Qatar Desalination Research

Desalination 564 (2023) 116802
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Desalination
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/desal
Qatar desalination research: An overview

Haleema Saleem, Nada Abounahia, Hammadur Rahman Siddiqui, Syed Javaid Zaidi *
UNESCO Chair in Desalination and Water Treatment, Center for Advanced Materials, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
H I G H L I G H T S
• Different desalination studies in Qatar-based institutions discussed

• Present desalination facilities in Qatar and their corresponding desalination technologies analyzed
• Various studies on membrane-based and thermal-based technologies presented
• Environmental impact assessment of desalination plants also examined
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: As freshwater scarcity has intensified in Qatar, seawater desalination has been established as a strategic and
Qatar prominent industry. This study thoroughly analyzes the current status of seawater desalination research and
Desalination development in Qatar and assessed the trend of seawater-based desalination industry in Qatar. The character
Reverse osmosis
istics of Arabian Gulf, history of seawater desalination in Qatar, Qatar National Vision 2030, policies, and reg
Multi-stage flash distillation
Qatar National Vision 2030
ulations governing seawater desalination in Qatar are presented first. Then, the present desalination facilities,
their corresponding desalination technologies, and the current challenges faced by desalination facilities in Qatar
have been reviewed. Different desalination studies in Qatar-based Institutions such as Qatar University (QU),
Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), and Texas A&M University Qatar (TAMUQ) were examined. Various
studies on membrane-based (reverse osmosis, forward osmosis, electrodialysis, and membrane distillation),
thermal-based (multi-stage flash distillation and multiple effect distillation), membrane-thermal hybrid tech
nologies, and renewable-based technologies were analyzed carefully in this paper. Different proposals for
existing problems in desalination process and some suggested measures regarding the current status of seawater
desalination have been highlighted. Recent trend of integrating renewable energy with the desalination tech
niques, and the environmental impact assessment of desalination plants were also discussed. This review pre
sented a comprehensive database for Qatar-based seawater desalination research and serves as a complete and
important analysis for distinctive status of desalination in Qatar where clean water is scarce.
1. Introduction very limited in Qatar, the majority of water for domestic water con
sumption is produced from desalination facilities [3]. Desalination is the
Qatar has a land area of 11,610 km2 and is a small peninsula in the process of separating salts or other minerals, and pollutants from
Arabian Peninsula’s northeastern region on the Arabian Gulf (longitude: brackish water, seawater, and wastewater discharge, and it is a pro
51.5167 E and latitude: 25.300 N). As of July 2021, the population in gressively common solution for obtaining clean water for human usage
Qatar is noted to be 2.930 million and is expected to grow to 3.3 million and for industrial/domestic uses [4,5]. The desalination is an extremely
by year 2030 [1]. Qatar has a great shortage of freshwater resources, and energy intensive process and with the rising energy intake patterns,
the clean water scarcity is mainly because of very less annual rainfall in significant stress is accumulated on the present desalination facilities.
Qatar and absence of lakes and rivers [2]. For meeting the water re Table 1 shows the cost and energy consumption of different desalination
quirements, Qatar relies on desalted seawater, groundwater, as well as technologies. The desalination process’s sustainability depends mostly
treated wastewater. Due to the fact that the ground water resources are on the energy expense reduction, the water recovery increase, and the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.J. Zaidi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.116802
Received 18 April 2023; Received in revised form 22 June 2023; Accepted 23 June 2023
Available online 24 June 2023
0011-9164/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Saleem et al. Desalination 564 (2023) 116802
Table 1 surface area of around 2.35 × 1011 m2 and average depth of about 35 m,
Cost and efficiency of different desalination technologies. Adapted from refer it also holds about 8000 km3 of seawater [13,14]. Seawater concentra
ences [11, 12]. tion in the Arabian Gulf is regarded as one of the highest concentrations
Desalination technology Total water Cost Total electric equivalent in the world due to the arid and hot climate coupled with low precipi
(USD/m3) (kWh/m3) tation (annual rainfall ranges from 5 to 7 cm), resulting in high Gulf
Reverse osmosis $0.52–0.56 5–9 waters evaporation (approximately 1.84 m/year) and a total dissolved
Multi-stage flash (MSF) $0.52–1.75 13.5–25.5 solid (TDS) levels range from 41,000 to 45,000 ppm, for instance, in
Multi-effect distillation $0.52–1.01 6.5–11 some parts of Qatar it reaches 60,000 ppm [3,13,15,16]. The Gulf
(MED)
seawater is observed to be the hottest sea on the earth, with elevated
water temperatures that range from around 22 ◦ C in the winter to 33 ◦ C
generated wastewater reuse [6]. In 2015, the desalinated water in Qatar in the summer and very high levels of turbidity with zero transparency
totaled 533 million m3, relative to 362 million m3 in 2010 [7]. In 2017, in the northern part of the Gulf [14]. Arabian seawater has very little
the quantity of desalinated water generated in Qatar was approximately water movement due to its many small islands, high concentration of
602 million m3, relative to 557 million m3 in 2016 [8]. organic materials, colloids (SDI) and bacteriological activity especially
The main goal of Qatar National Vision 2030 is to “transform Qatar in summer, and seasonal red tides due to high level of algae bloom [17].
into an advanced society capable of achieving sustainable development” The major chemical compositions of Arabian Gulf seawater are
by 2030. This can be accomplished via decreasing the usage of hydro shown below in Table 2 by considering the seawater analysis of Ras Abu
carbons by switching to more energy-saving technologies with lower Fontas desalination plants in Qatar which is provided by the Gulf Or
carbon dioxide emissions, thus decreasing its effect on the environment ganization for Research and Development (GORD) [18]. The chloride
as well as the aquatic eco-system. A main challenge of Qatar National content of the Arabian Gulf seawater is roughly1.6 to 2 times that of the
Vision 2030 (QNV 2030) is the production as well as distribution of seawater from Mediterranean or the Atlantic [19].
clean drinking water, while preserving the water production in accor Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region is suffering from limited
dance with QNV 2030 criteria. Qatar safeguards the provision of water availability of conventional water supplies, such as replenishable
for its entire population, and the population percentage that benefited groundwater and fresh surface water, thus most of GCC countries such as
from clean drinking water services achieved 100 %, in which desalina Qatar, UAE, Oman, and Kuwait are totally depending on seawater as a
tion of seawater constitutes 60 % of total accessible water [9,10]. main source of feedwater for producing their needs of desalinated water
However, the production of desalinated water depends to some extent and water supply for municipal and industrial uses, while about half of
on oil and gas, and leads to multiple ecological impacts, which are the water supplies of UAE and Saudi Arabia are obtained from seawater
constantly observed by the Ministry of Municipality and Environment. desalination [15]. Also, it has been indicated that seawater desalination
For achieving the outcomes of Qatar Second National Development is responsible for 90 % of the fresh water consumed in Gulf Cooperation
Strategy 2018– 2022, the Natural Resources Management Strategy em Council countries and they are in charge of providing for nearly half of
phases on sustaining, conserving, and diversifying water sources, in the world’s desalinated seawater capacity, using Gulf input seawater
clusive of desalinated water, recycled water, and ground water which [20,21]. Arabian gulf seawater is considered as the most important
can be accomplished by lowering the desalination expenses and all types natural seawater resource in GCC. The Arabian Gulf countries are ex
of water loss, introducing awareness campaigns, implementing the pected to have a desalination capacity of 11 million m3/day [22]. There
Conservation Law, and progressively using treated sewage effluent are 213 desalination plants in operation in the region, with 51 more
(TSE) [7]. The Qatari government has urged the commitment of con scheduled to start up soon [22].
sumers by increasing the education and awareness on optimum water
usage patterns, lowering gas emissions, improving the efficiency of 3. History of seawater desalination in Qatar
water desalination systems, rationalizing energy use, and promoting the
usage of renewable energy [9]. Many different water desalination technologies are implemented in
To the best of our knowledge, no studies have reported the GCC, and they are classified into: thermal processes and membrane
desalination-based studies carried out exclusively in Qatar-based Uni processes. In the early stages, GCC countries were completely reliant on
versities, with special focus on the present water situations in Qatar with using thermal desalination processes because of the availability and low
respect to characteristics of Arabian Gulf, QNV-2030, policies and reg
ulations governing seawater desalination in Qatar, current challenges Table 2
faced by desalination facilities in Qatar, different desalination studies in Seawater analysis of Ras Abu Fontas (B and A1) desalination plants in Qatar
Qatar-based major Universities, for example Qatar University (QU), [17].
Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), and Texas A&M University Qatar
Parameter RAF A1 RAF B
(TAMUQ). Different research studies based on membrane-based (reverse
Total hardness (mg/L) 7900 7880
osmosis (RO), forward osmosis (FO), electrodialysis (ED), and mem
TDS (mg/L) 44,945 44,750
brane distillation (MD)), thermal-based (multi-stage flash distillation Conductivity (mS/cm) 63,300 63,200
(MSF), multiple effect distillation (MED), and thermal vapor compres pH 8.19 8.17
sion (TVC)), membrane-thermal hybrid technologies, and renewable- Calcium hardness (mg/L) 1160 1150
based technologies are analyzed carefully in this paper. The goal of Magnesium hardness (mg/L) 6740 6730
Calcium 464 460
this review is to highlight the recent studies carried out in Qatar to Magnesium 1618 1615
effectively use the different desalination technologies with maximum Total alkalinity (mg/L) 126 125
process efficiency, reducing the operating costs, and reducing the Sodium (mg/L) 12,300 12,200
greenhouse gas emissions. Sulfate (mg/L) 3220 3200
Bromide (mg/L) 75 74
Chloride (mg/L) 24,900 24,800
2. Characteristics of Arabian Gulf Copper (mg/L) 5.0 5.0
Silica (mg/L) 0.8 0.8
Arabian Gulf has characteristics differ from the world’s ocean waters Iron (mg/L) 20 20
in many aspects and known for its very difficult and complex nature. Its Turbidity (NTU) 3.0 2.5
Bicarbonate (mg/L) 154 153
nature can be described by very shallow semi enclosed sea body with a
Suspended solids (mg/L) 8.5 8.0
2
cost of fossil fuel (NG & oil) as main sources for energy to run these Table 3
intensive energy plants, besides to their larger capacity per unit, Gulf Desalination facilities of state of Qatar.
