Bhakti-Sufi Traditions Changes in Religious

Beliefs and Devotional Texts

NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED
l.Explain with examples what historians mean by the integration of cults.
Ans. During the period of the 10th Century to the 17th Century, an important trend noticed in the
religious life in India is the worship of God in many forms. Many God and Goddesses appear in the
scultures and texts but they are various forms of the original deities only. These original deities are
Vishnu, Shiva, and Goddesses Durga, Lakshmi and Parvati.
Historians have noticed the two marked trends in the socio-religious life of those days. The first was
dissemination of the Brahminical ideas. The Brahminical texts were reproduced in simple Sanskrit.
They were now made available to women and shudras, who did not have access to Brahminical
literature by and large. The second was the Brahmins who were working on the beliefs and
practices. It was a process of evolution, wherein traditional classical traditions were getting new
shapes continuously as they were being impacted by the traditions of common people throughout
the land.
Now let us look at the two of the following examples.
1.A very good example of the above description is the temple of Jagannatha at Puri
in Orissa. The temple is of Lord Jagannatha who is another form of Vishnu only. The word
Jagannatha means one who owns the world.
2.There were many local gods; their statues were often created by wood and stones by tribals. Even
families began to have Kul Devata. The Goddeses were also created in wood and stone. They all
were in various forms only often of Vishnu.

2.To what extent do you think the architecture of mosques in the subcontinent reflects a
combination of universal ideals and local traditions?
Ans. With the arrival of Islam in the Medieval ages, the architecture of Islam also came to India.
However, the Arab-cum-Islamic architecture got impacted by the local traditions and rites too.
Hence, we see a fusion of the two. This can be further elaborated by the examples of architecture
mainly the constructions of the mosques of those days.
Some features of the architecture of mosques are universal. All mosques have orientation towards
Mecca. This is manifested in the placement of Mehrab and Minar within a mosque. But at the same
time we have influences that can be described only as local influences. A 13th Century mosque in
Kerala has a shikhar like roof unlike a normal mosque where it is dome. The Shah Hamdan Mosque
in Kashmir is made of Kashmiri woods and its facade is like that of a temple. The Atia Mosque in
Bangladesh is made of bricks, though its roof is round. Thus, we can see that the architecture of
Mosques is that of fusion.

3.What were the similarities and differences between the be-shari‘a and ba-shari‘a sufi traditions?
Ans. Shari’a is the Islamic law that is applied in a truly Islamic country. The Shari’a law owes its
origin to the Holy book of Quran, Hadis (Law book of Islam) and teachings of Prophet Muhammad.
In the medieval ages the Islamic world witnessed a big social and religious movement called Sufi
movement. Sufi movement was the people-centric and not God-centric. It believed serving people
was the real form of worship. Sufi movement has had many branches too. One group of Sufi
preachers took very radical path. They were mystics who renounced material world took to the life
of asceticism. Further they also rejected the supremacy of the Shari’a laws. Such sufis were called
be-shari‘a.
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On the other hand , there were sufi saints who criticised the extravagant lifestyle of monarchs and
Khaliphates but did not reject Shari’a laws. For them Shari’a laws were sacrosant. These Sufi saints
have been called be-shari‘a.

4.Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars and Virashaivas expressed critiques of the
caste system.
Ans. The early Bhakti Movement was led by Alvars and Nayanars. It was the period of the 6th
Century. Alvars are those who were disciples of Vishnu and Nayanars were those who claimed
themselves the followers of Lord Shiva. They travelled place to place and would sing devotional
songs in Tamil in the name of Shiva or Vishnu as the case may be. Apart from being a religious
movement it was a social movement too. Many historians are of the view that Alvars and Nayanars
gave a blow to the caste system and Brahminism. This is corroborated by the fact that the
movement was open to people from diverse background. The Bhaktas came from the castes of
Brahmin to artisans to even those that were considered untouchables.
Virashaivas was a movement of the 12th Century that took place in Karnataka. The movement was
led by a Brahmin named Basavanna (1106-68), who was a minister in the court of Chalukya king.
The followers of Basavanna are called Virashaivas and they worshipped Shiv. They were also called
and perhaps more often Lingayats, which literary means wearer of Lingas. They challenged the
caste system and they challenged the idea of any caste being pollutant. This helped them grow
support among marginalised sections of the society. Virashaivas also attacked some evil practices
supposedly not approved by Shashtras, such as post puberty marriage and remarriage of widows.
Further they also questioned the theory of rebirth.

