Milling Machine

Design of sugar cane juice extractor milling machine
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Here, we would like to extend our deepest gratitude and appreciation towards some individuals
who have been assisted us throughout our project on sugar cane juice extractor milling
machine.
First of all, we would like to thank our God for his endless love and support until this time.
Next we would like to thank our University, University Mekelle towards the great opportunity
for us to have our final year project which is to be completed within a year. Our foremost
gratitude goes to Mr. Yacob. G our advisor for the opportunity he had given to us to be a part
of his students under final year. Honestly, it is the most valuable chance for us to explore and
expose our self to the real engineering fields which needs us to be equal in knowledge, skills
and managements. Next, we would like to thank all our colleagues for being supportive and
positive minded. We would like to take this opportunity to thank those who directly or
indirectly support us, provide ideas and constructive criticisms, and motivate us to do our best
in everything.
Last but not least, thanks also goes to our families who have given encouragement and support
and enthusiasm throughout the complete project despite many challenges to be encountered.
To everyone, thank you for the supports and inspirations.
i
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this project is to design small scale sugar cane juice extractor milling machine,
which is a derivative of an existing platform, considering the customer focus and technology
leadership competitive stages. The design covers from analyzing the existing milling machine
and properties or characteristics, designing of the components with modeling and preparing
manufacturing drawing up to analyzing of the manufacturing process components and cost
estimation.
Applying this methodology, a sugar cane juice extractor milling machine of weight of
508.55KG, this yields a sugar juice of 74000ml (7.4 liter) per minute of operation from sugar
cane of 3,770mm (3.77m) long with average diameter of 5cm, with manufacturing cost of
39,912.6 ETB.
As a result the sugar cane juice extractor milling machine is a simple lightweight, durable,
ergonomically hand lever operated, with a three mill roller and flywheel to maintain the
fluctuation speed due to the variation in human force, relatively to its capacity of juice
extraction.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ............................................................................................................. i
ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. viii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
1.1. Brief history of sugar cane, cane product and milling machine ..................................... 1
1.2. Problem statement ........................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Objective ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1. General objective ..................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2. Specific objective ..................................................................................................... 3
1.4. Aim of the project ........................................................................................................... 3
1.5. Significant of the milling machine .................................................................................. 3
1.6. Scope of the milling machine ......................................................................................... 4
1.7. Design methodology ....................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 10
2.1. Description of sugar cane.............................................................................................. 10
2.1.1. Structure of sugar cane stalk .................................................................................. 10
2.1.2. Storage of sugar cane ............................................................................................. 10
2.2. Sugar cane Harvesting .................................................................................................. 11
2.2.1. Sugar cane plantation and processing in Ethiopia ................................................. 12
2.3. Products of sugar cane .................................................................................................. 13
2.3.1. Fuel/ethanol extraction from sugar cane ................................................................ 14
2.4. Processing of sugar cane ............................................................................................... 16
iii
2.4.1. Sugar cane preparation ........................................................................................... 17
2.4.2. Imbibition of the sugar cane .................................................................................. 18
2.4.3. Sugar cane milling machine ................................................................................... 18
2.5. Review of existing sugar cane extractors...................................................................... 18
2.5.1. Conventional sugar cane juice extractor machine ................................................. 19
2.5.2. Modern sugar cane juice extraction machine......................................................... 20
2.5.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Extraction machine ......................................... 21
2.5.4. Another existing extractor machines ..................................................................... 22
2.6. Sugar cane milling machine .......................................................................................... 22
2.6.1. Working principle of the milling machine ............................................................. 23
2.6.2. Sugar cane juice extraction method ....................................................................... 23
2.6.3. Components of the extractor machine ................................................................... 24
CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN CONCEPT AND PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT.................. 25
3.1. Planning process ........................................................................................................... 26
3.1.1. Available opportunity ............................................................................................ 26
3.1.2. Competitive strategy .............................................................................................. 26
3.1.3. Market segmentation .............................................................................................. 26
3.1.4. Allocate Resources and Plan Timing ..................................................................... 26
3.1.5. Vision statement..................................................................................................... 28
3.1.6. Mission statement .................................................................................................. 28
3.2. Concept development.................................................................................................... 30
3.2.1. Identifying customer needs .................................................................................... 30
3.2.2. Concept generation ................................................................................................ 35
3.2.3. Concept selection ................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER FOUR: DETAIL DESIGN ................................................................................... 43
4.1. Design Specifications.................................................................................................... 43
iv
4.2. Material selection .......................................................................................................... 44
4.3. Forces and loads applied ............................................................................................... 45
4.4. Design of parts of the milling machine ......................................................................... 49
4.4.1. Design of spur gears’ ............................................................................................. 49
4.4.2. Design of roller shafts ............................................................................................ 66
4.4.3. Design of the roller groove .................................................................................... 76
4.4.4. Design of the trash plate ........................................................................................ 79
4.4.5. Design of flywheel ................................................................................................. 81
4.4.6. Design of handle lever ........................................................................................... 89
4.4.7. Design of bearings ................................................................................................. 95
4.4.8. Design of keys........................................................................................................ 99
4.4.9. Design of supporting frame ................................................................................. 103
4.4.10. Design of welding .............................................................................................. 110
4.4.11. Design of bolt and nut ........................................................................................ 112
CHAPTER FIVE: MANUFACTURING PROCESS ............................................................ 114
5.1. Manufacturing procedure ............................................................................................ 114
5.1.1. Manufacturing process of gear............................................................................. 115
5.1.2. Manufacturing process of roller shaft .................................................................. 117
5.1.3. Manufacturing process of flywheel ..................................................................... 117
5.1.4. Manufacturing process of handle ......................................................................... 118
5.1.5. Manufacturing process of the supporting frame .................................................. 118
5.1.6. Manufacturing process of the other parts............................................................. 118
5.2. Assembly process........................................................................................................ 118
CHAPTER SIX: COST ESTIMATION ................................................................................ 120
6.1. Manufacturing cost ..................................................................................................... 120
6.1.1. Raw material cost ................................................................................................. 120
v
6.1.2. Machine and labor cost ........................................................................................ 123
Chapter seven: Result and discussion .................................................................................... 124
7.1. Summarization of the design analysis of basic parts .................................................. 124
7.2. Milling tandem capacity ............................................................................................. 125
7.3. General specification of the juice extractor milling machine ..................................... 127
7.4. Technical improvements for the future ....................................................................... 127
7.4.1. Milling tandem efficiency calculation ................................................................. 127
7.4.2. Milling performance improvement ...................................................................... 129
Chapter Eight: Conclusion and recommendation .................................................................. 130
8.1. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 130
8.2. Recommendation ........................................................................................................ 131
Appendix ................................................................................................................................ 132
Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... 137
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: flow diagram that illustrates the input versus outcome .............................................. 4
Figure 2: Methodology of the sugar cane juice extractor milling machine designing............... 5
Figure 3: cane stalk structure ................................................................................................... 10
Figure 4: The flowchart of sugarcane juice extraction process ............................................... 17
Figure 5: Conventional sugar cane juice extractor machine .................................................... 19
Figure 6: The Trapiche juice extractor machine ...................................................................... 20
Figure 7: juice extraction machine power source (a) Petrol engine (b) Electric motor ........... 21
Figure 8: review more on the existing extraction machine ...................................................... 22
Figure 9: flow process of the juice extraction machine ........................................................... 23
Figure 10: flow process of the juice extraction machine ......................................................... 23
vi
Figure 11: product design development procedures ................................................................ 25
Figure 12: General understanding of the extractor overall problem breakdown ..................... 36
Figure 13: functional decomposition of sugar cane machine into sub-problem ...................... 36
Figure 14: design concept 1, existing sugar cane juice extraction machine ............................ 37
Figure 15: design concept 2 two roller hand operated ............................................................. 37
Figure 16: design concept 3, three roller hand lever operated ................................................. 37
Figure 17: design concept 4, three roler hand pill operated ..................................................... 38
Figure 18: design concept 5,two roller with flywheel ............................................................. 38
Figure 19: merged design cocept 6, from concept 3 and 5 ...................................................... 41
Figure 20: Effects of friction on feeding (Rein, 2007) ............................................................ 46
Figure 21: spur gear (Gupta, 2005) .......................................................................................... 49
Figure 22: Forces acting on a spur gear mesh a) radial and tangential components in a single
gear, b) directions of forces acting on a spur gear mesh .......................................................... 50
Figure 23: spur gear nomenclature .......................................................................................... 64
Figure 24: relation of base circle to pressure angle ................................................................. 64
Figure 25: top roller shaft with gears and bearing mounted on it ............................................ 67
Figure 26: free body diagram of the top roller shaft ................................................................ 67
Figure 27: load applied on the three gear transmission ........................................................... 68
Figure 28:torque load and bending moment diagram of top roll shaft .................................... 70
Figure 29: bottom roller shaft with gears and bearing mounted on it ...................................... 73
Figure 30: free body diagram of the bottom roller shaft .......................................................... 73
Figure 31: torque load and bending moment diagram of bottom roll shaft ............................. 75
Figure 32: force exerted by the roll groove surface on the bagasse (source; P. Rein cane sugar
Engineering) ............................................................................................................................. 77
Figure 33: circumferential grooving (HUGOT, 1986) ............................................................ 79
Figure 34: schematic of lateral groove (source: Google search.com) ..................................... 79
vii
Figure 35: trash plate setting (Rein, 2007)............................................................................... 80
Figure 36: flywheel (Gupta, 2005)........................................................................................... 82
Figure 37: flywheel rim and arm cross section (Gupta, 2005) ................................................ 84
Figure 38: modeling of flywheel arm as a cantilever beam (Gupta, 2005) ............................. 85
Figure 39: cranked hand lever (Gupta, 2005) .......................................................................... 90
Figure 40: schematic diagram of the handle shaft ................................................................... 94
Figure 41: bearing parameters ................................................................................................. 95
Figure 42: bearing life cycle diagram ...................................................................................... 96
Figure 43: illustration key (Gupta, 2005) .............................................................................. 100
Figure 44: The schematic diagram of the supporting frame .................................................. 103
Figure 45: vrtical stand of the supporting frame .................................................................... 104
Figure 46: free body diagram of the supporting frame .......................................................... 108
Figure 47: T- joint welding .................................................................................................... 111
Figure 48: welding size (Gupta, 2005) .................................................................................. 111
Figure 49: general manufacturing procedure of the milling machine.................................... 114
Figure 50: the exploded and collapesed view of the assembly .............................................. 119
Figure 51: technical improvement with addition of crusher .................................................. 129
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Potential Irrigation Sites for Sugar Cane Development in Ethiopia .......................... 12
Table 2: Ethanol conversion factors for sugar feed stocks per gallon of ethanol .................... 16
Table 3: advantage and disadvantages of extraction machine [11] ......................................... 21
Table 4: Time schedule planned for the design of the sugar cane milling machine ................ 27
Table 5: mission statement of sugar cane juice extractor milling machine ............................. 29
Table 6: interpreted need of the customer................................................................................ 31
Table 7: The relative importance of needs ............................................................................... 33
viii
Table 8: product specifications ................................................................................................ 33
Table 9: List of Metrics for juice extract machine ................................................................... 35
Table 10: rating of the relative importance for the selected factor .......................................... 40
Table 11: design concept screening matrix .............................................................................. 40
Table 12: design concept scoring matrix ................................................................................. 41
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Brief history of sugar cane, cane product and milling machine
Sugarcane, which is a species of herb belonging to the grass family, is mainly grown in tropical
and subtropical regions and fond of light and water. It grows up to height of 2m to 7m having
clumped up, jointed, cylindrical, stout stalks; of diameter 1.25cm to 7.25cm [4].
Several different horticultural varieties are known, and they differ by their stem color and
length. Sugarcane has been cultivated since ancient times. The most widely used cultivation
technique is by stem cuttings, since many varieties do not produce fertile seeds [4].
Sugar cane is commonly known as the source for making granulated sugar for daily
consumption. Sugar cane also quiet tough to crush to extract the juice. This plant is made up
of strong fiber. It is also known for its toughness and shape which is long straight plant like
bamboo. Besides being the main ingredient for making sugar, it also extracts a healthy juice.
Sugar cane juice is popular on Asia and India subcontinent as it is a path for migration
thousands of year back. The juice can be drink directly after crushing the sugar cane. In order
to crush this hard sugar cane, it needs a very strong roller and force to crush it, hence squeeze
the juice out of the plant. Crushing sugar cane and extracting the juice has been done since the
early days manually [11].
As for now, people become less interest drinking this juice because it is difficult to find a clean
and proper process in producing the juice. Mostly, sugar cane juices were selling on the side of
the road, which is not very clean due to blowing of dust and germs with wind. Sugar cane juice
is best drink fresh and chilled. A clean processing mechanism and proper disposing of its fiber
is seen as an interesting option to upgrade the crusher machine in the market. The fiber of sugar
plant after extraction is called bagasse [11].
Sugarcane is essentially a combination of juice and fiber. The juice is an aqueous solution of
sucrose and other inorganic and organic substances. Fiber is defined as all the insoluble
material in cane and so includes any dirty, soil or any other extraneous material as well as stalk
fiber [8].
The fiber content of clean stalk can vary from 10 to 18 g/100g cane. Most commonly the fiber
content is 13g/100g of cane. The sucrose content of mill-able cane can vary between 8 and 17
g cane. In good quality fresh clean cane, the purity of the juice is around 90, so the dissolved
solids can vary from about 10 to 19 g/100 g cane, the balance of the cane stalk is water, which
1
generally constitutes about 70 g/100 g cane. The non-sugar components i.e. the difference
between the total dissolved solids and the sucrose, are also very variable [8].
1.2. Problem statement
Sugarcane juice, over the years, has been successfully used in the production and
manufacturing of the edible refined sugar; using machines which were fabricated and
constructed to large scale production, industrialization and large capital requirements. This
makes the extraction of sugarcane juice a fantasy to local or small-scale industrial
establishments. Thus, this amputates the involvement of small-scale farmers in the business of
sugarcane juice extraction and refined sugar production.
This milling machine has been designed due to the following current problems especially in
Ethiopia:-
 Shortage of fuel in the rural area
 Put the human teeth in duress; imagine if the amount to be consumed is large.
 Improper disposal of the chewed fibrous component of the sugar cane called bagasse
which makes the environment dirty.
 Transportation problem after cutting, it takes more time to transport the harvested cane
to the sugar factory plant.
 Unnecessary Wastage of sugar juice during the employment of the teeth in biting off
the rind and chewing up the internal tissues.
 Loose of profit and wastage due to the expiration of the sugar cane in the market, it
takes long time to sell and dry’s by the sun and wind.
As a result, the design of a small scale sugar cane juice extractor milling machine has been
facilitated to cushion these problems so far for the purpose of producing fuel for small level
community.
1.3. Objective
1.3.1. General objective
 The general objective is to design a small scale manually operated sugar cane juice
extractor milling machine that serves as a preceding stage for the extraction of
ethanol for fuel production.
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1.3.2. Specific objective
The specific objectives are:-
 To develop the design concepts (mechanisms) of the sugar cane juice extractor
milling machine.
 To perform the design analysis of the sugar cane juice extractor milling machine
components.
 To model the components of the sugar cane juice extractor milling machine using
solid work software.
 To analyze the manufacturing process of the sugar cane juice extractor milling
machine.
 To evaluate the cost estimation of the sugar cane juice extractor milling machine.
1.4. Aim of the project
The aim of the project was intended to design a simple lightweight, portable, manufacture-able
at reasonable cost, flexible, durable and ergonomically hand operated small scale sugar cane
juice extractor milling machine.
1.5. Significant of the milling machine
The sugar cane milling machine has been designed to provide many benefits up to the
production of sugar and fuel for large scale, however when we see only for small this small
scale on the basis of production it has a benefits of:-
Economically: saving the foreign import.
Environmentally:
 Health: ethanol reduces the emission of carbon mono oxide as compared to
the gasoline fuel
 Agriculture: no deforestation
 Gender: provide equal accessibility of male and female for food making
 Renewable source: produce ethanol
 Time saving: take less time to cook foods
The another significant of the sugar cane juice extract milling machine is the output of the
machine obtained which is the sugar juice that is collected through a tray plate and the left over
3
fibrous material called bagasse. These outcomes have been important for the purpose of fuel
production.
Figure 1: flow diagram that illustrates the input versus outcome
1.6. Scope of the milling machine
The scope of study covers from analyzing of the characteristics of the sugar cane property when
it is processed staring from the cane preparation up to the production of the juice and bagasse
and includes designing of each components of the milling machine such as: - handle, shafts,
bearing, gear, roller, juice tray, casing and other accessories. Then the designing ends with
analyzing of the manufacturing process and cost estimation after it is modeled using solid work.
1.7. Design methodology
During designing of the juice extractor machine a number of methods are utilized for gathering
and documentation of the data and this includes:
o By reading different text books

o By searching an internet sites
o By referring different journals and research’s
After the required data’s have been compiled the design procedure will be done in accordance
to the design methodology of product design and development (PDD) which is the product
concept realization procedure which starts from the new idea/concept to the final product that
would be launched to market sold the product:-
4
Problem formation
Product specification
Concept development
 Diameter of roller
Identifying customer need  Speed of roller
 Gathering needs Detail design  Density of sugar
 Interpreting needs cane
 Organizing the needs
in hierarchy Manufacturing drawing Material selection
 Establishing
importance Force and load analysis
Concept generation Modeling
 Searching explicitly Design of part (stress

 Searching internally Cost estimation analysis)
Concept development
 Concept screening
 Concept scoring Result and discussion
Conclusion
Figure 2: Methodology of the sugar cane juice extractor milling machine designing
Analytic methodology:
The basic formulas applied during the analytical design methodology were:-
Chapter two: Literature review assessment
Sugar cane description

Sugar cane stalk structure and storage
Sugar cane harvesting
Sugar cane plantation in Ethiopia
Sugar cane product
Fuel/Ethanol extraction
Sugar cane processing
5
Review of existing juice extractor milling machine

Conventional juice extractor
Modern juice extractor
Sugar cane milling machine
Working principle of milling machine
Juice extraction method
Components of milling machine
Chapter three: Design concept and product development
Planning process
Available opportunity
Competitive strategy
Market segmentation
Resource allocation
Time planning
Vision statement
Mission statement
Concept development
Identifying customer need
Concept generation
 Clarifying the problem
 Searching externally
 Searching internally
 Exploring systematically
Concept development
Chapter four: Detail design
Design specification
Material selection
Force and load applied calculation
Design of milling machine components
Design of spur gear
Factor of safety for bending:
6
𝑆𝑡 𝑌𝑁
𝑆𝐹 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.16)
𝜎𝑏 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅
Factor of safety for pitting or wear:
𝑆𝑐 𝑍𝑁 𝐶𝐻
𝑆𝐻 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.17)
𝜎𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅
Where,
Allowable bending stress:
𝑆𝑡 𝑌𝑁
𝜎𝑏,𝑎𝑙𝑙 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.14)
𝑆𝐹 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅
Allowable pitting stress:
𝜎𝑐,𝑎𝑙𝑙 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . (4.15)
𝑆𝐻 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅
Design of roller shaft
Maximum shear stress theory or Guest's theory

𝜋
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑3 = √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 = 𝑇𝑒 … … … … … … … … . (4.22)
16
Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine’s theory
𝜋 1
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑3 = [𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ] = 𝑀𝑒 … … … … … … (4.23)
32 2
Design of roller groove
Lateral groove of Circular pitch = 16° ∗ 200𝑚𝑚 = 55.85𝑚𝑚 and Groove angle
= 8°
Design of trash plate

Compressive stress
𝐹
𝜎𝑐 =
𝐴
Design of flywheel
Stress on the flywheel rim
3 1 4.935𝑅
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑡 + 𝜎𝑏 = 𝜌𝑣 2 (0.75 + ) … … … … … … (4.29)
4 4 𝑛2 𝑡
Stress on the flywheel arm
3 𝑇
𝜎 = 𝜌𝑣 2 + (𝑅 − 𝑟) … … … … … … … … … … … . . . (4.31)
4 𝑅𝑛𝑍
7
Design of handle
Design of the lever arm:

The induced bending stress is then;
1.25 ∗ 𝐿
𝜎𝑏 = … … … … … … … … … … … … . (32)
1/6𝑡𝐵 2
The induced shearing stress is then;
9𝑇
𝜏= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (33)
2𝐵𝑡 2
Design of the journal:
3 16𝑇𝑒
𝐷=√ … … … … … … … … … … … … … (34)
𝜋𝜏
Design of bearing
Bearing life
𝑐 𝑎
𝐿𝑑 = ( ) ∗ 106 … … … … … … … … … … … (35)
𝑃𝑑
Design of key’s
Shearing of the key,

𝑑
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑤 ∗ 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 ∗ … … … … … … … … … . (36)
2
Crushing of the key,
𝑑
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝜎𝑐 ∗ … … … … … … … … … … … (37)
2
Design of supporting frame

Compressive stress:
𝑃
𝜎𝑐 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (37)
𝐴
Bending stress:
𝑀𝑦 𝑊 ∗ 𝑍 ∗ 𝑡/2
𝜎𝑏 = = … … … … … … … … . (38)
𝐼 1 3
12 𝑤𝑡
Design of welding
Compressive stress
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑙= … … … … … … … … … … … … . (39)
2 ∗ 𝑡𝑤 ∗ 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙
8
Bending stress
3𝑊 ∗ 𝑍
𝑙= … … … … … … … … … (40)
4𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑤 2
Design of bolt
Core diameter of bolt
(𝑑𝑐 ) = √2𝑝𝑠 /(𝜋𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙) … … … … … … … … … . . (41)
Nominal diameter would be taken from standard table appendix tableA-10.
Chapter 5: Manufacturing process
Manufacturing process
Manufacturing process
Manufacturing process of gears
Manufacturing process of roller shaft
Manufacturing process of handle
Manufacturing process of supporting frame
Manufacturing process of other parts like Bolts and nut, Keys
Assembly process
Exploded view of the assembly
Collapsed view of the assembly
Chapter 6: Cost estimation
Raw material cost

Machine
Labor cost
Overhead cost
Chapter 7: result and discussion

Summarization of design analysis of components
Milling tandem capacity
Technical specifications of the mill
Chapter 8: conclusion and recommendation
Conclusion: to conclude the methodology applied and result obtained following this
methodology
Recommendation: to recommend the manufacturer and end user on how to
manufacture and make routine maintenance service respectively.
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Under this chapter of literature review, it relates and focuses on the studies that related to the
project. It aims to review the critical points of current knowledge in a particular topic.
2.1. Description of sugar cane