water poor quality characterized by high turbidity, high salinity, high Facility Capacity Technology Commissioning References
temperature and high marine life, and last but not least minimal pre and (MIGD) year
post treatment required for red tides by these thermal technologies Ras Abu Fontas 55 MSF (1977–1983) [18,20,28–30]
compared to membrane technologies [23]. Thus, until 1970, the plants A 1994
developed up and erected in Qatar for seawater desalination were Ras Abu Fontas 45 MSF 2010
entirely based on the thermal desalination technique. A1
Ras Abu Fontas 36 MSF 2015
In 1953, Qatar established the first desalination plant in Doha with a A2
capacity of 680 m3/day (150,000 gpd) based on submerged tube process Ras Abu Fontas 33 MSF 1995
[3,24–26]. Later, in 1959, The state of Qatar constructed two units of B
Flash evaporation at Ras Abu Aboud, by using long tube design, which Ras Abu Fontas 30 MSF 2008
B2
had a capacity of 299,860 gal/day (1363 m3/day) [27]. Soon after, in
Ras Laffan A 40 MSF 2003–2004
1962, in Ras Abu Aboud, east of Doha, Qatar developed its first Multi Ras Laffan B 60 MSF 2006–2008
stage Flash evaporation facility with a production capacity of 1.5 MIGD Qaeedat al 0.2 MSF 1993
(6800 m3/day) [27]. Two further units were erected in 1968, with 1.98 Shamal
MIGD (9000 m3/day) as an overall capacity [27]. Ras Abu Fontas ‘A’ Dukhan Plant 2 MED 1997
Umm Bab 0.13 MED-TVC 1996
saw the construction of the third facility in 1977, that also utilized Umm Said 0.45 MED-TVC 1996
Multistage Flash Desalination (MSF) [25]. Following that, Researchers Mesaieed 1.3 MED 2012
have never ceased looking for novel desalination procedures that are Industrial
more efficient, use less energy, and are less expensive. As a result, in the City
Ras Laffan C 63 MED 2010
20th century’s late 1960s, innovative technologies like reverse osmosis
(Ras Qertas)
(RO) and electrodialysis (ED) were gradually applied in the GCC region. Plateau 0.26 MED-TVC 2013
Old techniques like multi effect distillation (MED) and vapor compres Maintenance
sion (VC) were also updated to address their shortcomings and increase Project
their competitiveness. (PMP)
Abu Samra 0.2 RO 1982
In 1982, the fourth seawater desalination plant and a first reverse
Pearl of Qatar 9 RO 2008
osmosis (RO) process were introduced in the state of Qatar at Abu Samra SWRO
Plant with a capacity of (909 m3/day) [25,27]. To provide industrial Ras Abu Fontas 36 RO 2017
sector with water, the MED Dukhan Plant, which has 2 MIGD (9091 m3/ A3
Umm Al Houl 136.5 Combined 2018
day) as a capacity, was established in 1996 besides to Umm Bab TVC-
(MSF & RO)
MED desalination plant with 600 m3/day design capacity [27,28]. Total ≈548.04
While Ras Abu Fontas ‘B’ MSF plant began operations in late 90’s and
Ras Laffan ‘A’ MSF plant initially came online in June 2004 until it’s
reached its full capacity in 2009 with about 40 MIGD.
Qatar’s production capacity expanded at an annual rate of 17 % on
Volume in million cubic meters per year
average between 2004 and 2008, with the highest growth of 28 % in 671 691
637
2008 [27]. Qatar provided 7.2 % of the GCC countries’ total desalination 602
capacity of 14.84 million m2 per day in 2008 (3265 MIGD) [27]. In 2008
557
533
482.2
two MSF units were commenced commercial operation to produce 30 425.9
453.2
401
MIGD of water in Ras Abu Fontas ‘B2’ facility [29]. Also, Ras Laffan ‘B’ 340
374
312
was officially opened in 2008 as the largest power and water plant 251
existed in that time and it has a seawater desalination plant operated by
MSF technology producing 60 million gallons (MIGD) desalinated water
per day using four MSF units supplied by Doosan Heavy Industries
[30,31]. After this time, TriTech Holding Inc. added a 5760 m3/day Year
TVC-MED desalination plant at Mesaieed Industrial City in 2012 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
[28,32]. 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
The fifth major desalination plant based on reverse osmosis sea water
desalination was completed in 2016 at Ras Abu Fontas ‘A3’ in Al Wakra
Fig. 1. Production volume (Mm3/year) of desalinated water in Qatar from
with a capacity of 36 MIGD (164,000 m3/day) [25]. While, the sixth and 2007 to 2020.
most recent facility, is located in Umm Al Houl, with 136 MIGD as an
overall capacity divided into 60 MIGD produced by RO and the rest 76
4. QNV, policies and regulations governing seawater
MIGD produced by a hybrid MSF co-generation facility [25]. These two
desalination in Qatar
plants are considered to be the first in Qatar to use reverse osmosis
technology on a large-scale industrial operation. Table 3 includes a list
The Qatari government established the QNV as a long-term devel
of all Qatari desalination plants that have been operational, along with
opment strategy to turn Qatar into a sustainable knowledge-based
their capacity and technology while Fig. 1 displays Qatar’s total desa
economy with excellent living standards for its people [40]. Qatar pri
linated water output volume from 2007 to 2020, which reached 690
marily relies on seawater desalination as a major source of drinkable
million m3 [8,33–35]. Fig. 2 shows the schematic of MSF process in a
water because it is a country with limited freshwater resources and a
Qatar-based desalination plant and Fig. 3 presents the block diagram of
shortage of water. In accordance with the QNV, a number of laws and
the simulated SWRO desalination plant in a Qatar-based study.
regulations have been put in place to control seawater desalination in
Qatar. Some of these policies and regulations include:
3
Fig. 2. Advanced multi-stage flash desalination configuration using a nano-filtration unit in Qatar based desalination plant. Reproduced from Reference [37].
Fig. 3. Block diagram of the simulated SWRO desalination plant in a Qatar-based study. Reproduced from Reference [39].
Water Security Strategy: The Qatari government has developed a Water Conservation Measures: Qatar encourages water conservation
water security strategy with the goal of providing a consistent and measures in order to lower water demand and maximize water uti
sustainable supply of water through a variety of techniques, such as lization. To lessen the dependency on desalinated water for non-
saltwater desalination [41]. The strategy puts forth strategies for potable uses, these approaches include the use of treated waste
improving water production capability, enhancing water infra water for non-potable purposes, such as irrigation and industrial
structure, and improving water demand management. activities.
Environmental Regulations: To guarantee that the environmental
impact of these facilities is minimized, Qatar has set strong envi In accordance with the Qatar National Vision, these laws and rules
ronmental standards governing the operation of seawater desalina governing seawater desalination in Qatar are intended to guarantee a
tion plants [42]. These rules address issues like brine discharge, sustainable water supply, safeguard the environment, foster innovation,
wastewater treatment, and seawater intake and discharge. To get and optimize water use.
and keep their operational permits, desalination facilities must
adhere to certain rules. 5. Present desalination facilities and technologies in Qatar
Energy Efficiency Standards: To encourage the use of effective
desalination techniques and lower the energy consumption of these In order to meet the Qatar’s growing water demands in the future,
facilities, Qatar has established energy efficiency criteria for salt two new desalination facilities have been established. The 1st plant in
water desalination plants. Modern techniques and technologies are Ras Abu Fontas and the 2nd one in Umm Al Houl. These facilities have
encouraged to be adopted by desalination plants in order to maxi improved the overall share of reverse osmosis in the desalination market
mize their energy efficiency and lessen their carbon footprint. considerably. These facilities are extremely economical as they have less
Research and Development: Qatar supports desalination-related energy expenditure, zero CO2 emissions, and simple maintenances, this
R&D to promote innovation and identify long-term approaches to effectively complies with the guidelines for achieving QNV 2030.
water production. Academic institutions are encouraged to do Table 4 presents the contracted capacities of various Qatar-based desa
research in this area to create new technologies and methods for lination facilities [32,34,44].
seawater desalination. The Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) To address its expanding water demand, Qatar has invested in a
offers financing for research initiatives linked to desalination [43]. number of desalination facilities and technologies. One of Qatar’s
Public-Private Partnerships: Qatar supports public-private partner biggest seawater desalination plants, the Ras Abu Fontas (RAF) desali
ships PPPs to increase investment, technological transfer, and oper nation plant is situated in the Ras Abu Fontas area of Doha. It uses multi-
ational effectiveness in the desalination industry. In order to build stage flash technology for desalination and can produce 164 million
and run desalination facilities that meet the QNV objectives, the gallons per day (MGD) in total. In the southern region of Qatar, Umm Al
government collaborates closely with private businesses. Houl (UAH) Power Company runs a large integrated power and water
4
Table 4 chlorine atoms considered as recalcitrant chemicals that causes a dam

Contracted capacities of different Qatar-based reverse osmosis desalination age to the stratospheric ozone layer [37]. MSF-plant’s outlet has chlo
plants [28,30,36]. rine content ranging from 0.2 to 0.45 (ppm) [48]. Other chemicals are
Independent power and water Contracted water capacity mm3/ added throughout the desalination process for scale management, anti-
producers (MIGD) day scalants, foam reduction, and corrosion inhibition, and are discharged
Qatar Electricity and Water into the sea as pollutants [48].
Company The brine produced by MSF is distinguished by its high salt content of
Ras Abu Fontas RAF A1 44.31 0.20 almost 80,000 ppm, lower dissolved oxygen, and elevated temperature
Ras Abu Fontas RAF A2 35.14 0.16
than that of seawater (8–11 ◦ C). Discharging MSF’s brine stream into
Ras Abu Fontas RAF A3 35.14 0.16
Ras Abu Fontas RAF B 33.00 0.15 seawater causes thermal pollution leading to increase the seawater
Ras Abu Fontas RAF B2 29.14 0.13 salinity, temperature, turbidity and water current [48]. Furthermore,
Ras Laffan the brine and the rejected cooling SW from MSF process are both include
Ras Laffan A 40.0 0.18 additives and corrosion products that adversely affect the marine envi
Ras Laffan B 60.0 0.27
Ras Laffan C 63.0 0.29
ronment [48]. The release of brine from MED process, like MSF, has
Umm Al Houl Power Company significant environmental consequences because of changes in physical
Umm Al Houl Power 136.5 0.62 characteristics and residues of chemical additives or corrosion products.
Biocides, anti-scalants, antifoaming agents, and corrosion inhibitors are
popular chemical additives in MED plants [48]. The temperature of
desalination project. It uses both MSF and RO technologies for seawater
MED-TVC’s brine discharged stream is at a temperature (5–11) ◦ C higher
desalination and has a total output capacity of 618 MGD. The Ras Laffan
than that of seawater temperature causing a thermal pollution to the
desalination plant is another significant saltwater desalination facility in
seawater [48]. On the other hand, VC requires energy less than MSF and
Qatar, and it is situated in the Ras Laffan Industrial City. The desalina
has lower environmental impacts [49].
tion process, which uses reverse osmosis technology, has a 68 MGD
production capacity. Qatar uses hybrid desalination technologies in
7. Desalination studies in Qatar
addition to MSF and RO technologies to maximize water output. These
technologies incorporate numerous approaches, including MSF and RO.
