material

RFA RF

1 Core Forsterite Mullite

CM

Resistor Metal F i l m Metal F i l m

3 Cap Iron Iron

4 Lead w i r e Tin-plated Copper Solder-plated Copper

5 Coating Nonflammable paint N o n f l a m m a b l e paint

Fig. 3 Dimensions and Structure of

RF and R F A resistors.

5
 (3) Shape.
RFA 1/4 PS 101 J .. Example 3 " P S " denotes pole (axial leads) shape.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) " P L " denotes PS resistors with lead wires bent ver­
tically to the same direction as shown in Photo 4.
(1) Type. PL resistors are in RFA type. Although they are not
RFA: Forsterite ( M d S i O ^ porcelain based fusible used at present, they will be used in the near future.
resistor. (4) Resistance.
RF: Mullite (3A1 0 • 2Si0 ) porcelain based fusible Resistance is indicated by three digits. The E-24 series
2 3 4

resistor. is adopted for these resistors. The resistance range is

(2) Rated power (in watts). 4.71) to 8200 for RFA types, and 20 to 5600 for RF
The rated power depends on the type. types.
RFA: 1/4 W only. (5) Tolerance.
RF: 1/4 W, 1/2 W, and 1 W In this type, only J (±5%) rank resistors are available.
The relationship between the applied power versus fus­
ing time is outlined in the following figure.

1.4 Special Resistors (DCN- •••)

Most resistors are under the above standard. Some resistors
of special specifications, however, are also used in
Resistance is less t h a n 1 0 O .
sophisticated equipment. Those components remaining out
of the standard are being numbered separately as below.
Although the first letter of the part number differs accor­
ding to the equipment category, the next two letters are
always CN.
Fusing Time [Sec]

Amplifiers, tuners, and receivers : ACN-

Tape decks : RCN-
Turntables : PCN-
Car stereos : CCN-
Radio/cassettes : HCN-
Laser disc units : VCN-

Table 1 Resistor part numbers for each category

50
Applied/Normal Power
Features of Resistors in Photo 5
ACN-130 : Non-inductive type Cement Cased Resistor
Encase 2 piece (0.47O, 5W)
ACN-079 : RDH resistor of 1/2W (Carbon Film Resistor
Resistance is m o r e t h a n 1 0 O .
for Audio Equipment)
(10, 1/2 W)
ACN-064 : Magnetic-Distortion Free type RT (Cement
Fusing Time [Sec]

cased wire wound) resistor which employs

brass caps.
(100, 2W)

A p p l i e d / N o r m a l Power
Fig. 4 Fusible characteristics

6
2 . Capacitors
CEX A NP 330 M 25 .Example 4
2.1 A l u m i n u m Electrolytic Capacitors for Audio (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
E q u i p m e n t (CEX a n d CEY)
(1) Type.
These capacitors are used in circuits in high grade models.
" C E X " and " C E Y " denote aluminum electrolytic
Although the basic structure is much the same as regular
capacitors for audio equipment to distinguish them
aluminum electrolytic capacitors (CE), special electrode foil
from regular aluminum electrolytic capacitors (CE).
and electrolytic solution are used. In addition, iron is no
(2) Shape.
longer used in the lead wires, thereby minimizing the
" A " denotes upright capacitors. (See No. 2, T.F.).This
generation of magnetic distortion. The use of oxygen-free
type of capacitor is always coded as A.
copper in these leads in the CEX type contributes to bet­
(3) Characteristics.
ter sound quality.
" N P " denotes non-polar type. Polar types have no
specific indication. Only the CEX type is NP. There
is no CEY NP type.
CEX
(4) Capacitance.
0D-
L Like the three-digit indication for resistors, the first
0d

two digits denote the significant figures while the last

digit denotes the number of zeros following the signifi­
cant figures. The capacitance unit is always microfarad
[jLtF]. A "330" indication denotes a capacitance of
33/iF. (33 X 10° = 33 x 1 = 33)
Tin-plated Oxygen-free copper 7
The capacitance range is from 0.1/J to 470^F in
wire
CEXANP type, OApF to 2200/iF in CEXA type, and
Body color: Green
O.IJUF to 4700/xF in CEYA type.
(5) Tolerance.
L 11 ~ 3 5 . 5 ( 1 1 , 1 1 . 5 , 1 2 . 5 , 1 6 , 2 0 , 2 5 , 3 1 . 5 , 3 5 . 5 )
This type of capacitor is always M (±20%).
(6) Maximum working voltage (DC volt).
5 - 1 8 (5, 6.3, 8, 1 0 , 1 2 . 5 , 1 6 , 18)
CEXANP 25 V and 50V
0d 0.6, 0.8
CEXA 16 V, 25 V, 50V and 100 V
Unit: m m CEYA 16 V, 25 V, 50 V and 100 V

CEY
L 0D
0d

-Tin-plated copper wire

B o d y c o l o r : D a r k green

L 11 ~ 4 0 ( 1 1 , 1 1 . 5 , 1 2 . 5 , 1 6 , 2 0 , 2 5 , 3 0 . 5 , 3 4 . 5 , 3 6 . 5 , 4 0 )

0D 5 - 1 8 (5, 6, 8, 1 0 , 1 3 , 1 6 , 18)

0d 0.6, 0.8

Unit: m m

Fig. 5 Dimensions of CEX and CEY capacitors.

7
2=2 A x i a l L e a d s T y p e C e r a m i c C a p a c i t o r s f o r T h e r m a l
C o m p e n s a t i o n (CCP) CC P CH 330 J 50 ..Example 5
This type of capacitor has the same property as that of (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
the conventional disc type ceramic capacitors.
(1) Type.
The appearance is almost the same as that of the carbon
" C C " denotes ceramic capacitors for thermal com­
film resistors (RD). For this reason, there has been a
pensation.
tendency for the capacitor to be mistaken for a resistor
(2) Shape.
during repairs. The reason why this type of ceramic
" P " denotes pole (axial leads) type.
capacitor has been used is to minimize production costs.
(3) Characteristics.
Today, most printed circuit board assembly has been
This capacitor has four types which are indicated by
automated. There is little advantage if disc type capacitors
color codes.
are used because robots (component inserters) are still too
CH: black, RH: yellow, UJ: purple, SL: white
awkward to handle them. Therefore, to improve the effi­
(See the paragraph 3. Characteristics of ceramic
ciency of the automated assembly lines, capacitors shaped
capacitors.)
much the same as PM (PS) type carbon film resistors (RD)
(4) Capacitance.
are commonly used. For example, the capacitors of this
The indicating method is the same as that of resistors.
type are now commonly used in tuner stage assemblies.
"330" denotes a capacitance of 33pF. The capaci­
tance ranges are listed below.
CH: 3.3pF to 47pF
0D
L RH: 3.3pF to 39pF
SL: IpF to 120pF
0d

UJ: 8.2pF to 82pF

(5) Tolerance.
The tolerance is divided into three levels according to
B o d y c o l o r : L i g h t green the capacitance range.
Characteristics Color code
Tolerance J ( ± 5 % ) : lOpF to 120pF Gold
Multiplier
K (±10%) : 2.2pF to 8.2pF Silver
M (±20%) : IpF to 1.8pF Black
S i g n i f i c a n t capacitance value (6) Maximum working voltage (DC Volt).
These capacitors are all rated 50V.
L: 6 . 0 mm
The voltage is indicated by the color of the body.
50V: Light green
(pD: 2 . 8 m m ( m a x . )

. ~ +0.06
0d: 0.55 _ Q Q g m m

No. Name Material

1 Dielectric Ceramic
CM

Electrode Silver

3 Cap Iron
4 Lead w i r e Solder-plated Copper
5 Coating Epoxy-paint

Fig. 6 Dimensions and structure of CCP and CKP capacitors.

8
2 . 3 A x i a l Leads T y p e Ceramic Capacitors w i t h High 2 . 4 Chip Type Ceramic Capacitors for Thermal
D i e l e c t r i c C o n s t a n t (CKP) C o m p e n s a t i o n (CCS)
Shape and structure are also identical to the CCP capacitor. Like the chip type resistor described earlier, this type is
See Fig. 6. used to economize space.

CK P YB 102 K 50 Example 6

W
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(1) Type. 1. Dielectric Ceramic

H
A
" C K " denotes ceramic capacitors with high dielectric 2. Internal Elactrode
3. Terminal Electrode
constant.
(2) Shape.
" P " denotes pole (axial leads) type. " P V " denotes an
upright tubular type. L 3.0 - 3.4
(3) Characteristics. W 1.45- 1.75
There are four types indicated by color codes. H 0.45 ~ 1.3
YD: red, YB: silver, YV: gold, YK: grey
A 0.2 ~ 0.8
(See the paragraph 3. Characteristics of ceramic
capacitors.) Unit: m m

(4) Capacitance. Fig. 7 Dimensions and structure of

The indication is the same as that of resistors. The CCS and CKS capacitors.
capacitance ranges are listed below.
YB: 150pF to lOOOpF (0.001 j*F)
YD: 1200pF (0.0012/xF)
CC S CH 050 D 50 ..Example 7
YV: ISOOpF (0.0015/xF) to 4700pF (0.0047/iF)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
YX: ISOOpF (0.0015/xF) to 22000pF (0.022/*F)
(5) Tolerance.
This is classified into three grades depending on (1) Type.
capacitance. " C C " denotes ceramic capacitor for thermal com­
Color code pensation.
K (±10%) : YB and YV Silver (2) Shape.
M (±20%) : YD Black " S " denotes a square chip.
N (±30%) : YX Grey (3) Characteristic (Thermal).
(6) Maximum working voltage (DC Volt) There are seven kinds:
This type of capacitor has two different voltage ratings CH, PH, RH, SH, TH, UJ, and SL.
(25V and 50V), each rating being indicated by the color (See the paragraph 3. Characteristics of ceramic
code of the body. capacitors.)
25V: Light pink (6800pF to 22000pF narrower than (4) Capacitance.
YX) The unit is in picofarads [pF]. "050" indicates a
50V: Light green capacitance of 5pF. The capacitance ranges are listed
Capacitors in the range other than the above are of below.
50V. CH: IpF to lOOpF
PH, RH, SH, TH, UJ: 3pF to lOOpF
SL: IpF to 470pF
(5) Tolerance.
The three tolerance levels rated for this type depend
on capacitance, not percent.
C (±0.25pF) : IpF to 5pF
D (±0.5pF) : 6pF to lOpF
K (±10%) : 12pF to 470pF
(6) Maximum working voltage (DC Volt)
These capacitors are all rated 50V.

9
2 . 5 Chip T y p e Ceramic Capacitors w i t h High Dielectric 2.6 Mica Capacitors for Audio Equipment (CM)
C o n s t a n t (CKS) This type of capacitor differs from the conventional type
This type of capacitor is also used to save space. of mica capacitor. Oxygen-free cropper lead wires have been
Shape and structure are also indentical to the CCS used in it. This type of capacitor is used in circuits where
capacitor. See Fig. 7. sound quality is of prime importance such as the phase
compensation in high grade audio equipment.

max.
CK S YF 103 Z 50 ...Example 8 w 4.5
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(1) Type.

H
" C K " denotes ceramic capacitors with high dielectric Maker
name
constant.
(2) Shape. *Ground
" S " denotes a square chip. side . „ +0.06
n
0 0 6
- -0.05
(3) Characteristics
This capacitor is divided into two characteristics types
YB and YF. F

(See the paragraph 3. Characteristics of ceramic

w 8 . 0 - 11.0 (8.0, 9.0, 11.0)
capacitors.)
(4) Capacitance. H 7 . 0 - 12.0 (7.0, 10.0, 12.0)
5.0, 7.5

UL
The capacitance ranges are listed below.
YB: 560pF to 5600pF
YF: 4700pF to 47000pF (0.047/iF) •Generally, this kind capacitor is non-polar type but if
the capacitor is used for high grade audio circuit, groun­
(5) Tolerance.
ding side of the capacitor lead should be met to the groun­
Capacitors are classified in two:
ding for the circuit.
K (±10%) : YB
Z (-20%) : YF
(6) Maximum working voltage (DC Volt).
All capacitors of this type are rated 50V.

No. Name Material

1 Dielectric Natural Mica F i l m

Electrode Silver

3 Coating Glass

4 Lead w i r e Oxygen-free Copper,

solder-plated

5 Package P h e n o l resin

Fig. 8 Dimensions and Structure of mica capacitors

10
 3. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f C e r a m i c Capacitors
CM A 680 J 500 ....Example 9
3 . 1 . Characteristics of CK-type Capacitors
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
The first letter of the code gives operating temperature
(1) Type. range, while the second indicates capacitance variation
" C M " denotes mica capacitor for audio equipment. within operating range as 20°C reference.
(2) Shape. Operating temperature:
" A " denotes upright type. Y: - 2 5 ° ~ + 85°C
(3) Capacitance. B: - 3 0 ° ~ + 85°C
The unit is picofarad [pF]. " 6 8 0 " denotes a
capacitance of 68pF. The capacitance of this type of
capacitor lies between lpF and 220pF.
(4) Tolerance:
This capacitor is rated at two different tolerance levels Indication (CKS: None)
Tole­
according to the capacitance. Temp Capacitance rance CKD CKP
D (±0.5pF) : lpF to lOpF range Code v a r i a t i o n range code (Letters) (Color code)
J ( ± 5 % ) : l l p F to 220pF Y A Within - 5 ~ +5% J, K A -
(5) Maximum working voltage (DC Volt). Y B Within - 1 0 ~ + 1 0 % K B Silver
All capacitors of this type are rated 500V. Y D Within - 3 0 ~ +20% M D Red
Y Z
Within - 8 0 ~ +30% None
-
V
Y
Within - 7 . 5 ~ +7.5% K
- Gold
X Within-15-+15% M, N X or SR Grey
2 . 7 Special Capacitors ( • C G - a n n , • C E - n n r j , Y

B c Within - 3 0 ~ +30% M, Z None

-
• CH-n • • )
Like special resistors, special capacitors which cannot be
coded on the basis of common specifications are given Table 2 Characteristic code f o r CK-type capacitors
other identification numbers.
The first letter of the part number indicates the equipment
category. The next two letters denote the following type
of capacitor. (Note, however, that exceptions to the rule
exist).
• CG- : Ceramic capacitors
• CE- : Film type capacitors
• CH- : Electrolytic capacitors
Capacitance variation(%)

Features of capacitors in Photo 10

AEC-065: Polystyrene Film Capcitor (Copper foil).
Employing oxygen-free copper wire as a
leeds. (4700pF, 125V)
AEC-095: Non-inductive type Polypropylene
Capacitor. (0.12 /xF, 100V)
ACE-097: Non-inductive type Polystyrene Film
Capacitor (Tin foil). (0.01 /xF, 160V)
ACE-501: Metarized Maylay Film Capacitor for AC A m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e ( °C)
power supply circuit (0.01 fiF, 150 V/AC)
ACG-019: Ceramic Capacitor for AC power supply Fig. 9 Typical thermal characteristics curve for CK-type
circuit. (0.01 fiF, 250 V/AC) capacitors
ACH-444: Electrolytic Capacitor encased a with glass-
fiber plastic case. (22 /iF/50V, Non-polar)

11
3=2 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C C - t y p e Capacitors
The first letter of code gives temperature coefficient of
nominal' capacitance, while the second indicates the
capacitance tolerance.