2.1.1. Structure of sugar cane stalk
The bulk of the sugar is contained in the mature cane stalk. Figure 1 illustrates the stalk with
nodes every 150 to 200 mm, with the regions between nodes known as internodes. Attached to
the stalk at the nodes are the leaves, which may be green leaves or old brown leaves which do
not participate in the process of photosynthesis. The growing top section of the stalk is
commonly referred to as tops. Ideally, a cane stalk free of any tops or leaves is desired for
processing, but this is seldom realized.
The surface of the cane stalk is coated with a thin layer of wax, often more concentrated in the
nodal regions. The external waxy deposit acts as a protection against excessive evaporation of
moisture from the surface of the stem.
Figure 3: cane stalk structure
2.1.2. Storage of sugar cane
Whole cane sugar is very hygroscopic (draws water), and it should be stored air-tight in a dry
place. When the product is incorrectly stored, yeasts may begin a fermentation process. Under
ideal storage conditions (dry, dark and no smells), whole cane sugar can be stored for 12-18
months (Naturland, 2000) [4].
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2.2. Sugar cane Harvesting
Sugarcane is any of six to thirty-seven species of tall perennial grasses. Sugarcane is a tropical
grass belonging to the same family as sorghum, and corn – also known as maize. Sugarcane
only rarely produces seeds capable of germination [4].
Cane maturity is usually determined by monitoring sugar yield parameters such as: Percent of
polarization cane (Pol %), percent of Brix cane (Brix %), commercial cane sugar (CCS) and
tons of cane per hectare (TCH). However, most researchers focus their evaluation on Pol %
cane and its value ranged from 10.49 - 17.86. In milling operations, the preferred varieties are
those with Pol % cane and Brix % cane values nearly equal at maturity, and a Pol value 16 or
greater and purity of 80 % or greater are commercially acceptable [6].
Yields of cane vary tremendously from one area to another, depending on cane variety, climatic
factors, and availability of water, cane growing practices and the length of the growing season
(Age of harvest). The length of the growing season may vary from 8 months in Louisiana to
nearly two years in Hawaii [8].
Considering the time value, increase in harvest age showed a negative impact on brix, pol,
estimated recoverable sucrose, cane yield and sugar yield in the tropical area of Ethiopia. As a
result high sugar yield was recorded at the early harvesting ages 12 and 14 months. However,
optimum sugar yield was recorded on 12 months harvest age. Therefore, adjusting harvest age
to 12 months for the major sugarcane varieties was economically recommended to obtain
optimum sugar yield with efficient time use at the tropical areas of Tendaho, therefore, the age
of harvest is one of the most important factors affecting sugarcane productivity [6].
Varietal differences in growth and maturity rates must be considered when harvesting decisions
are made. In addition to the difference of varietal maturity rates, environmental conditions,
management practices, and pest pressure also influence the optimal harvest age of sugarcane
along the coast. The climate elements, temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity and total
rainfall variables that account for a major variation in harvest age among sugarcane growing
countries.
In Ethiopian Sugar Estates usually cane maturity is customarily determined by taking the crop
age and appearance as criteria for several years [6].
11
2.2.1. Sugar cane plantation and processing in Ethiopia
Land and Water Resources
Ethiopia is endowed with large areas of suitable low lands, rivers and conducive climate for
sugar cane growth. The climate and soil types in the country have both proven to be highly
conducive for sugar cane growth and productivity. Various pre- feasibility and feasibility
studies of sugar projects conducted by the Ethiopian Sugar Industry Support Center Share
Company (ESISC) have indicated that many potential sites at the main river basins are suitable
for sugar cane plantation [1].
These include 303,500 hectares of already identified suitable net areas in 7 sites. However, the
total area developed for the production of sugar cane in the country is only about 8% of the
total identified suitable areas. Experiences of existing sugar factories show that because of the
suitable soil, adequate water and conducive climate, an average sugar cane production per
hectare per month of the land under irrigation is very high as compared to other countries (i.e.9-
11 tons against 6-8 tons). This would make Ethiopia a very attractive location for private
investors to invest in the production and processing of sugar cane [1].
Table 1: Potential Irrigation Sites for Sugar Cane Development in Ethiopia
Source: ESISC, Ethiopian Sugar Industry, 2008.
12
2.3. Products of sugar cane
Sugar cane products include table sugar, Falernum, molasses, rum, cachaça (the national spirit
of Brazil), and ethanol; amongst others. The bagasse that remains after sugar cane crushing
may be burned to provide heat and electricity (Wikipedia, 2010). It may also, because of its
high cellulose content, serve as raw material for paper, cardboard, and eating utensils that,
because they are by-products, may be branded as "environmentally friendly" [4].
Wikipedia (2010) generally highlights that in most countries where sugarcane is cultivated;
there are several foods and popular dishes derived directly from it, such as: [4].
 Raw sugarcane: chewed to extract the juice.

 Rock candy: crystallized cane juice.
 Sugarcane juice: a combination of fresh juice, extracted by hand or small mills, with a
touch of lemon and ice to make a popular drink.
 Molasses: used as a sweetener and a syrup accompanying other foods, such as cheese
or cookies.
 Syrup: a traditional sweetener in soft drinks, now largely supplanted (in the US at least)
by high-fructose corn syrup, which is less expensive because of subsidies.
 Ethanol fuel: Ethanol is generally available as a by-product of sugar production. It can
be used as a bio-fuel alternative to gasoline, and is widely used in cars in Brazil. It is a
promising alternative to gasoline, and may become the primary product of sugarcane
processing, rather than sugar.
 Cachaça: Liquid made of the distillation of sugarcane and it is the most popular
distilled alcoholic beverage in Brazil.
 Jaggery: a solidified molasses, known as Gur or Gud in India, traditionally produced
by evaporating juice to make a thick sludge and then cooling and molding it in buckets.
Modern production partially freeze dries the juice to reduce caramelization and lighten
its color. It is used as sweetener in cooking traditional entrees, sweets and desserts.
 Rapadura: sweet flour which is one of the simplest refining’s of sugarcane juice.
 Rum: especially in the Caribbean. It is a strong alcoholic drink, mostly with a dark
brown color.
 Falernum: a sweet and lightly alcoholic drink made from sugar cane juice.
13
2.3.1. Fuel/ethanol extraction from sugar cane
Ethanol is a high-octane fuel which is used primarily as a gasoline additive and extender. The
reduction in use of methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) due to its environmental problems
caused by groundwater contamination and surging prices for petroleum-based fuels are
dramatically increasing the demand for ethanol and the interest in ethanol production.
Ethanol can be produced from carbohydrates such as sugar, starch, and cellulose by
fermentation using yeast or other organisms.
History of Ethanol [5]
In the 1850s, ethanol was a major fuel for lighting homes and businesses. During the Civil War,
a liquor tax was placed on ethanol to raise money for the war. The tax increased the price of
ethanol such that it could no longer compete with other fuels, such as kerosene, in lighting
devices. Ethanol production declined sharply because of this tax and production levels did not
begin to recover until the tax was abolished in 1906.
In 1908, Henry Ford designed the Model T to run on a mixture of gasoline and alcohol, calling
it the fuel of the future. When Prohibition began in 1919, ethanol was banned because it was
considered liquor. It could only be sold when it was mixed with petroleum. With the end of
Prohibition in 1933, ethanol was used as a fuel again. Ethanol use increased temporarily during
World War II when oil and other resources were scarce.
In the 1970s, interest in ethanol as a transportation fuel was revived when embargoes by major
oil producing countries cut gasoline supplies. Since then, ethanol use has been encouraged by
offering tax benefits for producing ethanol and for blending ethanol into gasoline. In 1988,
ethanol began to be added to gasoline for the purpose of reducing carbon monoxide emissions.
As a transportation fuel, ethanol can be used as a total or partial replacement of gasoline. All
vehicles that run on gasoline can use a blend of 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent gasoline (i.e.,
E10) without making modifications to their engines. Over 90 percent of the ethanol produced
in the United States is mixed with gasoline to make E10. E85 is an alternative fuel that is 85
percent ethanol and 15 percent gasoline. Vehicles are not modified to run on E85; they are
specially manufactured as flexible fuel vehicles. A number of flex fuel vehicles are on the road
today, including vehicles from Ford, General Motors, DaimlerChrysler, Mercedes, Mercury,
Nissan, Mazda and Isuzu.
14
The engine must be modified to use any fuel with more than 10 percent ethanol. Since ethanol
is corrosive, all fuel hoses need to be replaced to prevent corrosion. Ethanol has poor
lubricating properties; therefore, the valve seats in the cylinder head are hardened to handle
ethanol fuel. Remapping of the engine for the higher octane fuel is also needed because E85
has an octane number of approximately 106, almost 10 higher than petroleum. Finally, changes
must be made to the ignition timing and fueling of the engine (Warwick Innovative
Manufacturing Research Centre 2007).
Ethanol versus petroleum [5]
The prices of petroleum products are generally on an increasing trend and consequently
affecting the general cost of living. This continuous increase has resulted in the prices of some
products tripling in the last decade. In some communities, in the developing nations these
products are not only expensive but they are not readily available because of the poor road
infrastructure necessary for their distribution. The consumption of petroleum products also has
other inconveniencies such as environmental pollution and the emission of greenhouse gasses
generally believed to be responsible for global warming. The general trend all over the world
now is to reduce the over dependence on petroleum products so as to help reduce the effects of
global warming. Other possible advantages of abandoning petroleum products is the fact that
alternative sources can be produced from renewable resources that are available almost
everywhere that there is life. This avoids the employment of heavy infrastructure for long
distance transportation and distribution. The need for alternative sources of energy especially
those that can be produced and utilized in enclave areas cannot be over emphasized.
Amongst the various alternatives that are attracting attention today, is the use of ethanol as fuel
for the motor vehicle engine.
Various fractions of ethanol are already being used in many countries around the world to blend
with gasoline and diesel. Because an alcohol fuel provides high quality, low cost fuel for
exceptional engine performance (RFA, 2001). Ethanol blended fuels account for approximately
30% of all automotive fuels sold in the U.S. and ethanol acts as antifreeze in the engine during
winter (RFA, 2001). This high quality and high-octane fuel is capable of reducing air pollution
and improving automobile performance (Wei- Dong et al 2002; Al-Hassan 2003).
Ethanol conversion factors for sugar feed stocks per gallon of ethanol
15
The quantity of an alternative sugar feed stocks required per gallon of ethanol are listed in
Table 2. Currently, using corn as the feedstock, the production of one gallon of ethanol would
require 0.0101 tons of corn. Using alternative forms of sugar as the primary feedstock, one
gallon of ethanol would require 0.051 tons of sugarcane, 0.040 tons of sugar beets, 0.0144 tons
of molasses, 0.0074 tons of raw cane sugar, or 0.0071 tons of refined beet sugar.
Table 2: Ethanol conversion factors for sugar feed stocks per gallon of ethanol
Feedstock Feedstock quantity per gallon of ethanol
Corn 0.0101 tons (0.36 bushels)
Sugarcane 0.051 tons
Sugar beets 0.040 tons
Molasses 0.0144 tons (2.45 gallons)
Raw sugar 0.0074 tons (14.77 pounds)
Refined sugar 0.0071 tons (14.18 pounds)
2.4. Processing of sugar cane
After the farmer plants the perennial sugarcane plant on the farmland, it would grow up to
harvest quality before adequate primary processing procedure, up to raw juice extraction,
would be carried out. As represented as a flow chart in Figure 4, from the sugarcane planting,
the mature crop land would be subjected to pre-harvesting land burning to cater for venomous
snakes that habit the sugarcane plantation. The burning would also help eliminate excess and
unwanted crop trash such as the leaves and stalks; to an extent it would help reduce the moisture
of the crop thereby increasing the transported quantity [4].
When it is delivered to the factory it is cleaned to remove debris, dirt and the remaining trash
before it is being broken or cut up, manually or mechanically, then subjected to milling (with
addition of some water) for juice extraction. When this is achieve the raw juice can then be
subjected to further processing after strainers are used to sieve the unwanted juice particles and
the bagasse is collected at another end (Midwest Research Institute,1997) [4].
16
The highly useful bagasse would also be processed to derive the desired advantageous and
lucrative products it provides.
Sugar cane planting
Trash removal
Pre harvesting land burning
Cane loader and transporter
Factory unload
Cleaning Debris removal
Breaking and cutting
Adding of water Cane milling
Raw sugar Bagasse and residue
Further processing
Figure 4: The flowchart of sugarcane juice extraction process
2.4.1. Sugar cane preparation
The process of reducing the cane fed to the mill into small pieces suitable for the subsequent
extraction process is referred to as cane preparation. The sugar cane preparation is done by
using a knife or by a knife followed by shredders.
The purposes of cane preparation are:
 To reduce the size of the pieces of cane to a size suitable for handling in the extraction
process.
17
 To rupture as many of the sugar bearing cells in the cane as possible to facilitate the
extraction of sugar.
 To produce a material that has the right characteristics or milling and diffusion.
2.4.2. Imbibition of the sugar cane
Imbibition is nothing but simply addition of water during processing specially during milling
machine in order to increase the extraction.
The imbibition may be simple or compound,
 The quantity of water to be added to the cane is directly proportional to the fiber content
of the cane, between 200 to 250% of fiber.
 As the value of the fiber is a difficult arameter to establish, generally is used 25 to 30%
of the total weight of the cane.
 The temperature is an important parameter. Never may exceed the 65 C degrees due to
the effect of dilution of wax and doctrines.
 There is a big commitment between the quantity of water added to the cane to improve
the extraction and the energyic balance of the total process.
2.4.3. Sugar cane milling machine
The objective of the milling machine is for the extraction of sugar juice after sugar cane
preparation is carried out, for the purpose of sugar and fuel production. That means it is used
to separate the sucrose-containing juice from the remainder of the cane, which comprises
mainly fiber.
2.5. Review of existing sugar cane extractors
Sugar cane juice extractor machine were built since 1800 years back and it’s been evolving
since. These juice extractor machines were built to help human extract the juice from sugar
cane through crushing and rolling process [11].
Sugar canes are popular on country such as India, Thailand, Brazil, China and India
subcontinent. The development of this machine has been started hundreds years back on many
countries [11].
Crushing a sugar cane requires strong force due to its strong and hard characteristics. Juice
extractor machines were built mostly focused on the mechanical of the machine. The efficiency
of machine depends on the mechanical system that has been designed on the machine [11].
18
There are different types of sugar cane juice extractor machine that can be categorized under
this topic which is the conventional juice extractor and modern juice extractor.
2.5.1. Conventional sugar cane juice extractor machine
Conventional sugar cane juice extractor machine were used for a long time because it is cheap
and last longer.
Conventional machine is a simple machine consists of several gears, rollers and lever attached
on a cast iron chassis body. Most conventional machines are made up from cast iron material
which is strong and durable. These machines were made by simple mechanism of rolling and
crushing (Kulkarni, 2005).
Human force is required to extract the juice using this machine. A lever is attached on a set of
gear, when the lever is spin manually by hand, both rollers will spin to crush sugar cane. This
process required lots of energy because sugar cane is hard to crush and sugar cane needed to
be crush repeatedly. Most conventional machine consist only a set of roller.
Conventional machine operates on exposed extraction mechanism which is not hygienic for
food and beverages standards. Besides that, rust on the surface of the roller also may affect the
quality of the juice and contaminate the juice.
Figure 5: Conventional sugar cane juice extractor machine
2.5.1.1 The trapiche
The trapiche which is a Spanish word meaning ‘sugarcane crusher’- when used in terms of the
machine, or ‘sugarcane mill’ - when used for the location, is a traditional wooden roller press,
used by the people of Panama and Columbia to extract sugarcane juice (Riza, 2010). This
19
machine which is of varying sizes is basically made from wood. It has two vertical rollers for
crushing the sugarcane.
These rollers are held in place by a wooden frame, while one of the rollers receives and
transmits, by a longitudinal twist grove, the rotary motion to the second roller for crushing. It
is powered manually or by animal draught (mostly for the larger and static ones found in the
mill), to perform the juice extraction.
Figure 6: The Trapiche juice extractor machine
2.5.2. Modern sugar cane juice extraction machine
In this modern day, sugar cane juice seller uses modern extractor machine because it does not
require force to extract the juice. Modern sugar cane juice extractor machine uses motor in
solution of replacing the human force.
There are two types of power source, petrol engine and electric motor.
2.5.2.1. Petrol engine operated juice extractor
Petrol engine were introduced to sugar cane juice extractor machine before electric motor.
Belting is used to transfer the force from the engine to sets of gear. Petrol engine produce loud
noise during operation and emit harmful gas such as Carbon Monoxide.
20
2.5.2.1. Electric motor operated juice extractor
Electric motor is introduced for sugar cane juice extractor machine as a solution for petrol
engine generator. Electric motor does not produce loud noise and emit harmful gas unlike petrol
engine. However, the bigger the torque of motor, the more current it consumes to operate.
Most electric motor powered extractor machine uses spur gear for force transmitting and load
reduction. The forces from motor are rotating on the same rotation axis of the roller. The
currently available sugarcane juice extractors require high energy and sophisticated mills,
driven mechanically (Olaoye, 2011) [11].
Figure 7: juice extraction machine power source (a) Petrol engine (b) Electric motor
(Source: http://thiruvananthapuram.olx.in, www.asia.ru)
2.5.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Extraction machine
Table 3: advantage and disadvantages of extraction machine [11]
Type of machine Description Advantages Disadvantages
Mostly made from  Simple  Easy to rust

conventional 
cast iron mechanism  Manually powered by human
juice
 No electricity  Sugar cane needs to be
 Opened machine
extractor needed crushed for few times
 Normally consists of
(repeating)
2 rolls
21
 Easy to  Sugar cane needs to be

Modern juice  Mostly are made
operate crushed for few times
extractor from stainless steel
and aluminum  Efficient rolls (repeating)
 No proper disposal of bagasse
 Consists more than 2
rolls
2.5.4. Another existing extractor machines
Figure 8: review more on the existing extraction machine
2.6. Sugar cane milling machine
Sugarcane mills convert sugarcane to raw sugar, which must then be sent to a refinery for
conversion to white refined sugar. The byproducts of sugarcane mills, which convert sugarcane
to raw sugar, are cane molasses and bagasse. Sugarcane molasses is used in the production of
alcohol beverages, fuel alcohol, and for direct human consumption. Modern sugarcane mills
also take advantage of sugarcane bagasse for production of steam and generation of electricity
within the plant and sell excess electricity to the regional utility grid.
22
2.6.1. Working principle of the milling machine
Figure 9: flow process of the juice extraction machine
The concept of sugar cane juice extraction machine is simple crushing mechanism consists of
sets of gears and rolls. The gears and rolls are powered either manually by handle or AC electric
motor.
When the machine starts, the human force generates power to operate the handle. Spur gears
are attached to the handle. The handling wheel or level causes the handle shaft to spin; the
motion is then transferred to the rollers through sets of spur gears. Sugar cane will be fed
between the rolls with grooved surface. Compression occurs due to smaller area between rolls
than diameter of sugar cane. The compression occurs through the whole stalk causing the juice
to be extracted. The load of compressing the sugar cane is reduced by spur gears. The load is
distributed and reduced for less power consumption.
2.6.2. Sugar cane juice extraction method
Figure 10: flow process of the juice extraction machine
23
First, the skin of sugar cane is peeled using knives or machine. Mostly sugar cane juice seller
uses knife due to high cost of stripping machine. After the outer skin is peeled, it is fed into the
operating extraction machine. The crushed sugar cane will be strained and came out from
behind of the machine. It is then inserted again into the machine to extract more juice. The
juice is collected from the tip of the machine. The juice extracted is then filtered from its fibre.
The small fibre is filtered because it may cause discomfort to throat when consuming. After
juice extraction occurred, the bagasse is piled up for dumping.
2.6.3. Components of the extractor machine
The machine is a combination of shafts, gears of varying sizes, pulley, crushing rollers,
bearings, fasteners, trash pate, the metal framework and prime mover or power source.
The Rollers
These rollers were made from stainless steel because of their ability to handle food materials
without getting them contaminated. Groove on the rolls plays an important role for juice
extraction. The groove on the surface of rolls is designed based on efficiency of extraction and
for gripping sugar cane.
The machine frame
This part is mainly made with the mild steel and angle bars. The mild steel is used to make two
profiles that serve as a support.
The spur gears
The spur gears are used to spin the groove rollers. The spur gear makes the spinning motion
smoother, and the flywheels that may attach are used have a continuous motion.
Trash plates
The purpose of the trash plate (or "turn plate") is to direct the cane from the feed opening (where it has
been compressed with some juice extraction) to the discharge opening for further compression and
extraction.
24
CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN CONCEPT AND PRODUCT

DEVELOPMENT
The design concept selection and product development is intended to identify and understand
the product development which is the product concept realization procedure which starts from
the new idea to the market of the product.
Figure 11: product design development procedures
25
3.1. Planning process
The planning process is a preceding procedure of product development that provides a direction
how the design procedure will be pursued and allocates the resource and time plane. Also here
the vision and the mission statements of the product will be identified.
The product design and development comprises a number of stages that are list above during
the design methodology section of the chapter one but here are lists of brief and necessary
procedures to be followed for the design of the sugar cane juice extractor milling machine.
3.1.1. Available opportunity
The design of new and efficient sugar cane milling machine is a derivative of an existing
platform to satisfy the customers need for the community fuel production.
3.1.2. Competitive strategy
The competitive strategy of the milling machine design is to win the market area by fulfilling
the customers need at a possible minimum cost which means it is designed based on the
customer focus and cost leadership.
3.1.3. Market segmentation
The market area of the milling machine is specially to be solid for the community which lives
near to the harvesting environment of the sugar cane in the farming area.
3.1.4. Allocate Resources and Plan Timing
i. Resource allocation
The main resource of this designing is the human resource which means since it is done in team
and the team has three students intended to design the sugar cane milling machine, of course it
needs resource (money) for transportation and stationary material preparation but here
infrastructure for prototype making and pilot production is not required because the design
excludes production.
ii. Plan Time schedule
The other resource to be allocated is the time plan which only deals with the technology
readiness which excludes time plane for market readiness and competition. That means it
26
doesn’t includes when the designed product will be available for market but it deals only how
it wins the competition by satisfying the customer needs and cost.
Table 4: Time schedule planned for the design of the sugar cane milling machine
No. Performed Specific tasks Date Plan

Assessment of the background of From
sugarcane: 17/March/2017
1
 What is sugar cane To
 Sugar cane structure 26/March/2017
 Sugar cane components
 Sugar cane preparation Literature review
2 Assessment of the milling machine: From

 Purpose of the milling machine 27/March/2017
 Working principle of the milling To
 Types of milling machine 10/April/2017
 Components of the milling

machine
 Identifying customer needs From

 Concept generation 11/April/2017
3 Design Concept &
 Concept selection To
product development
Concept screening 02/May/2017
Concept scoring
Design Specification: From

 Equipment sizing 03/May/2017
4
 Material selection To
17/May/2017
27
Design analysis: Detail design
 Design of the rollers

 Design of the gears From
5
 Design of the shafts 18/May/2017
 Design of the handle To
 Design of the supporting frame 01/June/2017
 Design of other components…….
Manufacturing drawing: From

6
 Part drawing 02/June/2017 Modeling
 Assembly drawing To
06/June/2017
Manufacturing From
And 07/June/2017
Manufcaturing process
7 Assembly process To
10/June/2017
Cost estimation From
 Rough cost calculation of the 11/June/2017
8 machine To Cost estimation
16/June/2017
From
16/June/2017
Contingent!!!
9 Final documentation… To
18/June/2017
3.1.5. Vision statement
 To design a marketable and problem solver a small scale sugar cane milling machine
for the community fuel production.
3.1.6. Mission statement
The objective defined by a product vision statement is general. It doesn’t specify the specific
key goals, target market, and constraints of functions such as production and service operations.
28
In order to provide clear guidance for the product development, generally the team formulates
a more detailed mission statement of the target market and assumptions and constraints under
which the development team will operate.
Table 5: mission statement of sugar cane juice extractor milling machine
Mission statement: sugar cane juice extractor milling machine

Product
 Lightweight, portable, reasonable cost, flexible, durable
description
and hand operated
Benefit proportion
 Operates more quickly and with less power
ergonomically
Key business goals

 Serve as a platform for the future
 Economically friendly
 Environmentally friendly
 Healthy
 Facilitates gender equality
Primary market
 For small level community in the farmer area for fuel
production
Secondary market
 For small enterprises’ for fuel production
 For private consumers’ for juice utilization
Assumptions and
 Derivative of existing platform
Constraints:
 Customer focus and cost leadership
 Compatible with community
 Manufacture-able in Ethiopia
Skate holders
 Purchasers and Users
 Manufacturing Operations
 Service Operations
 Distributors and Resellers
29
3.2. Concept development

3.2.1. Identifying customer needs
Since the customer need is most closely related to concept generation, concept selection,
competitive benchmarking, and the establishment of product specifications, Hence the
assessment of the customer needs are necessary.
The customers need is identified by the following steps:-
♣ Gather raw data from customers.