There are several research institutions in Qatar such as Qatar Uni
These innovations aim to improve the desalination process’ effective
versity (QU), Texas A&M Qatar (TAMUQ), and Hamad Bin Khalifa
ness and dependability. It takes a total of 5–6 kWh of electricity to
University (HBKU)-Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute
produce a cubic meter of desalinated water in RO process. Qatar is also
(QEERI) focusing on the desalination studies. These institutions perform
supporting technology for desalination that uses sustainable energy
studies on the development of groundbreaking desalination technolo
sources, such as solar energy. Desalination can be powered by solar
gies for reducing the water production costs and lowering its environ
energy, minimizing its negative effects on the environment and reliance
mental impact.
on fossil fuels. In Qatar, a number of experimental projects are being
Since its establishment in 1977, Qatar University (QU) remains to
conducted to examine the viability of desalination using solar energy.
serve as Qatar’s primary institution of higher education, and QU has
For the purpose of meeting its expanding water demand, the nation
turned out to be a sign of research and academic excellence in the region
keeps making investments in infrastructure, research, and innovation.
today. QU comprises of 17 research centers, and the research center
‘Center for Advanced Materials’ (CAM) at QU has launched a Water
6. Current challenges faced by desalination facilities in Qatar technology Unit (WTU) in collaboration with Qatar Electricity and
Water Company (QEWC). WTU employs conventional as well as
6.1. Air pollution advanced technologies that will support in providing technical assis
tance to Qatar’s water desalination and water treatment industries for
MSF technology in Qatar has significant environmental conse ensuring that the treated or desalinated water in Qatar meets the in
quences because it produces around 370 million m3 of water in Qatar ternational standard levels appropriate for the targets, which would be
[37]. Hence, MSF produces around 4.66 million tons of CO2, which has accomplished by means of cutting-edge technologies and equipment.
both short-term and long-term detrimental health and environmental Moreover, the WTU focuses on multidisciplinary research involving the
consequences [37]. The high carbon footprint is related to the high major areas of water desalination and treatment, such as membrane-
energy required to operate MSF process in terms of electricity and heat. based desalination technologies such as reverse osmosis, forward
The top brine temperature (TBT) for MSF process operation is in the osmosis, pressure retarded osmosis, along with brine management,
range of 110 ◦ C [45]. Typical energy consumption for MSF system in control of membrane fouling control, pretreatment, and trouble
Qatar is the consumed energy of pumping, which is about 4 kWh/m3 shooting. In addition to this, several other departments in QU have
(14.4 kJ/kg electrical energy), condensing the provided steam to the research works focusing on technologies such as membrane distillation,
MSF brine heaters yields 270–280 kJ/kg of thermal energy and for total ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse electrodialysis. This diverse
equivalent mechanical energy is about 20 kWh/m3 to produce one m3 of approach allows for comprehensive exploration of different techniques
desalinated water (DW) [23,26,37,46–48]. However, MED’s total me and their potential applications in desalination and water treatment.
chanical energy is about18 kWh/m3 (counting for pumping and thermal With a strong focus on advancing the field of water treatment and
energy). As a result, thermal desalination technologies are a very desalination technologies, QU researchers have made significant con
energy-intensive processes that consume a huge amounts of NG fuel in tributions to various aspects of the desalination process. They have
Qatar and increase the release of air polluting greenhouse gases like CO2 developed advanced membranes, such as thin-film nanocomposite
and NOx. membranes using nanoparticles, to improve the performance and
longevity of RO and FO membranes. QU’s research team has also studied
6.2. Marine ecosystem pollution the impact of different parameters on membrane performance,
addressing challenges like fouling and concentration polarization.
For suppressing biological development, the MSF process involves Furthermore, QU researchers have explored the potential of forward
pre- and post-treatment chemicals that contain chlorine compounds, osmosis as a cost-effective water reclamation option, investigating its
particularly those employed in pre-treatment, which necessitate a feasibility, process modeling, and application as a pretreatment method
greater chlorination dose than post-treatment. These chemicals with for other desalination technologies. They have also conducted studies on
5
the environmental impact assessment of desalination plants, including must be categorized as water source for various uses, apart from cooking
the assessment of brine management techniques and the analysis of and drinking, for reducing the water demand on desalinated seawater.
Qatar’s water resource system. Through their comprehensive research, Even though solar desalination is very costly, there is a possibility of
Qatar University is actively contributing to the development of sus utilizing low-cost solar collectors like linear Fresnel Collector (LFC). It
tainable and efficient desalination technologies, aiming to address the was demonstrated that using concentrated solar power plant to produce
pressing water challenges in Qatar and beyond. power that operates seawater RO is the most cost-effectively competitive
Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), a part of Qatar Foundation option [47]. Furthermore, there is also a Division of Sustainable
for Education, Science, and Community Development (QF), was set up in Development (DSD) in HBKU, and in accordance with the QNV 2030,
2010 to fulfill the Qatar Foundation’s vision of unlocking human po the goal of the DSD is to carry out multi-faceted research on pioneering
tential. HBKU is a local research and graduate studies University that energy, environmental, policy, social and human capital topics that
plays as a catalyst for the optimistic transformation in Qatar and the would assist Qatar and the GCC region.
region while having a global impact. QEERI, is a national research The Texas A&M Qatar (TAMUQ) at Qatar has well equipped lab
institute under HBKU, and the Water Center in HBKU-QEERI intends to containing advanced water and environmental analysis equipment in
develop as well as optimize water resources, water treatment (desali clusive of a range of high performance gas and liquid chromatographs/
nation and wastewater treatment) materials, processes and technologies mass spectroscopy and spectrophotometers. One of the projects of
that are compatible with the environment in Qatar. Different programs TAMUQ is to develop a low-cost, efficient desalination technology
involved in this center are associated with Water Resources, Water capable of developing new inexpensive water sources from Qatar’s
Desalination, and Wastewater Treatment & Reuse. The research team brackish groundwater. The ConocoPhillips Global Water Sustainability
from HBKU-QEERI studied the conventional and non-conventional Center (GWSC) is a designated center of excellence for water related
water resources in Qatar; and discussed more sustainable solutions for technologies, disseminating findings to the global operations of the
solving Qatar’s freshwater problem [46]. The team recommended using company, and local government and industry partners.
the most effective seawater RO desalting system for any newly installed The number of desalination related publications from Qatar-based
desalted seawater system [23,50]. The HBKU-QEERI research team Institutions is presented in Fig. 4. This figure presents the number of
stated that the freshwater scarcity issue has to be resolved via sustain desalination related studies in Qatar, based on different technologies,
able water management to deal with continuously rising water re where the expression ‘desalination’ and related technology was stated in
quirements. The usage of recycled water for irrigation and other the title, abstract, or keywords, and ‘Qatar’ was listed as the affiliation
purposes, ensuring desalted seawater using solar energy, aquifer country. The database showed 367 hits for ‘desalination and Qatar’, 95
recharge employing the recycled wastewater are some of the sustainable hits for ‘reverse osmosis desalination and Qatar’, and 46 hits for ‘forward
solutions [50]. The team also suggested that the treated wastewater osmosis desalination and Qatar’. It can be noted that reverse osmosis
Fig. 4. The number of desalination related studies in Qatar, based on different technologies, where the expression ‘desalination’ and related technology was found in
the title, abstract, or keywords, and ‘Qatar’ was listed as the affiliation country.
Data extracted from the scopus.com database.
6
related studies were carried out mostly in Qatar-based institutions. decreased from 7.20 Mm3/day to 2.40 Mm3/day, respectively.
Table 5 presents the relevance of membrane-based desalination studies Furthermore, the study confirmed that the thermal contamination of the
carried out in Qatar-based institutions. MSF facilities’ rejected discharges can be reduced, and the chlorine re
sidual can be decreased significantly during utilizing seawater RO. The
7.1. Membrane-based technologies HBKU-QEERI team found that the application of seawater RO can save
till 75 % of energy utilization, and therefore the carbon dioxide emis
Membrane technology is an important technology employed for sions will be decreased from 3.564 million (M) tons per year to 0.891
water desalination as well as wastewater treatment because of the million tons per year [48]. Furthermore, as majority GCC countries are
higher quality of product water obtained after membrane filtration shifting from thermal-based (mostly MSF) to membrane-based desali
[51,52]. A membrane is a physical barrier that allows only necessary nation (mostly RO), special attention must be paid to the existence of
elements to pass through while keeping undesired materials on the algal blooms in the Arabia Gulf: the occurrence, toxicity, as well as
membrane’s exterior [53]. Currently, the desalination in Qatar is proper treatment. The attacks of harmful algal blooms (HAB) on desa
dependent on both membrane-based and thermal-based desalination lination facilities are a serious concern, which have led to remarkable
technologies. To achieve effective desalination, the membranes must be destruction in quite a few plants. Consequently, the research team in
water permeable, solute impermeable, and able to withstand higher HBKU-QEERI conducted a study on the identification of algal blooms as
operating pressures [54]. In the following section, we discuss the well as appropriate pretreatment technologies for dealing with them
desalination-based studies carried out in the different research in [72]. The team recommended that as the GCC countries are shifting
stitutions in Qatar, such as those related to reverse osmosis (RO), elec towards membrane-based desalination techniques for securing the
trodialysis (ED), forward osmosis (FO) and membrane distillation (MD). municipal water demands, they would require to adjust and utilize the
technologies for the removal of harmful algal blooms at very initial
7.1.1. Reverse osmosis phases of pretreatment. The team also reviewed the various seawater
RO is a pressure-driven membrane-based desalination process with intake technologies and highlighted the benefits and drawbacks of each
semipermeable membranes capable of permitting water to pass through technology [73]. Moreover, the capability of seawater RO feedwater
it, whereas rejecting solutes like salts, or low molecular weight organic pretreatment for providing appropriate quality, prefiltered seawater
compounds [55,56]. Researchers at the QU, HBKU, and TAMUQ are feed to the reverse osmosis membrane is necessary for the productive
continuously evaluating the operational issues associated with RO-based operation of any seawater RO desalination facility. Hence, the HBKU-
desalination facilities, and thereby reducing the maintenance costs and QEERI research team also carried out primary experiments with
improve the process efficiency. seawater RO pretreatment in Qatar and examined the pilot seawater RO
At QU, researchers are developing advanced RO membranes, eval system’s energy recovery devices [74]. The observations made from
uating operational issues related to RO desalination plants, thereby different pilot plants studies confirmed the necessity to evaluate each
improving the performance of membranes, decreasing the fouling, and site individually for better understanding about how the quality of
increasing the membrane service life. The development of thin-film feedwater impacts the sustainability and how this will in-turn impacts
nanocomposite (TFNC) membranes using nanoparticles portrays sig the life cycle costs and economics. Constructing a pilot plant of seawater
nificant opportunity in the desalination sector. Hence, the researchers RO in Qatar facilitates precise estimation of life cycle costs, in addition
offered a thorough and detailed analysis of thin film nanocomposite to more efficient comparison of different treatment kinds with the most
membranes for RO desalination, by emphasizing on various challenges feasible treatment configuration. The team also recommended a pilot
present in the RO process [57,58]. There are also several studies per plant study to help the designers fully comprehend the difficulties with
formed on the application of nanoparticles in TFC membranes for RO feedwater quality or/and seasonal changes [74]. Also, in partnership
application [59–62]. The team has also developed and studied a few with Qatar Electricity and Water Company (QEWC), a study was carried
nanomaterials for the application in desalination and water treatment on the effect of algal blooms (ABs) on SWRO desalination plant [75].
