UNIT 4

Building materials: Methods to reduce embodied energy in building materials: (a) Use of local building materials
(b) Use of natural and renewable materials like bamboo, timber, rammed earth, stabilized mud blocks, (c) use of
materials with recycled content such as blended cements, pozzolana cements, fly ash bricks, vitrified tiles, materials
from agro and industrial waste. (d) reuse of waste and salvaged materials
Waste Management: Handling of construction waste materials, separation of household waste, on-site and off-site
organic waste management

Methods to reduce Embodied energy

Embodied energy is one part of a building material’s overall environmental impact.

 reasons to reduce embodied energy

 how embodied energy is measured
 reducing embodied energy

Embodied energy is the total energy required for the extraction, processing, manufacture and
delivery of building materials to the building site. Energy consumption produces CO 2, which
contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, so embodied energy is considered an indicator of the
overall environmental impact of building materials and systems.
Unlike the life cycle assessment, which evaluates all of the impacts over the whole life of a
material or element, embodied energy only considers the front-end aspect of the impact of a
building material. It does not include the operation or disposal of materials.

Why reduce embodied energy?

Energy consumption during manufacture can give an approximate indication of the
environmental impact of the material, and for most building materials, the major environmental
impacts occur during the initial processes.

The total amount of embodied energy may account for 20% of the building’s energy use, so
reducing embodied energy can significantly reduce the overall environmental impact of the
building.

Embodied energy must be considered over the lifespan of a building, and in many situations, a
higher embodied energy building material or system may be justified because it reduces the
operating energy requirements of the building. For example, a durable material with a long
lifespan such as aluminium may be the appropriate material selection despite its high embodied
energy.
 As the energy efficiency of a building increases, reducing the energy consumption, the embodied
energy of the building materials will also become increasingly important.

How is embodied energy measured

Embodied energy is measured as the quantity of non-renewable energy per unit of building
material, component or system. It is expressed in megajoules (MJ) or gigajoules (GJ) per unit
weight (kg or tonne) or area (m2) but the process of calculating embodied energy is complex and
involves numerous sources of data.

Reducing embodied energy

Buildings should be designed and materials selected to balance embodied energy with factors
such as climate, availability of materials and transport costs.

Lightweight building materials often have lower embodied energy than heavyweight materials,
but in some situations, lightweight construction may result in higher energy use. For example,
where heating or cooling requirements are high, this may raise the overall energy use of the
building.

Conversely, for buildings with high heating or cooling requirements but where there is a large
diurnal (day/night) temperature range, heavyweight construction (typically with high embodied
energy) and the inclusion of high levels of insulation can offset the energy use required for the
building.

When selecting building materials, the embodied energy should be considered with respect to:

 the durability of building materials

 how easily materials can be separated
 use of locally sourced materials
 use of recycled materials
 specifying standard sizes of materials
 avoiding waste
 selecting materials that are manufactured using renewable energy sources.
New materials: Reducing building's embodied energy

The construction industry is one of the biggest consumers of energy and raw materials, and a
major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. EU research into innovative new building
materials is helping the industry reduce its carbon footprint

CO2 emissions from making concrete account for a staggering 5% of greenhouse gas emissions
worldwide. Other building materials such as steel, brick and plastic need a lot of energy to
manufacture, and the minerals and ores used in them must all be mined, quarried and drilled for
in energy-intensive processes to extract them from the earth. To tackle this issue, EU research is
being conducted to develop new technologies and materials that minimise what is known as
‘embodied energy’ – the sum of the energy needed to produce a material, including its sourcing
and manufacture – in order to make construction more sustainable. There are many ways that this
can be done, as a raft of EU projects in the field is demonstrating. Concrete, for instance, can be
made partly from secondary raw materials such as municipal solid waste, old plastic and
electrical equipment or polyurethane foam, as one project shows. Concrete may also in
some cases be replaced by bio-composite materials and resins produced from agricultural
waste and feedstock, and the stems of tough plants like flax and jute. New kinds of cement
are being developed, based on low-carbon binders to replace those used traditional
varieties such as Portland. CO2 emissions for the new binders are lower since they use less
calcium, and hence less limestone is needed. A new generation of concrete-based construction
materials based on these binders could reduce embodied energy by 30%, lower costs by
15% and improve insulation properties by 20%. The beauty of these new components is that
they do more than reduce the building industry’s carbon footprint. They are indeed proving to be
cheaper and better performing than, and as strong as, traditional materials – and may be more
fire-resistant, impermeable, provide better noise and heat insulation, and offer a cleaner indoor
air environment due to the absence of volatile compounds.