5.Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or Guru Nanak and the way they have been
transmitted. (or)
Explain the teachings of Guru Nanak. Did he want to establish a new religion?
Ans. Kabir is a great poet-cum-saint of Indian society. He has had appeal among Hindus and
Muslims alike as it is believed that he was bom as Hindu but was brought up by a muslim couple.
He wrote poems that exhorted both communities to take to social reforms.
The major teachings of Kabir were as follows:
1.Kabir described God as nirankar (having no shape). He used the terms drawn from Islamic
tradition like Allah, Khuda, Hajrat and Peer but also used words of Vedic traditions like Alakh ( (the
unseen) and nirakar ( the formless). Thus, he freely took to both traditions viz. Islamic and Vedantic.
2.He repudiated idol worship and polytheism.
3.He emphasised on the oneness of God though there can be many names of His.
4.He criticised religious rituals of hindus and muslims alike.
5.He also preached against caste discrimination.
6.He combined the Sufi traditions of love of God with the Hindi tradition of remembrance of God.
7.He also emphasised the dignity of labour.
Thus, the essence of the teachings of Kabir was simple living based on love and respect all. He
wrote in simple language to be understood by common man of the country.
Guru Nanak and his teachings
Guru Nanak was born in a Hindu family in 1469 at Nankana Saheb on the bank of the river Ravi. His
birth place is now in Pakistan. He learnt Persian, Arabic , Hindi and Mathematics. He spent time in
the company of Sufi saints and Bhaktas of various socio-religious movements.
The major teachings of Guru Nanak are as follows:
1. He rejected the religious texts of both Hindus and Muslims.
2. He preached God is Nirakar viz. without any shape.
3. He criticised the religious practices like ceremonial bath, sacrifices , idol worship and emphasised

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simplicity.
4. He called upon his followers to connect to divine by remembering and repeating the divine name.
Guru Nanak expressed himself in Punjabi, the language of the local people in a lyrical form called
Shabad. Shabad can be recited in various ragas.

6.Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism.

Ans. After the advent of Islam in the early, middle ages , it saw a new movement in later part. The
movement has had great impact and reach in the Indian subcontinent. It is called Sufi movement.
The Sufi saints were mystics. Their preachings included:
1. Sufi saints did not subscribe to the theological and rigid interpretations of religious scriptures of
Islam. They believed that the interpretation have to be based on individual experiences. This way the
theological interpretations became flexible. Further the control of the orthodox religious leaders got
weakened. This was a people centric move.
2. They rejected the high sounding rituals. They also emphasised on simplicity in religious traditions
and rites.
3. Sufi saints prescribed devotion to Almighty as path to salvation. They even approved of singing
and dancing as part of devotion. It is notable that classical Islam has forbidden singing, dancing and
any music.
4. The most important theme of Sufi philosophy was that serving people is the true religion. With the
objective of serving the poor people they also held Langar. Today also one can go to Ajmer and can
partake in the Langar organised on the tomb of Nijammudin Auliya, the great Sufi saint.
5. Sufi saints also emphasised on the equality among people and oneness among all.

7.Examine how and why rulers tried to establish connections with the traditions of the Nayanars
and the sufis.
Ans. Nayanars were the worshippers of Lord Shiva. It gained a shape of powerful Bhakti movement
in South India in 6th Century onwards. Apart from being popular with the people, the movement got
support and patronage of the rulers of the time. This is manifested by the following facts:
1. A major part of South India was ruled by Chola Kings during the period 9th to 13th Century. They
gave great patronage to the Bhakti movement saints including Nayanars. Thus, they did by making
grants of land and constructing temples of Shiva and Vishnu for the saints of Bhakti movement.
2. The most beautiful temples of Shiva of South India, namely, at Chidambaram, Tanjavur and
Gangaikondacholpuram were constructed under the patronage of Chola rulers.
3. During the same period some of the most spectacular representation of Shiva in bronze sculpture
were produced. All this was possible because the rulers patronised the Nayanars.
4. Nayanars had considerable following among farmers.
The rulers tried to establish connections with the Nayanars and this is explained by the aforesaid
description. The reason why they did is not far to seek. One reason could be to bring sanctity to the
their rule. By giving alms to the temple and the preachers of Nayanar sect the rulers also announced
their wealth and might. Next such acts might have endeared the rulers to the masses.
Sufi Tradition and the rulers of Delhi Sultnate and Mughals:
In the 12th Century, Delhi and a considerable part of India fell to the rule of Muslim rulers. This rule is
known as the period of Delhi Sultanate. The rulers of Delhi Sultanate claimed themselves under
Khalifate of Kabul and tried to legitimize their rule. The next step could have been establishing the
rule of Shari‘a laws. However, the rulers realised for the very beginning that it was impractical. Under
the Delhi Sultanate most of the people were not Muslim. Shari’a laws were not feasible also because
lacked flexibity which a ruler needed to govern. The rulers of Delhi Sultanate wanted to take a
practical path of governance without renouncing Islam. Sufi tradition gave them this opportunity.

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The same idea prevailed during the rule of the great Mughals too. Hence the rulers of Delhi
Sultanate and the Mughal empire adopted the tradition of sufism.