[63–66]. The research team also comprehensively reviewed the newest In TAMUQ, different studies have been focused on the fouling control
developments of graphene oxide utilization in pressure-driven, and strategies in RO membranes. The team performed experimentations and
thermal-driven membrane processes [67]. Moreover, considering the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations for investigating the
fact that all types of foulants i.e. inorganic/organic/microbial/colloidal colloidal fouling control of a vibration-enhanced RO (VERO) membrane
are present in feed water, several RO research studies have focused on system for up till 12 h of operation time [76]. With the proposed tech
mitigation of the membrane fouling. The QU research team studied how nique based on CFD simulations and experiments, the membrane
the RO systems’ scalants and antiscalants affected the behavior of colloidal fouling was substantially decreased. Moreover, the team sug
seawater microorganisms [68]. It was observed that numerous Pseudo gested that concentration polarization (CP) in the seawater desalination
monas strains isolated from Qatar’s marine water can use antiscalants as can be decreased by enforcing vibration on the RO membranes [77]. It
a carbon or energy source. The findings of this study confirmed that the was also observed that the vibration-assisted desalination process fa
existence of microorganisms in seawater RO can cause biofouling and cilitates the increase in the permeate flux and lessen the development of
also increase mineral scaling by means of antiscalant biodegradation inorganic fouling on the surface of the RO membranes (Fig. 5) [78].
and mineral precipitation. The impact of sulfate and calcium ions con Moreover, the CP phenomenon was simulated using the finite element
centration on gypsum scaling of RO membrane was also studied by QU method (FEM) for modeling the vibration-assisted desalination process
team [69]. Moreover, the impact of temperature on scaling of RO by [78]. The TAMUQ research team also introduced a process synthesis
calcium sulfate was examined [70]. The team noted that increasing the approach and optimization method that accounts for the boron removal
temperature promoted scaling of membrane, which was corroborated by concerns in seawater RO network designs [79]. The approach was
the considerable flux drop with time. There is also a recent study carried demonstrated with a case study by employing 3 distinct feedwater
out in the RO modeling from QU research team [71]. qualities, by using enhanced economical models for the purpose of
In HBKU-QEERI, several researchers have studied the significant process assessment. Further, the research team also proposed a super
environmental benefits of the seawater RO process as compared to the structure optimization method for seawater RO networks with consid
MSF process [48]. The research confirmed that the seawater intake will eration of multiple water quality [80]. The study capitalized on the
be decreased to 3.60 Mm3/day from 8.40 Mm3/day by almost three advantages of a more compact illustration and partitioned search ap
times with RO process, which reduces the intrusion as well as entrain proaches, for the purpose of examining additional multiple water quality
ment of aquatic species at the intake. As a result, for MSF and seawater computations within a seawater RO network optimization problem and
RO, the subsequent emission of brine and cooling water can be using enhanced economical models for the purpose of process
7
Table 5
Relevance of membrane-based desalination studies carried out in Qatar-based research institutions.
Institute Technology Membrane/system Results/observations Reference
Qatar University Reverse osmosis By layering a polyamide (PA) layer with graphene oxide (GO) Almost the entire TFNC membranes showed increased [127]
incorporation on top of a polysulfone (PSf) substrate that has sodium chloride rejection as well as water permeability,
been coated with PEI, polyethyleneimine (PEI) interlayered- as compared to the control membrane.
TFNC membranes were created.
Qatar University Reverse osmosis A poly-generation system that could produce hot water, fresh The system arrangement with 12.83 $/h of electricity [128]
water, power, and hydrogen was examined. It included a cost rate, exergy destruction cost rate of 18.4 $/h, and
Kalina cycle, a RO unit, a polymer electrolyte membrane 328.2 kW of exergy destruction rate, the ultimate ideal
electrolyzer, and a thermoelectric module. condition is chosen with the decision variables’
determined values.
Qatar University Reverse osmosis The pretreatment methods for seawater RO with turbidities of Ultrafiltration was used as a pretreatment for seawater [129]
99.70, 23.20, and 4.80 NTU such as sand filtration (SF) and with a 99.7 NTU turbidity, which resulted in a decrease
ultra-filtration (UF) were evaluated. in the specific energy need as well as an increase in the
water recovery rate and average membrane flux.
Qatar University Reverse osmosis Sulfate and calcium concentrations ranging from 20 to 150 mM The RO membrane’s hydrophilicity was boosted by [69]
and their effects on calcium sulfate scaling of RO and GO- gypsum scaling, which led to the development of its
functionalized RO membranes were studied. intra− /inter-foulant interactions with other ions in the
water.
Qatar University Reverse osmosis The interaction between microorganisms and calcium sulfate The existence of calcium ions led to a statistically [130]
which was selected as a model scale was examined. substantial rise in the bacteria’s rates of growth, showing
off their capability to improve biofouling rates
Qatar University Reverse osmosis The impact of temperature on RO and GO coated RO Membrane scaling is boosted by temperature increasing, [70]
membranes’ calcium sulfate scaling was studied which was confirmed by the critical flux decrease with
time resulting in a rise in mass of crystals precipitated as
well as scale layer thickness.
Qatar University Reverse osmosis The study examined the efficiency of two nanoclays, CS-15A accelerated the water flux from to 18.65 from 15 [61]
montmorillonite (MNT) and cloisite (CS)-15A at the PA L/m2⋅h with sodium chloride rejection increase to 80 %
selective layer in the RO membrane. from 72 %, as compared to the control membrane
Qatar University Forward A combined Artificial neural networks-Response surface The study revealed that artificial neural networks are a [131]
osmosis methodology method was put forward for predicting and powerful tool for modeling with missing or incomplete
optimizing the membrane flux for FO process. information. Furthermore, it could be combined with
standard methods like Response surface methodology for
predicting and optimizing the response over a range of
operating conditions.
Qatar University Forward For the purpose of harvesting marine microalgae, a hybrid UF- The energy use in the hybrid UF-FO system was 24 % less [132]
osmosis FO system and a dual-stage UF procedure were contrasted. than the dual-stage UF system.
Qatar University Forward The study examined the viability of pretreating feed solution The study’s findings are highly encouraging in terms of [94]
osmosis for an MSF desalination unit using the FO process. membrane water flux performance and DS dilution.
Texas A&M Forward Molecular layer-by-layer polyelectrolyte deposition was Layer-by-layer deposition of polyelectrolyte is a [133]
University at osmosis successfully used to create an electrospun beneficial and feasible modification technique to
Qatar polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) nanofiber-supported TFC fabricate superior performance nanofiber-supported TFC
membrane with outstanding performance. membrane
Texas A&M Forward The purpose of the study was to determine whether the sulfur- The result showed that this SBSS is basically appropriate [134]
University at osmosis based seed solution (SBSS), a byproduct of the for the fertilizer drawn FO towards the development of
Qatar photoelectrochemical process in which the SBSS serves as the water, energy, and food nexus technology employing
electrolyte for the synthesis of hydrogen, was adequate and sulfur chemicals-containing air pollutant.
effective as a DS.
Texas A&M Forward The performance of PA TFC hollow fiber FO membrane module At 45 % packing density, hollow fiber FO can have 3-fold [109]
University at osmosis was evaluated for the brackish groundwater desalination for increase in membrane area and 4-fold increase in
Qatar fertigation. volumetric flux production for a CTA flat-sheet FO
membrane module.
HBKU-QEERI Forward The feasibility of treating the feed water using FO as The simulation findings showed that as the FO recovery [28]
osmosis pretreatment stage for an operating recirculation-MSF unit is ratio increased attributable to an increase in the removal
reviewed. of divalent ions, the likelihood of scale deposit decreased.
HBKU-QEERI Forward FO and pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) coupling with an RO The anticipated expense of the FO/PRO module in the [105]
osmosis membrane process is studied for reducing the expense of PRO-RO design was 4.3 and 2.2 times greater as
seawater desalination and the capability for power generation compared to the RO-PRO and FO-RO designs respectively
Qatar University Electrodialysis ED was employed for achieving a combined action of treating Under optimum conditions (CO2 flow rate of 1.5 L/min, [135]
high-salinity water and capturing CO2 for producing hydrogen voltage of 18.41 V, and NaCl concentration of 1 mol/L),
gas, hydrochloric acid, and bicarbonate and carbonate salts the amount of captured CO2 was 8.196 g and sodium
elimination was 38.7 %.
Global Water Electrodialysis The study presented 2 advanced useful reuse approaches for The results indicated that a reuse method may be [117]
Sustainability RO concentrate delivered from a wastewater reclamation plant reasonably feasible for inland wastewater reuse plants
Center using an integrated membrane system (IMS). that use RO membranes and have restricted options for
brine disposal
Qatar University Membrane Direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) was established According to the polystyrene membrane’s direct contact [136]
distillation as well as carried out according to an optimum guideline. MD performance, the produced permeate indicated that
the membrane’s functionality might have scalable
potential contribution to the purification of industrial
wastewater.
HBKU-QEERI Membrane For enhancing the downstream transmembrane flux of a The results showed the practicability of using [137]
distillation multistage DCMD-based saltwater desalination system, the microbubble generator for practical desalination process.
researchers presented a new air-assisted swirling flow-type
microbubble generator.
(continued on next page)
8
Table 5 (continued )
Institute Technology Membrane/system Results/observations Reference
HBKU-QEERI Membrane The basic properties of mass and heat transmission in the The maximum flux improvement of nearly 43 % over the [138]
distillation DCMD technology, which uses a variety of spacers on the empty channels was attained utilizing the densest and
membrane’s sides, either one or both, were thoroughly and thinnest spacer with a hydrodynamic angle of 90◦
methodically reviewed in this study. adjacent to both membrane surfaces
Fig. 5. Flowchart of the vibration-assisted reverse osmosis desalination study.

Reproduced from Ref [62].
assessment [80]. dots for the desalination and water treatment applications [99,100].