Capacitance variation(%)
First code Second code
Thermal Indication Thermal
coefficient coefficient
Code PPM/°C C o l o r o r letters Code PPM/°C

C ±0 Black NP0 G ±30

H -30 Brown H ±60

L -80 Red N80 J ±120

-150 Orange N150 K ±250

R -220 Yellow N220 L ±500

S -330 Green N330 M ±1000

T -470 Blue N470

U -750 Violet N750
V -1000 V orN1000 A m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e ! °C)
w -1500 W
X -2200 X
Fig. 10 Thermal characteristics curve f o r CC-type capacitors
z -4700 z
SL -1000 ~ No
+350

Table 3 Characteristic code for CC-type capacitors

6
Note: 1. PPM represents 10"
2. Code SL indicates an ordinary capacitor for which
no thermal coefficient is rated (capacitance
variation range +4.5 to - 5 % at - 2 5 to +85°C).
3. Example UJ is for -750±120PPM/°C

1 p F o r less CH, L H , PH, SL

2pF CH, LH, PH, RH, SH, T H , SL

3pF,4pF CH, L H , PH, R H , SH, T H , UJ, W K , X L , S L

5pF CH, L H , PH, R H , SH, T H , UJ, W K , X L , Z M , S L

6 p F or more CH, L H , PH, R H , SH, T H , UJ, V K , WK, X L , Z M , SL

Table 4 Pioneer's CC-type capacitors

12
 Basic Theory of Electricity
Ohm's Law for AC Circuits
1. Phase and Vector
We have discussed Ohm's Law for DC circuits in the No. * Phase: One-dimensional relationship between two
1 and 2 and the Fundamentals of AC in the No. 3 and 5, waves on the axis they travel. If the period of one
TUNING FORK. The law can also be applied to AC cir­ cycle of a wave is represented by 360°, the fraction
cuits which have coils and capacitors. In an AC circuit, of the period elapsed from the time of fixed origin.
the *phase of voltage and current becomes an important Or, the angular relationship between current and
factor. As you can see in Fig. 1, the added result of two voltage in AC circuits.
signals depends on their phase difference.

(a) a + b - c„ when the signals a and b are in-phase. (b) a + Z? = c', when the signals a and Z? are out of phase.

Fig. 1 The added result of t w o signals.

Let's add a and b mathematically. a = A sin cot

When a and b are in phase, it is simple.
(Fig. 1(a)): b = B sin (cot-60°)

a = A sin go t a + b = A sin cot + B sin (cot - 60°)

b = B sin cot = A sin cot + B (sin cot cos 60° - cos cot sin 60°)
a+b = A sin cot + B sin cot = (A + B cos 60°) sin cot - B sin 60° cos cot
= (A + B) sin cot = (A + 0.5B) sin cot-0.87B cos cot

When a and b have 60° phase difference.

(Fig. 1(b)):

13
 = V (A + 0.5B) 2
+ (0.87B) 2
J sin cot

A + 0.5^

(e)
0.3ZB )
(c)
(b) (f)
2 2 (a)
yl (A + OJB) + (0.87B) J
(d)
= V 6 4 + 0.5B) 2
+ (0.87B) 2
j riw cof cos 0

- cos 00 t sin 6 j Fig. 2 Vectors

= ^ (A + 0.5B) 2
+ (0.87B) 2
sin (oot-B )
Here, 0 = cos' 1 A + 5B
°-
2 2
si (A +0.5B) + (0,87B)
You have seen how complicated the mathematical addi­
tion of sine waves is. Geometric composition using vec­
tors, however, is very easy. In Fig. 2, (a) and (f) are the same because they are parallel
and equal in length: (a) = (f). (c) is called "inverse vec­
tor" of (b) because they are equal in length but opposite
Vectors are useful for discussing AC circuits. It is not so dif­
in direction: (b) = ( — c).
ficult as you think. While scalar is a quantity that has no
direction, it is a quantity that has both magnitude and
direction and is commonly represented by an arrow with
a length and an orientation which represent magnitude and
direction respectively. /

2. Composing Vectors
The sum of two vectors is the center diagonal of the When subtracting one from the other, reverse the direction
parallelogram that is formed when the two vectors are of a vector (inverse vector) and add them. Refer to Fig. 3(b).
placed end-to-end and tip-to-end as shown in Fig. 3(a).

-b
b

a + b b

a-b

a -b

(a) Adding vectors (b) Subtracting vectors

Fig. 3 Composing vectors

14
The waves of Fig. 1 can be expressed by vectors as shown
in Fig. 4.

The waves a and b of Fig. 1(a) can be converted and add­

ed in the same direction as in Fig. 4(a). Those of Fig. 1(b)
have the phase difference of 60° and are composed as in
Fig. 4(b).

a + b
b
b

a + b

(a) (b)

Fig. 4 Waves of Fig. 1 represented by vectors

3. RL Series Circuit
Let us see the output of a series circuit composed of a The current is equal at any point in the circuit. The voltage
resistor R and a coil L when a signal of (E = Vsin cot) and phase across the R and L are as follows:
is applied to the circuit and its current is / [ A ] , (co: lirf)
V =RI[V]
R The voltage and current are in
phase.
V -X
L L /[V] The phase of the volatge advances
from that of the current by 90°.
(No. 5, TUNING FORK)

i
V R As the phase is relative, a 90° advance of the voltage from
R
the current means a 90° delay of the current from the
voltage. Xi stands for the resistance of a coil against AC
v and is called "Reactance."

L
X L = col [SI }

The vectorial composition of Vr and V is shown in Fig. 6.

L

Fig. 5 RL series circuit

15
 In an AC circuit, the quotient of voltage/current (V/I) is
called "impedance Z". The unit of Zis ohm. Thus, the
2 2
combined impedance of the circut is \/R + Xj [ 12 ] .
The current value in the circuit can be obtained with the
V
impedance Zand voltage V by applying the Ohm's law for
VL
AC circuits.
90°
/ = V/Z
d

V R I

Fig. 6 Composing the vectors of V and V of R L series R L

4 . RC Series Circuit
circuit w i t h the vector of I set as the * reference.

* Reference vector: A common reference, usually R

drawn on the positive x-axis (horizontal), for draw­

V
ing vectors. Generally, the magnitude and direction
of a current is taken as the reference in a series cir­
cuit and those of a voltage are taken in a parallel c
circuit.

As the phase difference between V# and Vi is 90°, the

resultant voltage becomes the hypothenuse of a right angle Fig. 8 RC series circuit
triangle;

+
^ (Pythagorean theorem)

and its phase becomes 6 in advance of the current phase. RC series circuit can be considered similar to the RL series
circuit although the phase of the voltage across the C is
V = y/V R
2
+ V 2
= V (RI) 2
+ (XL
2
I) delayed from that of the current by 90°. The reactance Xq
of the Cis:
2
= V^ + x * i

coC
Pythagorean theorem: The square of the hypotenuse of a
right triangle is equal to the sum of each leg sqaured.

2 2 2
c =a + b

VR I

90°

c V
V c

Fig. 7 Pythagorean theorem Fig. 9 Composing the vectors of V R and V c in the RC series
circuit.

16
The resultant voltage can be obtained with:

2
= V (Rl) + (X IP C

2 2
= s/ R +X C I

The resultant phase of the voltage is delayed from that of

the current by 6. The impedance Zof this circuit is given
by

Vi? +X 2 2
[J2].

5. RLC Series Circuit

Next, let us see the series circuit of R, L and C. Imagine
that a current / [A] flows when a voltage V [V] of / [Hz]
/ is applied to the circuit. The voltage across each compo­
VR
R nent is:

V =RI
R The voltage and current are in
V
L V L
phase.
The phase of the voltage advances
from that of the current by 90°.
C v c = x c i The phase of the voltage is delayed
V C

from that of the current by 90°.

Fig. 10 RLC series circuit The composite voltage can be obtained by setting the cur­
rent vector as the reference. The resultant voltage and its
phase varies in accordance with the difference between Xi
and Xq. The typical three types of resultant vectors are
shown in Fig. 11.

V L

V L - V C V

V
V L

6
L
VR I
X

V R
I
e V =V
R
I
2

V
V C
v-
c v L
C

V C

(a) When X L > X c (b) When X L < X c (c) When X L - X c

Fig. 11 The relation of vectors

17
When Xj is larger than X c (Fig. 11(a)), The mathematical sign of (X — Xc ), whether it isL

positive or negative, does not affect the result and only

v
=^ r v + v
(l - y
y- the absolute value has a meaning because (X — Xc) is L
c
squared. But, we can see the phase relation with the signe
The phase of the voltage advances from that of the cur­ as follows:
rent by V When X i s larger than X (Fig. 11(b)), c L
(X L — X ) > 0: The phase of the voltage advances
c

from the current.

V = ^V*+(V - C vp L The combined impedance becomes
inductive.
(X L — X ) < 0: The phase of the voltage is delayed
c

The phase of the voltage is delayed from that of the current from the current.
by 0 .2 The combined impedance becomes
capacitive.
When X^and ^ b e c o m e equal Fig. 11.(c), Fbecomes Vr, (X L — X )=
c 0: The phase of the voltage is in
the voltage and current become in phase, the combined im­ phase with the current.
pedance is minimized and the current suddenly becomes
maximum. Here, you may be surprised to find that the cir­
The impedance of this circuit becomes
cuit is equivalent to the one with only a resistor. Under this
condition, Xi and Xc cancel each other and the circuit 2

becomes series-resonant. The frequency where Xi becomes Z = yjR*+(X L -X )

c

equal to Xc is called the "Resonant Frequency". It is given

by the following equation which is useful for finding tun­ When calculating the impedance of RC or RL series cir­
ing frequencies. cuit with the above equation, X or X^is made 0. This L

equation is important.
X X
L ~ C

2 l , f L =
~Wc
4*PL = 1- 6. RLC Parallel Circuit
C
We have been learning about series circuits. Now, let's look
2
at a RLC parallel circuit.
4n LC

T
V7 = /——
2
V 4n LC
i
J
IR
k IR

/ = - = ^ [ H z ] R
2-nsfLC v c L

It should be noted that a slight frequency deviation varies

Xi and X& When the frequency increases, the phase of
the resultant voltage advances as shown in Fig. 11 (a), and Fig. 12 RLC parallel circuit
when it decreases, it is delayed as shown in Fig. 11 (b).
The equations for the three phase conditions can be com­
bined as follows:
2 2
v^v +(v -v ) L c

2 2
= y/R P +(X -X ) P L C

2 2
= y/R + (X L - X) c I

18
The RL and RC parallel circuits can be understood by The phase appears in the two quadrants depending on the
assuming that the impedance of C or L (XQOV XJ), is in­ sign of (1/X —
C 1/X ) as in Fig. 11.
L

finite. The AC current and its phase in the parallel circuit

of R, Cand L are as follows: When(l/X -1/X )>0:
c L

the phase of the current advances

The current and voltage are in from that of the voltage. The com­
= V/R
phase. bined impedance becomes
capacitive.
h = v/x L The phase of the current delays
= V/o>L from that of the voltage.
When(l/X - c 1/X )<0:
L

= v/x The phase of the current advances

c
the phase of the current delays
= coCV from that of the voltage. from that of the voltage.
The combined impedance becomes
inductive.

W h e n ( l / X - 1 / Z ) = 0:
c z

lc the current and voltage are in

phase.

lc-k When (1/XQ— 1/XjJ is 0 in the parallel circuit, the com­

bined impedance becomes R and the circuit is in the state
6
of parallel-resonance. The phenomena is similar to that
IR V
of series resonance. The resonant frequency can be obtain­
ed with the same equation as that of the Series-resonant
II Circuit:

Fig. 13 Composing vectors when l c > l L

In Fig. 13, voltage has been taken as the reference. The

resultant current can be obtained with:

The impedance Z = V/I

+
Jft) [~k"kj

19
7. Filter 7-1 H i g h - p a s s Filter (HPF)

We have learned the characteristics of R, C and L in the Fig. 14(b) shows the frequency/output-voltage
No. 1 and 2 of T.F. The reactance of a coil increases and characteristic measured with a frequency characteristic
that of a capacitor decreases when the current frequency recorder by applying the sine wave signal of constant
increases and it varies conversely when the frequency voltage 0 [dB] in the frequency range from 20 [Hz] to
decreases. The frequency does not affect the resistance of 30 [kHz] to the input.
resistors. Using these characteristics, various circuits can
be designed. One of them is the filter.

C
0.022M F
R
Oscillator Voltmeter i0ka

Recorder

(a) Circuit diagram

(b) Characteristics

Fig 14 High-pass filter

The circuit of Fig. 14(a) is called a "high-pass filter (HPF)" V Q : Output voltage
which passes high frequency components. The
characteristic can be understood with the Ohm's law. When V Q = V
R =RI=R Vj/Z V : Input voltage
f

the input frequency becomes 0 [Hz] or the input current

becomes DC, the capacitor opens and no output voltage co = 2nf
appears. The current in the C increases as the input signal
frequency increases and when the frequency becomes ex­ Z^xJ'R 2
+X C
Y

tremely high, the reactance of the C becomes negligibly 1

low and a voltage equal to the input appears at the out­ R _

put. The relationship can be expressed as follows:

20
Fig. 14(b) can be obtained with the above equation. The approximate value of fc, however, is easily obtained
with 1/(2-KRC). The slope is 6 [dB/octave], or the voltage
Here, when X R = R , V N = , R
V R
increases by 6 [dB] when the frequency is doubled. This
C
' O ^ R 2 + R 2 I approximation is used by most designers and service
technicians.
^IW 1 Let us draw the curve of the characteristic of a high-pass
filter composed of a 10 [kO] resistor and a 0.022 [/xF]
capacitor.

a) Calculate the fc and plot the point (1) at x=fc, y= input

level.
The frequency at which the output voltage becomes 1/V2
of the input voltage or 3 [dB] below the input is called the
"cut-off frequency (fc) ". fc is given by: fc = input level = 0[dB]

1
™ . = 723 [Hz]
3 -6
27rx(10xl0 )x(0.022xl0 )
2irf C C

b) As the slope of the characteristic of single staged filter

is 6 [dB/oct], plot the point (2) at x= 723/2 [Hz],
fc = ——[Hz]
2ITRC y= - 6 [dB] and connect the points (1) and (2).