8.Analyses, illustrations, why bhakti and sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages in which to
express their opinions.
Ans. In medieval India, though Sanskrit and Persian may be the language of the educated people or
at the court, the vast number of people living in villages conversed in the local languages. It was,
therefore, needed that the Bhakti and Sufi saints preached in the languages of the common people.
This was in fact essential in order to make these movement truly popular.
This is manifested in the following examples:
1. The traditional Bhakti saints composed the hymns in Sanskrit. Such hymns were sung on special
occasions often within temples.
2. The Nayanars and the Alvars were wandering saints. They travelled far and
wide, often walking on foot. They met people in different villages. These saints would sing the verses
in praise of God all in the language of the local people only. The language was Tamil only. These
travelling saints established temples where prayers took place in Tamil and the devotional songs
were composed by the Bhakti Saints.
3. In North India the language was different. Here too the saints took to the language of the
common people. Guru Nanak created Shabad all in Punjabi. Baba Farid and Swami Raidas (Ravidas)
all composed in Punjabi and Hindustani.
4. Kabirdas who lived in Benaras, wrote in local language which was closer to Hindustani. He used
words there part of local dialect.
5. The Sufi tradition of singing on tombs carried on in the language of the local people only. The
shrines were the place of Sama sung in Hindustani or Hindavi. Another Sufi Saint Baba Farid
composed in Punjabi too that even became part of Guru Granth Sahib.
6. Some other saints wrote in Kannada, Tamil and other languages too.
Thus, we are inclined to agree with the view that the Saints of Bhakti and Sufi Movement composed
in many languages and the languages of the common people to connect with them.

9.Read any five of the sources included in this chapter and discuss the social and religious ideas
that are expressed in them.
Ans. The period of the Bhakti Movement and Sufi Movement also has many sources that contribute
to the history of those days. Some of the major social and religious ideas expressed in the various
sources of history are as follows:
1. The first is the architecture. The different types of stupas, temple, monasteries all symbolise
different types of religious belief system and practices. Some of them exist as it is and enable us to
look into the annals of history of those days. Some of them are in the form of ruins but they also
throw light on the, religion and society of those days alike.
2. The next important source of history is the composition of the saints both Bhakti
and Sufi. In terms of content they are religious but they are not the divine textbooks of religion that
are sacrosanct. The compilation throws light on the life of common men and village lifestyle. They
also impact the music and art of those days.
3. Another very important source of the history of those days is the biographies of the Saints. The
biographies include the description of the society and prevalent beliefs and practices. It is notable
that such biographies may not be in the written form still they can give insight into the life of those
days. It is the story prevalent that I when Kabirdas died, both Hindus and Muslims fought for his
dead body later on his body turned into flowers. Some were taken by Muslims and others by Hindus.
This represents that there conflict and collaboration between both Hindus and Muslims of those
days.

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4. This was also the period of rise of religious leaders who were intermediaries between common
men and God. Earlier it was only the Brahmins who got this role. Now many people from other
background also joined in. To some extent it acted as the the force that idolised equality and
fraternity.
5. The other source is the folklore. They are described in our art forms. It may be dance, paintings,
and sculpture and so on. They all talk about the universal brotherhood of mankind and love for one
and all.

10.On an outline map of India, plot three major sufi shrines and three places associated with
temples (one each of a form of Vishnu, Shiva and the goddess.)
Ans.

11.Choose any two of the religious teachers/thinkers/saints mentioned in this chapter, and find
out more about their lives and teachings. Prepare a report about the area and the times in which
they lived, their major ideas, how do we know about them, and why you think they are important?
Ans. Following are the two saints of the Bhakti movement who are described as follows:
Guru Nanak:
Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism and the first of the ten Gurus of the Sikhs, was born in the
village of Talwandi on 15th April, 1469. The village now is known as Nankana Sahib. He belonged to
a Khatri caste. Before Guru Nanak departed for his heavenly abode on 22nd Sept., 1539, his name
had travelled not only throughout India’s north, south, east and west, but also far beyond into Arabia,
Mesopotamia (Iraq), Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Afghanistan, Turkey, Burma and Tibet.
His teachings included:
Equality of humans: Guru Nanak preached against discrimination and prejudices due to race, caste,
status, etc. He said: “See the brotherhood of all mankind as the highest order of Yogis; conquer your
own mind, and conquer the world.”
Universal message for all people: Normally preachers confined their preachings to the men of their
own religion. But Nanak reached out. He spoke to hindus and muslims both and said to all “To take
what rightfully belongs to another is like a muslim eating pork, or a hindu eating beef.”

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Equality of women: Nanak promoted women’s rights and equality—a first for the 15th century! He
asked:
“From woman, man is born; within woman, man is conceived; to woman he is engaged and married.
Woman becomes his friend; through woman, the future generations come. When his woman dies,
he seeks another woman; to woman he is bound. So should why we call her bad?
Namdeo
Saint Namdeo was born in the year 1270 in the village of Narasi-Bamani, now located in the Hingoli
District in Maharashtra. He is a great Saint Poet of Maharashtra. He was one of the earliest writers
who wrote in the Marathi language. He is the foremost proponent of the Bhagwad-Dharma who
reached beyond Maharashtra, right into Punjab. He also wrote some hymns in Hindi and Punjabi,
Namdev travelled through many parts of India, reciting his religious poems. In difficult times, he
played the difficult role of uniting the pendle of Maharashtra spiritually, He is said to have lived for
more than twenty years in the village of Ghuman in the Gurdaspur district of Punjab. The Sikh
brethren in Punjab consider him one.

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