Researchers from HBKU-QEERI have developed several advanced
7.1.2. Forward osmosis membranes for FO application, to improve the process efficiency.
Even though, RO process is presently the most energy-effective Studies have also investigated the possibility of utilizing the FO process
desalination technique, it stays too expensive to several countries for seawater desalination with respect to water quality, operation and
across the world, and unsuitable for irrigation use [81–83]. The higher maintenance, water recovery, capital costs, consumed energy, and the
capital cost and operating cost related to the RO process are due to the final product water costs [101]. The researchers reviewed the latest
requirement of operating the process at an increased hydraulic pressure improvements in FO technology, with the obstacles to commercial-scale
[84]. In this scenario, FO technology has developed as a potential application emphasized [102]. The application of FO as pretreatment for
candidate for the desalination with the possibility of consuming very other desalination technologies was stated in light of 2 proposed
lesser energy as compared to the conventional processes, based on the research projects by the team [101]. The 1st project proposed using FO
type of application [85–88]. Instead of using hydraulic pressure as in RO as a pretreatment process to treat seawater and wastewater in one
technology, this FO method depends on the osmotic pressure gradient combined system. While, in the 2nd project for a once-through MSF
across the semipermeable membrane as the driving mechanism for desalination method, FO was employed as pretreatment step. The
separating salt from saltwater sources [89,90]. This osmotic driving research verified a higher than 50 % and an 18 % reduction in energy
force is developed by employing on one side of the semipermeable utilization for each desalination system, respectively. Additionally, in an
membrane impaired water like saline water as feed solution (FS) and on FO process, the draw solution must be cautiously chosen for maintaining
the opposite side a concentrated draw solution (DS). The water transfers the expense of the FO process low. There were also studies carried out in
from the low-concentrated feed solution towards the high-concentrated HBKU-QEERI to investigate the effectiveness of different draw solutions
draw solution by natural osmosis phenomenon, happening because of in an FO pilot plant unit with either saltwater or deionized water feeds
the osmotic pressure variation without employing any external energy. [103]. It was noted that for both feed waters, the sodium chloride DS
The effectiveness of the FO process is significantly influenced by the demonstrated a comparatively higher efficiency with respect to all the
properties of the membranes [91]. In recent times, a revived research measured performance indicators. Furthermore, the HBKU-QEERI
interest in the FO process for desalination was noted, and several research team also examined the effect of DS on the performance of
advanced high-performance FO membranes have been reported in the FO-RO and FO-brackish water RO systems, respectively, for brackish
Qatar-based research institutions, which will be discussed below. water and seawater desalination [104]. The results from the above-
In QU, several researchers have focused on the FO studies for mentioned work revealed that the energy needs of FO desalination are
developing advanced membranes with nanoparticles [51,85,92], over influenced by the DS type, and therefore, additional studies and exper
coming the current issues related to FO membranes, impact of different imental works are advised to be carried out in that field. One benefit of
parameters on the membrane performance [93], feasibility of FO as the FO-brackish water RO process is the higher recovery rate which is an
pretreatment for other desalination technologies [94], FO process important parameter in inland brackish water desalination because of
modeling [95] etc. CP is one of the intrinsic difficulties in FO-based the rising concerns regarding the disposal of brine. Also, studies in
membrane technology, and hence, an empirical technique based on a HBKU-QEERI have confirmed that FO/pressure retarded osmosis (PRO)
small number of precisely defined experiments for estimating as well as coupling with a reverse osmosis membrane process could decrease the
predicting the water permeable flux, CP, and reverse solute diffusion expense of seawater desalination [105]. It was found that the FO-RO
was put forward by QU research team for single-ion and mixed, or multi- design exhibited the lowest reverse osmosis power expenditure and
ions DS [96]. It was recommended that, for an ‘open loop’ system, the average forward osmosis membrane capital expense, whereas the PRO-
forward osmosis process contributes a low-cost water reclamation op RO design needed increased forward osmosis membrane capital
tion, as compared to standard process based on RO [97]. The team also expenditure and average reverse osmosis power consumption [105].
studied the status of FO process implementation as well as potential Also, the researchers in HBKU-QEERI proved that the FO process
industrial exploitation by examining its energy use and other crucial demonstrated superior performance at increased seawater salinities and
process attributes relative to traditional desalination technologies [98]. that was due to the elevated driving force across the FO semipermeable
There are several works reported on the utilization of graphene quantum membrane [106]. The efficiency of FO process was additionally
9
enhanced by increasing the flow rate of the DS because of reducing the chloralkali system (Fig. 7) for desalination was put forward by the
impact of CP. The simulation results revealed that the expense of FO DSD team [115].
membrane was no <4.5 times greater than that of the RO, however it The TAMUQ researchers have also studied about the ED technology.
reduces with the rising salinity of seawater [106]. Also, the viability of The researchers explored and discussed the use of carbon-based nano
using FO as pretreatment process of a feed water to an existing opera material, more precisely graphene and carbon nanotube in electrodial
tional recirculation-MSF unit was analyzed by HBKU-QEERI research ysis application [116]. It was reported that the electrodes made of
team [28]. The simulation’s outcomes demonstrated that as the FO re carbon-based nanomaterials function well in ED applications and are
covery ratio improved due to an increase in the removal of divalent ions, inexpensive and extremely efficient.
the likelihood of scale deposit decreased. The team confirmed that MSF In GWSC, the researchers presented two groundbreaking advanta
could function at top brine temperature 135 ◦ C securely with no calcium geous reuse approaches for RO concentrate delivered from a wastewater
sulfate scaling at 40 % FO recovery ratio. Furthermore, the HBKU-QEERI reclamation facility using an integrated membrane system (IMS) [117].
team also developed a modified FO technique that had the capability for The study evaluated a variety of technologies, including electro
producing irrigation water from a seawater feed with suitable concen chlorination for producing chlorine on-site and bipolar membrane ED to
trations of fertilizers [107]. The study confirmed that the quality of split the RO concentrate into mixed acid and mixed base streams. The
irrigation water was additionally increased and was within the advised team confirmed that the reuse strategy may be financially viable for
level of fertilizer irrigation waters while a dual-stage brackish water RO inland wastewater reuse plants that use reverse osmosis membranes and
system was used in the regeneration unit [107]. have restricted possibilities for concentrate disposal.
The researchers from TAMUQ developed several advanced TFC
membranes for FO application. The team developed thin film composite 7.1.4. Membrane distillation
(TFC) FO membranes employing the electrospun nanofiber supports MD is a potential technique that operates on the basis of the partial
[108]. The hydrophilic nature of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was used for vapor pressure difference developed across a membrane [118–120]. MD
improving the mechanical strength and hydrophilicity of electrospun technology employs a porous hydrophobic filter that is able to prevent
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-supported TFC-FO membrane [108]. the entry of feed liquid into the pores, permitting the volatile vapors to
The team also developed polyamide TFC hollow fiber FO membrane cross across the distillate side. The afore-mentioned feature makes this
module (Fig. 6) for desalinating brackish groundwater for fertigation technology exceptional out of the different conventional water purifi
application [109]. cation techniques. It could totally separate the non-volatile and inor
ganic compounds without using any common distillation methods
7.1.3. Electrodialysis [121,122]. In terms of energy efficiency, MD is a desirable membrane
Electrodialysis is a process that it can operate at higher temperatures method because of its capability to perform with employing low tem
unlike RO, and it does not depend on high-pressure for desalination. This perature variations as well as poor-quality heat sources. Therefore, MD
technology could also accomplish an increased rate of salt removal, and is an inexpensively viable commercial-scale purification technique as it
it is less prone to scaling [110,111]. Electrodialysis is very efficient for could use waste heat, solar thermal energy [123], or natural tempera
the treatment of brackish water (BW) of salinity range 1000 to 5000 ppm ture gradients.
total dissolved solids (TDS) and precisely competes with reverse osmosis The research team from QU has studies on the efficiency improve
in this range [112,113]. The ED seawater desalination has a specific ment in membrane distillation. The team studied the central energy
energy of 10.0 to 25.0 kW/m3 which is substantially greater than that of parameters for membrane distillation (for example, gained output ratio,
BW desalination 0.40 to 4.0 kW/m3 [96]. energy efficiency, etc.) and discussed the impacts of membrane prop
The researchers from the Division of Sustainable Development (DSD) erties, feed water properties, mass transfer, heat transfer, and system
in HBKU have carried out some studies on ED. The research team has parameters on the energy parameters [123]. It was stated that further
studied and summarized the basic concepts of ED technology and the studies are necessary for commercial-scale direct contact MD to make
possibility of its integration with renewable energy sources such as wind this process an energetically effective and inexpensively viable choice
energy-driven ED, photovoltaic assisted ED, and photo electrodialysis for wastewater treatment as well as seawater distillation. They illus
[114]. Moreover, a thermodynamic model of a combined photo-ED- trated that several challenges exist in MD such as a comparatively higher
energy consumption and lower output flux relative to standard RO
processes, flux decline due to CP and temperature effects.
In HBKU-QEERI, a case study was carried out by the research team
on the synoptic analysis of direct contact MD performance in Qatar
[124]. The HBKU-QEERI team evaluated a bench scale direct contact
MD (Fig. 8) performance employing a flat sheet polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) membrane at various salinity composition, temperatures, and
inlet flow rates. Considering the studies from HBKU-QEERI team, it was
observed that membrane distillation demonstrated a potential applica
tion to be employed as a source for producing clean water for industries
by utilizing waste heat with minimal operating expenses, reduced cap
ital costs, and lower environmental impact as well as damage to
ecosystem. Direct contact MD has demonstrated to be a practical and
efficient technology able to steadily produce high-quality product water
from a higher salinity feed, even with significant quality difference
relative to other desalination technologies like MSF or RO.
7.1.5. Other membrane-based technologies

Power generation from renewable energy sources is becoming
increasingly significant as global energy consumption increases. The
Fig. 6. Diagrammatic representation layout of the fertilizer drawn FO desali non-renewable energy sources we use now are on the verge of extinc
nation process. tion. Reverse electrodialysis and pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) are
Reproduced from Ref [95]. two methods of harvesting renewable energy using salinity gradient.
10
Fig. 7. Thermodynamic modeling of a combined photo-ED-chloralkali system for sustainable desalination.

Reproduced from Ref. [96].
Fig. 8. Diagrammatic representation of counter flow direct contact MD process.

Reproduced from Ref. [104].
At Qatar University, a study by Rahman et al. [52] discussed the 7.2. Thermal-based technologies
advancements in membrane modification for PRO processes. The re
searchers explored the use of various nanomaterials, including zeolite, As mentioned before the majority of Qatar seawater desalination
graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, halloysite nanotubes, TiO2, SiO2, plants are utilizing thermal processes especially the MSF, MED com
silica, carbon quantum dots, covalent organic frameworks, and metal- bined with TVC processes in which they are represent 91 % of the
based nanoparticles, for enhancing PRO performance through mem desalination market in Qatar, while RO taking only 8 % [139,140].