It is not easy to make a graph of frequency vs. output c) Draw a line parallel to the x axis from (1).
voltage characteristics with:

R
Vo= Vj
OUTPUT[dB]

Fig. 15 Approximate graph of the HPF (R: 1 0 [ k O ] FREQUENCY[Hz]

C: 0.022[jUF] )

21
 a solid line : Fig. 14
a d o t t e d , i n e : F i 1 5
Fig. 16 Superimposed graph of Fig. 15 t o Fig. 14 9-

7 - 2 L o w - p a s s Filter (LPF)

Now let's examine the output across the C instead of the

R of the HPF.

Input Output
C

Fig. 18 Characteristics of LPF

The output Vo is given by:

Fig. 17 Low-pass filter

In the circuit of Fig. 17, when the input signal frequency

is 0 [Hz] the C becomes open, the current stops, the Vj : Input voltage
voltage drop across the R becomes 0 [V] and thus the
voltage equal to that of the input appears at the output. X
A —±-
When the frequency increases, the current in the circuit C 2nfc
increases and the output voltage across the C decreases.
When the frequency becomes extremely high, the reactance The cut-off frequency (fc) of this circuit is given by
of the C becomes extremely low making the output 0. l/(2irRC) [Hz]. Approximating the characteristic of a LPF
Then, the low frequency components are passed to the next can be done in the same way as that of HPF (Fig. 18). It
stage and the high frequency components are blocked. is interesting to see various characteristics of these circuits.
Such a circuit is called "low-pass filter". The characteristic The circuits and characteristics of various filters are shown
of this circuit is the opposite of a HPF. in Fig. 19.

22
 R ^1

OUTPUT
Input Ri R 2
C Output -6dB/OCT

c
f frequency f 2

Input = 0[dB]
V = 0[dB] K, = 0[dB]
/ =
7^r [ H z l
K= 20 log ——[dB] '•-Tir'""
2

(a) (g) R +R t 2

c
v 6dB/OCT y

:R ^2
C,

V= 0[dB] V, = OldB]
y, • 20lot j r f ^ CdBl
(b) (h)

V
R R C, R
C -12dB/OCT
c
C 2 ^ 2

f '2

V= 0[dB] V, = 0[dB]
c, + c,
K = 20log
2 c [dB] № l
(c) (i) '•-•At-

R«

c C
V
R R R
12dB/OCJ C 2

f
V t = 0[dB]
V= 0[dB] ^ = 20 log [dB]
7 = [Hz]
(d) 7^T (J)
R, 1/,

V
R C R 2
f2

C R
C,
C 2

f V, = 0[dB]

/3 = [ H z ]
^7
V= 0[dB]
/ 4 _ [Hzl

(e)
/ =
7^T [ H z ]
(k) ^T^—

R R
1/
R V
c
R C C C

R/2 2C
X

f
V= 0[dB)

V= 0[dB]
(f) (I)
Fig. 19 Various filters and their / - v characteristic
23
Filters which pass signals of a particular frequency band
such as (e) and (f) are called a "band-pass filter (BPF)".
Filters of opposite characteristics to BPF such as (k) and
(1) are called a "band-elimination filter (BEF)".

We have been discussing RC filters. The same characteristic

is available with RL or LC filters. LC filters have no
resistor which consumes power. They are popularly
employed in speaker systems and power supply blocks to
save power. Fortunately, the slope of the characteristics
of LC filters is more rapid than that of RC or RL. Fig.
20 shows LC filters employed in speaker networks. Try to
guess their type, HPF, LPF, BPF or BEF.

Tweeter Tweeter

Midrange

Midrange

Woofer

6dB/oct Woofer

12dB/oct

Fig. 20 LC filters employed in speaker networks

24
 First Step in Audio
Specifications

(SPEC) SPEAKER
The speakers are the most important audio components disputing the fact that the better the performance of a
in determining sound coloration and quality. The sound speaker, the better the quality of sound that it reproduces.
produced by the speakers is subject to many influences If the performance of the speaker systems is high, you can
by the speaker components themselves, the enclosure, and change the sound quality to your preference by changing
the listening room, etc. before it reaches our ears. But as attenuators and the conditions of listening room. If the per­
yet, there is no standard measuring method which takes formance is low, the possibility is limited.
all of these factors into account. And because of con­ The purpose of the discussion here is to describe basic
siderable differences in individual tone color preferences, speaker specifications. There are many parameters available
it is hard to judge speaker quality on the basis of catalog for expressing speaker performance. Apart from the fairly
specifications alone. technical items required for design purposes, the specifica­
This does not mean, however, that there is no point in be­ tions described here are limited to those appearing in
ing familiar with speaker performances. There is no catalogs and instruction manuals.

SPECIFICATIONS
Enclosure Floor style, Passive Radiator t y p e
System 3-way, 3-speaker system
Loudspeakers:
Woofer 26 c m ( 1 0 - 1 / 4 in) PG c o n e t y p e
Mid-range 6.6 c m ( 2 - 1 / 2 in) PG c o n e t y p e
Tweeter ............................. Horn-loaded Ribbon type
Passive-radiator 36 c m (14 in) PG c o n e t y p e
Nominal Impedance 6.3 o h m s
Frequency Range 28 t o 5 0 , 0 0 0 Hz
Sensitivity 9 2 . 5 d B / W at 1 m d i s t a n c e
M a x i m u m Music Power 240 W
Rated Power 80 W
Crossover F r e q u e n c i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500 Hz, 6,000 Hz
Dimensions 465(W) x928(H) x341(D) m m
1 8 - 5 / 1 6 ( W ) x 3 6 - 9 / 1 6 ( H ) x 1 3 - 7 / 1 6 ( 0 ) in
Weight 3 7 . 5 k g / 8 2 lb 10 oz
A c c e s s o r y Parts Operating Guide x 1
Speaker Cords x 1

NOTE:
Specifications and design subject to possible modification
without notice, due to improvements.

25
1. Lowest Resonant Frequency
and Nominal Impedance
Speaker
If the adjustment of the variable resistor R in the measur­
ing circuit shown in Fig. 1 results in R = Ra, and equal
SW
currents flow through the speaker and the resistor, the elec­
trical impedance in respect to the voice coil terminal can R r V 2

be expressed as Zs = Ra. The curve obtained by repeating

this measurement at different frequencies is called the elec­ Oscillator
Amp.
trical impedance characteristics curve indicating how the
electrical impedance varies at different frequencies.
V 1 : A C Voltmeter (for input monitoring)
An electrical impedance characteristic curve is shown in Fig.
V 2 : A C V o l t m e t e r (for measuing admittance)
2. Generally, there are some undulations, the curves dif­ R: V a r i a b l e r e s i s t o r
fer greatly from those of the input impedance of amplifiers r: L o w resistance r e s i s t o r ( a b o u t 0.112)
and transformers.
The first peak appearing in the curve shown in Fig. 2(a) Fig. 1 Electrical impedance characteristics measuring circuit
is at what is called the "lowest reasonant frequency" (fo). (Resistor replacement method)
The lowest impedance above the lowest resonant frequen­
cy is called the "nominal impedance," or "impedance."
Impedance (£2)

Zs

fo : L o w e s t r e s o n a n t f r e q u e n c y [ H z ]
Z n : Nominal impedance [SI]

Zn

fo Frequency [ H z ]

(a) Lowest resonant frequency and nominal impedance

(b) Examples of electrical impedance characteristics

Fig. 2 Electrical Impedance Characteristics

26
2. Sensitivity ( O u t p u t S o u n d Pressure Level)

Sensitivity indicates the efficiency of the speaker. Sensitivity distance of one meter on-axis from the speaker enclosure.
is measured in an anechoic room under specified condi­ The input voltage applied to the speaker is 1W, adjusted
tions as shown in Fig. 3. The microphone is placed at a for the rated impedance of the speaker.

AC Voltmeter
Speaker system

MIC

Controller Amp.
Oscillator
1m

Anechoic room

Recorder Amp.

Fig. 3 The measurement of speaker system

Under the conditions shown in Fig. 3, the sound pressure Therefore:

levels measured at 1 meter from the speaker are recorded
g0 = Si + S2 + S3 -\- S4
with continuously varying frequencies (see Fig. 4).
4
The sound pressure is measured and expressed in dB, with
a OdB reference point being 0.0002/xban So: Rated sensitivity [dB]
Therefore: Sj ~S \ Rated sensitivity [dB] at 4
4

fixed-point frequencies]

S = 20lO8
0.0002»bar The four fixed frequencies are usually 300Hz, 400Hz,
500Hz, and 600Hz (but if there is a peak or dip in frequency
S: Sensitivity [dB] response at one or more of these points, they may be shifted
2
a little to get a more uniform reading).
P: Sound pressure [/xbar = dyne/cm ]

This OdB standard of 0.0002/xbar is considered to be the

minimum sound pressure level that is audible, and so has
been adopted as the increment of measurement.
From the chart showing frequency characteristics of out­
put sound pressure measured using the process just describ­
ed, we take measurements at four prescribed frequencies,
average them, and then take the result for the published
sensitivity specification.

27
Sensitivity [dB]

Frequency [ H z ]

Reference frequencies

Fig* 4 Calculation of output sound pressure level

3. Frequency Mange 4. D i r e c t i o n a l Frequency Characteristics

As seen in Figs. 4 and 5, the sound level reproduced by The directional characteristics are obtained by measuring
a speaker decreases gradually at the high and low ends of sound pressure level at various points with various angles
the frequency range. It is necessary to define the lowest off the reference axis of the speaker keeping a prescribed
level to be measured. The lowest resonant frequency (fo) distance from the sound source, usually 30° or 60°. Note
is taken as the low frequency limit and the high frequency that the characteristic can be known in relative to the
where the sound level decreases from the rated sensitivity characteristics measured at 6 = 0°.
by lOdB is taken as the high frequency limit. It indicates the relative degree of decrease or increase in
sound pressure level by angle variation.
These characteristics can also be indicated by polar coor­
dinates. This method gives a better idea of how the acoustic
Rated sensitivity F r e q u e n c y response
power is distributed radially when the frequency is kept con­
stant. This method involves many measuring points (for
Sensitivity [dB]

So
example, in 15° steps) and a constant frequency. Special
10dB measuring equipment which enables direct recording onto
So-10
polar coordinate recording paper is available. In this case,
the speaker or microphone is rotated. Examples of record­
ed results are given in Figs. 6 and 7.

Frequency [ H z ]

F r e q u e n c y range

Fig. 5 Definition of the playback frequency band

28
 Fig. 6 Rated sensitivity directional characteristics

Fig. 7 Rated sensitivity directional characteristics

(using polar coordinates)
5. R a t e d I n p u t
The rated input is the highest input which ensures con­ and the block diagram of the testing system are outlined
tinuous operation of the speaker without letting it generate in Fig. 8. In case a full-range speaker or a woofer is tested,
abnormal noises. the signal is directly and continuously applied to the com­
Tests, using white noise whose energy distribution has been ponent speaker for 96 hours bypassing the dividing net­
compensated, are stipulated by JIS (Japan Industrial work. With a speaker such as a mid-range or a tweeter
Standards.) The compensation is in accordance with the whose frequency range is limited, a — 6dB/oct dividing net­
curve recommended by IEC (International Electro- work with a specified cut-off frequency is inserted in the
Technical Commission). circuit to ensure that only signals in the specified frequen­
The time constant of the compensator, which is a 2-stage cy range are applied to the speaker. The signal outside the
ladder RC circuit, has been determined at 250/xs to obtain specified frequency range is dissipated in a dummy load.
the mean characteristic curve between those curves of music And although the testing of a midrange or a tweeter is also
and voice to simulate the same energy distribution of the conducted for 96 hours, it must be noted that the rated in­
actual sound. This curve is believed to be ideal for this type put in this case is actually the power consumption of the
of testing. overall system including a network and not the power con­
The attenuation slope of the curve is 6dB/octave with the sumption of the speaker alone. This point must be borne
cut-off frequency (-3dB) set at the lowest resonant fre­ in mind when checking spec values. In other words, even
quency. Unless otherwise specified, a 3.2ms ladder type RC if, say, 15W is given to a tweeter as the rated input, the con­
high-pass filter, whose low cut-off frequency is 50Hz, is tinuous application of a 15W input to it will damage it.
used. The compensation characteristics, compensation filter

D u m m y resistor

W.N.G N.W D u m m y resistor

W h i t e noise g e n e r a t o r Compensation filter Amp.

Speaker

Thermocouple type
AC Voltmeter
Dividing network

Fig. 8 The block diagram of rated input testing system

29
6. Maximum Input
The m a x i m u m input power is the m a x i m u m power ap­ place of the voltmeter, an oscilloscope capable of measur­
plicable to the speaker in a short period. The general testing ing and monitoring peak values is employed. (See Fig. 9).
method employs ordinary program signals. The power is This completes the discussion on rated and maximum in­
calculated with the rated impedance and the peak value of put measuring methods. As far as general speakers are con­
the program signal. cerned, it would seem that the maximum input voltage
The testing method and frequency range are the same as tends to be 1.5 times to twice the rated input. This rela­
those for testing the rated input. In place of the white noise tionship, however, varies considerably according to applica­
generator and the compensation filter, however, program tion and operating conditions, making it difficult to relate
signal sources of radio or endless tape are used. And in the two factors.

Speaker

Program source Amp.