♣ Interpret the raw data in terms of customer needs.
♣ Organize the needs into a hierarchy of primary, secondary, tertiary needs.
♣ Establish the relative importance of the needs.
i. Gathering raw data
This raw data is collected from internet by making an observation of the market assessment
and technology requirement based on the customer focus.
Customers’ statement of needs could be:-
 It requires more power or pressure to crush the sugar cane

 It is difficult to make routine service like cleaning
 There is contamination of bagasse particles in the juice
 The rust in the rollers contaminates the juice
 It requires continuous power so it needs two or more man power
 I don’t have good material to collect the bagasse
 It is easy to operate
 It has to be durable or long life
 It is simple and lightweight
ii. Interpreting raw data
After the raw data’s obtained are documented, the customers’ statements are then interpreted
based on the basic guidelines:-
♣ Express in terms of what the product has to do, not how it might do.
♣ Express the needs as specific as possible
♣ Use positive statement not negative
♣ Avoid the word should and must
30
Table 6: interpreted need of the customer
Question/ Customer statement Interpreted need

prompt
It requires more and continuous power The juice extract machine requires power
to crush the sugar cane to crash the sugar can
Typical It is difficult clean and service The juice extract machine is difficult to
use maintenance
I need to manufactured it in Ethiopia The juice extract machine is
manufactured with in materials that we
can found in our environment
I like it is easy to operate within one The juice extract machine operates easily
person
Likes I like it is simple and light weight The juice extract machine is simple and
current light weight
machine I like it can moves from place to place The juice extract machine is portable
I don’t like when it have good material The juice extract machine requires good
Dislike to collect the bagasse discharge to collect the bagasse
current It can’t squeeze the sugarcane The juice extract machine squeeze the
machine perfectly with in three times or less sugarcane with more than three times
I didn’t like to polite the environment The juice extract machine operates
by smoke of an engine manually
Suggested I need when it is cheap The juice extract machine is economical
improvem I wants it to be durable or long life The juice extract machine has long life
ents when we operate it properly
Move with four wheels The juice extract machine is portable
iii. Organize the Needs in to hierarchy of primary and secondary
The goal of organizing into hierarchy is to organize these needs in to hierarchical list. The list
will typically consist of a set of primary needs, each one of which will be further characterized
by set secondary needs.
These are the procedure:-

 Print or write each need statements on a separate card,
31
 Eliminate redundant statements,

 Group the cards according to the similarity,
 For each group choose a label,
 Consider creating subgroups consisting of two to five groups,
The juice extract machine is suitable to use.
** The juice extract machine is ergonomic
*The juice extract machine can be used for rural area and for juice houses
The juice extract machine is easy to use.
** The juice extract machine cleans easily
* The juice extract machine is easily operated
The juice extract machine has a pleasant sound when in use.
Use prevent maintenance

Protect dust from environment
The juice extract machine is easy to control while working.
The juice extract machine is easy to maintain
** The juice extract machine set in suitable place
* The juice extract machine is removable and easily assembled

*! The juice extract machine is easily polished
The juice extract machine is portable
* The juice extract machine can move
The juice extract machine feels good in users hand while rotating the handles
*The juice extract machine can easily operate with both right and left hands
*The juice extract machine can’t deformed by rotating the handle clock wise or in the
revers
The juice extract machine is safe
* The juice extract machine is anchored tightly
* The juice extract machine is welded safely
The juice extract machine helps
* The juice extract machine helps to save time.

** The juice extract machine helps to save energy
*** The juice extract machine helps to convert the sugarcane in to fuel
The juice extract machine has good Quality
32
*The juice extract machine has a good surface quality

*** The juice extract machine will maintain or enhance
** The juice extract machine is aesthetically pleasing
**** The juice extract machine is reliable
NOTE: The importance rating for secondary customer needs of hierarchical list are indicated
by the number of *s, while with **** and *** denoting for the critically important needs.
Latent needs are denoted by!
iv. Establishing relative importance of the needs
Relative importance is a value that is subjectively allocated to customer needs on a scale stars.
Ranges from 1 to 5 stars are selected to rank the customer needs; where 5 stars indicate the
least important need. Whereas 1 star represents the most important need. The importance of
needs was taken according to the voice the customers. The relative importance of needs is
shown in the following Table.
Table 7: The relative importance of needs
Needs
Importance
The juice extract machine is used in rural area and juice houses *
The juice extract machine is portable **
The juice extract machine assembly is aesthetically pleasing. ***
****
The juice extract machine is easily operated
The juice extract machine has Good ergonomics *****
Product specification
For producing sustainable products, effective communication between all parties is necessary
and human needs have to be taken into consideration. A structured process is required to match
human needs with the product specifications. One of the key objectives is to ensure that the
needs of the customer are incorporated into the design.
Table 8: product specifications
33
No. Product design Need Imp.

1 The juice extract machine Protect environment from smoke 4
2 The juice extract machine Helps to save time. 4
3 The juice extract machine Easily maintain or enhance 3
4 The juice extract machine Allow easily replacement of worn parts 2
5 The juice extract machine Anchored tightly 3
6 The juice extract machine Easy to operate 5
7 The juice extract machine Good ergonomics 4
8 The juice extract machine Removable and easily assembled 4
9 The juice extract machine Saving energy 2
10 The juice extract machine Easily polished 1
11 The juice extract machine Suitable to feed ban 4
12 The juice extract machine Aesthetically pleasing 4
13 The juice extract machine Helps to give more juice 4
14 The juice extract machine sturdy /robust 5
15 The juice extract machine Comfortable in rural area 2
16 The juice extract machine Parts are collected from available resources 2
17 The juice extract machine Use effective for the bagasse 3
18 The juice extract machine Easy to install 3
19 The juice extract machine portable 2
20 The juice extract machine Light weight 4
21 The juice extract machine Reliable 3
Establishing target specifications
The Team members were considered the following steps / process to establish the target
specifications.
1. Prepared the list of metrics

2. Collected competitive benchmarking information
3. Set ideal and marginally acceptable target values
Preparing List of Metrics
34
A list of matrices for each of the customer needs to establish the relationship between the
requirements of the design (stated from the customer’s point of view) and the product
characteristic (in engineering terms). These matrices are generally referred to as the preliminary
specifications which are established after identifying customer needs and before concept
generation. The list of matrices for the juice extract machine and the relative importance of
each metric and the units for the metric are shown in Table shown below.
Table 9: List of Metrics for juice extract machine
Metrics no Need Nos. Metric Imp. Units

1 1,18 Environment pollution 4 Subj.
2 3,8,18 Assembly Time 4 Sec
3 3,7,18 Safety 3 Subj
4 5 Clearance and allowance of board 2 Mm
5 6,7,15 Comfort Subj
6 5,14 Maximum strength of the assembly 5 N/mm2
7 4,16 Spar part 4 Pcs
8 9,11,13 Effectiveness 2 %
9 19 Motion in operation 4 m/s
10 12 Smartness 4 Subj.
11 20 Total mass 4 Kg
12 21 Life time 5 Year
13 2,10,11 Time 3 Sec
NB. “Subj” is an abbreviation indicating the metric is subjective
3.2.2. Concept generation
A product concept is an approximate description of the technology, working principles, and

form of the product. A concept is usually expressed as a sketch accompanied by a brief textual
description. It begins with a set of customer needs and target specifications and results in a set
of product concepts from which the team will make a final selection.
The procedures are as follow:-
i. Clarifying the problem

ii. Searching externally
35
iii. Searching internally

iv. Exploring systematically
i. Clarifying the problem
As a first step to concept generation for sugar cane juice extractor machine, the team’s first
task was to clarify the problem by clarifying the problem consists of developing a general
understanding and then breaking the problem down in to sub problems.
Figure 12: General understanding of the extractor overall problem breakdown
Figure 13: functional decomposition of sugar cane machine into sub-problem
i. Searching externally
External search is aimed at finding existing solutions to both the overall problem and the sub-
problems identified during the problem clarification step.
ii. Searching internally
Internal search is the use of personal and team knowledge and creativity to generate solution
concepts. Often called brainstorming, this type of search is internal in that all of the ideas to
emerge from this step are created from knowledge already in the possession of the team.
Therefore, the possible concepts generated by searching both externally and internally are listed
below:-
36
A. The existing sugarcane juice extraction machine
Figure 14: design concept 1, existing sugar cane juice extraction machine
B. Two roller hand wheel operated
Figure 15: design concept 2 two roller hand operated
C. Three roller hand lever operated
Figure 16: design concept 3, three roller hand lever operated
D. Three roller hand wheel operated
37
Figure 17: design concept 4, three roler hand pill operated
E. Two roller with flywheel
Figure 18: design concept 5,two roller with flywheel
ii. Exploring systematically
As a result of the external and internal search activities, the team will have collected a numbers
of concept fragments—solutions to the sub-problems. Systematic exploration is aimed at
navigating the space of possibilities by organizing and synthesizing these solution fragments
The team focuses on the external energy accepted, energy conversion and applying the energy
on sugar cane.
Concept classification tree:
38
Some of the solutions developed to the sub-problems of (1) storing or accepting energy and (2)
delivering translational energy to sugarcane.
(1) Solution to sub-problem of storing or accepting energy:-
♣ Human power (handle)

♣ Spin up (flywheel)
♣ Mechanical (gear train)
♣ High pressure (weight of top roller)
(2) Solution to sub-problem of applying translational energy to sugarcane:-
♣ Pushing (hopper)
♣ Pulling (feeding roller)
♣ peel off (Scribers )
3.2.3. Concept selection
Concept selection is the process of evaluating concepts with respect to customer needs and
other criteria, comparing the relative strengths and weaknesses of the concepts, and selecting
one or more concepts for further investigation, testing, or development.
The goal of concept selection is not to select the best concept but it is to develop.
There are to techniques for concept selection: screening and scoring
The generic steps involved in concept selection are:-
1. Develop evaluation criteria

2. Assign importance rate to each criterion
3. Rate each concept with respect to each evaluation criterion
4. Rank the concepts
5. Combine and improve the concepts
6. Select one or more concepts and develop one.
Screening is a quick, approximate evaluation aimed at producing a few viable alternatives.

Scoring is a more careful analysis of these relatively few concepts in order to choose the single
concept most likely to lead to product success.
39
The next task was assigning weights to each selection criteria in the scoring matrix. Several
different schemes can be used to weight the criteria such as assigning the importance value
from 1 to 5 or allocating 100% point net.
Rating of all the concepts for the juice extraction machine with respect to selection criteria was
done on a scale of 1-5 with following definitions for each scale.
Table 10: rating of the relative importance for the selected factor
Relative performance Rating

Much worse than reference 1
Worse than reference 2
Same as reference 3
Better than reference 4
Much better than reference 5
3.2.3.1. Concept screening matrix
The concept screening process matrix for the product design of sugarcane juice extraction
machine the team rated the concepts against the reference concept using a simple code (+ for
“better than”, 0 for same as,” – for “worse than”) in order to identify some concepts for further
consideration.
Table 11: design concept screening matrix
Selection Criteria Concepts

A B C D E REF.
Light weight _ + _ _ 0 0
Visibility _ _ + + 0 0
Portable _ + + 0 + 0
Low Product Cost, _ + _ _ 0 0
Efficiency 0 _ + + _ 0
Ergonomics _ _ + + + 0
Flexibility/ Position _ + + 0 + 0
Easy to operate/power, _ _ + 0 + 0
Ease of assembly _ + _ _ 0 0
40
Manufacturability _ + + 0 + 0
Maintenance _ 0 _ _ + 0
Sum “+’ s” 0 6 7 3 6
Sum ”o’ s” 2 1 1 4 4
Sum “_’s” 9 4 4 4 1
Net score -9 2 3 -1 5
Rank 5 3 2 4 1
Continue no no yes no yes
As a result the team screens two concepts: C and E, also the team tries to merge the concept C
& E to form a single concept F.
Figure 19: merged design cocept 6, from concept 3 and 5
3.2.3.2. Concept scoring matrix
Table 12: design concept scoring matrix
Concepts
Selection Criteria C E F (C&E)
Weight Rate Weight Rate Weight Rate Weight
(%) score score score
Light weight 5% 3 0.15 4 0.20 2 0.10
Visibility 5% 2 0.10 3 0.15 5 0.25
Portable 10% 3 0.30 2 0.20 2 0.20
41
Low Product Cost, 15% 3 0.45 3 0.45 2 0.30

Efficiency 25% 3 0.75 2 0.50 5 1.25
Ergonomics 5% 3 0.15 2 0.10 4 0.20
Flexibility/ Position 5% 2 0.10 3 0.15 2 0.10
Easy to 5% 2 0.10 4 0.20 3 0.15
operate/power,
Ease of assembly 10% 4 0.40 3 0.30 3 0.30
Manufacturability 5% 3 0.15 4 0.20 3 0.15
Maintenance 10% 2 0.20 3 0.30 2 0.20
Total score 100% 2.85 2.75 3.2
Rank 2 3 1
Continue No No Develop
42
CHAPTER FOUR: DETAIL DESIGN

4.1. Design Specifications
Roller diameter and length
Larger diameters aid throughput while longer rolls aid juice extraction. Balancing these
considerations, it has been theoretically and empirically concluded that there is an optimum
proportion for the roller shell of length and diameter:
L is approximately 2 times diameter D.
Therefore, assume that:-
♣ The diameter of the roller is 200mm

♣ The length of the roller is 500mm
The mill speed
The rotational speed of the roller has a range from 4 to 7 Revolution per minute.
The advantages of high speeds are:
 Higher throughputs for a given mill size ( ~ surface speed)

 For a given power input, lower torques on gearing, couplings and mill rolls.
The advantages of low speeds are:
 Better feeding characteristics;

 Easier drainage;
 Higher effective pressures;
 Higher extraction, higher mill speeds reduce extraction).
The rotational speed of the mill roller is then found as function of the roller diameter:-
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6.37 − 1.835𝐷

𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6.37 − 1.835 ∗ 0.200
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6.003 𝑟𝑝𝑚,
Now, the peripheral speed of the roller is:
𝑢 = 𝜋𝐷𝑛
𝑢 = 𝜋 ∗ 0.2 ∗ 6.003
𝑢 = 3.77 𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
43
However, of the factors”𝒏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒖”, it is certainly that”𝒖” which plays the dominant role. It is
the factor opposing the escape of the expressed juice, when the bagasse enters the grip of the
rollers.
Bulk density and fiber content
Typically the bulk density of whole stalk cane in piles will lie in the range of 200kg/m3 to 400
kg/m3.For cane cut in small pieces 0.3-0.6m in length, as produced by certain mechanical
harvesters, a figure of 350 kg/m3 may be taken. Canes passed through knives: 200 to 300 kg/m3
So, assume that the bulk density of the cane is 250kg/m3.
The fiber content of clean stalk can vary from 10 to 18 g/100g cane. Most commonly the fiber
content is 13g/100g of cane.
So, assume that the fiber content is 13g/100g of cane.
Top angle of the isosceles triangle
The top angle of the triangle formed by joining the axes of three rollers usually lies between
700 to 84°, Reduction of this angle is usually aimed at for reducing the width of trash plate and
consequently the friction of trash plate.
Most mill designs provide for normal roll centers oriented in an isosceles with a top angle of
70° (i.e. feed and discharge rolls each at 35° from the vertical below the top roll).
So, assume that the top angle the triangle is 70°.
4.2. Material selection
Rollers:
Formerly, rollers were of cast iron. However the cast iron is subjected to corrosion and the
sugar Cane by its nature is adhesive and abrasive and is also rusty so in order to overcome these
drawbacks the material of the roller is selected to be stainless steel.
Gears:
Formerly, gears are manufactured form cast iron materials due to its high wearing resistance
and low cost but the juice extracting milling machine is subjected to random vibration and
shock so in order to improve the strength of the gear tooth’s from bending the material of the
gears is selected to be a carbon steel.
44
Shafts:
Since the top (driving)roller, feeding roller and discharging roller are wide in length so for
simplicity of manufacturing the rollers that means the hallow roller shell are difficult to
manufacture than the solid roller also due to difficulty in assembly of the hallow roller shell
with its shaft and require more or huge keys so in order to address these problems the shaft is
selected to a machine shaft which is integrated with the roller shell, so that the material of the
shaft roller is the same as the roller which is stainless steel.
Flywheel:
Since the purpose of the flywheel is to regulate the fluctuation of the motion (rotation of the
handle shaft) and also help the control of the mass balance due to its weight, that means the
objective of the design of the flywheel is to increase the mass of the flywheel hence the material
of the flywheel is selected to a cast iron due to its cheap cost, of course the cast iron is light
weight but its weight is possibly increased by incremental of the size of the rim, arm and hub,
by considering cost as first consideration.
Handle lever:
The material of the hand lever is selected to a wrought iron, because it is a tough, malleable
and ductile material. It cannot stand sudden and excessive shocks. It can be easily forged or
welded. It is used for chains, crane hooks, railway couplings, and water and steam pipes.
4.3. Forces and loads applied
Mill loads and torque
Because of the large differences in cane characteristics, mill designs and milling practices, it is
not possible to construct a universal mathematical model that will be applicable to all operating
mills.
The forces that considered are:-
 The static reaction forces from the feed and discharge squeezes and the trash plate all
pass through the center of the top roll.
 In operation, friction and feeding action result in torque forces.
45
Friction and feed opening
The theoretical model included the critical assumption of "no slip” between the bagasse and
the roll surface. This presupposes adequate friction to prevent slip. In practice, a smooth roll
with a low friction coefficient would limit the maximum feed opening.
This simple model still assumes "no additional feed pressure". Any external positive feeding
force, such as from a feed chute, pressure feeder and/or preceding rolls, will substantially
assist feeding.
The forces acting on the bagasse by the roll are equal but opposite in direction to the forces
exerted on the roller by the bagasse. Figure shows these forces at the feed opening (point of
bagasse contact with the rolls).
Figure 20: Effects of friction on feeding (Rein, 2007)
In Figure 19, the outer boundary of the cane feed strikes the roll surface at a feed angle a
measured from the axial plane (between the centers of the two rolls). The roll exerts a radial or
normal force 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 on the bagasse. Friction on the rotating roll produces a tangential force,
𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 . This is equal to a friction coefficient multiplied by the radial force:
Now, first it is required to calculate the weight of the top roller in order to determine the radial
force:-
𝑊
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … (4.1)
cos(𝛼)
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.2)
𝜋 2
𝑚 = 𝑉∗𝜌 = 𝐷 𝐿 ∗ 𝜌 … … … … … … … … … … … . … (4.3)
4
46
Where,
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 = Radial or normal force exerted on the bagasse by the roller
𝑊 = Weight of the roller
𝑚 = Mass of the roller
𝑔 = Gravitational acceleration 9.81 m/s2
𝐷 = Diameter of the roller
𝐿 = Length of the roller
𝜌 = Density of the roller material
𝛼 = Feed angle (𝛼 = 35°)
The weight of the roller is determined using the equation (4.2) and (4.3):-
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝜋
𝑊 = 𝐷2 𝐿𝜌 ∗ 𝑔
4
𝜋
𝑊 = (0.2)2 ∗ 0.5 ∗ 8000 ∗ 9.81
4
𝑊 = 1,232.8 = 1.23𝐾𝑁
Then the radial component or the normal force that exerted on the bagasse by the roller is found
using equation (4.1):-
𝑊
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
cos(𝛼)
1,232.8
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
cos(35)
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1,504.12𝑁
Considering the above figure 19, the tangential force component is found as:-
𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 = 𝜇𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.4)

𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔
𝜇 = tan(𝛽) = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.5)
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑
Where,
𝜇 = Coefficient of friction
𝛽 = The angle the resultant force makes with axial plane
𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔
𝛽 = tan−1 ( ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.6)
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑
47
In Figure 19, it is seen that there is a horizontal component of, 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 (𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 sin(𝛼)) that resists
feeding of the bagasse opposed by a horizontal component of 𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 (𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 cos(𝛼)) that induces
feeding.
For feeding to occur, it is therefore necessary that:-
𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 cos(𝛼) > 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 sin(𝛼) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.7)
From equation (4.4), (4.5) and (4.7), it can be seen that that for positive feeding, the friction
angle (𝛽) is greater than the feed angle (𝛼). This conclusion is also obvious from Figure 19 -
the angle of the resultant force 𝐹𝑅 must be in a forward direction.
Let, 𝛽 = 40° Then
𝜇 = tan(𝛽)
𝜇 = tan(40°) = 0.84
Now, the tangential force that causes the torque load or moment of the roller is calculated using
equation (4.4):-
𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 = 0.84 ∗ 1,504.9
𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 = 1,264.12𝑁
The torque and its corresponding power required to squeeze the sugar cane are as follow:-
𝐷
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔 ∗ … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.8)
2
0.2
𝑇 = 1,264.12 ∗
2
𝑇 = 126.4𝑁𝑚
𝑃 = 𝑇𝑤 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.9)
2𝜋𝑛𝑇
𝑃=
60
2𝜋 ∗ 6 ∗ 126.4
𝑃=
60
𝑃 = 79.42𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
48
4.4. Design of parts of the milling machine
The main component or parts of the sugarcane juice extraction milling machine includes:-
 Design of gears
 Design of roller shaft
 Design of roller groove
 Design of trash plate
 Design of flywheel
 Design of bearings
 Design of handle
 Design of supporting frame
 Design of welding and other accessories like keys, bolt and nut….
4.4.1. Design of spur gears’
Gear is toothed wheel that engages another toothed mechanism in order to change the speed or
direction of transmitted motion. It is a component within a transmission device that transmits
rotational force to another gear or device.
Gear’s most important feature is that gears of unequal sizes (diameters) can be combined to
produce a mechanical advantage, so that the rotational speed and torque of the second gear are
different from that of the first.
To overcome the problem of slippage as in belt drives, gears are used which produce positive
drive with uniform angular velocity.
Figure 21: spur gear (Gupta, 2005)
49
Material selection:
The material selected for the gear design is the plain carbon steel or simply carbon steel. Its
carbon content can vary from 0.06% to 1.5% and it does not contain more than 0.5% of silicon
and 1.5% of manganese.
Mechanical properties of carbon steel:
 Elastic modulus: 200Gpa