Inorganic polymers bring insulation to the next level

A new generation of inorganic, insulating and incombustible building materials has been tested
at pilot scale and has shown commercial promise.

The EU-funded LEEMA (Low Embodied Energy Advanced (Novel) Insulation Materials and
Insulating Masonry Components for Energy Efficient Buildings) project, due for final
completion at the end of December 2015, has developed and tested novel inorganic polymer
materials suitable for insulating both new and retrofitted buildings. The objective has been to
offer a sustainable, cost-effective and healthier alternative to traditional insulation materials,
which are sometimes highly combustible, can easily shrink and can contain volatile compounds
that contaminate the indoor building environment.
Use of natural and renewable materials like bamboo, timber

5 of the world's most eco-friendly building materials

A number of hidden factors, including the transportation involved and how they hold up in
certain climates, contribute to materials' eco-friendliness.

Environmental impact is a wide topic that more people and sectors of the economy are paying
attention to when making daily living and business decisions. Information on the issue is
particularly coming to light in the construction industry, which traditionally is known for its
harsh impacts on natural resources and environments.

Numerous eco-friendly building materials have emerged in the marketplace to reduce the
environmental impact of building construction and operations. But identifying the world's most
eco-friendly building materials can be a bit tricky because different people have different
definitions of sustainability.

Embodied energy examines both obvious and hidden factors that contribute to a material's
sustainability or lack thereof. It is "the sum of all the energy required from extracting a material
— like granite or stone or ore out of the ground — all the way until its end of life,".

That includes anything a material requires for growth, production and transportation, including
the water and other resources needed to grow natural items as well as the gas consumed during
product transportation. "People are starting to think about this more and more".

Sustainable construction also takes into consideration a material's appropriateness for the climate
in which it is used. Some materials hold up well in arid, cool environments but degrade in humid,
hot areas. Degradation and replacement frequency need to factor into an item’s overall eco-
friendliness.
"There’s no material that’s perfect," but some are more sustainable than others. "There are some
common characteristics of materials that have low embodied energy," he said, such as being
lightweight and locally sourced.

This is a list of five materials that frequently make experts’ lists of eco-friendly building
components.

Bamboo

Sustainability experts nearly universally agree bamboo is one of the best eco-friendly building
materials on the planet. Its rate of self-generation is incredibly high, with some species growing
up to three feet in 24 hours. Bamboo technically is a perennial grass, not a wood, and it continues
spreading and growing without having to be replanted after harvest. It is prevalent around the
world and can be found on every continent except Europe and Antarctica.

Bamboo has a high strength-to-weight ratio and exceptional durability — even greater
compressive strength than brick or concrete — so it can take a beating without being replaced
very often, which is not necessarily the case with other fast-growing, sustainable items such as
hemp. That makes bamboo a viable choice for flooring and cabinetry.

Because it is lightweight, bamboo is less energy intensive to transport than many other materials
of comparable durability. A drawback is that it requires treatment to resist insects and rot;
untreated bamboo has a starch that insects like, and it can swell and crack when it absorbs water.

Cork

Like bamboo, cork is a fast-growing resource. It earns bonus points for its ability to be harvested
from a living tree that will continue to grow and reproduce cork, which is a tree bark.

Cork is flexible and resilient, reverting to its original shape after sustaining pressure. Its
resilience and resistance to wear make it a common element in floor tiles. Its noise absorption
abilities also make it perfect for insulation sheets, and its shock absorption qualities make it well-
suited for sub-flooring. If left uncoated, cork is naturally fire resistant and it doesn't release toxic
gases when it does burn. This also makes cork a good thermal insulator.

Cork is nearly impermeable so it does not absorb water or rot. Over time however, cork does
become more brittle. Cork loses a few sustainability points because it is primarily found in the
Mediterranean, and shipping cost ends up being a considerable factor. However, cork also is
extremely light so it requires less energy to ship, thus salvaging its embodied energy score.

"There’s no material that’s perfect. There are some common characteristics of materials
that have low embodied energy."