brane modification. The goal was to maximize the efficiency of PRO
processes and improve power generation from salinity gradient re 7.2.1. Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF)
sources. Another work by Zainati et al. [53] examined the recent de MSF is the most dominant desalination method uses in Qatar, which
velopments and applications of PRO, focusing on the potential energy is supplying 73 % of Qatar’s total desalinated water [141]. The MSF
that could be obtained from salinity gradients in both single-stage and process composed of three main stages heat input, heat recovery and
multi-stage PRO processes. heat rejection units [142,143]. In this process, seawater is heated by
At TAMUQ, researchers focused on improving the performance of passing through numerous heat recovery chambers, where a reduction
thin-film nanocomposite (TFN) membranes through the PRO process. in pressure occurs, resulting in flashing water vaporization, after that the
They achieved this by incorporating nanomaterials into the substrate or steam is condensed to produce desalinated water (distillate) using a
active layer (polyamide layer) of the membrane. By using nanomaterials condenser [144]. The residual salt water (called brine) enters a lower-
in TFN membranes, they observed higher water flux, leading to a higher pressure chamber, where the same evaporation and condensation pro
power density compared to the control thin-film composite (TFC) cess happens to increase the distillate production. A MSF facility in
membrane. This research aimed to enhance the efficiency and power Qatar is therefore typically co-located with a power plant as an external
generation capabilities of PRO technology [125]. Further, a process heating to use the supplied steam that is normally at pressure of 2–3 bar
simulator has been developed to model and predict the performance of and a temperature of 120 ◦ C from the electricity generation facility of a
spiral-wound membrane modules in PRO processes [126]. natural gas turbine combined cycle (GTCC) power plant like Ras Abu
Overall, these studies demonstrate the ongoing efforts to optimize Fontas (A, B, and B2) owned by Qatar Electricity and Water Company
PRO technology by leveraging membrane modification techniques and (QEWC), Ras Laffan (A, B, and C) owned by Ras Laffan Power Company
incorporating nanomaterials to increase power generation efficiency (RLPC), and Mesaieed PP [23]. The Multistage Flash desalting system’s
and improve water flux in the process. These advancements are crucial huge capacity per unit and durability, as well as the concept of cheap
as the world seeks to transition towards sustainable and renewable en fuel cost and NG’s availability, have all contributed to MSF systems
ergy sources due to the depletion of non-renewable energy resources. continued use in Qatar since their beginnings in 1962. Thus, several
11
research has been conducted by Qatar-based research institutions as will and high thermal efficiency. Pumping energy consumption for the MED-
be discussed later in order to redevelop the MSF desalination technology TVC system is 2 kWh/m3 because unlike the MSF system, there is no
and overcome its problems as well as make it more competitive with need to recirculate significant amounts of brine, however its specific
new processes. thermal energy is about 145 kJ/kg and the total mechanical energy
consumption is around 18 kWh/m3 [23,47]. While for DW cost it was
7.2.2. Multiple effect distillation (MED) and MED-TVC found that the desalinated water production cost for MSF and MED is
MED is another thermal desalination processes that is based on $2.75/m3 and $2.48/m3 respectively, when the electrical energy cost of
heating the feedwater to a boiling point and injected into equal pro 1kWh is estimated as 0.11$ [46,47,23]. According to the life-cycle
portion to the various vessels [145,146]. The hot water is then sprayed environmental impacts studies carried out by HBKU-QEERI for MSF
over the surface of the evaporator (tubes). Steam heats the evaporator and MED systems in Qatar, it was confirmed that these processes are a
surfaces, causing the steam inside the tube to condense. As a result, the very high energy intensive processes that are responsible for releasing
water sprayed on the evaporators’ surface evaporates [49]. In the second CO2 emissions and affecting the marine ecosystem [37,48]. Conse
effect, the vapors produced in the first effect are used to heat the quently, the research team in HBKU-QEERI recommended using SWRO
evaporators, and the condensing process continues. The final condenser system as a less energy-intensive desalting system, rather than the MSF
condenses the vapor from the last effect, which is cooled by entering and METVC methods currently in use in Qatar [32,48]. Most of HBKU-
feedwater to produce fresh water. Each impact does not convert all the QEERI’s studies have been extensively focused on integrating renewable
feedwater to steam; therefore, the remaining water becomes a brine thermal desalination technologies specifically solar energy because
solution. Varied vacuum systems are used in MED plants to sustain Qatar has a direct normal irradiance of 2000 kWh/m2/year, which is
various ambient pressures in various vessels [49]. In the design of some suitable for concentrated solar power (CSP), and a worldwide horizontal
plants, the thermal vapor compression cycle is added to increase the gain irradiance of 2140 kWh/m2/year, which is utilized for photovoltaics
output ratio (GOR) and minimize the number of effects and the needed (PV) [153]. The solar energy was used indirectly through using CSP to
surface area by recycling part of the vapor produced during the plant’s transfer the solar energy into high temperature thermal energy (steam)
final effects and mixed with motive steam from the steam generation to operate the thermal MSF and MED systems [153]. Another study by
source to produce the heating steam that gets in the initial effect HBKU-QEERI found that steam is created at far greater temperatures and
[147,148]. MED desalination process exists in Qatar as a large-scale pressures in cogeneration power desalting plants (CPDP), a solar-
production by two desalinations plants: Dukhan plant and Ras Laffan powered steam plant employing CSP, than those required by the MSF
C (Ras Qirtas) plant, and their used MED technology is specified with and MED units, which require a steam supply with a saturation tem
using MED-TVC technology that represents (18 %) of the total desalting perature of around 120 ◦ C and 70 ◦ C, respectively [45]. However, ac
capacity in Qatar [141]. cording to the same study, the least specified capital expenditure is
between $2200 and $3200/(m3/day) when solar energy is used to
7.2.3. Vapor compression distillation (VC) power a solar power plant (SPP) that drives RO and extracts steam to
Vapor compression is a method based on supplying the heat required operate MSF or ME [45]. It is worth mentioning that the interest for
for water evaporation [149,150]. The compression distillation process is developing MED technique is salutary since it releases lower carbon
classified into mechanical (MVC) distillation and thermal (TVC) distil dioxide (CO2) emissions due to lower specific power consumption and
lation based on the instruments and energy used in the compression when it’s compared to MSF, it offers a greater recovery ratio and thermal
process, with the mechanical compressor using electricity and the performance [140]. For this reason, HBKU-QEERI signed an agreement
thermal compressor using a steam jet ejector to create vacuum [27]. with Qatar Electricity and Water Company (QEWC) in 2019 to launch a
There are one to three steps in MVC systems but most of them just have pilot testing program focusing on a novel design of MED technology
one stage. While TVC systems have multiple stages, which is explained passing through three phases to increase energy effectiveness of MED
by increasing temperature and pressure with the mechanical compressor thermal technology and make it a potential solution for reducing the
[49]. VCD can be used as either a stand-alone process for small-scale energy consumption of seawater desalination plants in Qatar. Further
applications such as desalination facilities for individual neighbor more, HBKU-QEERI is investigating the feasibility of solar desalination
hoods, hotels, and hospitals or as an add-on to a larger-scale process like by constructing a high-efficiency TVC/ME desalination facility, which
MED. In the following section, the desalination-based studies carried out will be managed by LFC [47]. It was reported that MED process can be
in different research institutions in Qatar, such as those related to pre carried out at a low top brine temperature (TBT < 70 ◦ C) to minimize the
vious mentioned thermal technologies, were discussed. occurrence of corrosion and the production of scale hence, it can be
In QU, a comprehensive study was conducted to assess the energy powered by low-grade process steam [154]. This implies that even when
consumption, water production costs and environmental impact of the sun isn’t shining brilliantly, the solar collectors can still supply the
various desalination technologies such as MSF, MED, VCD, and mem MED unit with enough thermal power [147]. Parabolic trough collectors
brane technologies (RO & ED) [49]. In addition, numerous brine (PTCs), linear Fresnel collectors (LFCs), and flat plate collectors (FPCs)
disposal systems were examined and compared in this study in order to are the most often utilized solar collectors in solar-driven MED [155].
assess their effectiveness and downsides. However, concentrating collectors are better when taking into account
Researchers from HBKU-QEERI have investigated the viability of larger desalination systems and those that employ a TVC since they may
combining renewable energy resources such as solar power energy with generate superheated motive steam with temperatures about 150 ◦ C and
MSF and MED desalting systems besides to calculating the total cost of 5–20 bar for entering the steam ejector [147]. In addition, it was re
installing solar desalination facilities [151,152]. They started to work on ported that PTC has a significant potential for powering hybrid desali
this concept after they evaluated the performance of MSF and MED nation plants like RO + MED because it is the best option for
systems in Qatar and GCC by many of their studies in terms of energy cogeneration of DW and EP in a solar thermal-driven desalination plant
consumption, desalinated water (DW) cost at varying NG prices and that has an ability to produce superheated steam at pressures of 100 bar
environmental impacts. By HBKU-QEERI typical energy consumption and temperatures higher than 300 ◦ C [147]. In-addition, HBKU-QEERI
for MSF system in Qatar was estimated as pumping energy of about 4 team has developed solar-based polygeneration system of concentrated
kWh/m3, 270–280 kJ/kg as consumed thermal energy and for total solar power (CSP) integrated with a thermal energy storage (TES) unit,
equivalent mechanical energy is around 20 kWh/m3 to produce one m3 an organic Rankine cycle (ORC), an absorption cooling system (ACS), an
of desalinated water (DW) [23,26,37,46–48]. On the other hand, MED MSF desalination unit, and a pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) unit and
thermal process was confirmed by HBKU-QEERI team as a viable proved its ability provide freshwater at a rate of 1140 m3/day, that is
method due to its low electrical energy usage, cheap operational costs, enough to meet the needs of about 2280 persons [156]. However, the
12
high cost of MSF’s desalinated water (DW) by RE are the criteria that SWRO train of that additional capacity of 2.52 MIGD. As can be shown,
limit the utilization of RE for seawater desalination, so it is necessary to increasing the desalting capability of existing MSF units with SWRO is
analyze the technological and economic viability of solar MSF desali less expensive than enhancing an existing MSF with NF to enhance TBT.
nation plants in Qatar [152]. HBKU-QEERI research team also examined Another study was also carried out by HBKU-QEERI showed by one of
the possibility of having an innovative combined MSF-MED thermal the conducted scenarios based on actual conditions at Qatar’s desali
desalination technique in GCC by studying its techno-economics anal nation plant that the MSF process TBT was increased from 112 to 130 ◦ C
ysis [141]. The findings of this research revealed that the combined by eliminating hard scale forming ions with nano-filtration (NF) pre
MSF–MED pumping power is 58 % lower than that of the conventional treatment unit [37]. Also, the GOR has been doubled from MSF stand
MSF-BR while it is 16 %, lower than MED-TVC pumping power. The cost alone plant to NF-MSF plant (8.21 to 16.07) and hence, the higher GOR
analysis carried out showed that when the oil price is <40 $/bbl, the value (more produced vapor reused for preheating the feedwater) the
integrated MSF–MED has the lowest unit water cost. Under the oper lower energy consumption per unit and less MSF impacts that indicated
ating conditions of a large-scale MED, the team created a mathematical by emitting the lowest pollutants into the surrounding air and cutting
model of mass and energy balance, that included the CaCO3 scale de down CO2 emissions to 2.7 million tons annually [37]. Moreover, the
posit and analyzed the influence of tube bundle configuration and the team proved that at TBT = 130 ◦ C integrating NF system with novel
seawater feed distribution on the dry zone and scale formation [139]. MSF-DM might result in a gain output ratio of 16, which is twice that of
Moreover, it was proposed that using membrane technology as pre- the conventional MSF-BR [157]. As well as a significant reduction in
treatment stage for thermal desalination technologies such as NF and unit’s input thermal energy was noted, which allowing this combination
FO methods which have been tested by HBKU-QEERI could be an to be used as a desalination plant driver with solar energy [157].
effective way to reduce thermal desalination technologies impacts as However, according to the executed cost analysis in this study, NF-MSF-
will be discussed later in this paper [36,157,154]. Compared to MSF and DM and NF-MSF systems presented a 71 % and 28.7 % respectively,
MED processes VCD exhibited a less interest by HBKU-QEERI because of higher CAPEX compared to conventional MSF [157].
its small capacity production compared to MSF and MED. It was
confirmed by the team that TVC is preferable to be integrated within 7.3.2. FO-thermal technologies hybrid
MED although it has a lower energy efficient than MVC and this is due to Forward osmosis (FO) is preferable than any other membrane pro
the irreversible mixing of vapor streams with two distinguished pres cess to be used as pretreatment for thermal seawater desalination plant
sures, thermal compressors have a poor adiabatic performance, because it requires very little energy for operation as it operates by the
restricting the MED’s ability to raise the gain ratio [154]. Another team osmotic pressure gradient across a semipermeable membrane [94].
investigation was carried out by developing a mathematical model of Another advantage of the FO process is the low pretreatment re
TVC mixing ratios and performance curves that showed a very close and quirements of seawater as it was confirmed by many studies that FO
reliable match to the real actual Power’s lines [158]. It was also indi fouling is reversible and less compact than that of the NF and RO pro
cated by some of HBKU-QEERI studies that MVC methods have a great cesses [28].