 Yield strength (min) = 250Mpa
 Ultimate tensile (min) = 410Mpa
 Density = 7800 kg/m3
 Minimum percentage elongation = 23%
4.4.1.1. Design of Speed reduction spur Gear box
Spur gear teeth is parallel to axis of rotation can transmit power from one shaft to another
parallel shaft. Spur gears are the simplest and most common type of gear. Their general form
is a cylinder or disk. The teeth project radially, and with these "straight-cut gears".
The objective of the spur gear is to reduce the speed of the fly wheel (handle) and to multiply
the torque or load of the hand in order to increase the pressure that helps extraction of juice.
The spur gear's transmission force (Fn) which is normal to the tooth surface, can be resolved
into a tangential component (Ft) and a radial component (Fr).
Figure 22: Forces acting on a spur gear mesh a) radial and tangential components in a single
gear, b) directions of forces acting on a spur gear mesh
The tangential component induces a bending stress which tends to break the tooth. The radial
component induces a compressive stress of relatively small magnitude; therefore it is neglected.
Objective:
50
The objective is to check the factor of safety for both bending and contact stress.
Assumptions and analysis:
The increase of the pressure angle from 14 1⁄2 ° to 20° results in a stronger tooth, because the
tooth acting as a beam is wider at the base. The 20° stub involute system has a strong tooth to
take heavy loads.
So, tooth profile of 20° full depth involute system is selected.
One stage of ordinary spur gearing can effect a speed reduction of 7 or 8 to 1, but ratios greater
than about 5 to 1 are not generally employed. Hence gear ratio is 5:1.
𝑛𝑝 𝑍𝑤 𝑑𝑤
Gear ratio = = = … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.10)
𝑛𝑤 𝑍𝑝 𝑑𝑝
pitch circle diameter = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑍 … … … … … … . . … … … … … . (4.11)
Where,
𝑛𝑤 = Output speed of the wheel gear
𝑛𝑝 = Input speed of the pinion gear
𝑍𝑤 = Number of teeth of the wheel gear
𝑍𝑝 = Number of teeth of the pinion gear
𝑑𝑤 = Pitch circle diameter of the wheel gear
𝑑𝑝 = Pitch circle diameter of the pinion gear
𝑚 = Module (Indian standard modules: 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 2.5….)
The input speed of the pinion gear is found by substituting the gear ratio = 5 and output wheel
gear speed = 6rpm into equation (4.10).
𝑛𝑝
Gear ratio′G′ =
𝑛𝑤
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑤 ∗ 𝐺
𝑛𝑝 = 6𝑟𝑝𝑚 ∗ 5
𝑛𝑝 = 30𝑟𝑝𝑚
The minimum number of teeth on the pinion in order to avoid interference is Zp = 18 for 20°
Full depth involute pressure angle. Then, the number of teeth on the wheel gear is found by
substituting Zp = 18 tooth and G = 5 into equation (4.10).
51
𝑍𝑤
Gear ratio ′G′ =
𝑍𝑝
𝑍𝑤 = 𝐺 ∗ 𝑍𝑝
𝑍𝑤 = 5 ∗ 18
𝑍𝑤 = 90 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ
The other parameters of the gears dw & dp are then computed using equation (4.11). First the
module selected for the gears is 2.5 mm because of the available module cutter in many
workshops for manufacture.
𝑑𝑤 = Pitch circle diameter of the wheel gear

𝑑𝑤 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑍𝑤
𝑑𝑤 = 2.5 ∗ 90
𝑑𝑤 = 225𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑝 = Pitch circle diameter of the pinion gear
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑍𝑝
𝑑𝑝 = 2.5 ∗ 18
𝑑𝑝 = 45𝑚𝑚
The two main causes of gear tooth failure are:-
Bending failure: The AGMA formula for bending stress:-
1 𝐾𝐻 𝐾𝐵
𝜎𝑏 = 𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑠 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.12)
𝑏𝑚 𝐽
Pitting or contact failure: The fundamental equation of pitting resistance (contact

stress):-
𝐾𝐻 𝐶𝑓
𝜎𝑐 = 𝐶𝑝 √𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑠 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.13)
𝑑𝑝 𝑏 𝐼
Where,𝑊𝑡 = Tangential transmitted load (N)

𝐾𝑜 = Over load factor
𝐾𝑉 = Dynamic factor
𝐾𝐵 = Rim thickness factor
𝑏 = Face width of the narrower member (mm): {𝑏 = 11.5𝑚}
𝐽 = Geometric factor for bending strength
𝐾𝐻 = Load distribution factor
52
𝐾𝑠 = Size factor
𝑚 = Module
𝐶𝑝 = Elastic coefficient (√𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝐶𝑓 = Surface condition factor

𝑑𝑝 = Pitch diameter of the pinion (mm)
𝐼 = Geometric factor for pitting resistance
Allowable bending stress: The equation for the allowable bending stress is:-
𝑆𝑡 𝑌𝑁
𝜎𝑏,𝑎𝑙𝑙 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.14)
𝑆𝐹 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅
Allowable pitting stress: The equation for the allowable contact stress is:-
𝜎𝑐,𝑎𝑙𝑙 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . (4.15)
𝑆𝐻 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅
Where,
𝑆𝑡 = allowable bending stress (N/mm2)
𝑌𝑁 = Stress cycle factor for bending stress
𝐾𝑇 = Temperature factor
𝐾𝑅 = Reliability factor
𝑆𝐹 = AGMA factor of safety, a stress ratio
𝑆𝑐 = Allowable contact stress (N/mm2)
𝑍𝑁 = Stress cycle life factor for wear
𝐶𝐻 = Hardness ratio for pitting resistance
𝑆𝐻 = AGMA factor of safety, a stress ratio
60,000𝑃 60,000 ∗ 0.07942
𝑊𝑡 = = = 1.124𝑘𝑁 = 1,124𝑁
𝜋𝑑𝑛 𝜋 ∗ 225 ∗ 6
𝐾𝑜 = 1.75 (For moderate shock; to make allowance for all externally applied loads).
𝐵
𝐴 + √200𝑣 𝜋𝑑𝑛 𝜋 ∗ 0.255 ∗ 6
𝐾𝑉 = ( ) 𝑣= = = 0.071𝑚/𝑠 & 𝐴 = 50 + 56(1 − 𝐵);
𝐴 60 60
2⁄
𝐵 = 0.25(12 − 𝑄𝑣 ) 3 (𝑄𝑣 = 6; Quality numbers 3 to 7 for most commercial-quality
gears.) 𝐵 = 0.825 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 59.8
𝐾𝑉 = 1.24
53
𝐾𝑠 = 1 (There is no any non-uniformity in the material properties due to size)
𝐾𝐵 = 1 (Assume constant thickness gears; it is as a function of backup ratio; )
𝑡𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑚 1𝑚
𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝐵 = = = = 0.8 < 1.2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐾𝐵 = 1
ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑚 1.25𝑚
1⁄
2
1
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐸𝑝 = 𝐸𝐺 = 200𝐺𝑝𝑎 & 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑝 = 0.29
1 − 𝑣𝑝2 1 − 𝑣𝐺2
𝜋[ 𝐸 + 𝐸 ]
[ 𝑝 𝐺 ]
𝐶𝑝 = 186.4√𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 (The same material of the pinion and wheel)
𝑚 = 2.5
𝑏 = 11.5 ∗ 𝑚 = 11.5 ∗ 2.5 = 28.75𝑚𝑚 (Not standard but; 9𝑚 < 𝑏 < 14𝑚)
𝑑𝑝 = 45 𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝑓 = 1 (There is no detrimental size effect)
𝐾𝑅 = 1 (Assume a reliability of 0.99)
𝐾𝑇 = 1 (Temperatures up to 250°F (120°C)
𝐽𝑝 = 0.328 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐽𝑤 = 0.44 (As a function of the number of teeth in the pinion and wheel (gear))
cos ∅ sin ∅ 𝑚𝐺
𝐼= = 0.134 , 𝑚𝐺 ( 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 5) & 𝑚𝑁 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑢𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟∅
2𝑚𝑁 𝑚𝐺 + 1
= 20°).
𝐾𝐻 = 1 + 𝐶𝑚𝑐 (𝐶𝑝𝑚 𝐶𝑝𝑓 + 𝐶𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑒 )
Where,
𝐶𝑚𝑐 = Lead correction factor;
𝐶𝑚𝑐 = 1 (The tooth profile is uncrowned)
𝐶𝑝𝑓 = Pinion proportion factor;
54
𝑏 0.02875
𝐶𝑝𝑓 = − 0.026 = − 0.0375 + 0.4921𝑏 = 0.041, 𝑖𝑓 0.0254 < 𝑏
10𝑑 10 ∗ 0.045
≤ 0.4318𝑚
𝐶𝑝𝑚 =Pinion proportion modifier
𝐶𝑝𝑚 = 1 (Bearing immediately adjacent)
𝐶𝑚𝑎 = Mesh alignment factor
𝐶𝑚𝑎 = 0.15 (Commercial enclosed gear unit)
𝐶𝑒 = Mesh alignment correction factor
𝐶𝑒 = 1
𝐾𝐻 = 1 + 1(1 ∗ 0.041 + 0.15 ∗ 1)
𝐾𝐻 = 1.19 = 1.2
AGMA allowable stress numbers (strengths) for bending and contact stress through hardening
steel are at:-
 Unidirectional loading
 10 million stress cycles
 99 percent reliability
Assume, the pinion is a grade2 steel with a hardness of 260 Brinell tooth surface and through-
hardened. The wheel is also, grade2 steel, with hardness of 240, tooth surface and through
hardened.
𝑆𝑡 = 0.703𝐻𝐵 + 113𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝑆𝑐 = 2.41𝐻𝐵 + 237𝑀𝑝𝑎
For the pinion: 𝑆𝑡 = 0.703 ∗ 280 + 113𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 309.84𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝑆𝑐 = 2.41 ∗ 280 + 237𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 911.8𝑀𝑝𝑎
For the wheel: 𝑆𝑡 = 0.703 ∗ 260 + 113𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 295.78𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝑆𝑐 = 2.41 ∗ 260 + 237𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 863.6𝑀𝑝𝑎
Assume the pinions life of 107 cycles and reliability of 0.99 are selected 𝑌𝑁 = 𝑍𝑁 = 1.
𝐶𝐻 (It is only for the wheel to adjust the surface strengths to account for different hardness of
the pinion and wheel.)
55
𝐻𝐵𝑃
𝐶𝐻 = 1 + 𝐴′ (𝐺 − 1), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐴′ = 8.89 ∗ 10−3 ( ) − 8.29 ∗ 10−3
𝐻𝐵𝑊
𝐻𝐵𝑃 260
𝐴′ = 0 𝑖𝑓 ( )= = 1.083 < 1.2; 𝐶𝐻 = 1
𝐻𝐵𝑊 240
Therefore, the factors of safety are going to determine for the pinion and wheel under both
bending and pitting condition then later the threat for each gear and mesh will be.
Factor of safety for bending: by rearranging equation (4.12) and (4.14).
𝑆𝑡 𝑌𝑁
𝑆𝐹 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.16)
𝜎𝑏 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅
Factor of safety for pitting or wear: by rearranging equation (4.13) and (4.15).
𝑆𝐻 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.17)
𝜎𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅
Pinion tooth bending: - substituting the appropriate terms for the pinion into equation (4.12)
1 𝐾𝐻 𝐾𝐵
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑃 = 𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑠
𝑏𝑚 𝐽𝑃
1 1.2 ∗ 1
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑃 = 1,124 ∗ 1.75 ∗ 1.24 ∗ 1 ∗
28.75 ∗ 2.5 0.328
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑃 = 124.143𝑀𝑝𝑎
Substituting the appropriate terms for the pinion into equation (4.16)
𝑆𝑡 𝑌𝑁
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑃 = ( )
𝜎𝑏 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅 𝑃
309.84 1
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑃 = ∗
124.143 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑃 = 2.49
Since the factor of safety is greater than 1, then design of pinion for bending is safe.
Wheel tooth bending: - substituting the appropriate terms for the wheel into equation (4.12)
1 𝐾𝐻 𝐾𝐵
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑤 = 𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑠
𝑏𝑚 𝐽𝑤
1 1.2 ∗ 1
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑤 = 1,124 ∗ 1.75 ∗ 1.24 ∗ 1 ∗
28.75 ∗ 2.5 0.44
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑤 = 92.55𝑀𝑝𝑎
56
Substituting the appropriate terms for the wheel into equation (4.16)
𝑆𝑡 𝑌𝑁
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑤 = ( )
𝜎𝑏 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅 𝑤
295.78 1
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑤 = ∗
92.55 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑤 = 3.19
Since the factor of safety is greater than 1, then design of wheel for bending is safe.
Pinion tooth wear: - substituting the appropriate terms for the pinion into equation (4.13)
𝐾𝐻 𝐶𝑓
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑃 = (𝐶𝑝 √𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑠 )
𝑑𝑝 𝑏 𝐼
𝑃
1.2 1
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑃 = 186.4√1,124 ∗ 1.75 ∗ 1.24 ∗ 1 ∗ ∗
45 ∗ 28.75 0.134
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑃 = 186.4 ∗ 4.1
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑃 = 764.24𝑀𝑃𝑎
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑃 = ( )
𝜎𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅 𝑃
911.8 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑃 = ∗
764.24 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑃 = 1.19
Since the factor of safety is greater than 1, then design of pinion for wear is safe.
Wheel tooth wear: - substituting the appropriate terms for the pinion into equation (4.13)
𝐾𝐻 𝐶𝑓
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑊 = (𝐶𝑝 √𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑠 )
𝑑𝑝 𝑏 𝐼
𝑊
1.2 1
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑊 = 186.4√1,124 ∗ 1.75 ∗ 1.24 ∗ 1 ∗ ∗
45 ∗ 28.75 0.134
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑊 = 186.4 ∗ 4.1 = 764.24𝑀𝑃𝑎
57
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑊 = ( )
𝜎𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅 𝑊
863.6 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑊 = ∗
764.24 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑊 = 1.13
Since the factor of safety is greater than 1, then design of wheel for wear is safe.
Therefore, to identify the threat:-
For the pinion, we compare (𝑆𝐹 )𝑃 = 2.49 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ((𝑆𝐻 )𝑃 )2 = (1.19)2 = 1.42 so; the threat in
the pinion is from wear.
For the wheel, we compare (𝑆𝐹 )𝑊 = 23.19 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ((𝑆𝐻 )𝑊 )2 = (1.13)2 = 1.28 so; the threat
in the wheel is from wear.
4.4.1.2. Design of Transmission gearbox
The purpose the transmission gearbox design is merely to transmit the motion or power of the
driving mill roller which is the top mill roller into the two mill rollers which are the feed mill
roller and discharge roller. So that due to the motion between the two mating gear causes the
mill meshing rollers to perform the feeding or/and discharging action (operation).
Material selection:
The material selected for the gear design is the plain carbon steel or simply carbon steel the
same as a gear of the speed reduction gearbox design.
Objective: The objective is to check the factor of safety for both bending and contact stress.
Assumptions and analysis:
The gear design methodology is the same as the procedure followed during the design of the
gear in the speed reduction gear box design. Also the assumptions are selected accordingly
similar to that of the speed reduction gearbox.
Since the purpose is to transmit the motion to other parts so there is no need of reducing or
multiplying the motion (speed and torque). Hence gear ratio is 1:1.
𝑛𝑝 𝑍𝑤 𝐷𝑤
Gear ratio = = =
𝑛𝑤 𝑍𝑝 𝐷𝑝
58
The input speed of the pinion gear is found by substituting the gear ratio = 1 and output wheel
gear speed = 6rpm into equation (4.10).
Therefore, 𝑛𝑤 = 𝑛𝑝 = 6𝑟𝑝𝑚
Then, the number of teeth on the wheel gear and pinion gear is the same. They are found by
using module. Assume module is 2.5 and the diameters are the same as 𝒅𝒑 = 𝒅𝒘 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝐷𝑝 𝐷𝑤
𝑚= =
𝑍𝑝 𝑍𝑤
𝑑𝑤 200
𝑍𝑝 = 𝑍𝑤 = , 𝑍𝑝 = 𝑍𝑤 = = 80𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ
𝑚 2.5
Now checking for the failure of the gears under pitting and bending strength:-
𝑃 60,000𝑃 60,000 ∗ 0.07942

𝑊𝑖 = = = = 1,260.6𝑁
𝑣 𝜋𝑑𝑛 𝜋 ∗ 200 ∗ 6
𝐾𝑜 = 1.75 (For moderate shock; to make allowance for all externally applied loads).
𝐾𝑠 = 1 (There is no any non-uniformity in the material properties due to size)

𝐵
𝐴+√200𝑉 2⁄
𝐾𝑉 = ( ) Where A= 50+56(1-B) 𝐵 = 0.25(12 − 𝑄𝑣 ) 3
𝐴
2⁄
𝐵 = 0.25(12 − 𝑄𝑣 ) 3 (𝑄𝑣 = 6; Quality numbers 3 to 7 for most commercial-quality gears.)
𝐵 = 0.825 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 59.8
𝜋𝑑𝑛 𝜋 ∗ 0.2 ∗ 6 59.8 + √200 ∗ 0.063) 0.825

𝑣= = = 0.063 𝐾𝑉 = ) = 1.06
60 60 59.8
𝐶𝑓 = 1 (There is no detrimental size effect)
b =11.5m (mm) m=2.5 so, b=11.5(2.5) =28.75mm
𝐾𝐵 = 1 (Assume constant thickness gears; it is as a function of backup ratio)
t r addendum 1m
if mB = = = = 0.8 < 1.2, then K B = 1
ht dedendem 1.25m
1⁄
2
1
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐸𝑝 = 𝐸𝐺 = 200𝐺𝑝𝑎 & 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑝 = 0.29
1 − 𝑣𝑝2 1 − 𝑣𝐺2
𝜋[ 𝐸 + 𝐸 ]
[ 𝑝 𝐺 ]
𝐶𝑝 = 186.4√𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚2 (The same material of the pinion and wheel)
59
𝐾𝑅 = 1 (Assume a reliability of 0.99)
𝐾𝑇 = 1 (Temperatures up to 250°F (120°C)
𝐾𝐵 = 1 (Assume constant thickness gears; it is as a function of backup ratio).
𝑡𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑚 1𝑚
𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝐵 = = = = 0.8 < 1.2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐾𝐵 = 1
ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑚 1.25𝑚
𝐶𝑚𝑐 = Lead correction factor;
𝐶𝑚𝑐 = 1 (The tooth profile is uncrowned)
𝐶𝑝𝑓 = Pinion proportion factor;
𝑏 0.02875
𝐶𝑝𝑓 = 10𝑑 − 0.026 = − 0.0375 + 0.4921𝑏 = 0.027, 𝑖𝑓 0.025 < 𝑏 < 0.4318𝑚
10∗0.2
𝐶𝑝𝑚 =Pinion proportion modifier
𝐶𝑝𝑚 = 1 (Bearing immediately adjacent)
𝐶𝑚𝑎 = Mesh alignment factor
𝐶𝑚𝑎 = 0.15 (Commercial enclosed gear unit)
𝐶𝑒 = Mesh alignment correction factor
𝐶𝑒 = 1
𝐾𝐻 = 1 + 1(1 ∗ 0.027 + 0.15 ∗ 1) 𝐾𝐻 = 1.177
cos ∅ sin ∅ 𝑚𝐺 cos 35 sin 35

𝐼= , 𝑚𝐺 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑁 = 1 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 ∅ = 20°). 𝐼 = = 0.12
2𝑚𝑁 𝑚𝐺 + 1 2(1 + 1)
J=0.5(we have the same value for both gears because of the same number of teethes )
Assume, the pinion is a grade2 steel with a hardness of 260 Brinell tooth surface and through-
hardened. The wheel is also, grade2 steel, with hardness of 240, tooth surface and through
hardened.
𝑆𝑡 = 0.703𝐻𝐵 + 113𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑐 = 2.41𝐻𝐵 + 237𝑀𝑝𝑎

For the pinion:
𝑆𝑡 = 0.703 ∗ 260 + 113𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 295.78𝑀𝑝𝑎
60
𝑆𝑐 = 2.41 ∗ 260 + 237𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 863.6𝑀𝑝𝑎

For the wheel:
𝑆𝑡 = 0.703 ∗ 240 + 113𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 281.72𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝑆𝑐 = 2.41 ∗ 240 + 237𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 815.4𝑀𝑝𝑎
Assume the pinions life of 107 cycles and reliability of 0.99 are selected. So, 𝑌𝑁 = 𝑍𝑁 = 1
𝐶𝐻 (To account for different hardness of the pinion and wheel)
𝐻𝐵𝑃
𝐶𝐻 = 1 + 𝐴′ (𝐺 − 1), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐴′ = 8.89 ∗ 10−3 ( ) − 8.29 ∗ 10−3
𝐻𝐵𝑊
𝐻𝐵𝑃
𝐴′ = 0 𝑖𝑓 ( ) = 1.09 < 1.2 𝐶𝐻 = 1
𝐻𝐵𝑊
Pinion tooth bending: - substituting the appropriate terms for the pinion into equation (4.12)
1 𝐾𝐻 𝐾𝐵
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑃 = 𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑠
𝑏𝑚 𝐽𝑃
1 1.177 ∗ 1
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑃 = 1260.6 ∗ 1.75 ∗ 1.06 ∗ 1 ∗
28.75 ∗ 2.5 0.5
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑃 = 74.43𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝑆𝑡 𝑌𝑁
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑃 = ( )
𝜎𝑏 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅 𝑃
295.78 1
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑃 = ∗
74.43 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑃 = 3.9
Since the factor of safety is greater than 1, then design of pinion for bending is safe.
Wheel tooth bending: - substituting the appropriate terms for the wheel into equation (4.12)
1 𝐾𝐻 𝐾𝐵
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑤 = 𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑠
𝑏𝑚 𝐽𝑤
1 1.177 ∗ 1
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑤 = 1260.6 ∗ 1.75 ∗ 1.06 ∗ 1 ∗
28.75 ∗ 2.5 0.5
61
(𝜎𝑏 )𝑤 = 77.8𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝑆𝑡 𝑌𝑁
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑤 = ( )
𝜎𝑏 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅 𝑤
281.72 1
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑤 = ∗
77.8 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐹 )𝑤 = 3.6
Since the factor of safety is greater than 1, then design of wheel for bending is safe.
Pinion tooth wear: - substituting the appropriate terms for the pinion into equation (4.13)
𝐾𝐻 𝐶𝑓
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑃 = (𝐶𝑝 √𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑠 )
𝑑𝑝 𝑏 𝐼
𝑃
1.177 1
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑃 = 186.4√1260.6 ∗ 1.75 ∗ 1.06 ∗ 1 ∗
200 ∗ 28.75 0.12
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑃 = 375.1Mpa
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑃 = ( )
𝜎𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅 𝑃
863.6 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑃 = ∗
375.1 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑃 = 2.3
Since the factor of safety is greater than 1, then design of pinion for wear is safe.
Wheel tooth wear: - substituting the appropriate terms for the pinion into equation (4.13)
𝐾𝐻 𝐶𝑓
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑊 = (𝐶𝑝 √𝑊𝑡 𝐾𝑜 𝐾𝑉 𝐾𝑠 )
𝑑𝑤 𝑏 𝐼
𝑊
62
1.195 1
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑊 = 186.4√1260.6 ∗ 1.75 ∗ 1.06 ∗ 1 ∗ ∗
200 ∗ 28.75 0.12
(𝜎𝑐 )𝑊 = 375.1𝑀𝑝𝑎
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑊 = ( )
𝜎𝐶 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑅 𝑊
815.4 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑊 = ∗
375.1 1 ∗ 1
(𝑆𝐻 )𝑊 = 2.2
Since the factor of safety is greater than 1, then design of wheel for wear is safe.
Therefore, to identify the threat:-
For the pinion, we compare (𝑆𝐹 )𝑃 = 3.9 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ((𝑆𝐻 )𝑃 )2 = (2.3)2 = 5.29 so; the threat in the
pinion is from bending. For the wheel, we compare (𝑆𝐹 )𝑊 = 3.6 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ((𝑆𝐻 )𝑊 )2 = (2.2)2 =
4.84 so; the threat in the wheel is from bending.
Conclusion;
First, the pinion is overly strong in bending compared to wear. The performance in wear can
be improved by surface hardening techniques.
Second, in bending, the gear or wheel is stronger than the pinion, indicating that both the gear
core hardness and tooth size could be reduced; that is, we may increase P and reduce diameter
of the gears, or perhaps allow a cheaper material.
So we can control strength by specifying surface hardness.
Summarization of the spur gear parameters specification:-
63
Figure 23: spur gear nomenclature
Figure 24: relation of base circle to pressure angle
These nomenclatures or specification of the spur gear are used to specify the gear and for
manufacturing of the gear (for modeling the spore gear in solid work software)
The nomenclatures of spur gear are related in the formulas as shown below:-
64
Pitch circle diameter; 𝑑𝑝 is the design diameter of the gear