Reclaimed or recycled wood and metal

Aluminum and steel are high embodied energy materials due to the energy required to produce
them, such as mining the ore, heating and shaping products, and transporting a relatively heavy
material. But each time the metal is properly and efficiently reused or recycled into new
products, its embodied energy lowers and makes the material more sustainable because "you're
not extracting raw aluminum,". "If you think of the whole thing like a cycle from the raw
extraction to the processing to the installation to the demolition to the disposal, when you get to
recycling you basically cut out the whole raw extraction and processing."

Recycled metal is a long-lasting material that does not need frequent replacement. It tends not to
burn or warp, making it a viable option for roofing, structural supports and building façades. It's
also water and pest resistant.

Reclaimed metals, such as plumbing components, sometimes can be used in their existing forms
instead of having to be recycled and manufactured into a new product.

Like recycled metal, reclaiming and reusing wood reduces its embodied energy, which
already is lower because of its light weight. Wood does have less strength though, so each
piece's integrity should be assessed and chosen for an appropriate project.

Reclaimed wood can be used for a plethora of building purposes, including structural
framing, flooring, siding and cabinetry. Density varies by the type of wood and some stand
up better over time. However, most wood is susceptible to insects and
degradation, reinforcing the need to thoroughly inspect each reclaimed piece.
Precast concrete slabs

This concrete slab is formed at a manufacturer's site and shipped in whole sections to
construction sites. The outer layers often envelop a lightweight filler, like foam insulation. Other
versions are made entirely of concrete but have large, hollow air spaces, like concrete blocks.
Precast concrete slabs commonly are used for walls and building façades because they hold up
well to all kinds of weather, but certain types can be used for floors and flat roofs, especially roof
decks.

"Concrete is actually pretty good because even though it's heavy, it requires little processing,".
"Its embodied energy is really decent."

Precast concrete slabs’ sustainability factor is even higher than many traditional poured concrete
options because the slabs often take much less energy to produce and assemble. Plus, precasting
concrete provides the opportunity to properly cure the material in a controlled environment,
instead of potentially exposing it to a variety of unfavorable conditions while curing it at a
construction site. Improper curing can lead to cracks and structural faults within the concrete
and, in the worst cases, the need to demolish the new concrete and start over.

Concrete serves as an excellent way to control heat within a building, plus it is a highly
affordable building material.
Sheep’s wool insulation

Unlike the commonly used fiberglass insulation or polyurethane spray foam, sheep’s wool is all
natural. "There's a huge push for alternatives where you can replace something that's synthetic or
processed with something that's natural".

The material doesn't degrade nearly as quickly as other natural insulation materials, like straw.
And compared with some natural insulators like cotton, sheep’s wool is more
prevalent, regenerates faster and can be harvested more easily.

One drawback is that sheep's wool isn't always the most affordable insulator. The material is
"taken up by early adopters who can pay a little more or who are interested in how sustainable
they are. But slowly those [materials] are moving to more mainstream viability".

Sustainability experts raise an important point to consider when seeking eco-friendly building
materials: Incorporating just one material in a limited manner will not render an entire building
project eco-friendly or sustainable.

"All these elements interact with each other" as well as with a building's operating systems like
lighting, heating and cooling. "We usually look at it from a systems-level perspective, not
individual materials," he said. "How do the combination of materials and equipment and
techniques and policies influence the performance and livability of a building?"

"That's the big shift we've seen in the past 10 years in the green building movement, away from
this focus on individual components and toward system thinking, whole building modeling and
importantly, performance tracking".

The use of agricultural waste in concrete industry:

Concrete occupies a particularly important place in the construction industry, being used
frequently and in high amounts, but its production has negative environmental effects, starting
with the extraction of raw materials and finishing with its high embodied energy. This has led
specialists to search new solutions of recipes and technologies for the manufacture of concrete.
The study is aimed at finding new solutions for reducing the use of natural resources (reuse of
waste), as well as fossil fuels, through the wide use of alternative energy sources.

Aggregate substitutes Some natural products and waste resulting from the primary processing
of agricultural products may be used for the manufacture of ecological concrete as aggregate
substitutes.