potential to be incorporated with renewable solar energy using PV in In QU an experimental work was executed to examine the viability of
aims to provide its electric driving energy [47,153]. using FO process to treat MSF plant’s feed solution. In this work real MSF
A cooperated research between QU, HBKU-QEERI and TAMUQ was brine reject and seawater were collected as draw and feed solutions,
carried out recently to contrast a facility that utilizes thermally respectively, from a thermal desalination facility in Doha, Qatar [94].
enhanced polymer composites with a traditional MED desalination The results showed a maximum membrane flux of about 22.3 L/m2 h
system that employs titanium tubes [159]. The comparison study was was achieved using a flat sheet Thin Film Composite (TFC) FO mem
based on techno-economic analysis, and a life-cycle assessment (LCA) brane produced by HTI (USA) at 40 ◦ C DS temperature and that is
[159]. It was concluded that the polymer composite tube-based MED indicating the success of using FO technique as pretreatment of seawater
plant is preferable. to MSF plant. Furthermore, to evaluate FO-MSF combination perfor
Table 6 represents the overall comparison of the various thermal mance another experimental work by QU has been investigated through
desalination processes exist in Qatar based on the different criteria that testing FO and pressure-assisted FO (PAFO) processes using commercial
were discussed and studied by Qatar-based research institutions. TFC and CTA membranes with brine reject and seawater, 80 g/L and 45
g/L concentrations of seawater, respectively [162]. The results revealed
7.3. Membrane-thermal technologies hybrid the PAFO process’ enormous potential and viability, using TFC mem
brane in the FO mode for improving the efficiency of the MSF plant’s
Divalent ions are one of the thermal desalination problems that cause seawater pretreatment while maintaining the benefit of low power
a hard scale forming at a high temperature and affect the specific heat consumption and achieving a high permeation flux recovery of 93 %
transfer area. The primary source of MSF plant’s scale formation is [162].
MgSO4 (non-alkaline scale) while in the MED plant is CaCO3 (alkaline According to study carried out by HBKU-QEERI utilizing Visual
scale) [157]. Membrane technology as a pre-treatment stage for existing Design and Simulation Program (VDS) software exhibited that by
thermal desalination facilities is an effective way to lessen the impacts of combining FO with the existing MSF and employing the brine from the
divalent ions, which is consequently raises the temperature of the final stage as a DS with a recovery ratio of 35 %, the Ca+ ions in the SW
desalination process to >110 ◦ C, and it is also improves plant perfor input are reduced by 20 %, allowing the TBT to be safely increased to
mance, productivity, and chemical usage [157]. According to that 130 ◦ C [157]. The simulation findings also exhibited that at TBT =
several research works have been carried out in Qatar to determine the 130 ◦ C, the existing MSF plant’s production rose by 20 %. The FO can
viability of combining membrane and thermal desalination methods. save 2.35 M$/year in chemical costs if it is introduced to the existing
MSF facility in Qatar, according to the OPEX analysis [157]. In Qatar, all
7.3.1. NF-thermal technologies hybrid Recirculation-multi-stage flash (R-MSF) desalting plants have their feed
It was confirmed by HBKU-QEERI research team that using a portion pretreated with an elevated temperature additive that keeps the top
of NF (10, 25 and 50 %) as pre-treatment stage for MSF can increase the brine temperature (TBT) below 110 ◦ C. However, MSF may safely
maximum TBT = 115 ◦ C for sulfate scale precipitation to 120, 135 and function without any observation of calcium sulfate scale at TBT =
145 ◦ C, respectively [154]. Also, in a case study carried out in Kuwait 135 ◦ C and at a FO recovery ratio of 40 %, according to a study done by
was mentioned and this case was based on comparing the performance HBKU-QEERI’s team, and this is related to an increase in divalent ion
of the MSF after pretreating 37.5 % of its feed with NF to the situation of elimination. by using the rejected brine as the DS while seawater as the
achieving the same increased capacity of 2.52 MIGD by just adding the feed solution to FO system [28]. Increasing of TBT will increase MSF unit
13
Table 6
Comparison between thermal desalination technologies.
Criteria MSF MED/TVC-MED VCDs References
Qatar seawater desalination plant Ras Abo Fontas (A, A1, A2, B & Dukhan Plant NA [28]
B2) Ras Laffan C
Ras Laffan (A & B) Mesaieed plant
Umm Bab
Technology market share in Qatar 73 % in 2014 18 % in 2014 NA [25,141]
desalinated water production. Expected to be 22 % from 2016 Expected to be 31 % from 2016 to
to 2022 2022
Temperature of rejected brine (8–11 ◦ C) more than the (5–11 ◦ C) more than the ambient NA [48]
stream ambient seawater temperature seawater temperature
Pre-treatment and post-treatment Minimal and simple chemical Minimal and simple chemical Simple chemical [37,153]
pretreatment and post- pretreatment and post-treatment pretreatment
treatment
CO2 emission/m3 DW 14.67 kg of CO2 eq./m3 12.69 kg CO2 eq./m3. High CO2 emission [23,148]
General top brine temperature The maximum TBT is 110 ◦ C. Operate at lower TBT (68 ◦ C–70 ◦ C) NA [28,33,101,106]
Energy consumption High energy consumption More energy-efficient MVC electricity [139]
(steam (thermal) + electricity) Lower energy consumption than TVC thermal
MSF (steam (thermal) + electricity)
Specific heat transfer area <300 m2/(kg/s) >300 m2/(kg/s) in MED-TVC NA [154]
Thermal energy consumption MSF consumes 190–282 MJ/ MED 145–230 MJ/m3 TVC 227 MJ/m3 [49]
m3.
Pumping energy 4 kWh/m3 Lower electric energy MVC: 7–12 kWh/m3 [37,47,49,153,154]
consumption. TVC: 1.8–1.6 kWh/m3
2kWh/m3 - MED system.
Mechanical energy (counting for 20 kWh/m3 18 kWh/m3 - TVC-MED MVC: 7–12 kWh/m3 [47–49,160]
pumping and thermal energy) TVC: 16.26 kWh/m3
Steam pressure (bar) Pmotive steam 2–3 bar 0.3 bar - MED MVC NA [38,153]
3–20 bar - MED–TVC
With a motive steam pressure of 3
bar, the GR of Ras Laffan C, Qatar,
is 10.9.
Heating steam supply S.T. 120 C 70 C TVC: 70 C [45,153]
Potential for hybrid with other Challengeable Has a higher potential for MVC has the highest [28,35,97,101,103,105,106,109]
renewable technologies Not appropriate to mix with combination with renewable potential to be driven by
renewable energies that have energy sources such as solar energy solar CSP collectors.
intermittent energy supplies. than MSF.
Could be a great option for hybrid
thermal and membrane
desalination based renewable
energy.
Environmental impacts 1- MSF and MED systems extract more SW per cubic meter of product VC has less environmental [48,49]
water for cooling and partial feed. consequences and uses less
2- Larger volumes of concentrated brine are discharged at temperatures energy than MSF.
greater than saltwater, resulting in thermal pollution.
3- The rejected brine’s chemical pollutants have a deleterious impact
on the marine ecosystem.
4- High GHGs emissions.
Expected lifetime (20–30 years) (20–30 years) - TVC-MED Long [28]
Size of the unit (m3/day) 50,000–70,000 5000–15,000 MVC: 100–3000 [49]
TVC: 10,000–30,000
Capital and O&M costs 1- High capital investment cost 1- High capital cost due to the Lower than MSF [18,49,144,147,161]
(average investment cost: higher heat transfer area
1750 $/m3 day) (average investment cost: 950
2- Low O&M cost $/m3 day).
2- Lower O&M cost than MSF.
Fuel consumption/m3 DW 1- Qfuel/D = 340 MJ/m3 1- Qfuel/D = 320 MJ/m3 MED–TVC Qfuel/D = 200 [45]
2- Qfuel/D = 200 MJ/m3 2- Qfuel/D = 140 MJ/m3 MJ/m3 in CPDP.
1- When the steam is sent straight MED–TVC Qfuel/D = 360
from boiler to desalting system MJ/m3 for boiler operated
(DS). system.
2- When extracted from steam
turbine.
Energy cost for 1 m3 of desalted $2.2 $1.98 - TVC/ME NA [46,47]
water production when the
electrical energy cost of 1kWh is
as 0.11$
Desalinated water production cost $2.75/m3 $2.48/m3 - TVC/ME NA [46,47]
when the electrical energy cost of
1kWh is as 0.11$
Average daily DW output from 1 78.2 m3/day for GR = 10 when 84.83 m3/day for GR = 10 when 250 m3/day from MVC, [47,154]
MWt of solar energy. CSP directly operate the MSF. the CSP directly operate TVC-ME during running power
system Rankin cycle by CSP.
The collector area needed to 25.6 m2/(m3/day) 23.58 m2/(m3/day) - TVC-ME 8.08 m2/(m3/day) - MVC [47,154]
generate 1 m3 m2/(m3/day) of
DW in square meters.
(continued on next page)
14
Table 6 (continued )
Criteria MSF MED/TVC-MED VCDs References
The cost of solar collectors needed 67.44 M 62.16 M 21.31 M [154]

to generate one MIGD or DW.
Desalinated water quality MSF and MED both provide high-quality freshwater with TDS (<10 mg/ NA [22]
L) and are effective brine treatment systems.
capacity, as a result, a compromise between increased unit capacity and pumping energy is increased from the typical 4 kWh/m3 (for MSF
increased capital costs owing to FO membrane deployment must be TBT = 110 ◦ C) to 4.872 kWh/m3 (for TBT = 135 ◦ C) [154].
utilized in accordance with membrane development and commercial • The usage of NF is expensive and complicated which increases the
scale availability. cost of desalinated water [28,157].
• The MSF unit will need to be updated to accommodate the ex
7.3.3. MD-thermal technologies hybrid pected increase in production. This entails boosting the flow rate
Thermal membrane hybridization could be utilized to improve the and delivery pressure of the recirculation stream, modifying the
membrane performance. Combination of thermal MED and membrane weirs between stages, increasing the steam delivered saturation
distillation (MD) system powered via a solar collector is evaluated temperature, and addressing the increasing vapor in stages,
experimentally by HBKU-QEERI, showing an increase in overall water particularly the final ones [154].
production (overall recovery ratio) this is because MED’s down • The FO membranes cost is a crucial consideration in applying them
condenser cooling reject was used to cool the MD, resulting in a new as thermal desalination plant pretreatment. Thus, utilizing them as
amount of distillate for an equivalent quantity of seawater fed to MED pretreatment depends on their availability and reasonable cost
[163]. This is consequently reducing the overall electrical energy and [28]. Thus, further evaluation and investigation are required
thermal energy consumption. before field application.
Instead of considering the brine stream rejected from thermal desa • Using FO as a pretreatment is not recommended when Qatar west
lination plant as a waste and dumped into seawater, a conducted seawater used as a feed because its salinity can readily exceed 57
cooperated study between QU and HBKU-QEERI figured out that using g/L, this is relatively high and lowers the differential in osmotic
the thermal brine as feed to MD system can reduce the flux decline by 8 pressure gradient across the FO membranes [28]. Selection of draw
% instead of 12–20 % when using fresh seawater [164]. Thermal brine solution type is one of the key obstacles of using FO system in
feed demonstrated greater anti-fouling behavior for MD than the fresh seawater desalination and pretreatment [28].
seawater, which is polluted with organic and inorganic contaminants.