Addendum diameter; 𝑑𝑎 = 𝑑𝑝 + 2 ∗ 𝑎
Dedendum diameter; 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑝 − 2 ∗ 𝑑
Whole depth; ℎ𝑡 = 𝑎 + 𝑑
Fillet radius; 𝑟 = 1𝑚𝑚
Base circle; 𝑑𝑏 = 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼)
Face width; 𝑏 = 11.5𝑚
Where,
𝑎 = Addendum
𝑑 = Dedendum
𝛼 = Pressure angle
𝑚 = 2.5 Module
For full depth 20° pressure angle the see appendix table A-1
𝑎 = 1𝑚 = 2.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑏 = 1.25𝑚 = 3.125
For Pinion gear of the speed reduction gearbox:
𝑑𝑎 = 45 + 2 ∗ 2.5 = 50𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑 = 45 − 2 ∗ 3.125 = 38.75𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝑡 = 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑏 = 45𝑐𝑜𝑠(20) = 42.286𝑚𝑚
𝑏 = 28.75𝑚𝑚
Number of teeth’s = 18 tooth’s
For wheel/gear of the speed reduction gearbox:
𝑑𝑎 = 225 + 2 ∗ 2.5 = 230𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑 = 225 − 2 ∗ 3.125 = 218.75𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝑡 = 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑏 = 225𝑐𝑜𝑠(20) = 211.43𝑚𝑚
𝑏 = 28.75𝑚𝑚
65
For pinion and gear of the transmission gearbox:
𝑑𝑎 = 200 + 2 ∗ 2.5 = 205𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑 = 200 − 2 ∗ 3.125 = 193.75𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝑡 = 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑏 = 200𝑐𝑜𝑠(20) = 187.94𝑚𝑚
𝑏 = 28.75𝑚𝑚
4.4.2. Design of roller shafts
A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to
another. The power is delivered to the shaft by some tangential force and the resultant torque
(or twisting moment) set up within the shaft permits the power to be transferred to various
machines linked up to the shaft.
In order to transfer the power from one shaft to another, the various members such as pulleys,
gears etc., are mounted on it. These members along with the forces exerted upon them causes
the shaft to bending. In other words, we may say that a shaft is used for the transmission of
torque and bending moment. The various members are mounted on the shaft by means of keys.
The following two types of shafts are important from the subject point of view:
1. Transmission shafts. These shafts transmit power between the source and the machines
absorbing power. The counter shafts, line shafts, overhead shafts and all factory shafts are
transmission shafts.
Since these shafts carry machine parts such as pulleys, gears etc., therefore they are subjected
to bending in addition to twisting.
2. Machine shafts. These shafts form an integral part of the machine itself. The crank shaft is
an example of machine shaft.
Since the roller shell is intended to squeeze the sugarcane along its length hence the load of the
roller shell is distributed along the shaft so for simplicity of an assembly and ease of
manufacturability the shat roller is selected to be a machine shaft.
66
Material selection:
Since the shaft is a machine shaft so the material of the shaft is the same as the material of the
mill rollers, which is a stainless steel.
Objective:
To determine the diameter of the shaft that is calculated by considering stresses due to
combined torsional and bending loads also the stress concentration factor because the machine
is subjected to random shocking and vibration during the starting and ending of the handle
lever operation.
4.4.2.1. Design of the top roller shaft
Figure 25: top roller shaft with gears and bearing mounted on it
Figure 26: free body diagram of the top roller shaft
Considering the free body diagram the load that are applied on the shaft beam are determined
based on the weight of the parts like gear and roller that means the gear give rise to concentrated
load and the roller gives a distributed load and there is also a bearing reaction loads to support
the shaft and its mounted components.
67
Figure 27: load applied on the three gear transmission
The normal load acting on the gear A tooth is:-
𝐹𝑡
𝑊𝐴 =
cos 𝛼
𝑊𝐴 = 1124.12/ cos 20° = 1196.26𝑁
Vertical component is
𝑊𝐴𝑉 = 𝑊𝐴 = 1124.12𝑁
Horizontal component is
𝑊𝐴𝐻 = 0𝑁
Finally,
The horizontal component is zero.
The vertical component is: Weight of the gear + 𝑊𝐴 cos 20° = 1124.12 + 107.9 =
𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟐𝑵
The normal load acting on the gear D tooth is:-
𝐹𝑡
𝑊𝐷 =
cos 𝛼
𝑊𝐷 = 1264.12/ cos 20° = 1,345.25𝑁
We have vertical and horizontal component forces because the gear D is mounted @ 35° from
the vertical:-
𝑊𝐷𝑉 = 𝑊𝐷 cos 35° = 1,101.96𝑁
68
𝑊𝐷𝐻 = 𝑊𝐷 sin 35° = 771.6𝑁
Finally, since the gear D is meshed with two gears,
The horizontal component is = 2𝑊𝐷𝐻 = 2(771.6N) = 1,543.2N
The vertical component is: 2( 𝑊𝐷𝑉 ) + Weight = 2 ∗ (1,101.96) + 69 = 𝟐, 𝟐𝟕𝟐. 𝟗𝟐𝑵
The reaction force of the bearings is then:-
The reaction force @ the bearing for the vertical loading, ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0
𝑅𝐵𝑉 + 𝑅𝐶𝑉 = 𝑊𝐴𝑉 + 𝑊𝐷𝑉 + 𝑊𝑅 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.18)
𝑅𝐵𝑉 + 𝑅𝐷𝑉 = 1232 + 2272.92 + 1232.8
Moment about point B, ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
𝑅𝐶𝑉 (0.531) = 𝑊𝑅 (0.2655) + 𝑊𝐷𝑉 (0.5615) − 𝑊𝐴𝑉 (0.0305) … … … … . (4.19)
𝑅𝐶𝑉 (0.531) = 1232.8(0.2655) + 2,272.92(0.5615) − 1232(0.0305)
𝑹𝑪𝑽 = 𝟐, 𝟗𝟒𝟗. 𝟏𝟏𝑵
𝑹𝑩𝑽 = 𝟏, 𝟕𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟏𝑵
The reaction force @ the bearing for the horizontal loading, ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝑅𝐵𝐻 + 𝑅𝐶𝐻 = 𝑊𝐷𝐻 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.20)
𝑅𝐵𝐻 + 𝑅𝐶𝐻 = 1543.2
Moment about point B, ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
𝑅𝐶𝐻 (0.531) = 𝑊𝐷𝐻 (0.5615) … … … … … … … … . . (4.21)
𝑅𝐶𝐻 (0.531) = 1543.2(0.5615)
𝑹𝑪𝑯 = 𝟏, 𝟔𝟑𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝑵
𝑹𝑩𝑯 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟔𝟒𝑵
Then the following two theories will be utilized:-
1. Maximum shear stress theory or Guest's theory.
1
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝜎 2 + 4𝜏 2
2 𝑏
69
𝜋
𝜏 𝑑3 = √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 = 𝑇𝑒 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.22)
16 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2. Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine’s theory.
1
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [𝜎𝑏 + √𝜎𝑏 2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
𝜋 1
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑3 = [𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ] = 𝑀𝑒 … … … … … … … … . (4.23)
32 2
Now, 𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 are determined by drawing the bending moment diagram taking the maximum
as follow:-
Figure 28:torque load and bending moment diagram of top roll shaft
The resultant bending moment diagram is calculated using the Pythagoras theorem:-
𝑀𝑅 = √𝑀𝐻 2 + 𝑀𝑉 2
70
𝑀𝑅 (@𝑥 = 0) = √02 + 02 = 0𝑁𝑚
𝑀𝑅 (@𝑥 = 296𝑚𝑚) = √763.392 + 23.5342 = 763.75𝑁𝑚
𝑀𝑅 (@𝑥 = 546𝑚𝑚) = √740.52 + 45.692 = 741.91𝑁𝑚
So that the torque and bending moment that applied on the shaft are:-
𝑇 = 126.4𝑁𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 = 763.75𝑁𝑚
Therefore, to determine the diameter:-
In actual practice, the shafts are subjected to fluctuating torque and bending moments. In order
to design such shafts like line shafts and counter shafts, the combined shock and fatigue factors
must be taken into account for the computed twisting moment (T) and bending moment (M).
Thus for a shaft subjected to combined bending and torsion, the equivalent twisting moment,
𝑇𝑒 = √(𝐾𝑚 𝑀)2 + (𝐾𝑡 𝑇)2 … … … … … … … … … … (4.24)
And equivalent bending moment
1
𝑀𝑒 = [𝐾 𝑀 + √(𝐾𝑚 𝑀)2 + (𝐾𝑡 𝑇)2 ] … … … … … … … … (4.25)
2 𝑚
For 𝐾𝑚 = combined shock and fatigue factor for bending
And 𝐾𝑡 = combined shock and fatigue factor for torsion
For rotating shaft suddenly applied load with minor shock only
𝐾𝑚 = 1.5 𝑡𝑜 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝑡 = 1.5 𝑡𝑜 2
Taking the mean factor value; 𝐾𝑚 = 𝐾𝑡 = 1.75
Thus, Equivalent twisting is:-
𝑇𝑒 = √(𝐾𝑚 𝑀)2 + (𝐾𝑡 𝑇)2
𝑇𝑒 = √(1.75 ∗ 763.75)2 + (1.75 ∗ 126.4)2

𝑇𝑒 = 1,354.7𝑁𝑚
Equivalent bending moment
1
𝑀𝑒 = [𝐾𝑚 𝑀 + √(𝐾𝑚 𝑀)2 + (𝐾𝑡 𝑇)2 ]
2
1
𝑀𝑒 = [(1.75 ∗ 763.75) + √(1.75 ∗ 763.75)2 + (1.75 ∗ 126.4)2 ]
2
71
𝑀𝑒 = 1,345.65𝑁𝑚
Also, since the material is a stainless steel with yield strength of 205𝑀𝑝𝑎, the allowable shear
and bending stress are determined by taking a factor of safety 𝐹. 𝑠 = 2;
𝜎𝑦 205
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = = 102.5𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 0.5𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 0.5 ∗ 102.5 = 51.25𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝐹. 𝑠 2
Case –I: shaft diameter by the MSS theory:-

𝜋
𝜏 𝑑3 = 𝑇𝑒
16 𝑎𝑙𝑙
3 16𝑇𝑒
𝑑=√
𝜋𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙
3 16 ∗ 1,354.7
𝑑=√
𝜋 ∗ 51.25 ∗ 106
𝑑 = 0.0513𝑚
𝑑 = 51.3𝑚𝑚
Case –II: shaft diameter by the MNS theory:-

𝜋
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑3 = 𝑀𝑒
32
3 32𝑀𝑒
𝑑=√
𝜋𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙
3 32 ∗ 1,345.65
𝑑=√
𝜋 ∗ 102.5
𝑑 = 0.05114𝑚
𝑑 = 51.14𝑚𝑚
Therefore the diameter of the shaft is the max{51.3,51.14}
𝑑 = 51.3 ≈ 55𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑)
Note: a diameter of 25 to 60 mm is approximated with 5 steps to be a standard shaft size.
72
4.4.2.2. Design of feeding and discharging roller shaft
Figure 29: bottom roller shaft with gears and bearing mounted on it
Figure 30: free body diagram of the bottom roller shaft
Since the parameter or specification of the gear D, E and F are the same hence:-
The normal load acting on the gear E and F tooth is:-
𝐹𝑡
𝑊𝐸 =
cos 𝛼
𝑊𝐸 = 1264.12/ cos 20° = 1,345.25𝑁
Since the gear D is mounted @ 35° from vertical:-
𝑊𝐸𝑉 = 𝑊𝐸 cos 35° = 1,101.96𝑁
𝑊𝐸𝐻 = 𝑊𝐸 sin 35° = 771.6𝑁
Finally,
The horizontal component is = 𝑊𝐸𝐻 = 771.6N
The vertical component is: 𝑊𝐸𝑉 + Weight = 1,101.96 + 69 = 𝟏, 𝟏𝟕𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝑵
73
The reaction force of the bearings is then:-
The reaction force @ the bearing for the vertical loading, ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0
𝑅𝐺𝑉 + 𝑅𝐻𝑉 = 𝑊𝐸𝑉 + 𝑊𝑅 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.18)
𝑅𝐺𝑉 + 𝑅𝐻𝑉 = 1,170.96 + 1232.8
Moment about point G, ∑ 𝑀𝐺 = 0
𝑅𝐻𝑉 (0.531) = 𝑊𝑅 (0.2655) + 𝑊𝐸𝑉 (0.5615) … … … … . (4.19)
𝑅𝐻𝑉 (0.531) = 1232.8(0.2655) + 1170.96(0.5615)
𝑹𝑯𝑽 = 𝟏, 𝟖𝟓𝟒. 𝟔𝟐𝑵
𝑹𝑮𝑽 = 𝟓𝟒𝟗. 𝟏𝟒𝑵
The reaction force @ the bearing for the horizontal loading, ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝑅𝐺𝐻 + 𝑅𝐻𝐻 = 𝑊𝐸𝐻 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.20)
𝑅𝐺𝐻 + 𝑅𝐻𝐻 = 771.6
Moment about point G, ∑ 𝑀𝐺 = 0
𝑅𝐻𝐻 (0.531) = 𝑊𝐸𝐻 (0.5615) … … … … … … … … . . (4.21)
𝑅𝐻𝐻 (0.531) = 771.6(0.5615)
𝑹𝑯𝑯 = 𝟒𝟑𝟑. 𝟐𝟓𝑵
𝑹𝑮𝑯 = 𝟑𝟑𝟖. 𝟑𝟓𝑵
1. Maximum shear stress theory or Guest's theory.

𝜋
𝜏 𝑑 3 = 𝑇𝑒 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.22)
16 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2. Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine’s theory.

𝜋
𝜎 𝑑 3 = 𝑀𝑒 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.23)
32 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Now, 𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 are determined by drawing the bending moment diagram taking the maximum
as follow:-
74
Figure 31: torque load and bending moment diagram of bottom roll shaft
The resultant bending moment diagram is calculated using the Pythagoras theorem:-
𝑀𝑅 = √𝑀𝐻 2 + 𝑀𝑉 2
𝑀𝑅 (@𝑥 = 0) = √02 + 02 = 0𝑁𝑚
𝑀𝑅 (@𝑥 = 265.5𝑚𝑚) = √68.742 + 89.832 = 113.11𝑁𝑚
𝑀𝑅 (@𝑥 = 531𝑚𝑚) = √13.532 + 179.662 = 180.17𝑁𝑚
So that the torque and bending moment that applied on the shaft are:-
𝑇 = 126.4𝑁𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 = 180.17𝑁𝑚
Thus, Equivalent twisting is:-
𝑇𝑒 = √(𝐾𝑚 𝑀)2 + (𝐾𝑡 𝑇)2
75
𝑇𝑒 = √(1.75 ∗ 180.17)2 + (1.75 ∗ 126.4)2

𝑇𝑒 = 385.15𝑁𝑚
Equivalent bending moment
1
𝑀𝑒 = [𝐾𝑚 𝑀 + √(𝐾𝑚 𝑀)2 + (𝐾𝑡 𝑇)2 ]
2
1
𝑀𝑒 = [(1.75 ∗ 180.17) + √(1.75 ∗ 180.17)2 + (1.75 ∗ 126.4)2 ]
2
𝑀𝑒 = 350.22𝑁𝑚
Case –I: shaft diameter by the MSS theory:-
3 16𝑇𝑒
𝑑=√
𝜋𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙
3 16 ∗ 385.15
𝑑=√
𝜋 ∗ 51.25 ∗ 106
𝑑 = 0.0337𝑚 = 33.7𝑚𝑚
Case –II: shaft diameter by the MNS theory:-
3 32𝑀𝑒
𝑑=√
𝜋𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙
3 32 ∗ 350.22
𝑑=√
𝜋 ∗ 102.5 ∗ 106
𝑑 = 0.0348𝑚 = 34.8𝑚𝑚
𝑑 = 35𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑)
Therefore, the diameter of the shaft is the 35mm.
4.4.3. Design of the roller groove
The milling model assumed simple cylindrical rollers. In practice, these would be extremely
inefficient devices. Until the mid of 20th century, milling tandems were often preceded by a
crusher, whose principal function was to break up the cane stacks. Typically of these devices
was the Krajewski crusher, which comprised two rollers with coarse transverse zigzag grooves
cast into the shells. Better preparation equipment- particularly shredders – replaced the function
of such crushers. Now mill rolls are almost exclusively circumferentially grooved.
76
There are several reasons for the use of grooving on mill rolls:-
 The roller grooving assists in breaking up the cane. This is a relatively unimportant
function if the cane has already been well prepared before milling, e.g. to 90 PI by a
heavy-duty shredder.
 Grooved rolls present a larger surface area in contact with the cane and hence better
traction.
 The cane does not pack into the Vee at the bottom of the groove, thus providing a natural
drainage path for the expressed juice.
 The inclined faces of the roll teeth provide additional extraction force on the cane
without increasing the hydraulic (or other) loading on the rolls, i.e. without increasing
the bending stresses on the roll and its shaft as shown in Figure 31.
Figure 32: force exerted by the roll groove surface on the bagasse (source; P. Rein cane sugar
Engineering)
This additional force is carried by stresses entirely contained within the shell material (between
adjacent teeth).
The main disadvantages of mill roll grooving are:
 The roots of the grooves constitute "stress raisers" that can lead to fatigue failure of the
shell and shaft.
 For the same effective work opening between two rolls the free gap to pass any
extraneous solid objects such as tramp iron or rocks is reduced, increasing the
likelihood of roll damage.
77
The common dimensions of the mill roll grooves are [for huge roller of size about 725x1,
370mm milling tandem]:-
Pitch: from 25mm to 45mm, with 50 mm probably the most widely used.
Groove included angle: from 40 to 55o
The angles most often used are 45°, 50° and 55°. When it is desired to run the rollers without
cleaning the bagasse from them the angle may be as low as 30 or 35°. French manufacturers
have adopted 50°. Wear and breakages of the teeth increase when the angle of grooving is
decreased, but there is no reason for adopting a more acute angle, a value of about 55° is
employed [3].
In practice, mill roll grooves are generally machined to a profile with a small flat (2-4 mm
wide) across the top of the teeth for strength purposes (as shown in figure 31). This also assists
in applying welding for surface roughening. The roots of grooves should be sharp or rounded
to a small radius (say 1.5 mm) to allow a juice drainage path.
Normal practice is to use the same grooving profile on all rolls of a mill. This case, the grooving
of the top roll of a 3 roll mill must be arranged to mesh with that of the feed and discharge rolls.
Thus, if the top roll configuration has a tooth at the center or mid-plane, then the feed and
discharge rolls must have grooves at the mid-plane.
However, sometimes a large pitch grooving on the feed roll (to improve feeding and mesh
securely with the trash plate), with smaller grooving on the top and discharge rolls (to reduce
mesh depth and increase drainage channels at the final squeeze).
This can be accommodated by using double the pitch on the feed roll (e.g. 50 mm on feed, 25
mm on top and discharge rolls). In this case, the feed and discharge rolls should both have a
tooth at the mid-plane, meshing with a groove at the mid-plane of the top roll.
Circumferential grooves:
The universal type of grooving is the circumferential groove. It is formed by grooving the roller
with notches describing complete circles, in planes perpendicular to its axis. These are
distributed regularly over the length of the roller, and a longitudinal section.
78
Figure 33: circumferential grooving (HUGOT, 1986)
Lateral grooves:
Of course the circumferential groove is efficient for large roller diameter in huge plats but for
small scale hand operated juice extracting machine the circumferential groove are impractical
due to the wider groove produced relatively to the size of the roller diameter therefor instead
of the circumferential groove lateral groove which is along the longitudinal axis is utilized in
order to provide the advantage of grooving.
Figure 34: schematic of lateral groove (source: Google search.com)
Therefore; Specification of the roller groove:-
Circular pitch = 16° ∗ 200𝑚𝑚 = 55.85𝑚𝑚