Sawdust is abundantly available and is used for the manufacture of light concrete, subjected to
moderate strain. Sawdust contains considerable amounts of water soluble impurities that delay
the hydration and setting of the cement paste. In order to neutralize sawdust impurities, physico-
chemical treatments are necessary, which considerably increase the price of concrete. In order to
make sure that auxiliary sawdust materials will not affect the setting of concrete, sawdust can be
pretreated by water soaking and washing before mixing, with the addition of calcium oxide or a
magnesium oxide and dolomite powder mixture.

Rice husks can be used as an aggregate for the production of concrete blocks and prefabricated
elements for floors. The rice husk contains a relatively small amount of water soluble impurities
compared to sawdust and has a low bulk density, 100 – 150 kg/m3. The apparent density of rice
husk concrete is about 600 kg/m3 or higher, depending on the proportion of husks, cement and
the degree of compaction. Compressive strength is between 3 and 12 N/mm2.

Coconut kernel is waste in the form of granules and dust resulting from the separation of the
coconut fruit from the husk. In this way, large amounts of kernel are obtained, which can be used
as a light aggregate in concrete. Storage in a wet state destroys the active ingredients from the
kernel by solubilization and bacterial action. The melted kernel obtained as waste in coconut
fiber industry has a mild reactivity with Portland cement. The bulk density of coconut kernel
granules ranges between 80 and 90 kg/m3 and the resulting concrete has densities ranging
between 432 and 768 kg/m3. The concrete obtained using coconut kernel has a low thermal
conductivity, varying between 0.052 and 0.110 W/mK, which makes it adequate for thermal
insulation. The small fissures resulting in concrete prepared in this way, due to contraction
during drying, can be repaired without significantly affecting its thermal insulating properties.

Cork granules resulting from packages can be used to produce light concrete. Depending on the
proportion of cement and the amount of cork granules, compressive strengths varying between
4.2 and 12.0 N/mm2 for an apparent density of 475 up to 890 kg/m3 were obtained. Cork granule
concrete can be used to replace earth fillings above buried pipes, for embankments adjacent to
water retention constructions, sound proofing screens, etc

Portland cement substitutes – rice husk ash: The reduction of Portland cement production
would result in a significant reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The waste used as cement
replacement additions consists of minerals in the form of fine powder derived from other
production processes. In combination with water, these have the property to set and harden very
slowly, which is significantly accelerated by the presence of cement. As cementitious additions,
besides power station ash and some types of blast furnace slag, rice husk ash can also be
successfully used. Rice husk ash can partially replace Portland cement in the composition of
concrete. 85% up to 97% of rice husk ash is amorphous silicon, whose reactivity depends on the
burning process used. The quality of the rice husk ash depends on the burning temperature, the
duration of burning, the air supply requirement during burning, the cooling rate of the resulting
hot ash, and the grinding time. From a cement mixture containing 20% rice husk ash and 80%
cement, a mortar with a compressive strength of 61.3 N/mm2 at 28 days was produced, compared
to 43.6 N/mm2 for standard mortar, without rice husk ash addition. Interestingly, even when the
mixture contained up to 70% rice husk ash, the mortar produced was more resistant than standard
mortar, regardless of duration.
UTILIZATION OF RECYCLED WASTE AS IN-GRADIENTS IN CONCRETE MIX :

Laboratory experimentation was carried out to analyze the performance of M25 concrete made
by partially replacing aggregates with waste materials like construction debris, PVC scrap and
leather waste. The resultant concrete was tested for parameters like weight, compressive
strength, slump and workability and compared with conventional plain cement concrete. It has
been observed that the use of waste materials results in the formation of light weight concrete.
There is a considerable increase in the compressive strength of concrete when the coarse
aggregates are fully or partially replaced with construction debris. However a minor reduction in
workability of the concrete mix was observed. When the coarse aggregates were replaced
with PVC scrap in small percentage by weight, the resultant concrete shows fair value of
compressive strength and the workability. But with the partial introduction of leather
waste in place of sand in concrete, the concrete passed workability test but it failed completely
in compressive strength test and gave almost zero strength. Hence, except leather waste other
materials like construction debris and PVC scrap performed well as full or partial replacement
for concrete aggregates and can find suitable application in construction industry as alternative to
conventional materials. Uses of such waste materials will not only cut down the cost of
construction, but will also contribute in safe disposal of waste materials. Apart from the
environmental benefits, the addition of such wastes, also improves certain properties of resultant
concrete. In table, the mix proportions are considered for further tests. We have calculated their
embodied energy for each mix and try to find out best mix proportion for green building
material. After calculating the embodied energy for each mix, we can consider that mix no 4
have less embodied energy compare with other. And remaining results which are given in
research paper shows that mix no 4 is superior to other mix
WASTE MANAGEMENT:
Construction and demolition (C&D) materials are generated when new building and civil-
engineering structures are built and when existing buildings and civil-engineering structures are
renovated or demolished (including deconstruction activities). Civil-engineering structures
include public works projects, such as streets and highways, bridges, utility plants, piers, and
dams.
C&D materials often contain bulky, heavy materials such as:

 Concrete
 Wood (from buildings)
 Asphalt (from roads and roofing shingles)
 Gypsum (the main component of drywall)
 Metals
 Bricks
 Glass
 Plastics
 Salvaged building components (doors, windows, and plumbing fixtures)
 Trees, stumps, earth, and rock from clearing sites

Benefits of construction waste management / recycling

Environmentally Sustainable -preserves natural resources, landfill capacity, energy consumption

Reduces Construction Costs - 60% to 80% landfill disposal fee avoidance

Improves Safety & Workmanship -materials collection, shrinkage, reuse of waste

TYPES OF WASTES DIGESTION

Following are the types of digestion of wastes,

 Aerobic Digestion: A treatment that break down biodegradable waste in the presence of
oxygen, producing a renewable energy (biogas) that can be used to generates electricity and heat.
It has been successfully used in several European and Asian countries to stabilize food wastes
and to provide beneficial end products.

1. Composting

2. Compostable Bags

 Anaerobic Digestion: A treatment that breaks down biodegradable waste in the absence of
oxygen, producing a renewable energy (biogas) that can be used to generates electricity and heat.
It has been successfully used in several European and Asian countries to stabilize food wastes
and to provide beneficial end products.
SEGREGATION OF WASTE AT SOURCE Waste segregation at source will reduce the
segregation load at dumping yard. Green building certification agency proposed to segregate the
waste as Degradable and Non degradable waste. Kitchen waste comes under the degradable
waste. Depending on the calorie content of kitchen waste energy can be generated from the waste
using various techniques.

TREATMENT AND DUMPING OF SOLID WASTE The main objective of treatment and
disposal is to clear waste from the disposal site in an environment friendly manner with little/
non serious implication on the health and hygiene of the micro and macro environment. The
urban local bodies have generally adopted dumping as method of the disposal of the waste as on
today. Currently the waste is not treated in systematic and scientific manner. As a result the
whole area in and around the disposal site has become unhygienic and posing serious threat to
the public health.

On-site and off-site organic waste management

JOBSITE SORTING
Efficient identification and sorting of materials is an important factor in managing the economic
viability of diverting construction debris from disposal. Jobsite protocols are identified in
contracts and subcontracts, and implemented at the project level by superintendents and project
managers. Superintendents and project managers utilize project specifications prepared by
architects and engineers for information on diversion target rates, and general performance
requirements. Building owners and contractors may have corporate guidelines and policies which
improve upon project specific requirements. Materials may be sorted into a number of containers
provided by service companies that specialize in management of specific types of waste at the
jobsite. Generally the least number of containers is desirable both to keep container volumes
high to reduce transportation trips and costs, and to keep the jobsite clear of obstructions.

COLLECTION AND HAULING

Containers containing construction and demolition waste are collected and transported to
diversion facilities via truck. Light and medium duty trucks are most commonly used for this
purpose in the US and Canada. Trucks and containers of various types are mated to allow for
maneuverability and modular interoperability.

TIPPING
Identification of loads on arrival at construction and demolition debris diversion facilities is an
important step in ensuring materials are appropriately handled. Facility management plans
typically describe materials that can be accepted. Loads which contain materials that are not
accepted may be turned away, in which case the materials likely will be disposed in a sanitary
landfill. The four hazardous waste characteristics are: corrosivity, ignitability, reactivity, and
toxicity.
PICKING
Materials are typically handled with equipment specifically designed to support heavy loads and
resist abrasion. Materials are discharged from containers onto a tipping or receiving floor,
usually beneath a roof cover or inside an industrial building. Once on the floor, a wheel loader
operator will stockpile materials which will be picked through with a hydraulic excavator or a
grapple. Materials such as steel reinforcing bar, carpeting, large pieces of wood, concrete and
materials with dimensions greater than 3 feet are usually picked before the sorting process can
begin in earnest.