N.W D u m m y resistor

Radio or tape deck

D u m m y resistor

Oscilloscope

Dividing network

Fig. 9 Measuring maximum input power

7. Conclusion
The reflected sound from the walls, and other surfaces and maximum input power, however, the effect of the
greatly affects the Sound Pressure Level frequency reflection is not so great. A room where sound reflections
response and directional frequency characteristics. The have been minimized by sound absorbing materials is ade­
measured results depend on the measured point and the quate to enable these parameters to be measured with suf­
conditions of the room. To overcome this drawback, an ficient accuracy.
anechoic room where all reflection is eliminated must be When measuring at home, use a dead room which has soft
used. When measuring the electrical impedance walls and floors. Concrete walls should be avoided.
characteristics, the lowest resonant frequency, rated input

30
 Measuring Instrument
AUDIO FREQUENCY GENERATOR (RC OSCILLATOR)

Photo 1 Programmable audio generator

Audio frequency generators are used to produce an audio (about 20Hz to 20kHz), new generators are designed to
signal source for measuring the performance and cover a range from several hertz to several 100kHz due to
characteristics of audio equipment such as amplifiers, and the advances in today's amplifiers. And in addition to sine
also for locating failures. Whereas the frequency range of waves, square waves, delta waves, and sawtooth waves can
the conventional generators is limited to the audible range also be obtained.

31
1. Principles

Since most generators mainly generate sine wave and square Phase shifter and tuning-fork oscillators are also available,
wave signals, the discussion here will be limited to these but there is little room to discuss them here. Square waves
two types of signals. are formed by the Schmitt trigger circuit in Fig. 1. When
The AMP1 shown in Fig. 1 is the circuit generating sine the switch is set to the square wave position, sine waves from
waves. The voltage between A and B becomes in phase to the oscillator stage are (clipped, or clamped) by the Schmitt
that between A and C when the Ri = 1/coCi and R2 = l / w C 2
trigger to from square waves. In this case, the sine wave
conditions are met. Here, if the input and output of AMP1 is amplified sufficiently before being clipped. Some
are in phase, AMP1 will oscillate at a particular frequency generators, for example, include an amplifier stage between
due to the positive feedback. The oscillating frequency can oscillator stage and the Schmitt trigger.
be changed by varying R i and R2 together, or by varying The AMP2 circuit is a buffer amplifier whose purpose is
Ci and C2 together. to reduce the high output impedance, and to minimize the
In actual circuits, Ci and C2 are ganged, and frequency effects of the following low impedance stage such as an
ranges are shifted by switching Ri and R2. With this attenuator.
method, a wide frequency range is available. The oscillator Many generators employ an emitter-follower circuit for this
stage in Fig. 1 employs a Wien's bridge oscillator circuit buffer stage and with a 6000 attenuator, signals of 6000
which is the most popular type due to its high stability. output impedance are available at the output.

Ri Oscillator stage

Ci SINE W A V E

Output
AMP1 Schmitt AMP2
attenuator
trigger Output
terminal
R 2 C 2
SQUARE WAVE

Sine/square w a v e selector s w i t c h

Fig J Block diagram of audio frequency generator

The most popular RC audio frequency signal generator of

positive feedback type is explained here. In Fig. 2, a port
G O Output
of the output voltage of the amplifier G, which has a suf­
ficient gain, is fed positively back to its input via BPF(band-
pass filter). The feedback signal is made inphase to the
original and the loop gain is made 1.

BPF

Fig. 2 Simplified diagram of a positive feedback

oscillator

32
In this method, if the bandwidth of the amplifier is wide 2. D e v i c e s i n t h e G e n e r a t o r
enough, the oscillating frequency can easily be changed by
varying the filtering frequency of BPF.
As a passive BPF, the Wien Bridge circuit is widely Several devices are employed in the generator for easy
employed in the positive feedback loop of RC oscillators. operation.
The oscillating frequency (fo) is determined by the
resistance-capacitance elements of BPF.
1) Frequency selector
Generally, the output frequency of a generator is required
to be variable. Frequencywise, there are three types of
generators; Continuously variable type (Photo 3), Spot
type (Photo 4) and Digitally variable type (Photo 5), Ci
Wien bridge and Ci or Ri and R2 in Fig. 3 are varied for adjusting the
Ri Ci frequency.

! FREQ. RANGE
j SETTING OUTPUT FREQUENCY
(Multiplier) RANGE
Output
G x10 10 - 100Hz

C2 x100 100- 1000Hz (1kHz)

R 2

x1K 1 - 10kHz
x10K 1 0 - 100kHz
R 3 x100K 100- 1000kHz (1MHz)

R4 THI Table 1 The output frequency is set w i t h the frequency

dial and the FREQ RANGE switches.

Fig. 3 Wien bridge oscillator circuit

2) Output voltage selector

The necessary gain for amplifier G in the Wien-bridge The output voltage is also required to be variable. Since
oscillator is equal to the reciprocal of the Wien-bridge's at­ output voltage adjustment is difficult in the oscillator cir­
tenuation K. where K is expressed by the following cuit, a variable resistor is connected to the output line. Some
generators have a built-in attenuator instead of the simple
K variable resistor to achieve accurate attenuation.
= jr-c-
R2 Ci 3) Square wave generator
If Ri = R , and Ci = C2, the closed loop gain will be
2
The generators described above are all sine wave generators.
about 3.1 to 3.2. The generation of square waves which are widely used for
measuring purposes can be achieved by incorporating a
Schmitt trigger circuit or similar circuit to convert sine
waves into square waves.
In Fig. 3, the gain is determined by R4, R3 and THi. THi
is an amplitude stabilizer thermistor designed to maintain 4) Others
a constant output voltage by varying the negative feedback In addition to the above features, a number of generators
in response to changes in the output voltage. This ther­ also incorporate the following type of features to cope with
mistor is thus indispensable in RC oscillator. Some different applications.
generators employ a CdS photocoupler or an FET instead • Burst oscillator circuit
of the thermistor's. • Sync terminals (to obtain low-distortion signals at
precise frequencies synchronized with a crystal
oscillator etc.)

33
The generator shown in Photo 2 is capable of varying the The one in Photo 4 features push-button frequency switch­
oscillator frequency from 10Hz to 1MHz, and equips with ing (spot generator) designed to improve efficiency on pro­
an output ATT and sync terminals. The block diagram is duction lines and during maintenance servicing operations.
given in Fig. 4. The Photo 5 shows a programmable generator. In addition
Other generators are given in Photos 3, 4 and 5. Photo 3 to digital setting of the oscillator frequency, this generator
is a low-distortion generator which suppresses sine wave also enables remote control.
distortion. This type includes a burst oscillator stage.

Frequency
setting

Oscillator
Output
Buffer
stage Attenuator
amplifier

Schmitt
trigger
Sync terminal

Fig. 4 Block diagram of typical audio generator

Photo 2

Photo 4 Spot generator

Photo 3 Low distortion generator Photo 5 Programmable generator

34
3. Operating Precautions 4. Applications

More attention should be paid to the following precautions The audio generator is a basic measuring instrument used
than in general Hi-Fi audio equipment to get proper in a wide range of measuring applications. A number of
performance. examples of measuring audio equipment are outlined below.
1. The voltage of the AC mains used by the generator
must be within the range rated for the generator. (See
Table 2)
4.1 Phase Characteristics
The measuring system is connected as shown in Fig. 5(b).
2. The generator specifications must comply with the re­ When there is no phase difference between the input and
quirements of the applications. output, the Lissajous figure becomes a slant straight line
with its right end up. The figure becomes elliptic and fat­
ter as the oscillating frequency is varied and the phase dif­
Example: To measure the distortion of a 0 . 1 % distortion
ference becomes larege. (see Fig. 5(a)) The degree of phase
amplifier, the generator distortion specification
difference can be expressed by the phase angle (6) given by
must be less than 0.1%.
the following equation.
3. Carefully read the operation manual. n .-lb
0 = sin —
a

Standard Usable voltage The straight line bends when the input voltage is excessive
voltage range and the output signal is distorted.
100 V 90V-110V
117V 106V-128V
220V 196V-238V
240V 211V-257V
a b

Sin 0 = —
Table 2 Voltage and usable voltage range a

6: Phase angle

Fig. 5(a)

Generator Oscilloscope

Amplifier

L o a d resistor

Fig. 5(b) Phase characteristics measurement

35
4.2 Sine W a v e s

The use of sine waves is shown in measurement of various Once the amplifier is saturated, there is no further increase
amplifier characteristics. in the output voltage, and the waveform shown in the
oscilloscope will show signs of distortion. The amplifier's
input-output characteristics are thus obtained by recording
a) Measurement of input/output characteristics
these input and output voltages. This data is important in
' Adjust the generator controls to the following positions.
ensuring that the amplifier is not operated in the saturated
FUNCTION Sine wave
FREQ RANGE xlOO j lkHz
region. The amplifier voltage gain is obtained from the
following equation.
Dial position 10 J
OUTPUT LEVEL - 4 0 d B (Maximum attenuation)
(Output attenuator) . , ^ , Output voltage (V)
Voltage gam (dB) = 20 log I n p u t v o l t a g e ( v )

When the measuring instruments are set up as shown in

Fig. 6, and the generator's variable OUTPUT LEVEL con­
trol is turned clockwise to increase the amplifier's input
voltage, the amplifier's output voltage is increased propor­
tionally.

Generator AC voltmeter Oscilloscope

Amplifier

L o a d resistor

Fig. 6 Measurement of input/output characteristics, maximum output power and frequency response

b) Measurement of maximum output power c) Measurement of frequency response

First determine the maximum output voltage free from Adjust the OUTPUT LEVEL control to a range free
distortion with the input-output characteristic data obtain­ from amplifier distortion. The amplifier's input voltage is
ed in a) above, then calculate the maximum output power kept at a constant level during this measurement. Next vary
by using the following equation. the frequency by FREQ RANGE and dial, recording the
amplifier output voltage at each frequency on single-axis
logarithmic graph paper. This plot forms the amplifier fre­
2
~ , , (Output voltage)
/ 1 1 A quency response curve. If there is any output deviation in
Output power (W) = - ——- respect to generator frequencies, the amplifier input voltage
Load resistance (Q) will have to be adjusted up to a reference level at each fre­
quency during the measurement.

36
d) Distortion measurement
The measuring circuit is outlined in Fig. 7. Adjust the If the distortion meter's MONITOR output is moni­
generator's frequency and its OUTPUT LEVEL. Refer to tored by oscilloscope, the distortion components and
No.2, TUNING FORK. Measure the distortion in accord­ noise can be observed. Lissajous figures with the fun­
ance with the method prescribed for the distortion meter. damental wave on the V axis and the distortion wave on
the H axis are shown in Fig. 8.

Generator Distortion meter Oscilloscope

Amplifier

L o a d resistor

Fig. 7 Distortion measurement

Precautions in measuring distortion

The distortion generated in the distortion meter is called 2 2
Amplifier distortion = V(0.07) — (0.02) = 0.067[%]
residual distortion, and this should be taken into account
when measuring the distortion of amplifiers etc. Measure
this residual distortion first before proceeding to measure Actually, however, the residual distortion and the measured
the amplifier distortion. And if the value is, for example, amplifier distortion affect each other according to a com­
0.02%, and the distortion value obtained when measuring plicated phase relationship, resulting in considerable varia­
the amplifier is 0.07%, the actual amplifier distortion is tion in the distortion readings.
not obtained by taking the difference, but by using the
following equation:

2nd HARMONIC 3rd HARMONIC

HIGHER HARMONICS

A C H U M " or P A R A S I T I C

Fig. 8 The various Lissajous figures

37
4.3 Square Waves

Using the same measuring circuit as outlined in Fig. 6, When using square waves, first monitor the input waveform
switch FUNCTION to the (square) position, and apply with an oscilloscope before observing and measuring the
square waves to the amplifier. Various amplifier output waveform. Next, some of the special functions such
characteristics can thus be checked by monitoring the out­ as the burst wave and the sync will be considered.
put waveforms by oscilloscope. Please refer to Nos. 4 &
5, T.F.

Waveshape

RECTANGULAR
SATISFACTORY

FLAT

SAG LOW PRIMARY INDUCTANCE

IN OUTPUT TRANSFORMER:
INCORRECT VALUES OF THE
DEFICIENT LOW FREQUENCIES COUPLING ELEMENTS

ROUNDING HIGH LEAKAGE INDUCTANCE

IN OUTPUT T R A N S F O R M E R
OR HIGH DISTRIBUTED
DEFICIENT HIGH FREQUENCIES CAPACITANCE IN CIRCUIT

RINGING MALADJUSTMENT IN THE

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
CIRCUIT; INCORRECT
RINGING AT HIGH FREQUENCY CONSTANTS; INSTABILITY

Table 3 Application of square wave

4.4 Burst Wave

The burst wave is generated intermittently and since a step

is formed at each transient point, this kind of signal is ideal
for measuring transient characteristics. Burst wave

This type of signal is used as the signal source for measur­

ing a circuit which has a time constant and for measuring
Step waveform
all kinds of equipment relating to sound such as
microphone, amplifiers, speakers, and even listening rooms.
The BURST wave output voltage is about l/5th of the _Oscillating_ _Oscillating_
Interval
SINE wave output voltage when the output attenuator is period period
in the VARIABLE position.

Fig. 9 Burst wave

38
a) Speaker transient response test The mic amplifier output differs according to a number
Connect as shown in Fig. 10, set the FUNCTION switch of factors such as speaker frequency response and the
to the BURST position, and then select the desired burst suspending method of speaker's cone paper. The output
wave by rear panel switch. waveform is also affected by the relationship between the
Using a dual-trace oscilloscope, monitor the generator out­ amplifier's output impedance and speaker impedance. For
put waveform in CH-1 and the mic amplifier output in example, if a speaker is driven by an amplifier of high out­
CH-2 (that is, simultaneous display). put impedance, the poor damping factor results in residual
waves left in the zero voltage interval.

Generator Dual-trace oscilloscope

Anechoic room

Drive amplifier Mic amplifier

Speaker Microphone

Fig. 10 Speaker transient response test

SATISFACTORY IMPROPER RESPONSE

200Hz 900Hz

INPUT
INPUT

OUTPUT
OUTPUT

Photo 6 Examples of oscilloscope monitoring

39
b) Amplifier transient response test
Connect as shown in Fig. 11. The measurement is conducted The interval (OFF period) and the oscillating ON period
by using a dual-trace oscilloscope in the same way as dur­ can be varied. When the burst wave is used as a signal
ing the speaker transient response test described above. source for testing a circuit which has a time constant, its
Since the transient response is much better in an amplifier characteristics can be known with the waveform. The se­
than in a speaker system, no remarkable differences can cond waveform is obtained when the phase is delayed by
be observed. However, the characteristics of an amplifier an integrator while the third waveform is obtained when
can be deducted from the output waveform. phase is advanced by a differentiator.