Groove angle = 8°
Root groove fillet = 1.5mm
Groove depth = 2.5mm
4.4.4. Design of the trash plate
The purpose of the trash plate (or "turn plate") is to direct the cane from the feed opening
(where it has been compressed with some juice extraction) to the discharge opening for further
compression and extraction.
79
The compaction achieved at the feed roll is maintained by the trash plate while turning the
bagasse into the ‘nip’ between the top and discharge rolls. It is not intended to increase
compaction.
Trash plate setting:
If the clearance below the top roll is too wide, compaction and bagasse form will be lost. If the
clearance is too tight, the trash plate will increase friction unnecessary, wear excessively and
reduce the effective load at the feed and discharge squeezes.
Therefore; the profile and positioning of the trash plate is therefore extremely important.
The trash plate upper surface height is set by setting the nose or “toe” (front top of the trash
plate profile) of the trash plate at angle usually 13° to 14°) from the axial plane axis.
So, the top of the trash plate is drawn with a radius 𝑟𝑇𝑝 which is equal to the distance from the
nose of the trash plate to the center of the top roll. However, the fulcrum of this radius is offset
to provide a “sweep” that diverges by 4% to 5% over the length of the trash plate.
Having this the distance of the trash plate surface below the top roll should increase by 4.5 %
of the trash plate surface from the nose to the back end of the trash plate.
A clearance of 20 to 25 mm should be left between the back (“heel”) of the trash plate and the
top of the grooves of the discharge roll to allow room for juice drainage and setting adjustments.
Hence, the angle on the discharge roll between the heel of the trash plate and the center line to
the top roll should be, 𝛽 < 32°.
Figure 35: trash plate setting (Rein, 2007)
80
Material selection:
Trash plates may be cast in close-grained cast iron, spheroidal graphite (SG) iron or
equivalents, semi-steel (cast iron plus scrap steel), cast steel or stainless steel. The durability
and cost tends to increase in the order with the precision of modern foundry technology, trash
plates can be cast with their teeth, saving significant machining costs.
So, the material is selected to be a cast iron.
Analysis:
The trash plate surface S = W – 2D = 480mm – 400mm = 80mm
𝑟𝑇𝑝 = 𝑅 + 𝑆 = 200 + 80 = 280𝑚𝑚
The trash plate is subjected to compression and bending stress (very small):-
𝐹 0.2𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙 0.2 ∗ 1,232.8

𝜎𝑐 = = = = 0.012𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝐴 400 ∗ 500 400 ∗ 500
Since the stress applied on the trash plate is too small then the material of selection which is
cast iron is strong enough to resist the compressive and bending stress applied on the trash
plate.
4.4.5. Design of flywheel
A flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir which stores energy during the period when
the supply of energy is more than the requirement and releases it during the period when the
requirement of energy is more than supply.
A little consideration will show that when the flywheel absorbs energy, its speed increases and
when it releases, the speed decreases.
The function of a governor in engine is entirely different from that of a flywheel. It regulates
the mean speed of an engine when there are variations in the load, i.e. the governor
automatically controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with the varying load condition
and keeps the mean speed within certain limits.
Therefore; the flywheel does not maintain a constant speed, it simply reduces the fluctuation
of speed. In other words, a flywheel controls the speed variations caused by the fluctuation of
the engine turning moment during each cycle of operation. It does not control the speed
variations caused by the varying load.
81
Figure 36: flywheel (Gupta, 2005)
A flywheel, as shown in Fig. 36, consists of a rim at which the major portion of the mass or
weight of flywheel is concentrated, a boss or hub for fixing the flywheel on to the shaft and a
number of arms for supporting the rim on the hub.
The purpose of the flywheel design requirement is to make continuous motion for the
intermittent motion or power source of the handle by storing the excess load or rotation during
the handle operation time.
Material selection: The material of the flywheel is selected to be a cast iron.
Mechanical properties of the cast iron are:-
Density = 7260 kg/m3

Compressive strength = 400 – 1000Mpa
Shear strength = 120Mpa
Note: since the cast is a brittle material then its yield point is not well known so the above
mechanical properties are ultimate strength.
So the permissible tensile strength for the flywheel for the min. factor of safety 𝐹. 𝑆 = 8 is:-
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 100𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = = 12.5𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝐹. 𝑆 8
Design analysis:
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed of the flywheel is:-
𝑁1 − 𝑁2 2(𝑁1 − 𝑁2 )
𝐶𝑠 = = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.24)
𝑁 𝑁1 + 𝑁2
Where,
𝐶𝑠 = Coefficient of fluctuation of speed
82
𝑁1 = Maximum speed in rpm during the cycle

𝑁2 = Minimum speed in rpm during the cycle
The permissible value for the coefficient of the fluctuation of speed is see appendix table A-6.
𝐶𝑠 = 0.020 For gear wheel transmission

𝐶𝑠 = 0.025 For rolling mills and mining machines
Energy stored in the flywheel is:-
∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐶𝑠 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (4.25)
𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐴𝜌 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … . (4.26)
Where,
∆𝐸 = Energy stored in the flywheel

𝑚 = Mass of the flywheel rim
𝑅 = Mean radius of the flywheel rim
𝐴 = 𝑡 ∗ 𝑏 = Cross sectional area of the rim (assume rectangular cross section of the
flywheel rim). Knowing the ratio of b / t which is usually taken as 2, we may find the width
and thickness of rim.
In the expression, only the mass moment of inertia of the rim is considered and the mass
moment of inertia of the hub and arms is neglected, due to the fact that the major portion of
weight of the flywheel is in the rim and a small portion is in the hub and arms. Also the hub
and arms are nearer to the axis of rotation, therefore the moment of inertia of the hub and arms
is very small.
The design of the flywheel is carried out in three portions:-
i. Design of the flywheel rim

ii. Design of the flywheel arm
iii. Design of the fly wheel shaft, hub and keys
i. Design of the flywheel rim:
The following types of stresses are induced in the rim of a flywheel:
 Tensile stress due to centrifugal force,

 Tensile bending stress caused by the restraint of the arms, and
83
 The shrinkage stresses due to unequal rate of cooling of casting. These stresses may be
very high but there is no easy method of determining. This stress is taken care of by a
factor of safety.
Now, we shall consider the first two stresses:-
Tensile stress:-
𝜎𝑡 = 𝜌𝑣 2 = 𝜌𝑅 2 𝑤 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.27)
Tensile bending stress:-
19.74𝜌𝑣 2 𝑅
𝜎𝑏 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.27)
𝑛2 𝑡
Now, the total stress on the rim is:-
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑡 + 𝜎𝑏 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.28)
If the arms of a flywheel do not stretch at all and are placed very close together, then centrifugal
force will not set up stress in the rim. In other words, 𝜎𝑡 will be zero. On the other hand, if the
arms are stretched enough to allow free expansion of the rim due to centrifugal action, there
will be no restraint due to the arms, i.e. 𝜎𝑏 will be zero.
It has been shown by G. Lanza that the arms of a flywheel stretch about 3⁄4 𝑡ℎ of the amount
necessary for free expansion. Therefore the total stress in the rim,
3 1 4.935𝑅
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑡 + 𝜎𝑏 = 𝜌𝑣 2 (0.75 + ) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . (4.29)
4 4 𝑛2 𝑡
The total stress on the rim should not exceed the allowable permissible stress
Figure 37: flywheel rim and arm cross section (Gupta, 2005)
84
ii. Design of the flywheel arm
The following stresses are induced in the arms of a flywheel.
 Tensile stress due to centrifugal force acting on the rim.

 Bending stress due to the torque transmitted from the rim to the shaft or from the shaft
to the rim.
 Shrinkage stresses due to unequal rate of cooling of casting. These stresses are difficult
to determine.
Now, we shall consider the first two stresses:-
Tensile stress:
Due to the centrifugal force acting on the rim, the arms will be subjected to direct tensile stress
whose magnitude is same as in the previous article
Bending stress:
Due to the torque transmitted from the rim to the shaft or from the shaft to the rim, the arms
will be subjected to bending, because they are required to carry the full torque load.
In order to find out the maximum bending moment on the arms, it may be assumed as a
cantilever beam fixed at the hub and carrying a concentrated load at the free end of the rim as
shown in Fig. 38.
Figure 38: modeling of flywheel arm as a cantilever beam (Gupta, 2005)
Notes:
 The arms of the flywheel have a taper from the hub to the rim. The taper is about 20 mm
per meter length of the arm for the major axis and 10 mm per meter length for the minor
axis.
85
 The numbers of arms are usually 6. Sometimes the arms may be 8, 10 or 12 for very large
size flywheels.
 The arms may be curved or straight. But straight arms are easy to cast and are lighter.
 Since arms are subjected to reversal of stresses, therefore a minimum factor of safety 8
should be used.
The cross-section of the arms is usually elliptical with major axis as twice the minor axis (𝑎1 =
2𝑏1 ), as shown in Fig. 37, and it is designed for the maximum bending stress.
𝑀 𝑇 𝜋
𝜎𝑏 = = (𝑅 − 𝑟) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍 = 𝑏 (𝑎 2 ) … … … … … … … … … … … (4.30)
𝑍 𝑅𝑛𝑍 32 1 1
Where,
𝑏 = Width of the rim 𝑡 = Thickness of the rim

𝑏1 = Major axis of the arm cross section
𝑎1 = 𝑏 Minor axis of the arm cross section
𝑅 = Mean radius of the flywheel
𝑟 = Radius of the hub
𝑛 = Number of arms
𝑍 = Section modulus for the cross –section of arms
𝑇 = Maximum torque transmitted by the shaft
𝑇
Load on each arm is 𝑅𝑛
The total stress on the arms should not exceed the allowable permissible stress.
3 2 𝑇
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑡 + 𝜎𝑏 = 𝜌𝑣 + (𝑅 − 𝑟) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4.31)
4 𝑅𝑛𝑍
Cross section of the flywheel rim determination:-
Assume that: The mean diameter of the rim, D = 300 mm
The mean rpm of the flywheel = rpm of the pinion gear, 𝑁 = 30𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝜋 ∗ 0.3 ∗ 30
𝑣= = = 0.471𝑚/𝑠
60 60
The coefficient of the fluctuation of speed, 𝐶𝑠 = 0.020
Thickness of rim, 𝑡 = 14.375𝑚𝑚
Width of the flywheel rim, 𝑏 = 28.75𝑚𝑚
86
Check for stress;
The total stress on the flywheel rim is calculated using equation (4.29)
4.935𝑅
𝜎 = 𝜌𝑣 2 (0.75 + )
𝑛2 𝑡
4.935 ∗ 0.15
𝜎 = 7260 ∗ (0.471)2 (0.75 + )
(6)2 ∗ 0.014375
𝜎 = 1,610.6(0.75 + 17.17)
𝜎 = 28,861.952𝑃𝑎
𝜎 = 0.3𝑀𝑝𝑎
Since the stress induced in the rim is less than the permissible value therefore it is safe.
Cross section determination of the flywheel arm:-
Major axis of the arm cross section; 𝑎1 = 𝑏 = 28.75𝑚𝑚

1
Minor axis of the arm cross section; 𝑏1 = 2 𝑎1 = 𝑡 = 14.375𝑚𝑚
Section modulus for the cross –section of arms;

𝜋
𝑍= 𝑏 (𝑎 2 )
32 1 1
𝜋
𝑍= ∗ 14.375 ∗ (28.75)2
32
𝑍 = 1,166.5𝑚𝑚3 = 1.17 ∗ 10−6 𝑚3
We know that;𝐶𝑠 = 0.020; 𝑁 = 30𝑟𝑝𝑚 using equation (4.24)
𝑁1 − 𝑁2
𝐶𝑠 = => 𝑁1 − 𝑁2 = 0.6
𝑁
(𝑁1 + 𝑁2 )
𝑁= => 𝑁1 + 𝑁2 = 60
2
Equating equation (10a) and (10b); 𝑁1 = 30.06𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑁2 = 29.97𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑃 ∗ 60 79.45 ∗ 60
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 25.32𝑁𝑚
2𝜋𝑁2 2𝜋 ∗ 29.97
The minimum torque transmitted by the shaft is:-
𝑃 ∗ 60 79.45 ∗ 60
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 24.79𝑁𝑚
2𝜋𝑁1 2𝜋 ∗ 30.6
87
Design of the shaft, hub and key of the flywheel
According to American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) code for the design of
transmission shafts, [2].
The maximum permissible working stresses in tension/compression may be
(a) 112 MPa for shafts without allowance for keyways.
(b) 84 MPa for shafts with allowance for keyways.
The maximum permissible shear stress may be taken as
(a) 56 MPa for shafts without allowance for key ways.
(b) 42 MPa for shafts with allowance for keyways.
Diameter of the shaft is:-

𝜋
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝑑1 2
16
3 16𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑑1 = √
𝜋𝜏
3 16 ∗ 25.32
𝑑1 = √
𝜋 ∗ 42
𝑑1 = 14.5𝑚𝑚, => 𝑑1 = 25𝑚𝑚 (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)

Diameter of the hub: Assume that the outer diameter of the hub is 𝑑 = 2𝑑1 + 13𝑚𝑚 =
2(25) + 13𝑚𝑚 = 63𝑚𝑚
𝜋 𝑑 4 − 𝑑1 4
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏( )
16 𝑑
16𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑
𝜏=
𝜋(𝑑4 − 𝑑1 4 )
16 ∗ 25.32 ∗ 0.025
𝜏=
𝜋(0.0634 − 0.0254 )
𝜏 = 209,853.7𝑝𝑎 = 0.209𝑀𝑝𝑎
Since this stress is below the permissible stress value so the hub design is safe;
Check for stress;
The total stress on the flywheel rim is calculated using equation (4.31)
88
3 𝑇
𝜎 = 𝜌𝑣 2 + (𝑅 − 𝑟)
4 𝑅𝑛𝑍
3 25.32
𝜎 = (7260)(0.471)2 + (0.15 − 0.063)
4 0.15 ∗ 6 ∗ 1.17 ∗ 10−6
𝜎 = 1,207.92 +2,091,396.01
𝜎 = 2,091,139.601 = 2.1𝑀𝑝𝑎
Since the stress induced in the arm is less than the permissible value therefore it is safe.
4.4.6. Design of handle lever
For hand levers, about 400 N is considered as full force which a man is capable of exerting.
Material selection:
The material of the handle is selected to be a wrought iron. Its ultimate tensile strength is
250MPa to 500MPa and the ultimate compressive strength is 300MPa.
However, the permissible bending stress for the lever material may be taken as 50MPa and
shear stress for shaft material as 40MPa.
4.4.6.1. Cranked Lever
A cranked lever, as shown in Fig., 39 is a hand lever commonly used for operating hoisting
winches. The lever can be operated either by a single person or by two persons.
The maximum force in order to operate the lever may be taken as 400 N and the length of
handle as 300 mm. In case the lever is operated by two persons, the maximum force of
operation will be doubled and length of handle may be taken as 500 mm. The handle is covered
in a pipe to prevent hand scoring. The end of the shaft is usually squared so that the lever may
be easily fixed and removed [3].
The length (L) is usually from 400 to 450 mm and the height (𝐻) of the shaft Centre line from
the ground is usually one meter(1𝑚).
89
Figure 39: cranked hand lever (Gupta, 2005)
In order to design the levers, the following procedure will be followed:
Design of the handle:
The diameter of the handle is usually proportioned as 25 mm for single person and 40 mm for
two persons.
So that; 𝑑 = 25𝑚𝑚 and 𝑙 = 300𝑚𝑚
Therefore, the Maximum bending moment, the diameter of the handle (d) is obtained from
bending considerations. It is assumed that the effort (P) applied on the handle acts at 2/3rd of
its length (𝑙).
2𝑙 2
𝑀=𝑃∗ = ∗𝑃∗𝑙
3 3
And section modulus,
𝜋 3
𝑍= 𝑑
32
∴ Resisting moment,
𝜋 3
𝑀 = 𝜎𝑏 𝑍 = 𝜎𝑏 𝑑
32
𝜎𝑏 = Permissible bending stress for the material of the handle
The permissible bending stress for the lever material may be taken as 50MPa and shear stress
for shaft material as 40MPa.
Equating resisting moment to the maximum bending moment, we have
2 𝜋
∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝑙 = 𝜎𝑏 ∗ ∗ 𝑑3
3 32
90
3𝜋
𝑃= ∗ 𝜎 ∗ 𝑑3
64𝑙 𝑏
3𝜋
𝑃= ∗ 50 ∗ (25)3
64 ∗ 300
𝑃 = 383.49𝑁
Since the man force to be exerted is found in between the range then the handle diameter and
length are valid.
Design of the lever arm:
The cross-section of the lever arm is usually rectangular cross-section having uniform thickness
throughout. The width of the lever arm is tapered from the boss to the handle.
2
The arm is subjected to constant twisting moment, ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝑙 and a varying bending moment,
3
that is maximum value near the boss. It is assumed that the arm of the lever extends up to the
Centre of shaft, which results in a slightly stronger lever.
∴ Maximum bending moment, 𝑀 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝐿
Since, at present time, there is insufficient information on the subject of combined bending and
twisting of rectangular sections to enable us to find equivalent bending or twisting, with
sufficient accuracy, therefore the indirect procedure is adopted.
We shall design the lever arm for 25% more bending moment.
∴ Maximum bending moment
𝑀 = 1.25𝑃 ∗ 𝐿
∴ Section modulus for the lever arm
1
𝑍= ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝐵2
6
Where,
𝑡 = Thickness of the lever arm
𝐵 = Width of the lever arm near the boss
Now by using the relation,
𝑀 1.25𝑃𝐿
𝜎𝑏 = =
𝑍 1/6𝑡𝐵 2
91
We can find t and B.
After finding the value of t and B, the induced bending stress may be checked which should
not exceed the permissible value.
The width of the lever arm near the boss is taken as twice the thickness i.e. B = 2 t. and usually
𝐿 = 400 𝑡𝑜 450𝑚𝑚 (𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿 = 400𝑚𝑚)
3 6 ∗ 1.25𝑃𝐿
𝑡=√
4𝜎𝑏
3 6 ∗ 1.25 ∗ 383.49 ∗ 400

𝑡=√
4 ∗ 50
3
𝑡 = √6,471.39
𝑡 = 17.92𝑚𝑚 ≈ 20𝑚𝑚
𝐵 = 2𝑡 = 2 ∗ 20 = 40𝑚𝑚
The induced bending stress is then;
1.25 ∗ 𝐿
𝜎𝑏 =
1/6𝑡𝐵 2
6 ∗ 1.25𝑃 ∗ 𝐿
𝜎𝑏 =
𝑡𝐵 2
6 ∗ 1.25 ∗ 383.49 ∗ 400
𝜎𝑏 =
20(40)2
𝜎𝑏 = 35.95𝑀𝑝𝑎
Since this induced bending stress is less than the permissible, 50MPa it is safe.
The induced shear stress in the section of the lever arm near the boss, caused by the twisting
moment,
2 2
𝑇= ∗ 𝑃 ∗ 𝑙 = ∗ 383.49 ∗ 0.3 = 76.7𝑁
3 3
2
𝑇= ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑡2 ∗ 𝜏
9
9𝑇
𝜏=
2𝐵𝑡 2
92
9 ∗ 76.7
𝜏=
2 ∗ 0.040(0.020)2
𝜏 = 21.57𝑀𝑝𝑎
Since this induced shear stress is less than the permissible, 40MPa it is safe.
Knowing the values 𝜎𝑏 and.𝜏, the maximum principal or shear stress induced may be checked
by using the following relations:
Maximum principal stress,
1
𝜎𝑏(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = [𝜎𝑏 + √𝜎𝑏 2 + 4𝜏 2 ]
2
1
𝜎𝑏(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = [35.95 + √(35.95)2 + 4(21.57)2 ]
2
𝜎𝑏(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 46.05𝑀𝑝𝑎
Maximum shear stress,
1
𝜏(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = √𝜎𝑏 2 + 4𝜏 2
2
1
𝜏(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = √(40.5)2 + 4(26.65)2
2
𝜏(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 28.08𝑀𝑝𝑎
The maximum principal stress and maximum shear stress are also within a safe limit, so that
the design of the handle arm is safe.
Design of the journal:
Since the journal of the shaft is subjected to twisting moment and bending moment, therefore
its diameter is obtained from equivalent twisting moment.
The diameter of the journal is usually taken as
D = 30 to 40 mm, for single person

= 40 to 45 mm, for two persons.
We know that twisting moment on the journal of the shaft,
𝑇 = 𝑃 ∗ 𝐿 = 153.396𝑁𝑚
And bending moment on the journal of the shaft
93
2𝑙
𝑀 = 𝑃( + 𝑥)
3
Where, x = Distance from the end of boss to the Centre of journal Assume x = 100mm
2𝑙 2 ∗ 0.3
𝑀 = 𝑃 ( + 𝑥) = 383.49 ( + 0.1) = 115.047𝑁𝑚
3 3
∴ Equivalent twisting moment,
𝑇𝑒 = √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2
𝑇𝑒 = √(115.047)2 + (153.396)2
𝑇𝑒 = √36,766.15
𝑇𝑒 = 191.745𝑁𝑚
We know that equivalent twisting moment,

𝜋
𝑇𝑒 = ∗ 𝜏 ∗ 𝐷3
16
3 16𝑇𝑒
𝐷=√
𝜋𝜏
3 16 ∗ 191.745
𝐷=√
𝜋 ∗ 40 ∗ 106
𝐷 = 29𝑚𝑚 ≈ 30𝑚𝑚
Now considering the schematic diagram of the handle that shows the pinion gear, flywheel and
the handle mounted on it we are going to check the shaft design:-
Figure 40: schematic diagram of the handle shaft
94
4.4.7. Design of bearings
The word bearing, applied to a machine or structure, refers to contacting surfaces through
which a load is transmitted.
A mechanical bearing is a component used between two parts that allows rotational or liner
movement, reducing friction and enhancing performance to save energy.
•Bearings are used for carrying loads while allowing relative motion (rotation) with minimum
friction
•The concept behind bearings is ‘things roll better than they slide’.
Figure 41: bearing parameters
There are many different types of bearings which each of them used for specific purposes.
They are also designed to carry specific types of loads such as radial or thrust.
Bearing scan be categorized as,
•Mechanical contact bearings: Sliding, Rolling, Flexing
•Non–contact bearings: Fluid Film, Magnetic

Contact bearings
The product of the normal load and the coefficient of friction generates a friction force that
resists motion.
•The lower the coefficient of friction, the lower the friction force and the greater the
efficiency of the system.
95
The pressures caused by the load acting on the contact are a stresses the materials and causes
them to slowly wear. The lower the contact pressure and the lower the sliding velocity, the
longer the bearing will last.
Rolling are divided in to two those are ball bearing and roller bearing
Ball bearings:-
These are the most common type of rolling element bearing. These bearings can handle both
radial and thrust loads but are usually used where the load is relatively small.
Rating life
•Rating life is defined as the life of a group of apparently identical ball or roller bearings in
number of revolutions rotating at a given speed, so that 90% of the bearings will complete or
exceed before any indication of failure occur.
Figure 42: bearing life cycle diagram
Basic load rating
•Most manufacturers specify basic dynamic load rating, C, which is the load that results in
106 cycles (one million cycles). So, this equation can be rewritten as
c
Ld = ( )a ∗ 106
Pd
Where:
C is basic or dynamic load rating
Pd is design load
96
Ld is dynamic load rating for a design life
Speed of the shaft is n=6rpm
Considering one million cycle life as unit life, the above equation will be modified as:
1
c = P(L)a
Where
L: Life in millions of revolution or life in hours
a: is a constant that can be taken 3 for ball bearings and 3.3333 for roller bearings then
we select ball baring which is a= 3
Pe = VPr
Where
Pe –equivalent load
Pr –given radial load = the resultant force
V –rotating factor (1 for inner race rotating and 1.2 for outer race rotating)
Bearing at point “c”
Then we select inner race rotating which is V=1
Pr = √(R CH )2 + (R CV )2 = √(1,631.88)2 + (2,949.11)2 = 3,370.5N
Pe = VPr
Pe = 1 ∗ 3,370.5 = 3,370.5N
C=43.6KN for single row 02-series deep groove ball baring for a shaft diameter of 55mm
C 4,3600 3
L = ( )3 = ( ) = 2,164.6 millions revolution
P 3,370.5
c a 106 43,600 3 106