Furthermore, enhancing the energy efficiency of the direct contact 7.4. Renewable energy-based technologies
membrane distillation (DCMD) process by utilizing the waste heat from
the thermal brine to raise the temperature of the feed proved to be The use of non-carbon-based energy sources for desalination of
beneficial [164]. seawater is an important approach to address both the growing demand
for fresh water and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions [167].
7.3.4. RO-thermal technologies hybrid Non-carbon-based energy sources refer to renewable energy technolo
The advantage of thermal-RO desalination plants is the flexibility of gies that do not rely on fossil fuels and are considered more environ
operation during the year with respect to the large variation of power mentally friendly. The dependency of desalination process on burning
demand between summer and winter that leads to the advantage of the fossil fuels discharges greenhouse gases, mostly carbon dioxide; and
combination of gas and steam turbine to provide electrical power to the adversely influences their surroundings with a temperature increase of
RO plant and thermal energy from the steam turbine blowdown to pre- approximately 10 ◦ C and a salinity increase of almost 50 % as compared
heat the thermal desalination plant [165]. Another advantage of hy to the seawater intake. There are allegations that over the last 20 years
bridization method is the lower boron content when RO freshwater is the Arabian Gulf’s temperature and salinity have increased approxi
mixed with thermal freshwater. Umm Al Houl is one of Qatar’s biggest mately 2 % [168]. Utilizing solar energy for producing desalinated water
hybrid desalination facilities. It consists of five multi-stage flash dis is known as solar desalination, and this technology offers secure, clean,
tillers and a complete seawater reverse osmosis plant comprises several and free energy source, lowers greenhouse gases emission, reduces
pre-treatment stages and a two-pass RO installation with a total capacity dependence on fossil fuels, and offers sustainable source of drinking
of 136 MIGD. GCC has some other thermal-RO desalination plants such water. The usage of solar energy for producing desalinated water is a
as Fujairah facility and three Saudi plants in Al-Jubail, Yanbu, and desirable option in the GCC countries, where desalinated water re
Jeddah as has been mentioned by HBKU-QEERI study [157]. quirements are constantly increasing. The sustainable use of solar en
Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU) studied the effect of ergy will reduce the usage of scarce fossil fuels and the emission of
combining thermal-RO desalination plants through using the RO system greenhouse gases, where UAE and Qatar have the greatest per capita
to recover the rejected brine from the MSF system. Which is showed by discharge worldwide. Solar energy has a potential to be immediately
using a 0.5 recovery ratio of RO, 45.85 kg/s of freshwater is obtained transformed into electric energy, which could operate electrically driven
[166]. Furthermore, a study done by HBKU-QEERI has evaluated the desalination processes like RO, ED, and MVC systems. Moreover, solar
performance of novel tri hybrid RO-FO-MSF through using Visual Design energy might be transformed into thermal energy that could function the
and Simulation program (VDS) and compared to the different desali thermal-based desalination system like multi-stage flash distillation,
nation configuration such as RO-MSF, MSF-NF and MSF-FO. This study MED, multi-effect thermal VC, developing MD and humidification-
found that the tri hybrid RO-FO-MSF, with its lower energy consump dehumidification desalination systems [150].
tion, can give a solution to the standalone RO and MSF’s limited re Qatar, a country with limited freshwater resources, has been actively
covery ratio [165]. exploring the use of non-carbon-based energy sources for desalination to
address its water scarcity challenges. Here are some examples and
✓ Limitations of using membrane technology as pre-treatment for numbers highlighting the use of non-carbon-based energy in desalina
thermal desalination plants: tion in Qatar:
• Pumping the feed through NF and RO membranes uses more me
chanical energy. By considering the NF pumping, the MSF
15
• Solar-Powered Desalination: Solar energy has gained traction in HBKU studied the economics of CS thermal desalination on the basis of a
Qatar for desalination purposes. For instance, the Qatar General representative calculation of the levelized cost of water as well as a cost
Electricity and Water Corporation (KAHRAMAA) has implemented sensitivity assessment [152]. The team also reviewed extensively on
solar-powered desalination projects, including the Umm Al Houl combining multi-effect distillation with solar thermal energy from an
Power Plant, which combines a 100 MW solar power facility with a economic and technical perspective [147]. They explored the applica
590,000 m3/day reverse osmosis desalination plant. This project tion of solar-driven MED in brackish water desalting and agricultural
demonstrates the successful integration of non-carbon-based energy drainage water treatment. It was noted that these processes are rela
sources into large-scale desalination operations. tively less energy-intensive and hence may have lower levelized cost of
• Renewable Energy Share: Qatar has set a goal to increase the share of water [147]. The team also recommended a plant design on the basis of a
renewable energy in its overall energy mix. As part of its commit solar field with a linear Fresnel collector that provides heat to an MED
ment to sustainable development, Qatar aims to generate 20 % of its plant with TVC [155]. The recommended control strategy led to a 40
electricity from renewable energy sources by 2030. This initiative percent decrease in electric pumping energy. The findings emphasized
includes using renewable energy for desalination processes, further the usefulness of integrated thermal -based desalination technology with
promoting the adoption of non-carbon-based energy in the water linear Fresnel collector. The HBKU research team also carried out a
sector. thermodynamic analysis of gravity-assisted solar-powered RO unit for
• Qatar Foundation’s Solar Desalination Research: The Qatar Foun greenhouses located in a depleted zone [169]. This system demonstrated
dation (QF) has been actively involved in research and development that 46.18 kW of energy could be saved while using the hydrostatic
projects related to solar-powered desalination. QF’s research initia pressure of water.
tives aim to explore innovative technologies, optimize energy effi
ciency, and develop scalable solutions for sustainable desalination 8. Environmental impact assessment of desalination plants
using non-carbon-based energy sources.
• Collaboration with International Partners: Qatar has engaged in Research in Qatar has been focused on brine management, specif
partnerships with international organizations to enhance its exper ically addressing the environmental impacts associated with desalina
tise in using non-carbon-based energy for desalination. For example, tion plants. These studies aim to identify suitable technologies and
the HBKU-QEERI collaborates with institutions like the Massachu strategies to minimize the generation of rejected brine while ensuring
setts Institute of Technology (MIT) to develop solar desalination sustainable practices. The Gulf Organization for Research & Develop
technologies and improve their efficiency. ment (GORD) is a leading organization, managing brine from desali
nation plants and studying on the potential of using magnesium-rich
There are several research works carried out in HBKU-QEERI, on the brine in carbonate minerals for Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU)
functionalization of renewable-based energy for the desalination. The purposes.
research team examined the practicability of utilizing renewable energy The researchers in QU have carried out the studies related to the
resources, like wind energy and solar energy, for operating the seawater environmental impact assessment of desalination plants [22,170,171].
RO desalination plants, and choosing the appropriately driven renew The QU team studied latest information as regards the most suitable
able energy source operating the seawater [153]. For protecting the technologies that produce a least possible quantity of rejected brine by
surroundings and for making the desalinated seawater more sustainable using minimization techniques [172]. It was stated that sustainability is
as a drinking water source, the team recommended that renewable en a significant parameter that requires consideration for achieving
ergy and very energy-effective desalination technologies must be continuous operation of the waste brine management to accomplish the
employed. A study by HBKU-QEERI research team discussed the usage of minimum economic, social, and environmental aftereffects. For the
the solar-based desalination and calculated the investment expense for sustainable application of desalination technique, the effects of all main
installing these facilities [45]. These consist of photovoltaic (PV)-driven desalination projects must be examined as well as alleviated through a
RO system, and thermally powered MSF distillation and MED facilities project specific as well as site-specific environmental impact assessment
through the steam produced by solar collectors, or by steam obtained analysis and long-term effect on the basis of the global climate change.
from solar steam power facilities run by the concentrated solar (CS) Within this framework, the QU team intended to address the effect of
collectors. The findings showed that photovoltaic-RO desalination sys desalination with global climatic variation on a regional scale [173].
tem has the maximum specific capital cost, out of the different systems Moreover, the QU research team analyzed the Qatar’s water resource
considered. This is due to the high-priced electric energy storage in system using the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response framework, in
batteries, and the reality that almost one-third of the day can be supplied terms of drivers, pressures, state changes, effects, as well as responses
by the solar energy. Moreover, it was demonstrated by HBKU-QEERI [174]. Along with further management and corrective actions, the RO
researchers that employing the thermally produced energy from method has additionally been recommended to be used in the desali
concentrating solar power system is very inexpensive, as compared to nation sector as a “response” for mitigating the environmental and
using this thermal energy to power the desalination plant directly [45]. economic impacts cause by MSF techniques. The QU researchers also
The researchers from the Division of Sustainable Development (DSD) contributed a detailed insight into the recent developments in the
in HBKU have carried out some studies on renewable energy-based desalination process by examining the various technologies available,
desalination technologies. The team analyzed the practicability of brine water characteristics, water production costs, and energy con
employing an integrated system for freshwater and electricity produc sumption of these technologies [49]. The team also discussed the zero-
tion, focusing on solar chimney technology as its major pillar [115]. By liquid discharge (ZLD) technique, its environmental and operating
implementing this integrated system with a solar chimney as its major characteristics, challenges, benefits, and the recent progress of research
energy source, the overall energy efficiency was achieved to be 8.40 %, in this area. The team found that the ZLD process is extremely important
which is significantly greater as compared to a single solar chimney. In a to the environment in the context of decreasing the pollution resulting
similar manner, the team analyzed the possibility of using an integrated from discharged brine and thus accomplishing the sustainability [49].
system for yielding freshwater and electricity, with wind energy and In HBKU, several studies focused on the environmental impact
solar chimney as its prominent technologies [166]. The team also assessment of desalination plants [22,37,144,148]. The team evaluated
explored the relation between freshwater demand, renewable energy the associated environmental effects of water quality (selection of site)
sources, and the related ecological effects of desalination facilities and precise chemicals selection on the total environmental problems of
powered by renewable energy at a global scale employing a comparative the seawater RO process [175]. An LCA was performed on the envi
life-cycle assessment (LCA) method [160]. Moreover, the researchers in ronmental emissions on the basis of an existing seawater RO facility in
16
the Arabian Gulf, which was remodeled as well as sized in AqMB® Data availability
software using various input water quality samples from SW samples
acquired 19 sites across Arabian Gulf’s 563 km of coastline. The inves Data will be made available on request.
tigation confirmed that optimizing plant location was the only way to
potentially reduce various environmental consequences by roughly 25 Acknowledgements
% overall. Whereas cautious selection of chemicals, mainly those in pH
neutralization, disinfection, and coagulation, can remarkably have a The authors would like to acknowledge the support of this research
significant normalized impact the affect the environmental impact cat to Qatar University’s IRCC research program through grant number
egories, like marine ecotoxicity potential. The HBKU team also carried IRCC-2023-129 and NPRP13S-0205-200263. Further, the authors’
out a study on the environmental evaluation for two seawater-based RO acknowledge the support from Qatar National Library.
facilities situated within the Arabian Gulf studying subsurface intake
options as well as various energy source possibilities [176]. Subsurface References
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Desalination 564 (2023) 116802

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