Generator Dual-trace oscilloscope

Amplifier

L o a d resistor

Fig. 11 Amplifier transient response test

WAVESHAPE CONDITION RESPONSE

(1)

The frequency response appears t o

be quite flat.

(2)

The low end of the frequency

response appears t o be a t t e n u a t e d .

(3)

The high end of the frequency

response appears t o be b o o s t e d .

Table 4 Amplifier transient response waveform

40
 Quality Information System (3)
Calculation of Field Failure Rate
Pioneer product repair reports are forwarded to Tokyo * Percent defective the proportion of unused pro­
(PEC) from all parts of the world every month. These ducts which are already defective
reports are passed on to the Quality Assurance departments when the product is first used (in­
of each relevant factory where they are subject to statistical cludes "incoming inspection"
analysis. defects).
From these analyses, field failure rates are calculated for * Failure rate the proportion of used products
each model and each category, thereby providing impor­ which failed in a certain period
tant information in forecasting trends in the number of (including failure rate based on
product failures, and in checking reliability. This infor­ repair date).
mation is also used in estimating the demand for servicing However, regular repair data includes both of the above
parts, and in estimating servicing costs. Although there are products and even those faulty products caused by misuse
various methods available for analyzing the tabulated data, or tampering. The ratio which includes this kind of failure,
methods relevant to the way components are used are most is referred to as the "repair ratio" and is to be clearly
common. distinguished from "failure rate". The failure rate (and
This time we will discuss the terminology and analytical repair rate) is expressed in " % " and period. The unit of
methods employed in the use of this data. field failure rate, for example, is " % / m o n t h " .

1. Percent Defective and Failure Rate 2. The Meaning of "Failure Rate"

All products are divided into "good" and "defective", and Failure rate can be defined as the "probability that a pro­
the proportion of defective products expressed as "per­ duct which has operated up to a certain time will fail within
cent defective" or "fraction defective " . a certain period".
The "failure rate", on the other hand, refers to the pro­ Example: The mortality rate (failure rate) at 70 years of
portion of failures in respect to the period or frequency age is the probability that persons who have
of use as described in section 2 below. A clear distinction reached the age of 70 will die (fail) within the
must be made between percent defective and failure rate. next year.
Product quality after shipment from the factory can be ex­ The failure rate of a relatively complex item varies as it
pressed in the following two ways. grows old as shown below. This kind of curve (see Fig.
1) is called a "bath t u b " curve.

CO

©
J2
"co
LL

I n i t i a l f a i l u r e stage R a n d o m f a i l u r e stage W e a r o u t f a i l u r e stage

Time

Fig. 1 Bath t u b curve

41
3. Field Failure Rate Analysis (Part 1 — Production
Quantity Base)
3 . 1 Failure d a t a t a b u l a t i o n
The failure data up to September 1982 for the new pro­
duct YZ-999 which have been manufactured since April
1982 is tabulated, for example, as shown in Table 1 below.
This data serves as the basis for various analyses.

No. o f failures
April May June July August Sept.
Month \ 1982
Field repair raw data (MT) f r o m PA
Apr. '82 2,000 4 7 8 16 11 14

CM
May 3,000 5 10 14 18

June 4,000 6 12 22 25

July 4,000 1 3 4

August 3,000 0 2

Sept. 3,000 1

Table 1 Failure data for new product YZ-999

Statistic Card Analyzer

3 . 2 The field failure rate of September ' 8 2 (production
q u a n t i t y base)
Failure data for September can be sampled to obtain the
following information (see Table 2). According to this
table, the September failure rate for products manufac­
tured in April is 0.7%/month. The corresponding figure
for products manufactured in May is 0.6%/month,
for June : 0.63%/month, No. o f failures
for July : 0.1%/month, Month in S e p t e m b e r Failure rate

for August : 0.067%/month, Apr. '82 2,000 14 0.7 ( % / m o n t h )

and for September : 0.033%/month. May 3,000 18 0.6

The mean failure rate for September is 0.34%/month. The June 4,000 25 0.63

unit " % / m o n t h " denotes that the figure refers to the July 4,000 4 0.1

failure rate for the one month period of September. The August 3,000 2 0.067

mean failure rate is calculated from the following equation. Sept. 3,000 1 0.033
Total: Total: Mean:

(Mean September) failure rate 19,000 64 0.34 (%/month)

_ Number of failures in one month (September) (1)

Accumulative number of products Table 2 September failure data

42
3.3 Confirming t h e results of design modification If Table 3 is expressed in graphical form, any change in
Assume that the YZ-999 design was modified from the July failure rate for any manufacturing month (lot) will be ap­
production lots to improve quality. How can the effect of parent, and will indicate if the modified design has been
the modified design be assessed? Rearranging Table 1 ac­ effective. However, since the graph is rather complex, the
cording to the number of months after manufacture results data for products prior to the change (April to June) and
in Table 3. products after the change (July to September) is arranged
separately as shown in Table 4.

Failure rates are determined from Table 4 and summariz­

ed in Table 5.
No. o f failures (Failure rate: % / m o n t h )
One Two Three Four Five Six
Month X. ^c^^v. month months months months months months
Apr. '82 2,000 4 7 8 1
16 14
(0.2) (0.35) ( 0 .4)
(0.8) (0.55) (0.7)
May 3,000 5 10 14 12 18
(0.17) (0.33) (0.47) (0.4) (0.6)

June 4,000 6 12 22 25 Prior t o design m o d i f i c a t i o n

(0.15) (0.3) (0.55) (0.63)

Failure rate (%/rnonth)

July 4,000 1 3 4

(0.03) (0.05) (0.1)

improvement effect
August 3,000 0 2
(0) (0.07)
Sept. 3,000 1
A f t e r design m o d i f i c a t i o n
(0.03)

Time(month)
Table 3 Failure data arranged according t o the number of
months after manufacture Fig. 2 Change in failure rate before and after design
modification

- — — M o n t h One Two Three Four Five Six

month months months months months months

Prior t o m o d i f i c a t i o n No. o f failures 15 29 44 53 29 14

(April, May, and No. of manu­ 9,000 9,000 9,000 9,000 5,000 2,000
June p r o d u c t i o n factured
lots 1 9 8 2 ) products
After modification No. o f failures 2 5 4
(July, August, and No. o f manu­ 10,000 7,000 4,000
September pro­ factured
d u c t i o n lots 1982) products

Table 4 Failure data before production lots 1982

" ^ ^ ^ - ^ ^ J V I o n ^ One Two Three Four Five Six

month months months months months months
Prior t o m o d i f i c a ­ 0.17 0.32 0.49 0.59 0.58 0.7
tion (April, May,
June)
After modification 0.02 0.07 0.1
(July, August,
September)

Table 5 Failure rates before and after design modification ( %/month )

43
 3 . 4 A d v a n t a g e s and disadvantages of this analytical 4.3 September field failure rate (sales quantity
method base)
Although the above type of analysis is desirable in check­ To calculate the September failure rate from Table 6 by
ing quality differences between manufactured lots and the using the figures 64/3000 = 2.1 (%/month) is incorrect.
effects of quality improvement measures, one of the ma­ The 64 failures during September do not only cover pro­
jor problems with this method is the length of time bet­ ducts sold during September, but also include random
ween manufacture and sales. Because of this time lag, the failures occurring in products sold in April thru September.
failure rate will appear to be lower in the first months. In The failure rate in this case can be calculated from the fol­
Fig. 2,the failure rate appears to increase steadily at first. lowing equation.
But this is not actually so. The more or less steady figures
obtained after four to six months represent the actual (Mean September) failure rate
failure rate.
_ No. of failures in one month (September) ^)
As was mentioned in section 1, the failure rate is defined
in terms of unit operating time. Problems arise, however, Accumulative number of products sold
if this time also includes nonoperating times.

4 . Field Failure Rate (Part 2 — Sales Quantity Base) Both equations (1) and (2) are very similar, the sonly dif­
ference being in the denominator — the number manufac­
4 . 1 Field f a i l u r e r a t e b a s e d o n t h e n u m b e r o f tured, or the number sold. If values from Table 6 are
products sold substituted in equation (2), the following result is obtained.
On the premise that " s o l d products are operating pro­
ducts", the field failure rate is also determined on the basis 64
Mean September failure rate = —
of the number of products sold. At Pioneer, the "field r
• 600+ 1300 + +3000
failure rate" usually refers to the failure rate based on the
number of products sold. = = 0.51 (%/month)
v
12600 '
4 . 2 Tabulation of failure data
At Pioneer, the "field failure rate" usually refers to this
The number of YZ-999 components sold each month from
result.
April to September 1982 is listed in Table 6 together with
the corresponding number of failures. The number of 4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of this
failures agrees with the totals obtained from Table 1. analytical method
The value obtained by this method is by and large fairly
representative of the actual mean failure rate. Hence, it
^ " ^ - ^ ^ I v l o nth
April May June July August Sept. is safe to say that the YZ-999 field failure rate is about
1982 0.51 %/month. On the other hand, this method does not
No. sold 600 1,300 2,000 2,500 3,200 3,000 give any indication of the quality differences between
No. o f failures 4 12 24 43 48 64
manufactured lots, nor enable the effects of quality im­
provement measures to be checked. If the design of a new
Table 6 The number of YZ-999 components sold and the product is modified several times soon after the beginn­
number of failures ing of sales, it is necessary to combine this analytical
method with the method described in section 2.

Snapshot of monthly Quality meeting

44
 New Products
LaserDisc System

The dream of recording picture information in addition to The NTSC version will mainly be discussed here.
sound information into a handy disc has been realized.
Consisting of discs and a player, videodisc system is similar The main signal of the videodisc system is the same as
to the conventional record player system. Its principle and television (TV) signal. The principle of TV has been omit­
materials, however, are quite different from the conven­ ted here because there are many books of TV available on
tional system. As the signal frequency is very high, very the market. Circuit description and adjustment have also
high density recording is required. been omitted here. Refer to service manuals for details.

Since 1960's, several videodisc systems have been developed.

In 1979, we introduced LaserDisc or laser optical videodisc
system to the market under PHILIPS/MCA standards.

45
1, Three videodisc systems Stylus

Now, there are three videodisc systems on the market, laser- Electrode
optical system (LASER VISION or LaserDisc) and two
capacitive systems; Capacitance Electronic Disc (CED) and
Video High Density (VHD) systems. The laser-optical
system reads information with a laser pickup without mak­
ing physical contact to the disc surface. The CED system
reads information by sliding a stylus on a grooved disc sur­
face while the VHD system does it on a flat disc surface.
Having a non-contact pickup, LaserDisc (LD) system pro­ Tracking \ f i p ^
vides you with quick random access and a still picture or signals Information,
signal
a frozen frame for many hours. Further, it reproduces clear Disc

pictures with the horizontal resolution of 350-line equal to

that of broadcasting stations. Fig. 2(a) VHD pickup system

Electrode
Objective-1 ens
Electrode
Stylus

3^
Diamond

Fig. 2(b) CED pickup system

Aluminum
layer

r;s
a< LseeiiDisc (LD) pickup system

LaserDisc CED VHD

System Non-contact laser-optical s y s t e m Stylus capacitance Stylus capacitance
s y s t e m (grooved) s y s t e m (grooveless)
Pickup Non-contact laser beam Diamond stylus Diamond stylus
Playing time 6 0 m i n NTSC 6 0 m i n PAL(CLV) 6 0 min 6 0 min
( M i n i m u m on 1 3 0 m i n NTSC 3 6 m i n PAL(CAV)
side)

Disc Rotation 1 , 8 0 0 - 6 0 0 NTSC (CLV) 450 900

(rpm) 1 , 5 0 0 - 5 7 0 PAL
1,800 NTSC (CAV)
1,500 PAL
No. of Play Virtually unlimited - Same as audio disc
(over 500)
Quality None Yes Yes
Degradation

Still Display Virtually unlimited Limited Limited

Life of Pickup Over 7 , 5 0 0 H - Same as VCR head

Table 1 LaserDisc and other videodisc systems

46
2. Difference from video cassette recorder. 3. L a s e r D i s c ( L D ) s y s t e m

LD is free from wearing and print-through which are in­ LD system is composed of laser optical video discs (soft­
evitable for VCR. Table 2 shows the features of LD and ware) and a player (hard ware). It is combined with a TV
VCR. set or a TV monitor and an audio system. The disc of
030cm has encoded video, audio and control information
on both sides. There are two kinds of discs, Constant
Angular Velocity (CAV) disc and Constant Linear Velocity
(CLV) disc which will be discussed later.

The information has been recorded by a laser beam in the

form of a spirally aligned row of microscopic indentations
or pits starting from the inner track. The player reads the
pitted information (present/absent information) optically
and converts it to video and audio signals.

0110(mm Recorded
LaserDisc & Video Cassettes Area
90mm
LaserDisc VCR

Recording Medium Laser-optical disc of 1/2 in. polyester based

035(mm)
hard acrylic plastic magnetic tape
2.5mm
Basic Function Playback only Recording/Playback

Picture Quality 350-line resolution 240-line resolution

Sound Quality 4 0 H z - 2 0 k H z Wide 50Hz-7kHz (Beta i l l &

dynamic range VHS Extended Play)

Function Instant Random Access No random access:

and additional special limited special
functions. functions.

No time limit on still- Still display over a f e w

picture display minutes cancelled </>290(mm)
automatically.
03OO(mm
Durability Non-contact optical Wear on tape and
system ensures reten­ player can lead t o some
tion of original quality degradation in audio Diameter 300mm
virtually forever. video quality. Thickness 2.5mm
Prices of LaserVision discs are Blank VCR tape is Revolution (CAV) 1800rpm
"Softwear" easily mass-produced relatively c o s t l y ; tape
and compare in cost t o rental, etc. not­ Linear velocity (CLV) About llm/sec
audio discs, considering w i t h s t a n d i n g , prere­ Track pitch 1.67/mi
the added video corded video-cassettes
content. are generally more Up/down fluttering ± L025mm max
costly. Fluttering acceleration 10G max
Use LaserDisc is a kind of Direct recording using a Eccentricity 80/rni max
"Video Turntable" with video camera is, of
the added ability t o pro­ course, a strong feature Track meandering 2G max
vide interactive of VCR s y s t e m s .
functions. Fig. 3 Specifications of LD

Table 2 LaserDisc and video cassette recorder The disc provides you with clear pictures and stereo sound
semipermanently because it is free from wearing under the
non-physical-contact pickup system. Very thin laser beam
has made the high density recording of video and audio
composite signal possible; 140 billion pits per one side (CAV
disc). The recorded disc has protective layers on both sides.
The reflected beam is not affected by small scratches and
thin fingerprints on the surface because the beam converges
on the pitted reflective aluminum surface which lies 1.2mm
below the disc surface. The area of the shadow of a scratch
or dust on the disc surface is reduced to 1/250,000 on the
signal plane and, therefore, the effect of the shadow to the
power of the reflected beam is greatly reduced.