Ld = ( ) ∗ =( ) ∗
Pd 60n 3,370.5 60 ∗ 6
Ld = 6.013 ∗ 107 hours
Therefor for c=43.6KN and deep groove ball bearing and inner diameter of 55 mm we select
bearing number 213.
97
Bearing at point “B”
Pr = √(R BH )2 + (R BV )2 = √(88.64)2 + (1,788.61)2 = 1,788.61N
Pe = 1 ∗ 1,788.61 = 1,788.61N
C 4,3600 3
L = ( )3 = ( ) = 14,484.8 milliones revolution
P 1,788.61
c a 106 43,600 3 106

Ld = ( ) ∗ =( ) ∗ = 4.023 ∗ 107 hours
Pd 60n 1,788.61 60 ∗ 6
bearing number 213.
Bearing at point “G”
Pr = √(R GH )2 + (R GV )2 = √(338.5)2 + (549.14)2 = 645N
Pe = 1 ∗ 645 = 645N
C=25.5KN for single row 02-series deep groove ball baring for a shaft diameter of 35mm
C 25,500 3
L = ( )3 = ( ) = 61,793.3 milliones revolution
P 645
c a 106 25,500 3 106

Ld = ( ) ∗ =( ) ∗ = 1.72 ∗ 108 hours
Pd 60n 645 60 ∗ 6
bearing number 209.
Bearing at point “H”
Pr = √(R HH )2 + (R HV )2 = √(433.25)2 + (1,854.62)2 = 1,904.55N
C 25,500 3
L = ( )3 = ( ) = 2400 milliones revolution
P 1,904.55
c a 106 25,500 3 106

Ld = ( ) ∗ =( ) ∗
Pd 60n 1,904.55 60 ∗ 6
Ld = 6.667 ∗ 106 hours
bearing number 209.
98
Bearing at point I
Pr = √(R IH )2 + (R IV )2 = 17.04N
C=14KN for single row 02-series deep groove ball baring for a shaft diameter of 25mm
C 14,000 3
L = ( )3 = ( ) = 554,594,215.8miliones revolution
P 17.04
c a 106 14,000 3 106

Ld = ( ) ∗ =( ) ∗ = 1.54 ∗ 1012 hours
Pd 60n 17.04 60 ∗ 6
Therefor for c=14KN and deep groove ball bearing and inner diameter of 25 mm we select
bearing number 306.
Bearing at point J
Pr = √(R IH )2 + (R IV )2 = 430.4N
C=14KN for single row 02-series deep groove ball baring for a shaft diameter of 25mm
C 14,000 3
L = ( )3 = ( ) = 34,416, .55 milion revolution
P 430.4
c a 106 14,000 3 106

Ld = ( ) ∗ =( ) ∗ = 9.56 ∗ 107
Pd 60n 430.4 60 ∗ 6
Therefor for c=14KN and deep groove ball bearing and inner diameter of 25 mm we select
bearing number 306.
4.4.8. Design of keys
A key is a piece of mild steel inserted between the shaft and hub or boss of the gear and flywheel
to connect these together in order to prevent relative motion between them.
It is always inserted parallel to the axis of the shaft. Keys are used as temporary fastenings and
are subjected to considerable crushing and shearing stresses. A keyway is a slot or recess in a
shaft and hub of the pulley to accommodate a key.
There are Different types of keys from those, sunk keys is one.
Rectangular sunk key.
A rectangular sunk key is a piece of mild steel inserted between the shaft and hub or boss of
the gear to connect these together in order to prevent relative motion between them. The usual
proportions of this key are:
99
Width of key, w = d / 4; and thickness of key, t = 2w / 3 = d / 6
Where d = Diameter of the shaft or diameter of the hole in the hub.
The key has taper 1 in 100 on the top side only
Figure 43: illustration key (Gupta, 2005)
Square sunk key. w = t = diameter of the shaft / 4.
Material of selection: Mild steel
Allowable yield stress (𝜎) = 250𝑀𝑝𝑎
Factor of safety=1.25
Allowable shear stress:

𝜎 250
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = = 100𝑀𝑝𝑎
2𝐹. 𝑠 2 ∗ 1.25
Allowable crushing stress:
𝜎 250
𝜎𝑐 = = = 200𝑀𝑝𝑎
𝐹. 𝑠 1.25
Objective: To determine the length of the key
Analysis:
4.4.8.1. Design of key for top roller shaft
Equivalent twisting moment:
𝑇𝑒 = 1,345.65𝑁𝑚
𝑤 = 18𝑚𝑚 & 𝑡 = 11𝑚𝑚 For diameter up to 𝑑 = 58𝑚𝑚 (standard) see appendix table A-7
The length of key is obtained by considering the key in shearing and crushing.
100
Considering shearing of the key,
𝑑
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑤 ∗ 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 ∗
2
2𝑇𝑒
𝑙=
𝑤 ∗ 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 ∗ 𝑑
2 ∗ 1,345.65
𝑙=
18 ∗ 100 ∗ 55
𝑙 = 27.2𝑚𝑚
Considering the crushing of the key,
𝑑
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝜎𝑐 ∗
2
2𝑇𝑒
𝑙=
𝑡 ∗ 𝜎𝑐 ∗ 𝑑
2 ∗ 1,345.65
𝑙=
11 ∗ 200 ∗ 55
𝑙 = 22.2𝑚𝑚
∴ Taking the maximum, 𝑙 = 27.2𝑚𝑚
4.4.8.2. Design of key for feeding and discharging roller shafts

Equivalent twisting moment: 𝑻𝒆 = 𝟑𝟖𝟓. 𝟏𝟓𝑵𝒎
𝑤 = 12𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑚 For diameter up to 𝑑 = 38𝑚𝑚 (standard) see appendix table A-7.
𝑑
2
2𝑇𝑒
𝑙=
2 ∗ 385.15
𝑙=
12 ∗ 100 ∗ 35
𝑙 = 18.3𝑚𝑚
101
𝑑
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝜎𝑐 ∗
2
2𝑇𝑒
𝑙=
2 ∗ 1,354.74
𝑙=
8 ∗ 200 ∗ 55
𝑙 = 13.8𝑚𝑚
4.4.8.3. Design of key for handling shafts
Equivalent twisting moment: 𝑇𝑒 = 191.745𝑁𝑚
𝑤 = 10𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 8𝑚𝑚 For diameter up to 𝑑 = 30𝑚𝑚 (standard) see appendix table A-7.
𝑑
2
2𝑇𝑒
𝑙=
2 ∗ 191.745
𝑙=
10 ∗ 100 ∗ 25
𝑙 = 15.4𝑚𝑚
𝑑
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝜎𝑐 ∗
2
2𝑇𝑒
𝑙=
2 ∗ 191.745
𝑙=
8 ∗ 200 ∗ 25
𝑙 = 9.59𝑚𝑚
102
4.4.9. Design of supporting frame
The juice extraction milling machine mill rolls are supported by two vertical supporting frame
stands on both sides.as shown in fig.44.
Figure 44: The schematic diagram of the supporting frame
The supporting frame is made of two parts:-

(1) Vertical stand: to mount the roller shafts
(2) Lower horizontal: to fasten the vertical stand to the table top for ease of handling
The dimension of the supporting frame is found as follow:-
ℎ = 25𝑚𝑚
𝑙 = 100 + 100 + 5 = 205𝑚𝑚 Due to the size of gears
ℎ1 = 𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠(35°) = 205 cos(35°) = 167.93𝑚𝑚
𝑤1 = 2𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛(35°) = 205 sin(35°) = 2(117.58)𝑚𝑚

𝑊 = 2(117.58) + 200 + 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑊 = 435.16 + 𝑐
𝑊 = 480𝑚𝑚
𝐻 = ℎ1 + ℎ2 + 100 + 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐻 = 167.93 + 135 + 100 + 22.5 + 𝑐
𝐻 = 425.43 + 𝑐
𝐻 = 430𝑚𝑚
103
Height including space for the juice tray placement
𝐻1 = 430 + 300 = 730𝑚𝑚
Since the height of the handling shaft is a 1000mm for ease of handling
Height of table = 1000mm – 730mm = 270mm
4.4.8.1. Design of the vertical stand
Figure 45: vrtical stand of the supporting frame
Where,
𝑃1 = Load due to the weight of the handle shaft and other parts that are mounted on it
𝑃2 = Load due to the weight of the top roller shaft and other parts that are mounted on it
𝑃3 = Due to the weight of the feeding roller shaft and other parts that are mounted on it
𝑃4 = Due to weight of the discharging roller shaft and other parts that are mounted on it
To calculate the loads first the weight of each component is determined:
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝐴𝐿𝑔
Where,
𝜌 = Density of the material

𝐴 = Cross sectional area of the part
𝐿 = Length of the part and 𝑔 = 9.81𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
To calculate load 𝑷𝟏
Weight of handle shaft and its component:-
104
For shaft:-
𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌 𝑑2 ∗ 𝐿
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 7800 ∗ (0.025)2 ∗ 0.81
4
𝑤 = 3.1𝑘𝑔
For handle lever:-
𝜋 2 𝑡 𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌[ (𝐷2 − 𝐷⁄2 ) 𝑥 + (𝐵 + 𝐵⁄2)𝐿 + 𝑑 2 𝑙]
4 2 4
𝜋 0.0152 0.02 𝜋
2
𝑤 = 7250[ (0.03 − ) 0.05 + (0.04 + 0.04⁄2)0.03 + 0.0252 ∗ 0.3]
4 2 2 4
𝑤 = 3𝑘𝑔
For pinion gear:-
𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑝2 𝑏
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 7800 ∗ (0.045)2 0.02875
4
𝑤 = 0.357𝑘𝑔
For bearing:-
𝜋
𝑤 = 2[ (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )𝑡𝜌]
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 2[ (0.0522 − 0.0252 ) ∗ 0.015 ∗ 7800]
4
𝑤 = 0.382𝑘𝑔
Total weight is then
𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 3.1 + 3 + 0.357 + 0.382
𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 6.84𝑘𝑔
Now, the load 𝑃1 is:-

𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑃1 =
2
6.84𝑘𝑔
𝑃1 =
2
𝑃1 = 3.42𝑘𝑔
To calculate load 𝑷𝟐
Weight of the top roller shaft and its component:-
105
For the shaft:-

𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌 𝑑2 ∗ 𝐿
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 8000 0.0552 ∗ 0.810
4
𝑤 = 15.4𝑘𝑔
For the roller:-
𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌[ (𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 )𝐿
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 8000[ (0.22 − 0.0552 )0.5
4
𝑤 = 116.16𝑘𝑔
For the wheel/gear:-
𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌 𝑑2 ∗ 𝑏
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 7800 0.2252 ∗ 0.02875
4
𝑤 = 11.45𝑘𝑔
For the other gear:-
𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌 𝑑2 ∗ 𝑏
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 7800 0.22 ∗ 0.02875
4
𝑤 = 7.05𝑘𝑔
For the bearing:-
𝜋
𝑤 = 2[ (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )𝑡𝜌]
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 2 [ (0.12 − 0.0552 ). 021 ∗ 7800]
4
𝑤 = 1.794𝑘𝑔
𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 15.4 + 116.16 + 11.45 + 7.05 + 1.79
𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 151.85𝑘𝑔
Now, the load 𝑃2 is:
106
𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑃2 =
2
151.85
𝑃2 =
2
𝑃2 = 75.93𝑘𝑔
To calculate load 𝑷𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝟒
Weight of the bottom roller shaft and its component:-
For the gear:-

𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌 𝑑2 ∗ 𝑏
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 7800 0.22 ∗ 0.02875
4
𝑤 = 7.05𝑘𝑔
For the roller:-
𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌[ (𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 )𝐿
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 8000[ (0.22 − 0.0552 )0.5
4
𝑤 = 116.16𝑘𝑔
For the shaft:-
𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌 𝑑2 ∗ 𝐿
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 8000 0.0352 ∗ 0.810
4
𝑤 = 6.08𝑘𝑔
For the bearing:-

𝜋
𝑤 = 2[ (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )𝑡𝜌]
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 2 [ (0.0752 − 0.0352 ). 017 ∗ 7800]
4
𝑤 = 0.824𝑘𝑔
𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 116.16 + 7.05 + 0.824 + 6.08
𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 130.114𝐾𝑔
Now, the load 𝑃3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃4 is:
107
𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑃3 = 𝑃4 =
2
130.114
𝑃3 = 𝑃4 =
2
𝑃3 = 𝑃4 = 65.06𝑘𝑔
Therefore, the total over all weight applied on both supporting frame is:-
𝑊 = 285.39𝑘𝑔 ∗ 9.81𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
𝑊 = 2,799.68𝑁
For allowance 10% is added during the design:-
𝑊 = 1.1 ∗ 2,799.68𝑁 = 3,079.65𝑁
Figure 46: free body diagram of the supporting frame
The supporting frame is subjected to compressive and bending stress:-
(1) Compressive stress due to

𝑊 3,079.65𝑁
𝑃= = = 1,539.83𝑁
2 2
(2) Bending stress due to
𝑊 = 3,079.65𝑁
W
Neutral axis t
(1) Compressive stress:
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎𝑐 = =
𝐴 𝑡𝑤
1,539.83
𝜎𝑐 = = 0.15𝑀𝑝𝑎
0.021 ∗ 0.480
108
(2) Bending stress:
𝑀𝑦 𝑊 ∗ 𝑍 ∗ 𝑡/2
𝜎𝑏 = =
𝐼 1 3
12 𝑤𝑡
6𝑊𝑍
𝜎𝑏 =
𝑤𝑡 2
6 ∗ 3,079.65 ∗ 0.504
𝜎𝑏 =
0.480 ∗ (0.021)2
𝜎𝑏 = 44𝑀𝑝𝑎
The total stress on the supporting frame is then:-
𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝜎𝑐 + 𝜎𝑏
𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0.15 + 44
𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 44.15𝑀𝑝𝑎
Material selection:
The material of the stand is selected to be a cast iron due to its low cost, wear resistance
and high compressive strength: The compressive ultimate strength is 400Mpa
Hence, the design of the vertical stand is safe because the total stress applied is less that the
strength of the material.
4.4.8.2. Design of lower horizontal support
This lower horizontal part of the frame is required to design in order to fasten the vertical stand
frame support with table and this table is required to increase the height level of the handling
for ease of handling it should be about 1000mm from ground.
B
W
The load applied on this horizontal frame is:-
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑊𝑜𝑙𝑑 + 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑃 + 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑊
𝑃= = 1,539.825𝑁
2
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝜌𝑡𝐻𝑊
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 7250 ∗ 0.021 ∗ 0.480 ∗ 0.430
109
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 31.49𝑘𝑔 = 308.9𝑁
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 1,539.825 + 308.9 = 1,848.74𝑁
The lower horizontal frame is placed on table top hence it is subjected to compression stress
not for bending due to the new load, 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 1,848.74𝑁
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝜎𝑐 =
𝐵𝑊
1,848.74
𝜎𝑐 = = 0.48𝑀𝑝𝑎
0.080 ∗ 0.480
Since the stress is less than the permissible, so the design of the horizontal frame is safe.
4.4.10. Design of welding
A welded joint is a permanent joint which is obtained by the fusion of the edges of the two
parts to be joined together, with or without the application of pressure and a filler material.
Welding processes
A welding design begins with the recognition of a need. This need may be:
 For an improvement in an existing machine or
 For the building of an entirely new product or structure using advanced design and
fabrication techniques.
Analysis of existing designs
The following factors should be considered in identifying the strengths and weaknesses of
existing designs:
 Performance history of the existing products;
 Features that should be retained, discarded, or added;
 Any suggestions for improvements that have been made; and
 Opinions of customers and the sales force about the existing products.
Determination of load conditions
The weldment design is implemented by determining the overall load applied on it but in the
absence of these load determination it is done by experience and testing.
Welding selection: The type of welding joint selected is a T- joint which is welded on both
side and it is called double fillet welding.
110
Figure 47: T- joint welding

Analysis:
As shown in Figure 48, the size of a fillet weld is measured by the length of the legs of the
largest right triangle that may be inscribed within the cross section of the weld. The effective
area of a fillet weld is based upon the effective throat and the length of the weld. The strength
is determined by the effective area and the nominal compressive strength of the filler metal.
Figure 48: welding size (Gupta, 2005)
The vertical stand thickness; 𝑡 = 21𝑚𝑚
The horizontal lower frame thickness; 𝑡 = 80𝑚𝑚
Weld leg or size: 𝑠 = 10𝑚𝑚 for 18 − 24𝑚𝑚 thickness and
The allowable stress for fillet weld is 80Mpa see appendix table A-9.
The effective throat thickness:

𝑡𝑤 = 𝑠 ∗ sin(45°)
𝑡𝑤 = 0.707𝑠 = 0.707 ∗ 10 = 7.07𝑚𝑚
The minimum throat area:
𝐴 = 𝑡𝑤 ∗ 𝑙
Due to the compressive strength:-
The compressive strength of the joint for double fillet weld,
𝑃 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 2 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑤
2𝑙 =
2 ∗ 𝑡𝑤 ∗ 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙
111
1,848.74
𝑙=
2 ∗ 7.07 ∗ 80 ∗ 103
𝑙 = 1.63𝑚𝑚
Due to the bending strength:-
The bending strength of the joint for double fillet weld,
𝑀𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝐼
𝑀𝑡𝑤 /2
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
1
2 ∗ 3 𝑙𝑡𝑤 3
3𝑊 ∗ 𝑍
𝑙=
4𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑤 2
3 ∗ 3,079.65 ∗ 504
𝑙=
4 ∗ 80 ∗ 7.072
𝑙 = 291.12𝑚𝑚
In order to allow for starting and stopping of the bead, 12.5 mm should be added to the length
of weld obtained by the above expression;
∴ Length of the weld is
𝑙 = 291.12 + 12.5
𝑙 = 303.62 ≈ 304𝑚𝑚
4.4.11. Design of bolt and nut
Bolt: The purpose of a bolt is to clamp two or more parts together. The clamping load stretches
or elongates the bolt; the load is obtained by twisting the nut until the bolt has elongated almost
to the elastic limit.
Nut: by twisting the nut tightening the bolt to clamping the part.
A washer: is a cylindrical piece of metal with a hole to receive the bolt. It is used to give a
perfect seating for the nut and to distribute the tightening force uniformly to the parts under the
joint.
Material selection Structural steel ASTM A-36 can be used for the bolt and nut design because
cost, strength suitability and the joint is not subjected to many external loads except shear load.
112
Material for washer can any cast steel material because of low cost and high strength.
Mechanical properties
Ultimate tensile stress 𝜎𝑢𝑡 = 400𝑀𝑝𝑎
Yield strength 𝜎𝑦 = 250𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 250𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Assumptions and considerations
Factor of safety (FS) = 2
Required
All dimensions of bolt and nut including washer.
To design of bolt and nut;
Core diameter of bolt (𝑑𝑐 ) = √2𝑝𝑠 /(𝜋𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙)
Where
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝜎𝑦 /(2𝑓𝑠 )
Shear load 𝑝𝑠 =1,848.74 N
𝑑𝑐 = √2 ∗ 1,848.74/(𝜋 ∗ 62.5
𝑑𝑐 = 4.339𝑚𝑚
Therefore, In order to get safe design the core or minimum diameter is 4.5mm
Major diameter of bolt d is determined from table see appendix A-10.
𝑑 = 6.00𝑚𝑚, M6
Therefore,
Threaded length of bolt 𝐿𝑡 = 2𝑑 + 6 = 18𝑚𝑚
Height of the nut H = d = 6mm
Head of the bolt h = 0.75*d = 4.5mm
Thickness of the washer = 0.15*d= 0.9mm
𝐿𝑑 = 𝐿 − 𝐿𝑡 = 65 − 18 = 47𝑚𝑚
113
CHAPTER FIVE: MANUFACTURING PROCESS

5.1. Manufacturing procedure
In this chapter an introduction to manufacturing processes of the milling machine component

will be analyzed because the basic aim of this thesis is to design not to manufacture the
machine.
Most of the components of the milling machine are a bought item parts since they are standard
parts that can be made routinely, so the manufacturing process is just to show the flow.
The manufacturing process is a procedure that starts from material preparation to the finishing
of the fabricated product.
Design analysis
Manufacturing drawing
Planning and monitoring
Supply of raw material
Material preparation Quality control Production

 Cutting  Welding
 Bending  Assembling
Finishing
Final product launch
Marketing
Figure 49: general manufacturing procedure of the milling machine
The following are the various manufacturing processes used in Mechanical Engineering.
114
1. Primary shaping processes.
The processes used for the preliminary shaping of the machine component are known as
primary shaping processes. The common operations used for this process are casting, forging,
extruding, rolling, drawing, bending, shearing, spinning, powder metal forming, squeezing, etc.
2. Machining processes.
The processes used for giving final shape to the machine component, according to planned
dimensions are known as machining processes. The common operations used for this process
are turning, planning, shaping, drilling, boring, reaming, sawing, broaching, milling, grinding,
hobbing, etc.
3. Surface finishing processes.
The processes used to provide a good surface finish for the machine component are known as
surface finishing processes. The common operations used for this process are polishing,
buffing, honing, lapping, abrasive belt grinding, barrel tumbling, electroplating, super
finishing, sherardizing, etc.
4. Joining processes.
The processes used for joining machine components are known as joining processes. The
common operations used for this process are welding, riveting, soldering, brazing, screw
fastening, pressing, sintering, etc.
5. Processes effecting change in properties.
These processes are used to impart certain specific properties to the machine components so as
to make them suitable for particular operations or uses. Such processes are heat treatment, hot-
working, cold-working and shot peening.
Now let’s consider the manufacturing process of the parts briefly:-
5.1.1. Manufacturing process of gear
Gears can be manufactured by a gears can variety of processes including: - casting, forging,
extrusion, powder metallurgy, and blanking.
115
i. Gear forming
In gear form cutting, the cutting edge of the cutting tool has a shape identical with the shape of
the space between the gear teeth. Two machining operations, milling and broaching can be
employed to form cut gear teeth.
Form milling:
In form milling, the cutter called a form cutter travels axially along the length of the gear tooth
at the appropriate depth to produce the gear tooth. After each tooth is cut, the cutter is
withdrawn, the gear blank is rotated, and the cutter proceeds to cut another tooth. The process
continues until all teeth are cut.
Broaching
Broaching can also be used to produce gear teeth and is particularly applicable to internal teeth.
The process is rapid and produces fine surface finish with high dimensional accuracy.
However, because broaches are expensive and a separate broach is required for each size of
gear, this method is suitable mainly for high-quality production.
ii. Gear hobbing

Gear hobbing is a machining process in which gear teeth are progressively generated by a
series of cuts with a helical cutting tool. All motions in hobbing are rotary, and the hob and
gear blank rotate continuously as in two gears meshing until all teeth are cut.
iii. Gear casting
Manufacturing of cast of the gear follows the following procedures:-
 Preparing pattern based on the Designing and drawing

 Preparing the mold
 Casting and cleaning
 Inspection/visual
 Annealing
 Machining
 Making key ways
 Grinding
116
5.1.2. Manufacturing process of roller shaft
Shafts are generally manufactured by hot rolling and finished to size by cold drawing or turning
and grinding. The cold rolled shafts are stronger than hot rolled shafts but with higher residual
stresses. The residual stresses may cause distortion of the shaft when it is machined, especially
when slots or keyways are cut. Shafts of larger diameter are usually forged and turned to size
in a lathe.
i. Rolling
Rolling is a process of producing large reductions of thickness and of forming metal strips into
profiles by passing the metal work piece through rollers. The process can be done either hot or
cold. The large reductions are usually done hot, and the final reductions are generally done cold
in order to produce a better surface finish and closer tolerances.
ii. Drawing
Drawing is a process of reducing the diameter of a wire, bar, or tube by pulling it through a die
of similar cross-section. Drawing is usually done at room temperature; as a result strain
hardening occurs. Since several passes are usually needed to reduce the thickness to the desired
diameter, annealing is often required after two or three passes. Rods up to 6 inches (150mm)
and wires down to 0.001 inch (0.025 mm) are drawn.
5.1.3. Manufacturing process of flywheel
The flywheels of smaller size (up to 600 mm diameter) are casted in one piece. The rim and
hub are joined together by means of web/arm.
The flywheels above 2.5 meter diameter are usually casted in two pieces. Such a flywheel is
known as split flywheel. A split flywheel has the advantage of relieving the shrinkage stresses
in the arms due to unequal rate of cooling of casting.
A flywheel made in two halves should be spilt at the arms rather than between the arms, in
order to obtain better strength of the joint. The two halves of the flywheel are connected by
means of bolts through the hub.
The two halves are also joined at the rim by means of cotter joint or shrink links. The width or
depth of the shrink link is taken as 1.25 to 1.35 times the thickness of link. The slot in the rim
into which the link is inserted is made slightly larger than the size of link.
117
The casting procedure of the fly wheel is the same as the casting of gear the only difference is
on pattern form.
5.1.4. Manufacturing process of handle
The handle levers are manufactured using the casting method followed by machining in order
to increase the surface finish of the handle.
Manufacturing of cast of the cranked handle lever is follows the following procedures:-
 Preparing pattern based on the Designing and drawing

 Preparing the mold
 Casting and cleaning
 Inspection/visual
 Machining
 Grinding
5.1.5. Manufacturing process of the supporting frame
The manufacturing process of the supporting frame is carried out using a number of
machineries like plasma cutting and pantograph cutting machine and grinder followed by
drilling machine.
Grinder and drill machine
 First the frame is cut using a grinder

 Locate the hole location/position
 Drill the holes
 Boring the hole
5.1.6. Manufacturing process of the other parts
♣ The bolt and nut are easily manufactured in a lathe machine.