47
Thick fingerprints and dust can be wiped off by gently Every sheet of the CED and VHD discs is cased in a cad­
scrubbing the disc surface with a piece of soft cloth, which dy and is untouchable because its information has been
has been dipped in plane lukewarm water and wringed, in recorded on its surface.
the way as if you are drawing small circles.

Disc s u r f a c e
^0.75mm Laser beam

P M M A resin

1.2mm

1.5w ml
2.5mm
3Qjum
40/um

30^m 1.2mm

Reflective film

Protective film

Adhesive

P M M A resin
0.4^m

1.67/iin

OAjum

Fig. 4 Cross-section of Laser Disc

4. PHILIPS (MCA) codes 5. Manufacturing discs

To control the various functions of the system, PHILIPS The manufacturing process of LDs is divided into three;
codes (MCA codes for industrial use), which have the in­ signal processing, mastering and replicating. The master­
formation of LEAD IN, LEAD OUT, CHAPTER ing and replicating rooms are extremely clean equal to those
NUMBER, FRAME NUMBER (CAV), ELAPSED TIME of the manufacturing room of LSIs.
(CLV), etc. are inserted at the end of the invisible vertical
blanking signal. Each of the 54,000 pictures of CAV disc
has a FRAME NUMBER. By addressing the number, a
particular frame is accessible instantly. If the program in
the disc has been divided into several chapters, the begin­
ning of each chapter is also accessible quickly.

48
5.1 S i g n a l processing
A u d i o F M carriers V i d e o FM c a r r i e r ( N T S C )

Recording level (dB)

CH 2 2.8MHz|
CH I 2.3MHz|
The video and audio signals taken from a movie film or

-26dB-
1-inch VTR source are independently frequency modulated.
The center frequency of the modulated video signal is
8.5MHz and its frequency deviation is ± 1.7MHz and the
7.6MHz 9.3MHz
modulated audio signals are 2 3 M H z (CH-1) and 2.8MHz
(CH-2) with the frequency deviation of ± lOOKHz (NTSC).
Bilingual as well as stereo recording is possible because
2-channel sound signals are independently frequency Frequency (MHz)

modulated.
Fig. 5 Frequency spectrum of LD composite signal (NTSC)

Video signal Audio signals (2-ch) Waveform

Video F M signal

FREQ. M O D U L A T O R

Video signal

FREQ. M O D U L A T O R S
A u d i o FM s i g n a l
2-ch audio signals
Composite signal

MIXER
Video F M a n dt w o audio
FM w a v e s are c o m p o s e d .

Limited signal
LIMITER
The amplitude of composite
s i g n a l is l i m i t e d .

OPTICAL MODULATOR
The limited w a v e s
LASER
switch beam on/off.

Pit
Photo-regist layer o n t h e Glassdisk
d i s c is e x p o s e d t o t h e
blinking beam.

Spindle motor

Feed m o t o r

Fig. 6 Composing video and audio signals

ON (Brightji
OFF (Dim)
Mastering

The frequency spectrum of NTSC system is shown in Fig.

*Duty factor:
5. The modulated signals are multiplexed and amplitude- Track
In a p u l s e d system,
limited by a limiter and are shaped into squarewaves. t h e ratio o f pulse width
Pit Pit
Although the signal is pulsive, it is still analog because the (W) to the wavelength
+ (Bright)
frequency and pulsewidth vary gradually. The variation of Reproduced
of o n e cycle (T): W / T .

the repetition frequency of the pulses and that of the *duty RF s i g n a l

factor represent video information and audio information

respectively. Fig. 7 Duty factor

49
 NTSC PAL

A u d i o carrier f r e q u e n c i e s CH1(L) 2.301136MHz 683.593KHz

CH2(R) 2.812499MHz 1,066.40KHz

Video carrier

W h i t e peak level 9.3MHz 7.9MHz

Pedestal level 8.1MHz 7.1MHz

S y n c , t i p level 7.6MHz 6.76MHz

Video pre-emphasis T1: 300nsec 400nsec

T2: 100nsec 100nsec

Pilot b u r s t None 240xfh (3.75MHz)

Multiplexed o n
Sync, tip
fh: Horizontal
frequency

Table 3 NTSC and PAL discs

The adding rate of video carrier and sound carriers has been The squarewaves of composite signal made by limiter is ap­
set at 10:1 to obtain high modulation linearity and high plied to an optical modulator to switch the high powered
signal-to-noise ratio and to avoid intermodulation. When mastering laser beam on and off. The modulated beam is
the picture carrier and sound carriers are multiplexed, the projected onto the photoresist layer, 55mm off the center
former becomes the carrier and the latter is distributed to of the revolving glass disc, moved outward to make the pits
the both side bands. spirally in the layer with the track distance of 1.67^m.
The photoresist surface is developed. Then, a stamper is
With the video signal bandwidth set at 4.2MHz (NTSC) made by nickel electroforming. Cleanliness is especially re­
or 5.5MHz (PAL), the picture is free from moire and car­ quired because the quality of LD is almost determined here.
rier leak interferences because the lower sideband of the The master disc is inspected while playing.
video FM carrier does not overup the audio signal bands.

5.2 Mastering

The surface of the 0 3 5 c m and lcm thick original glass disc

is precisely polished, washed supersonicly and evenly coated
with photoresist (sensitizer). The disc is loaded on a real­
time disc cutter.

Photo 1 Glass master disc and disc cutter

50
 Clean N gas
h ilter 2

Polishing glass disc . Photoregist coating

Ar Laser Stamper electroforming H e - N e Laser

1" VTR

Inspection Inspecting stamper

Laser recording/developing

Mastering process

Fig. 8 Mastering process of LD.

5.3 Replication

The mastering process of the original LD is similar to that On the aluminum vapor-depositing line, a reflective
of the conventional analog discs except that LD system uses aluminum film is formed on the pitted surface of the
a laser beam instead of a diamond cutter. But, the transparent disc. Then, protective resin is coated on the film.
replicating process is quite different. The dynamic weight balance of Side 1 and Side 2 is
measured, and they are trimmed precisely. Then the both
The stamper is conveyed to a replicating line and installed sides are laminated together recorded surface inside, the
on an injection molding machine. The machine makes discs light part with the heavy part so that the inevitable im­
by injecting some melted transparent acrylic resin into a balance of each side is cancelled. Perfect dynamic balance
metal mold and cooling it off till it sets. The Sides 1 and of a disc can hardly be taken if the sides 1 and 2 are made
2 are separately molded. at a time by a compression molder. The completed discs
are checked again if they have dust and scratches.

Polishing glass disc

Photoresist coating

Laser Exposing

Developing

Nickel depositing

Nickel stamper

Injection molding

A l u m i n u m plating

Protective coating

Laminating

Photo 2 Injection molder Fig. 9 Manufacturing steps of LD

51
6 . 4 CAV (Standard-play or Active-play) disc 5.5 CLV (Extended-play or Long-play) disc

With this type, the player turns the disc at the constant The constant linear velocity of llm/sec or the constant
speed of 1800rpm. A CAV disc has 54,000 individual and relative speed of the pits can be achieved by gradually slow­
distinct still pictures on each side because its one turn or ing the rotating speed of the disc from 1800rpm down to
one circle track has the information of one frame of still 600rpm as the track radius increases. In such a speed, one
picture which is consisting of two fields. Each track of one frame is recorded on the innermost track and three frames
turn has a frame number from 1 to 54,000 and each chapter on the outermost track. A CLV disc has two times as much
has a chapter number. On the disc, the horizontal blank­ information as a CAV disc does. But, trick play is incapable
ing and synchronizing signals are aligned into narrow radial with this type. This is suitable for recording movie
stripes. The vertical blanking and synchronizing signals and programs.
control signals are contained in the two wide stripes lying
opposite each other. As one track has one picture infor­ The player detects the type of the disc loaded and selects
mation, random access and trick play such as STILL, STEP the mode automatically.
and x3-SPEED are capable. A CAV disc has pits of about
14 billions on one side. This is suitable for recording still There are a number of important differences between the
pictures, encyclopedias and video game programs. CAV and CLV discs. Table 4 outlines the main differences.

VERTICAL BLANKING SIGNAL

(VERTICAL INTERVAL)

L a s e r D i s c s : P l a y i n g T i m e per S i d e

CAV CLV

16, 17H NTSC PAL NTSC PAL

LEAD OUT PICTURE STOP CODE
1
6 0 0 TRACKS • 18H CHAPTER NUMBER CODE
M a x i m u m Playing Time 30 min 36 min 6 0 min 60 min
Spindle M o t o r rpm 1800 1500 1800-600 1500-570
LABEL FIELD I
LEAD IN
9 0 0 TRACKS
MINIMUM

C A V & CLV Discs: Main Differences

ROTATION CAV CLV

FIELD 2
280, 281H
FRAME NO. CODES
Basic Functions
Play # #
Pause # #
Scan (Fwd/Rev) # #
Audio Channel (1/L, 2/R) # #
Additional Performance
Features
Fast x 3 (Fwd/Rev) # -
S l o w (Fwd/Rev) # -
600R.P MT CK
Still #
1800R.P.M. Step (Fwd/Rev) # -
Random A c c e s s
Frame No. Search # ~
* * C h p t No. Search # #
Frame Display # ~
* * C h p t No. Display # #
(Elapsed) Time Display ~ #
—
Elps. Time Search #
LABEL * * * P i c t u r e Stop # -
* * Chapter Stop # #

* * O n l y for discs w i t h recorded chapter c o d e s .

* * * S o m e C A V discs are e n c o d e d w i t h A u t o m a t i c Picture S t o p : w i l e reproduction in
Play or S l o w m o d e , picture freezes a u t o m a t i c a l l y w h e r e coded t o permit special
900 TRACKS interactive uses (video g a m e s , e t c . ) . T o cancel this f u n c t i o n , press another key
(Play, S l o w , Fast x 3 , Scan or Step).

# = can be p r o v i d e d .
— = c a n n o t be p r o v i d e d .
LEAD OUT
6 0 0 TRACKS

Table 4 CAV and CLV discs

PRODUCTION MATERIAL

Fig. 10 CAV and CLV discs

52
6. Player

The player is composed of an optical pick-up, signal

demodulators, motor drive, servo control and function con­
trol systems, power supply, etc.

SPINDLE M O T O R OPTICAL PICKUP DEMODULATORS

Video out
T u r n s disc at a pre­ Video and 2-ch audio Audio out
determined speed. signals.
Reads pitted informa­ CH-1
t i o n w i t h laser b e a m . CH-2

SLIDER BASE

M o v e s p i c k u p in
radial d i r e c t i o n .

SERVO CIRCUITS

• F o c u s servo
• T r a c k i n g servo
• T a n g e n t i a l servo
• Spindle servo
• S l i d e r servo

FUNCTION CONTROL
CIRCUIT
Controls functions TRICK
PLAY, R A N D O M ACCESS,
FRAME NO display, etc.

Fig. 11 Block diagram of LD player

53
6.1 O p t i c a l p i c k u p s y s t e m

Laser pickup reads the information of video, audio and Fig. 12 shows the optical pickup system. Laser-beam travels
various control signals. as illustrated by arrows. The whole system has been
mounted on Slider-base assembly as shown in Photo 3.

Disc

O b j e c t i v e lens

Laser t u b e

Tangential m i r r o r

Prism
Tracking mirror
First f i x e d m i r r o r
D i v e r g i n g lens

% wave length plate.

Grating Second f i x e d m i r r o r
C y l i n d r i c a l lens

Photo diode

Fig. 12 Optical pickup system

Tangential-mirror

Tracking-mirror

Objective-lens

; / :..../ -, elength-piate
: v

Photodiode

Prism

He-Ne gas Diverging-lens

Laser-tube
-Grating

-2nd-fixed-mirror

ist-fixed-mirror

Photo 3 Optical system on Slider-base

54
Let's see where and how the beam travels.
Beam
a) L a s e r - t u b e
A horizontally polarized red Helium-Neon laser beam of
about 01mm and lmW with the wavelength of 632.8nm
comes out of this tube.

b) 1 s t & 2 n d - f i x e d - m i r r o r s Grating
Coverging Point
The beam direction is turned by 180° by these mirrors %
S
+ 1st-order beam
c) G r a t i n g Diverging-lens O'th-order beam
- 1 st-order beam
Here, the beam is divided into linearly aligned three beams.
The center beam is used for reading video and audio signals Fig. 13 Dividing beam
and control signals, and the side beams are for tracing the
right track.

Grating is a glass plate having narrow parallel grooves

(about 100-grooves/mm) on its surface. It divides a beam
into many linearly aligned beams. The divided beams are
called O'th-, ± 1st-, ±2nd-, ±3rd- and ... ±nth-order
beams keeping the O'th-order beam in the center. The O'th-
order beam (center beam) and each of the ± 1 st-order
beams (side beams) are given 5 0 % and 2 0 % of the whole
light energy respectively. The farther sidebeams from the
center, the dimmer. The other side beams are suppressed
as much as possible to save the light energy.
Photo 4 Grating
To simplify the principle, the center beam only will be
discussed here except in the paragraph of tracking servo
system. The other two beams travel in the same way as
the center one as shown in Fig. 14.

Grating
S
Beam

Diverging-lens
Prism
Objective-lens

Disc

Cylindrical-lens

Photodiode A B C

Fig. 14 Route of the 3 beams

55
d) D i v e r g i n g - l e n s
The beam is once converged and then diverged before pass­
Horizontally polarized
ing Prism to be projected onto the whole area of Objective- light
lens for best converging in the disc. Refer to Fig. 14.
Objective-lens works best when a light comes in with a par­
ticular incidence angle.

e) Prism
The beam which has a horizontal polarization plane, com­ Vertically polarized
light
ing from Laser-tube, straightly passes through Prism. The
Prism has been so aligned to allow a horizontally polariz­
ed light pass through it and to refract vertical polarized
one by 90°.
Fig. 15 Prism w o r k s as a traffic controller
f) 1/4-wavelength-plate
The beam's * polarization plane is turned circularly here.
A light has x and y components vertical each other. The
plate is a piece of quarts which delays the phase of one
light component from the other by X/4. Then the combined
vector of the two components is turned. Refer to Fig. 16.

* Polarization: Generally, a linearly polarized light has x a n d y c o m ­

p o n e n t s w h i c h a r e i n - p h a s e a n d v e r t i c a l e a c h o t h e r . If t h e p h a s e o f
, x is d e l a y e d f r o m y b y 9 0 ° , t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n p l a n e ( t h e c o m b i n e d v e c ­
t o r o f x a n d y ) w i l l t u r n a s s h o w n in F i g . 1 6 . If t h e x ' s p h a s e is f u r ­
Photo 5 Prism
t h e r d e l a y e d b y 9 0 ° , t h e l i g h t is l i n e a r l y p o l a r i z e d a g a i n a n d t h e s p a t i a l
angle of t h e plane t o t h e original b e c o m e s 9 0 ° . Imagine t h e Lissa-
jous figures.
x-component

W h e n x a n d y c o m p o n e n t s are inphase. Polarization plane

y-component

360°
270°
180°
90°
0°

When a linearly polarized light passes through a

1 /4-wavelength-plate x - c o m p o n e n t is d e l a y e d from
v-component by 9 0 ° (X/4).
90°

W h e n t h e circularly polarized light passes t h r o u g h t h e

90°
p l a t e , t h e x - c o m p o n e n t is d e l a y e d by 1 8 0 ° (X/2).
T h e n , t h e polarization plane b e c o m e s vertical. 0° 180*

Fig. 16 Delayed x-component of light turns polarization plane.

56
g) T r a c k i n g - m i r r o r * A b e r r a t i o n : A d e f e c t of a lens t h a t causes i n e x a c t f o c u s i n g a n d pro­
d u c e s a h a l o a r o u n d t h e b e a m s p o t . C h r o m a t i c a b e r r a t i o n is n o t r e ­
The beam's direction is changed by this mirror as illustrated
quired t o be c o n s i d e r e d here b e c a u s e a laser b e a m has a single fre­
in Fig. 12 so that the beam can shoot the right track. The quency. H o w e v e r , t h e critical c o m p e n s a t i o n of c o m a , w h i c h produces
mirror is driven by tracking servo control system which c o m e t - s h a p e d i m a g e , a s t i g m a t i s m a n d s p h e r i c a l a b e r r a t i o n is r e q u i r e d .
will be discussed later.

h) Tangential-mirror
The beam's direction is changed by this mirror in the j) Disc
tangential direction to the disc as illustrated so that the The beam is reflected on the pitted aluminum surface, there
quick time-axis deviation of picked up signal can be com­ the beam is modulated into bright and dim light by pits
pensated. This is driven by tangential Servo control system. and returns the same route to converge again at the once
converged point S of Fig. 14. In reality, the returning beam
i) Objective-lens does not reach to S but is refracted by Prism.
The beam is converged by this lens, and makes a spot of The non-pitted aluminum surface works as a plane mir­
01.5 jLtm on the signal plane in the disc for reading record­ ror and reflects the beam completely while the pits diffract
ed information. It is driven by focus servo system. and scatter it and interfere it to return. As the laser beam
High precision and ^resolving power and low * aberration is coherent, its reflected power is easily affected by the *pits
are required to Objective-lens. (bosses) of 1/4 wavelength (0.1 /* m) deep (high). Some
of the beam projected on the pits are scattered at the edge
or diffracted. The rest is reflected from the center and sides
of the pits. The beam reflected from the center is delayed
(actually advanced) by 180° (X/2) and interferes the beam
reflected from the sides. As the result, the total beam
becomes dim. The contrast of the reflected beam becomes
maximum when *the spot diameter becomes about three
times as long as the width of pits.

Laser beam

Transparent
acrylic resin 1.2mm<
0.1um 1.25mm
Photo 6 Objective-lens A l u m i n u m layer

Protective resin
^ R e s o l v i n g p o w e r o f a l e n s : T h i s is t h e a b i l i t y t o r e s o l v e a p i c t u r e
a n d is d e t e r m i n e d b y n u m e r i c a l a p e r t u r e ( N A ) a n d w a v e l e n g t h . When
Fig. 18 Cross section of LD
t h e r e c o r d i n g f r e q u e n c y is e x t r e m e l y h i g h , t h e s h o r t e s t p i t o f a b o u t
0 . 5 fim o n t h e i n m o s t t r a c k r e q u i r e s a v e r y c l e a r l e n s w i t h t h e N A
o f 0 . 4 5 ( F = 1 . 1 ) . T h e N A is o b t a i n a b l e w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :

* Pits: W h e n p l a y i n g . Pickup reads t h e bosses or t h e back side of t h e

NA = Sin 0 m a x .
pits.
P i t s o f 1 / 4 - w a v e l e n g t h (X/4) d e e p : A c t u a l l y t h e p i t s ' d e p t h is n o t
X / 4 o f H e - N e l a s e r b e a m b u t is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :
d
=^
d: p i t ' s d e p t h
ni: Refractive index of t h e disc (1.5)
X: W a v e l e n g t h o f H e - N e laser b e a m (632.8nm)

* T h e o p t i m u m s p o t r a d i u s is d e t e r m i n e d b y :
Wo =^1_X
6 max 0
NA
W: 0 The radius of beam spot
NA: Numerical Aperture of the Objective-lens (0.4-0.45)

Sin 0max = NA

Fig. 17 Numerical aperture (NA)

57
k) Objective-lens p) Photodiode
The reflected beam is converged. The beam finally arrives this diode and makes a spot on
it. Here, the bright and dim signal is converted into elec­
I) Tangential/Tracking-mirrors tric signal as shown in Fig. 19. As mentioned, there are
The beam is just reflected and passed to 1/4-wavelength- three beams which make three spots. Photodiode consists
plate. of six diodes, A, Bl, B2, B3, B4 and C as shown in Fig.
25. The diodes are fixed at the point where the returned
m) 1 /4-wavelength-plate beam becomes round when the disc distance is optimum.
The beam is linearly polarized again and its polarization
plane is made vertical to that of the original. Refer to Fig.
16.
All optical components should be aligned or adjusted
n) Prism perfectly. If the beam polarization adjustment of Laser-
The direction of the vertically polarized beam is turned by tube and the azymuth adjustment of Prism are imperfect,
90°. for example, the polarization plane of the returning beam
will not be perfectly vertical to the Prism. Then, some of
o) Cylindrical-lens the returning beam will not be deflected but will pass
The beam is coverged in a particular plane and is not af­ straightly through Prism, return to Laser-tube, vary its out­
fected in a plane vertical to the former plane by this lens. put power and paralize all pickup and servo systems.
By this lens, the beam is deformed if the distance between
the disc and objective-lens is incorrect. The alignment is
different by models. An example is shown in Fig. 36 at
the end of this chapter.

(a) B e a m is r e f l e c t e d c o m p l e t e l y (b) B e a m is m o s t l y d i f f r a c t e d
on nonpitted surface. on pits.

Pits o n t r a c k

O u t p u t of Photodiode (the
a m o u n t of light energy returned
to t h e diode)

Time

Fig. 19 Pit information is transduced into electric signal by Photodiode

58
6.2 Demodulation
The signal from the diodes are amplified in Pre-amplifier
(RF-amp). The focus control signal (Bl + B3) — (B2 + B4)
and tracking control signal (A — C) are separated here.
B-sum signal (Bl + B2 + B3 + B4) is applied to Band-pass-
filter (BPF) via Compensator, and is distributed to video
and audio frequency demodulators.
The video signal came from the BPF (3.5M-15MHz) is

Response (dB)
frequency-demodulated. The main current of the video
signal goes into the main demodulator. The rest goes into
the *lH-delay circuit and then to the Auxiliary-demodulator
connected parallelly to the main one. Whenever a *dropout
is detected, the dropped out portion is filled with the 1H-
delayed signal or the signal of the previous horizontal line.
The dropout time of LD is within one horizontal scanning
period (1H) shorter than that of VCR. Although the aux­
iliary signal is monochrome, we feel it natural because our
eyes are not so sensitive to color as to the bright and dark Frequency (MHz)
signal. Synchronizing signals and control codes are
separated from the dropout-compensated video signal and
Fig. 2 0 Frequency characteristics
supplied to the servo circuits and microprocessor
of reproduced signal
respectively.

* I H : O n e h o r i z o n t a l s c a n n i n g line o n t h e s c r e e n .
( 6 3 . 5 /is N T S C )

P r e v i o u s h o r i z o n t a l line

* Dropout: W h e n s c r a t c h e d , a disc loses pitted i n f o r m a t i o n , and w h e n

c o v e r e d by t h i c k f i n g e r p r i n t s , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c a n n o t be read o u t .
Then, the reproduced v i d e o a n d a u d i o signals are s u d d e n l y lost
simultaneously for a short period. Dropped-out portion

The 2-channel audio signals separated by BPF are separate­

ly frequency-demodulated and become audio signals.
When, the signals have been CX-encoded, they are decoded
in CX-noise-reduction circuit. If dropout is detected, the
previous level is supplied by previous-value-holding circuit. Fig.21 Dropout compensation

DROPOUT
DETECTOR

1H-DELAY FM
DEMODULATOR

I VIDEO
' OUT
DISC

FM
DEMODULATOR

TANGENTIAL SERVO
SPINDLE SERVO
OBJECTIVE-LENS

FM
COMPENSATOR FILTER CH-1
DEMODULATOR

AUDIO
OUT

FM
CH-2
DEMODULATOR

TRACKING SERVO

Fig. 22 Block diagram of demodulating circuit

59
6.3 Servo control system a) Focus servo system

High precision servo control is required to trace the pits Slight up and down fluttering of the disc is inevitable when
of 0.4/mi wide. The electro-optical servo system takes charge playing because every disc has uneven and warped surface.
of fine adjustments which are impossible mechanically. The Objective-lens should move up and down to keep the op­
main servo control systems employed in the LD system are: timum distance from the disc and to *focus the beam on
Focus, Tracking, Spindle, Tangential and Slider servo con­ the recorded signal plane. * Cylindrical-lens and
trol systems. Photodiode-B play important rolls to keep the distance. The
Cylindrical-lens deforms the beam to help the diode see
if Objective-lens is in the correct position.

* F o c u s : S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , t h e b e a m is n o t f o c u s e d b u t c o n v e r g e d
because f o c u s i n g c a n be m a d e w i t h a parallelly travelling beam w h i l e
t h i s b e a m h a s e v e r b e e n c o n v e r g e d a n d d i v e r g e d a n d is n o t p a r a l l e l .
A n d p i n - p o i n t f o c u s i n g is u n n e c e s s a r y t o g e t a c e n t e r s p o t o f <i>\.5fim
o n the a l u m i n u m surface.

s
C y l i n d r i c a l lens: A s s h o w n in Figs. 2 3 a n d 3 6 , it
w o r k s as a plane g l a s s plate a g a i n s t a light in a n
axial plane a n d as a c o n v e x lens in a lateral plane,
t h u s , w h e n a c o n v e r g i n g b e a m passes it, t h e lateral
c o n v e r g i n g p o i n t is m a d e c l o s e r t o t h e l e n s t h a n
D i s c is
the longitudinal converging point. too close.
+ V

Photodiode
Laser beam surface

Cylindrical-lens
Optimum
0

Prism

D i s c is
too far.
-V

Photodiode

Focus error signal

Objective-lens

Far Close

S' Optimum

Disc

Output of differential amplifier

Fig. 2 3 Getting focus servo signal

60
The beam refracted by Prism passes Cylindrical-lens and (B1 + B3) - (B2 + B4) = V
reaches 4-segment-Photodiode-B. When the disc distance V = 0 Optimum distance (in-focus)
is optimum to make a 00.75mm center spot on the disc sur­ V > 0 Disc is too close.
face, the returned beam becomes round and equally lights V < 0 Disc is too far.
the four segments of the diode-B. When the disc moves
close to Objective-lens, the returned beam becomes thick The error voltage is applied to the focus-motor (the coil
and the spot on the diode becomes tall, and when it moves on the Objective-lens that works like the voice coil in a
far, the beam becomes thin and the spot becomes flat as speaker) and moves the lens up and down to keep it in
shown in Fig. 23. The differential amplifier, connected to focus. If there is no disc on the turntable, the disc-sense
the 4 segments, satisfies the following equation and puts circuit senses it and generates a stand-by signal.
out the differential voltage or error voltage proportional
to the spot deformation.

Ope
amp
Focus
Compen­ Power motor
sator amp
Lens
Objectivelens
up
Zero Loop control
Photo Speed
cross Sw
diode sensor
sensor control

Disc Focus ON command

Sensor
Focus lock signal
Disc s e n s e signal Photo 7 Objective-lens built in
lens-drive motor
Fig. 2 4 Block diagram of focus servo circuit

b) Tracking s e r v o s y s t e m
Every disc and Disc-clamp are eccentric to some extent, and, track center. The (A-C) difference voltage goes into the coil
the signal track, therefore, meanders and vibrates laterally on Tracking-mirror and turns it laterally. When the center
when playing. Carrying the whole pickup system, Slider beam traces the track, the error voltage is OV. In Fig. 25,
can not follow the track which quickly meanders or vibrates if it derails rightward, (A-C) becomes positive because A
in the radial direction. Tracking servo system takes charge becomes brighter than C.
of driving the beam to let it shoot the correct track. The
two side beams are aligned to offset slightly to both sides A-C = 0 Optimum
from the track center as shown in Fig. 25. Photodiode-A&C A-C > 0 The beam is deviated to the right.
detect the deviation of the side spots A and C from the A-C < 0 The beam is deviated to the left.

Left

Right
Spot A Spot B Spot C
( + 1st-order (O'th-order ( - 1 st-order
beam)
beam) beam) T r a c k i n g error
Tracking
control signal
signal
Tracking control
signal keeps t h e
b e a m position at
^ R e p r o d u c e d RF s i g n a l
PHOTODIODE

Fig. 2 5 Side spots and (A-C) signal

61
 Tracking
command: ON
(From Control block)

Zero cross
sensor
Jump pulse
generator Jump command

Power Tracking
Adder amp mirror
Variable-gain Compensating
amp

J Photo diode
Compensating
amp
Gain-shifting Adder Power
signal amp
(From Control block) Slider
motor

Voltage
SCAN command
generator
(From Control block)

Fig. 2 6 Block diagram of tracking servo circuit

E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c m i r r o r t r a n s d u c e r : It is c o m p o s e d o f a m i r ­
ror, a m a g n e t a n d a coil like a g a l v a n o m e t e r . T h e m i r r o r held
b y r u b b e r p i e c e s a t t w o p o i n t s is t u r n e d b y t h e e r r o r c u r r e n t .
T h e m i r r o r has b e e n m u l t i l a y e r - c o a t e d s o it c a n o b t a i n t h e
m a x i m u m reflexibility against t h e light o f 6 3 2 . 8 n m . This has
b e e n e m p l o y e d in t h e t a n g e n t i a l a n d t r a n c k i n g s e r v o s y s t e m s .