♣ The keys can be manufactured using grinding and filing easily.
♣ Trash plate is also made using a grinding and filing easily.
5.2. Assembly process
After the parts are manufactured and commercially bought for the standards then assembly is
carried out in the following steps:-
118
 Firstly, only one of the supporting frame held in place on the table top.
 Then, the rolls are inserted in to their respective frame shaft holes after the bearings are
inserted and until the second supporting frame is mounted the rollers are supported
using another external part.
 Later the gears are inserted into the roller shaft.
 After the handle shaft is mounted the other gears and flywheel is fitted.
 Finally the handle is connected
Figure 50: the exploded and collapesed view of the assembly
119
CHAPTER SIX: COST ESTIMATION

6.1. Manufacturing cost
This cost estimation is all about manufacturing cost but the overall cost of the equipment. This
cost estimation is a rough estimation, includes:-
 Design cost
 Manufacturing cost
 Material cost
 Consumable cost
 Machine cost
 Labor cost
 Commercial cost
 Overhead cost
 Transportation cost
 Installation cost
 Inspection cost
 Operating cost
 Maintenance cost
6.1.1. Raw material cost
This is a calculation of how much it spent to buy the required raw materials and this cost is
variable with the current exchange rate.
The cost of the raw material is determined in terms of the kg (mass) of the material we use the
standard raw material cost available in market is:-
 For cast iron is 18 Birr per KG
 For mild steel/low carbon steel is 25 Birr per KG
 For stainless steel is 100 Birr per KG
 For wrought iron is 35 Birr per KG
The kg of the parts is determined using the volume, density relation with the mass.
KG of item = Volume *density
120
Cost of roller shaft:
KG of the roller shaft = 3*KG of top roller + KG of roller shaft
KG of the roller = 3*116.16kg + 15.4kg = 363.88KG
Cost = 363*100 = 36, 300 Birr
Cost of gears:
KG of the gears = 3*KG of the transmission gear + KG of the pinion Gear + KG of

wheel gear
KG of the gears = 3*0.00118Tbm2 + 0.000118Tbm2 + 0.000118Tbm2
KG of the gears = 3*0.00118*80*28.75*(2.5)2 + 0.00118*18*28.75*(2.5)2 +

0.00118*90*28.75*(2.5)2
KG of the gears = 50.9+3.82 + 19.1 = 73.83 KG
Cost = 73.83 * 25 = 1,845.5 Birr
Cost of flywheel
KG of flywheel =
𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌 𝑑2 ∗ 𝐿
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 7800 ∗ (0.025)2 ∗ 0.81
4
𝑤 = 3.1𝑘𝑔
Cost of the fly wheel = 3.1*18 = 55.8Birr
Cost of handle
For handle lever:-

𝜋 2 𝑡 𝜋
𝑤 = 𝜌[ (𝐷2 − 𝐷⁄2 ) 𝑥 + (𝐵 + 𝐵⁄2)𝐿 + 𝑑 2 𝑙]
4 2 4
𝜋 2
0.0152 0.02 0.04 𝜋
𝑤 = 7250[ (0.03 − ) 0.05 + (0.04 + ) 0.03 + 0.0252 ∗ 0.3]
4 2 2 2 4
𝑤 = 3𝑘𝑔
Cost of the handle = 3*35 = 108.5 Birr
121
Cost of bearing
KG of bearing I
𝜋
𝑤 = 2[ (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )𝑡𝜌]
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 2[ (0.0522 − 0.0252 ) ∗ 0.015 ∗ 7800]
4
𝑤 = 0.382𝑘𝑔
KG of bearing II
𝜋
𝑤 = 2[ (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )𝑡𝜌]
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 2 [ (0.12 − 0.0552 ). 021 ∗ 7800]
4
𝑤 = 1.794𝑘𝑔
KG of bearing III
𝜋
𝑤 = 2[ (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )𝑡𝜌]
4
𝜋
𝑤 = 2 [ (0.0752 − 0.0352 ). 017 ∗ 7800]
4
𝑤 = 0.824𝑘𝑔
KG of bearing = KG of bearing I + KG of bearing II + KG of bearing III
KG of bearing = 0.382 + 1.794 + 0.824 = 3 KG
Cost of bearing = 3KG * 25 = 75 Birr
Cost of supporting frame
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝜌𝑡𝐻𝑊
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 7250 ∗ 0.021 ∗ 0.480 ∗ 0.430
𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 31.49𝑘𝑔
𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜌𝑡𝐵𝑊
𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 7250 ∗ 0.025 ∗ 0.08 ∗ 0.430
𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 6.235𝐾𝐺
KG of supporting frame = 𝑊𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
122
KG of supporting frame = 31.49 + 6.24 = 37.73 KG
Cost of supporting frame = 37.73 *18 = 679.14 Birr
Cost of bolt
Number of bolt = 8 bolts
Cost of bolt = 8*12 =96 Birr
The total cost of the raw material purchase is 39,104.14 Birr
6.1.2. Machine and labor cost
Machine cost is roughly taken as a 2% of the material cost
Machine cost = 748.86Birr
Labor cost = 1.25 * 748.86= 936 Birr
Total cost = 39,130 Birr
Therefore;
Overhead cost = 2%
The total cost of the milling machine is about 39,912.6 Birr.
123
Chapter seven: Result and discussion

7.1. Summarization of the design analysis of basic parts
No. Part Objective Constrain Assumption Result
name
1 roller  Diameter  Speed =  Diameter=200 Speed =6rpm
 Length (5-7) rpm mm
 Length =500
mm
2 Top  Diameter  Load  It operates at Diameter =55mm
roller (torsional light shock
shaft and
bending)
 Material
selection
3 Bottom  Diameter  Load  It operates at Diameter=35mm
roller (torsional light shock
shaft and
bending)
 Material
selection
4 Gear  Diameter  Min no.  Pressure  Dia. of wheel=225mm
 Number of of teeth angle=20°  Diameter of
teeth  Hardness  Module=2.5 pinion=45mm
 Width  Material  No. of teeth of the
selection wheel=90
 No. of the gear=18
5 flywhe  Parameters  Material  Factor of  Dia.=300mm
el of the selection safety=8  Thickness of
wheel  Numbers of rim=14.375mm
arms=6  Width of the flywheel
rim=28.75mm
124
6 Handle  Thickness  Human  Length=300mm  Thickness=20mm

 Width power  Diameter=25m  Width=40mm
 Material m
selection
7.2. Milling tandem capacity
The capacity of a train of mills is the quantity of cane which that trains is capable of treating in
unit time. It is generally expressed in tons of cane per hour (TCH.).
The absolute capacity of a mill will depend on many factors, such as:-
 The mill configuration, roll dimensions and number, speed, feeding arrangements and
drive power.
 The mill condition: settings roll surface roughness, chevrons, grooving, drainage, and
hydraulics.
 The quality of the feed material: fiber content, fiber quality, degree of preparation, juice
content, position along the tandem. As has been indicated in the milling model, mill
throughput for a given mill, settings and extraction performance, is essentially
proportional to the fiber content of the cane.
 Personnel and operational control: constant or intermittent/variable.
 The desired extraction / bagasse moisture content: throughput can be increased at the
cost of lower extraction / higher moisture content.
For conventional mills the capacity formula proposed by E. Hugot is:-
0.8𝑐𝑛(1 − 0.06𝑛𝐷)𝐿𝐷2 √𝑁
𝐴= … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
𝑓
Where
A = Mill capacity tonnes cane crushed per hour
f = Fibre per unit of cane
L = Length of roller in m.
D = Diameter of roller in m.
n = Speed of rollers in rpm.
N = Number of rollers in tandem
c = Coefficient for preparation
125
= 1.15 for two sets of knives

Now the mill sugarcane capacity or cane throughput is found using the equation (1), and then
substituting the value of the parameters:-
0.8 ∗ 1.15 ∗ 6(1 − 0.06 ∗ 6 ∗ 0.2) ∗ 0.5(0.2)2 √3

𝐴=
0.13
0.8 ∗ 1.15 ∗ 6(0.928) ∗ 0.5(0.2)2 √3
𝐴=
0.13
0.102445√3
𝐴=
0.13
0.177445
𝐴=
0.13
𝐴 = 1.365𝑡𝑜𝑛/ℎ𝑟
𝐴 = 22.75𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
And the mass flow rate a single cane sugar feed to the roller is:-
𝜋 2
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝑎𝑙 = 𝐷 𝜌𝑙
4
Where, 𝑙 = the length of the cane is feed which is obtained by using the peripheral speed 𝑢 =
3.77𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
So that:- 𝑙 = 3.77𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜌 = Bulk density of the cane sugar 𝜌 = 250𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑑 = Diameter of the cane stalk which is on the range of the 1.25cm to 7.25cm
So that:- 𝑑 = 5𝑐𝑚 = 0.05𝑚
𝜋
𝑚̇ = 𝑑2 𝜌𝑙
4
𝜋
𝑚̇ = (0.05)2 ∗ 250 ∗ 3.77
4
𝑚̇ = 1.85kg/min
Therefore the number of cane sugar feed to the machine in a minute is then:-
𝐴 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝑚̇
𝐴 22.75𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑁∗ = =
𝑚̇ 1.85𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑁 ∗ = 12.3 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠
Therefore, the juice extraction milling machine can extract a 12.3 pieces of 3.77m longer cane
sugar in a minute or 46.371 meter cane.
126
Note: It is possible to extract the juice of sugar cane crushing without peeling using machine
and it can yields sugarcane juice of 400 ml Juice from 1 Kg. cane.
1kg of cane = 400ml juice
1.85kg/min of cane =????
So the machine yields a juice of 74000ml (7.4litre) per minute from a single cane of 3.77m
long.
7.3. General specification of the juice extractor milling machine
Technical specification:
Name: sugar cane juice extractor milling machine
Description: Lightweight, portable, reasonable cost, flexible, durable and hand

operated
Size: 3 roller mill of 200x500mm
Capacity: extracts 7.4litre juice per minute from a single cane of 3,770mm
Operation: cranked handle lever operated
Net Weight: a total weight of 575 KG
7.4. Technical improvements for the future

7.4.1. Milling tandem efficiency calculation
Extraction 𝑬
Extraction is taken to mean the percentage of sucrose extracted from cane in the mills, and
equals sucrose in raw juice as a percentage of sucrose in cane.
The percentage of the sucrose in the original cane that is removed with the raw juice is termed
the "sucrose extraction", E, expressed as a percentage:
𝑚̇𝑆𝑅𝐽
𝐸= ∗ 100
𝑚̇𝑆𝐶
However, if clarifier mud recycling is practiced, the juice contains some recycled sucrose and
the measure is more appropriately defined as
𝑚̇𝑆𝐶 − 𝑚̇𝑆𝐵
𝐸= ∗ 100
𝑚̇𝑆𝐶
127
Where,
𝑚̇𝑆𝑅𝐽 = mass flow of sucrose in the raw juice
𝑚̇𝑆𝐶 = mass flow rate of sucrose in the cane
𝑚̇𝑆𝐵 = mass flow rate of sucrose in the bagasse
"Pol extraction" and "Brix extraction" are similarly defined. In practice, extraction is most
commonly expressed in terms of pol, because pol is more readily measured than sucrose.
The sucrose and pol extraction figures are numerically very close and can, for practical
purposes, be taken as equal. However, Brix extraction differs quite significantly.
From reasonably well-prepared cane, it is usually possible to extract 60% to 75 % of the sucrose
in one conventional mill.
Reduced extraction (𝑬𝒓𝒆𝒅 ),
The sucrose that is not extracted is that which remains in the final bagasse. This can be expected
to be proportional to the mass of bagasse, which is in turn proportional to the fiber content of
the cane - a factor usually beyond the control of the miller. To provide a better measure of
milling performance that eliminates this effect, Noel Deerr devised the performance measure
"reduced extraction":
𝑤′𝐹,𝐶 (100 − 𝐸)(100 − 𝑤𝐹,𝐶 )

𝑬𝒓𝒆𝒅 = 100 −
𝑤𝐹,𝐶 (100 − 𝑤′𝐹,𝐶 )
Where,
𝑤′𝐹,𝐶 = Standard fiber content 𝑤′𝐹,𝐶 = 13 g/100g of cane
𝑤𝐹,𝐶 = Actual fiber content of the cane
Of course the extraction percentage and extraction percentage are found using the above
formula’s however the sucrose content is found practically by measuring the polarization
percent which is obtained by:-
pol. percent
percentage of purity =
brix of total dissolved material
Brix: Measure of dissolved solids in sugar, juice, liquor or syrup using a refractometer,
otherwise referred to as refractometric dry solids. For solutions containing only sugar and
water, Brix = % sugar by mass.
128
7.4.2. Milling performance improvement
The extraction of the milling performance can increase by using a number of milling tandems
however this could be cost rather to improve the efficiency it is best to add a crushing milling
tandem of two rollers that crashes the sugar cane before it enters the main milling machine
tandem.
Figure 51: technical improvement with addition of crusher
129
Chapter Eight: Conclusion and recommendation

8.1. Conclusion
The design of the milling machine components analysis were carried out by considering the
optimum condition of the parameter selection and the final modeling of the machine and detail
manufacturing drawing is done using a CAD which is the solid-work software following these
methodology a simple lightweight, portable, durable and manually operated sugar extraction
machine is launched.
Generally the sugar cane juice extractor milling machine being a s lightweight, portable,
durable and manually operated is primary very important to fulfill the need of the community
for fuel/ethanol production specially in a small community like the community of refugees
because most of them have already a donated stove but they didn’t utilize it due to the lack of
fuel.
In addition the machine is advantageous to provide the juice requirement form sugar cane and
utilizing the cane for these purposes will clean the city from disposal of chawed bagasse, so it
contributes the healthy for the people and also socially it provides an equal distribution of work
among male and female (because most of the time female are more responsible to satisfy the
need for fuel consumption).
Finally, The design of the sugar cane milling machine have been done in a good manner that
can satisfy the above significant, that mines the machine is easily handle lever operated which
makes simple operation and the weight which is about 508.3KG makes the machine lightweight
that helps for ease of portability lastly the material of selection which is the stainless steel
prevents the roller from rusty so it helps for easy processing of the juice during clarification
and fermentation process.
130
8.2. Recommendation
After the design analysis is done and the final product which is the milling machine is launched
the design team recommends the manufactures and the end users on how to manufacture the
parts and how to use the machine respectively.
The design team recommends the manufacture to look for the strength improvement methods
like heat treatment instead of increasing dimensional analysis for allowance to increase strength
for example to increase the strength of the gear and wearing resistance simply by hardening it
can be improved without adding the factor of safety or changing the design parameter.
The design team recommends the end users to make a routine maintenance service like
lubricating of the bearing and cleaning (scraping) of the milling roller groove immediately
because this decrease the traction area (i.e. the friction between the roller and sugar
cane/bagasse which helps extraction). Also the operator should remember that the sugar cane
juice is abrasive, adhesive and rusty.
131
Appendix
Table A- 1 standard proportions of the gear system (Shigley, 2006)
Table A- 2: minimum number of teeth on the pinion gear to avoid interference (Shigley, 2006)
Table A- 3: Spur-gear geometry factors J (Shigley, 2006)
(Source: The graph is from AGMA 218.01, which is consistent with tabular data from the
current AGMA 908-B89. The graph is convenient for design purposes.)
132
Table A- 4: the over load factor 𝐾𝑜 (Shigley, 2006)
133
Table A- 5: the reliability factor 𝐾𝑅 (Shigley, 2006)
Table A- 6: permissible value of the fluctuation of coefficient of speed of flywheel (Shigley,

2006)
134
Table A- 7: the proportional standard dimension of keys (Gupta, 2005)
Table A- 8: recommended minimum weld size (Gupta, 2005)
Table A- 9: allowable/permissible stress for welded joint (Gupta, 2005)
135
Table A- 10: Design dimensions of screw threads, bolts and nuts according to IS: 4218 (Part
III) 1976 (Reaffirmed 1996) (Gupta, 2005)
136
Bibliography
1. Ethiopian investment, a. (2012). investment opportunity profile for sugar cane preparation
and processing in Ethiopia.
2. Gupta, J. (2005). Text book of machine design. New Delhi: Eurasia.
3. HUGOT, E. (1986). Hand book of cane sugar engineering 3rd completely revised edition .
New york: Elesiever .
4. Maejay, M.-O. A. (November 2010). improvemnt of the fabrication and testing of a sugar
cane juice extractor for the cottoge industry. Nigeria.
5. Matt Young, M. B. (December 2007). current issue in ethanol production.
6. Mequanint, H. H. (2012). determining optimum harvest age of sugar cane varieties on newly
establishing sugar project in the tropical arwa of Tendaho,Ethiopia.
7.POLI, C. (August 2001). design for manufacturing . Elsevier science and technology books.
8. Rein, P. (2007). cane sugar engineering . Berlin: Elbe Druckerei Wittenberg.
9. Shigley. (2006). mechanical engineering design 8th edithion. United state of America:
McGrawHill.
10.Ulrich, K. T. (2012). product design and development 5th edition . New York: McGraw-
Hill.
11. Yusof, M. A. (2012). development of prototype sugar cane juice extraction machine
(mechanical). Universti Teknical Malaysia Melka.
137
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Design of sugar cane juice extractor milling machine

TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... iii

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. vi

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1

1.2. Problem statement ........................................................................................................... 2

1.3. Objective ......................................................................................................................... 2

1.3.1. General objective ..................................................................................................... 2

1.3.2. Specific objective ..................................................................................................... 3

1.4. Aim of the project ........................................................................................................... 3

1.5. Significant of the milling machine .................................................................................. 3

1.6. Scope of the milling machine ......................................................................................... 4

1.7. Design methodology ....................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 10

2.1. Description of sugar cane.............................................................................................. 10

2.1.1. Structure of sugar cane stalk .................................................................................. 10

2.1.2. Storage of sugar cane ............................................................................................. 10

2.2. Sugar cane Harvesting .................................................................................................. 11

2.2.1. Sugar cane plantation and processing in Ethiopia ................................................. 12

2.3. Products of sugar cane .................................................................................................. 13

2.3.1. Fuel/ethanol extraction from sugar cane ................................................................ 14

2.4. Processing of sugar cane ............................................................................................... 16

2.4.1. Sugar cane preparation ........................................................................................... 17

2.4.2. Imbibition of the sugar cane .................................................................................. 18

2.4.3. Sugar cane milling machine ................................................................................... 18

2.5. Review of existing sugar cane extractors...................................................................... 18

2.5.1. Conventional sugar cane juice extractor machine ................................................. 19

2.5.2. Modern sugar cane juice extraction machine......................................................... 20

2.5.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Extraction machine ......................................... 21

2.5.4. Another existing extractor machines ..................................................................... 22

2.6. Sugar cane milling machine .......................................................................................... 22

2.6.1. Working principle of the milling machine ............................................................. 23

2.6.2. Sugar cane juice extraction method ....................................................................... 23

2.6.3. Components of the extractor machine ................................................................... 24

CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN CONCEPT AND PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT.................. 25

3.1. Planning process ........................................................................................................... 26

3.1.1. Available opportunity ............................................................................................ 26

3.1.2. Competitive strategy .............................................................................................. 26

3.1.3. Market segmentation .............................................................................................. 26

3.1.4. Allocate Resources and Plan Timing ..................................................................... 26

3.1.5. Vision statement..................................................................................................... 28

3.1.6. Mission statement .................................................................................................. 28

3.2. Concept development.................................................................................................... 30

3.2.1. Identifying customer needs .................................................................................... 30

3.2.2. Concept generation ................................................................................................ 35

3.2.3. Concept selection ................................................................................................... 39

CHAPTER FOUR: DETAIL DESIGN ................................................................................... 43

4.1. Design Specifications.................................................................................................... 43

4.2. Material selection .......................................................................................................... 44

4.3. Forces and loads applied ............................................................................................... 45

4.4. Design of parts of the milling machine ......................................................................... 49

4.4.1. Design of spur gears’ ............................................................................................. 49

4.4.2. Design of roller shafts ............................................................................................ 66

4.4.3. Design of the roller groove .................................................................................... 76

4.4.4. Design of the trash plate ........................................................................................ 79

4.4.5. Design of flywheel ................................................................................................. 81

4.4.6. Design of handle lever ........................................................................................... 89

4.4.7. Design of bearings ................................................................................................. 95

4.4.8. Design of keys........................................................................................................ 99