Photo 8 Electromagnetic mirror-transducer

-Disc-clamp

c) Spindle servo s y s t e m
Spindle servo system keeps the rotating speed of Spindle-
motor constant at 1800rpm for a CAV disc and at a
predetermined linear speed (llm/sec or 1800rpm-600rpm)
for a CLV disc. Spindle-ON command lets Spindle-motor
start rotating. When focus servo and tracking servo are
locked, video and audio signals are read out. The horizontal
synchronizing signal separated from the picked up signal
is compared by Frequency/phase comparator with the
reference signal obtained from a quartz oscillator. The er­
ror voltage proportional to the deviation from the rated
speed appears at the comparator's output. When the rota­
tion of Spindle-motor reaches a predetermined speed,
Spindle-servo-switch is closed and the error signal is ap­ Fan
plied to the motor to control its speed. The low frequency
error component of the tangential servo system is added
to the signal to make the speed more accurate. Photo 9 Spindle-motor

62
 Tang
V e r t i c a l s y n c h r o n i z i n g signal G a i n s h i f t i n g signal
lock
( F r o m signal b l o c k ) SW. (From cont'l block)

B u r s t signal Variable Tang

V-Blanking Phase Compensation Power
signal Burst Polarity gain mirror
Limiter processor comparator amp amp
(From gate shifter amp
signal
block)
Standard
signal Spindle
generator lock SW.
Spindle
Frequency Power motor
Compensation
phase Adder amp
Horizontal sync. amp
comparator
( F r o m signal b l o c k )

Freguency
L o c k senser generator
Speed F/V
cont'l converter

Spindle on c o m m a n d
(From cont'l block)

. S p i n d l e l o c k signal
(To cont'l block)

Fig. 27 Block diagram of time-axis servo system (spindle/tangential servo)

d) Tangential servo system e) Slider servo system

However accurate Spindle-motor is, an eccentric or warped Slider-base assembly, which bears the whole optical system,
disc causes jittering or momentary speed fluctuation of pits. is driven on the guide rail in the radial direction by Slider-
When the error signal of Spindle-servo control becomes motor. The low frequency component of the tracking er­
OV, Lock-detector generates a spindle-lock signal and closes ror signal is added to the slider control signal. Pickup
Tangential-loop-switch. Phase-comparator compares the should be moved slowly when playing regularly and quickly
phase of the color burst signal, which has been separated when trick playing keeping the distance between Objective-
from the video signal, with the reference color subcarrier. lens and the disc constant. A geared motor provides you
The difference voltage obtained from the comparator is ap­ with a wide range of speed and the quick shifting ability
plied to the coil on Tangential-mirror transducer to turn of the speed.
the mirror. It controls the relative speed of the pits and
cancels the fluctuation by turning its mirror back and forth
in the tangential direction. When the momentary speed of
the pits becomes slow, the Tangential-mirror turns to let
the reflected beam shoot a little backward. When the speed
becomes fast, the mirror turns to let the beam shoot a lit­
tle forward. Without this control, the picture will be
unstable and deformed. The low frequency error compo­
nent taken out of the error signal is applied to Spindle-
motor to directly control its speed.

Photo 10 Slider-motor

63
6.4 CX (Compatible Expansion) noise reduction After frequency demodulated, the audio signal of each
system matched w i t h LD system channel passes a 75/xs deemphasizer. In CX expander, the
signal level is adjusted and the signal is applied to a gain-
The Dolby system is only for minimizing the high frequency variable amplifier and a level sensor. The amplifier senses
hiss noise inherent to the cassette tapes. The system is not CX-ON/OFF signal. When CX is OFF, its gain becomes
effective for LD because LD's noise has been distributed constant. When CX is ON, the signal is rectified by the
to the medium and low frequency ranges. The CX system level sensor and is compared with a reference level. The gain
which has been developed by CBS, Inc., compresses high of the amplifier against the signal over the reference level
level audio signals when recording and expands them when is made constant. If the signal level is lower than the
reproducing irrespective of their frequency and improves reference level, the signal is level-detected by the main filter
the signal to noise ratio (S/N) by 14dB at maximum and of lms attack time and 10ms release time and then is peak-
expands the dynamic range up to 70dB or more. Some detected by LPF and HPF accurately. The detected signal
LaserDiscs, therefore, employ the new system. controls the gain of the amplifier to get the original signal
With this system, natural sound is obtainable being free
from the frequency equalizer which is required by the Dolby
System.

Input level
in d B 6.5 Function control
The control system has two main blocks,
microprocessor and data processor, and provides the
following functions:

• Receives commands from the keyboard or remote

Output level

control unit.
• Deciphers the PHILIPS codes separated from the
in dB

picked-up signals.
• Stores the above data and generates character signals
for displaying.
• Provides the servo systems with control signals in
proper timing in accordance with the player's mode.
» Processes frame and address information when sear­
ching, etc.

(40% Mod.) OdB

Fig. 28 CX NR compression/expansion characteristics

Playback
Command PLL Horizontal sync.
output ( S i g n a l Sine)
Micro Data Character display
processor processor Signal
( S i g n a l line)
M o d e control signal
( S i g n a l line)
Data signal
( S i g n a l line)

Input Remote control

Data bus
(Player's Receiver
Buffer Signal
state)

Fig. 2 9 Block diagram of function control

64
a) Random access b) Trick play
The random access instructions from the keyboard is re­ When a trick key is pressed, a command signal makes
ceived by Receiver. FRAME or CHAPTER number is taken the Tracking-mirror turn to let the beam jump back or
out of the composite signal, deciphered and displayed on forth. The picture is not interfered by the jump opera­
a CRT. The address information is sent from Data- tion because the beam jumps in vertical blanking
processor to Microprocessor and are processed there and period or in a horizontal scanning period of 16thH,
command signals are produced. 17thH, 18thH, 279thH, 280thH or 281thH (NTSC).
Refer to Figs. 10 and 31. Fig. 32 shows how the beam
When searching Frame # 1000 from # 2000, for example, traces the track. STILL command makes the beam
depressing SEARCH—FRAME—1000—SEARCH makes jump back every one revolution. x3SPEED let it jump
the Data-processor read the input, display on the screen forward in every half revolution. x3 REVERSE lets it
and send the information to Microprocessor. Data- jump back two times in every half revolution. SLOW
processor also reads the played-back data and sends the speed can be varied gradually down to one frame per
frame number of the picture now playing to the second with the slow speed control lever. The longer a
Microprocessor. Microprocessor compares the present frame is repeated, the slower it becomes
frame number with the one being searched and makes the
slider move right and left till it recognizes that the beam
is tracing the track # 1000. The slider movement is rough
and quick first and then gradually becomes precise and slow
as shown in Fig. 30.

Search sequence
from frame ®2000 to •1000

Normal play Reverse play

Frame No.

Slider Scan Scan Jump

speed REV. FWD. REV. Play

Fast x 3 F W D Fast x 3 REV

Time

Fig. 3 0 Search sequence from FRAME # 2 0 0 0 t o # 1 0 0 0

Still
Fig. 3 1 PHILIPS codes on vertical blanking signal
Fig. 3 2 Jump operation in each playback modes
* Vertical b l a n k i n g pulse in t h e 1st field - S c r e e n is b l a n k e d o u t d u r i n g t h i s t i m e .
Philips C o d e
Equalizing White flag
Equalizing a: 2 . 5 / i S pulses ( 3 H ) M C A code. Colour burst
pulses (3H) b: 4 . 5 j u S
c: 5.0MS 1Vp-p

0.2V

V. synch,
pulses ( 3 H )
Philips C o d e
* V e t i c a l b l a n k i n g p u l s e i n t h e 2nd f i e l d
M C A code

63.5MS

65
7. LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation)

A device for generating a coherent light which has wave

components of an equal length and uniform phase. The
ordinary lights are incoherent having various wave com­
ponents and phases because in the emission of the light,
the atoms vibrate randomly and independently of each
other and give it various frequencies and phases. A single
colored ordinary light still has waves of various phases
although its wavelength is. almost uniform.
Amplitude

Time

Coherent in time
C o h e r e n t in space
Amplitude

Time

I n c o h e r e n t in s p a c e
I n c o h e r e n t in t i m e

Fig. 3 3 Light waves

He-Ne laser generator consists of three blocks, a laser tube,

H e - N e laser
mirrors, and power supply.
Intensity

As an active material, a blended gas of helium and neon

has been filled in a specially designed glass tube. Two mir­
rors are installed at the both ends of the tube to be faced Blue Green Red
each other. The atoms in the gas is excited by tht voltage A r g o n laser
applied to the tube and emits a radiation. Actually, neon
Intensity

gas only emits radiation and helium gas works as an agent

and helps the neon emit the light effectively. The excited
atoms stimulate the emission of radiation of other atoms.
Purple B l u e Green Red
The light generated in the tube is reflected repeatedly by Sun light
the mirrors, resonated and gets an energy of higher level
Intensity

till it leaks out of the tube through one of the two mirrors
which is partially reflective. The continuous resonance
maintains the continuous emission of radiation. About one
4 0 0 n m Blue Green Red yOOnm
percent of the energy applied to the tube comes out of it
in the form of a laser beam.

Fig. 34 Frequency spectrum of lights

66
Power supply circuit generates high voltage pulses. When On the other hand, a red He-Ne laser beam is used for
start oscillating, the tube requires the pulses of several thou­ playback because it can be generated stably with low
sand volts. energy for many hours. Laser beam is the best for
reading quickly moving small pits and patterns because
A high powered (a few watts) purple argon laser beam is it is very thin and stable and travels long way straightly
used for cutting a master disc because the photoresist without diffusing. Semiconductor laser generators will
coating on the original glass disc is very sensitive to it. be employed in the near future.

Mirror Glass tube Mirror

He-Ne gas Positive

electrode
electrode

Stabilizing resistor

Power source

Fig. 35 Laser-tube

8. Application of LD s y s t e m

Being highly durable, reliable and computer-compatible,

LD system has been applied in various fields as a compo­
nent of audio-video system, video game console, Karaoke
or sing-along player, still-picture-with-sound player and
light and sound programming system for amusing, train­
ing, filing and exhibiting purposes. It is unpredictable how
widely it will be used.

67
 Photodiode-B
Reference
Cross-sectional plane

Beam

Cylindrical-Lens L o n g i t u d i n a l plane

B e a m is i n f o c u s .
V = 0

Longitudinal converging point

Cross-sectional
converging point
D i s c is t o o c l o s e .
V > 0

Disc is t o o f a r .
V < 0

Fig. 36 Cylidrical-lens deforms beam spot

Loop gain(dB)

Amplitude 1 m m
Gain(dB)

Specification
- 1 2dB/oct of disc I

(Specification'
[of U p / d o w n -6dB/oct OdB = 5nS
ifiuttering o f disc

2 (im o u t o f f o c u s

Frequency(Hz)
Frequency(Hz)

Fig. 3 7 Open loop characteristic of focus servo system Fig. 3 8 Open loop characteristics of tangential servo system

68
 QUESTIONNAIRE MODEL
One Model per questionnaire

D e a r Servicer,

Thank you for your cooperation in the post-sale service of Pioneer products.

This questionnaire is used as a tool to improve the serviceability of our products and service manuals.
Please evaluate this model and service manual by answering the following questions. Your ideas may be
realized in our future products. Your answers will be appreciated. Thank you.

PIONEER ELECTRONIC CORP.

T. Nakagawa, Manager, Service Section, International Division

1. SERVICING EVALUATION Circle applicable number: Good Fair Poor

a. Disassembly/Re-assembly: 1 2 3 *4 *5

b. Circuit Checks: 1 2 3 *4 *5

c Replacement of Parts: 1 2 3 *4 *5

d. Adjustment (s): 1 2 3 *4 *5

* If (4) or (5) was circled, please be specific.

69
 e. Your advice, opinion or ideas related to servicing this product.

2. SERVICE MANUAL EVALUATION

a. Circuit & Mechanism Description

b. Circuit Diagram

3. OTHER

Please describe other areas of servicing which you may find difficult.

Completed by : Date :

Company Name :

Address :

City/State/Zip :

Please send this form filled to the distributor in your country.

70
PLEASE ANSWER THE QUESTIONNAIRE For further improvement, we planned to investigate how
you evaluate the service manual and serviceability of our
Dear Servicers, products. The questionnaire form on the previous pages
is the one recently inserted in the service manuals.
As you are aware, many of the recent products are multi-
functioning, small-sized and lower-priced for better Please answer it and tell us the pains which you might be
marketing. And this has brought difficulties in repairing suffering from. Your ideas may be reflected in the future
due to the complicated circuitry and high density of unit. models.

In consideration of this fact, we are now trying hard in Any request or advice on this TUNING FORK will highly
Tokyo to improve the service manual and serviceability of be appreciated.
products by deeply involving in creating service manual and
in designing major models at prototype stage, resulting in Thank you for your great cooperation.
success at a certain extent.

TUNING FORK No. 6

First printing: 1983

Compiled and edited by

Editors in Chief:
Ikki Nagashima
Administration Department
International Division
Tadahiro Nakagawa
Service Section
Administration Department
International Division

and

Editors:
H. Abe, F. Tsukamoto,
A. Kogirima, Y. Narumai,
K. Nohara, S. Hirose
and Y. Kojima

71
 PIONEER
PIONEER ELECTRONIC CORPORATION
4-1, Meguro 1-chome, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153, Japan

PIONEER ELECTRONICS (U.S.A.) I N C

5 0 0 0 , Airport Plaza Drive, Long Beach, California 90815, U.S.A.

PIONEER ELECTRONIC (EUROPE) N.V.

Keetberglaan 1, 2 7 4 0 Beveren, Belgium

PIONEER ELECTRONICS A U S T R A L I A PTY LTD.

178-184 Boundary Road, Braeside, Victoria 3195, Australia

Printed in J a p a n