SORTING
Sorting generally involves loading materials onto an inclined metal belt—a chainbelt—and
passed across a manual sortline consisting of a flexible rubber belt and integral sort stations
providing a place for several workers to stand, usually opposite from one another down the
length of the belt. Materials are identified, grabbed, and deposited in vertical openings at each
sort station. The effectiveness of the manual sort line is largely determined by the performance of
the picking operation which precedes it; for example large materials on the belt can be difficult
to manage and or obstruct recoverable materials passing by on the belt beneath.

CONTAINERIZATION AND TRANSPORT

Picked and sorted materials are deposited by means of equipment and manual labor into
industrial containers of various types. Combination compactor-balers are used in some
applications to produce dense bales of materials which are then loaded into intermodal shipping
containers for transport. Heavy interstate trucks are an important part of the transportation
system. Containers of all types are destined for transport locally, regionally, nationally and
internationally via road, rail, or barge via intermodal facilities such as railyards and ports. Once
containerized, recyclable materials are commoditized and traded in the global marketplace.

DIVERSION OR DISPOSAL
Diverted materials are destined for incorporation in new products as recycled material, or are
processed for reuse. Materials destined for disposal in landfills include refuse, materials
contaminated with waste or which have been ruined, and materials for which markets do not
exist.

G. Prevalence of Common Materials

Constituent proportions of materials culled and sorted in the construction and demolition waste
stream shows a high degree of correlation with local priorities and economic trends at a given
time. For example, communities with a preponderance of 19th century buildings and undergoing
gentrification tend to have a larger proportion of masonry waste as contrasted with a suburban
neighborhood undergoing renovations and additions to lightly-built wood frame structures.
Diversion performance over a two year period (2009-10) processing 20,000 tons of construction
and demolition waste generated in an urban area in the US (2010) demonstrates the following
proportions:
Ferrous and non-ferrous metal—9%: Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are among the most
valuable materials in the construction and demolition waste stream. Ferrous metals are extracted
from bits of concrete with hydraulic excavating equipment, and deposited into containers. Small
bits of ferrous metal are collected with electromagnets positioned over the sortline belt, and
grabbed manually. Non-ferrous metals, predominantly aluminum, are collected with a reverse
magnet known as an Eddy current separator, and grabbed manually. Metals consistently
demonstrate the highest diversion rate of all the recoverable materials.

Cardboard and Paper—3%: Cardboard and paper recovered from construction and demolition
debris waste have value as recyclable materials, however are generally of a lower grade than
cardboard collected at curbside, as a result of consequential exposure to water, and
contamination with dusts. Cardboard and paper are usually baled for economical transport to
paper and cardboard mills.

Plastic—1%: Post-consumer plastics 1 (PET) & 2 (HDPE) are valuable commodities. Plastics 3
through 7 are generally recyclable but have less value. Generally plastics are not recycled into
material of the same type and grade (downcycled). PET is readily converted into a wide variety
of products. HDPE is downcycled into plastic lumber, trash receptacles, etc. Plastic film is a
nuisance material that impedes efficient picking and sorting of all other materials. When prices
of the recycled commodities are low, plastic materials may be exported and or combusted for
their energy-producing potential. Plastic may be granulated or chopped into flakes and placed in
industrial tote bags for transport.

01: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

02: High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
03: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
04: Low-density polyethylene (PE-LD)
05: Polypropylene (PP)
06: Polystyrene (PS)
07: Other (O)

Wood—30%: Wood is a predominant material for waste streams in North America, and is highly
useful in a wide variety of industrial processes including manufacturing of high recycled content
products. Wood is a valuable commodity and merits diversion. Wood waste can also be
processed to make feedstock for biomass and combined heat and power plants.

Concrete—5%: Concrete is crushed, and embedded metals removed for recycling. Rock and
cement pieces are crushed, screened and separated to produce useful aggregates of various
dimensions. It is advisable to characterize painted concrete and concrete which has been
contaminated with wastes before recycling.

Industrial Waste Stabilizer (IWS)—25%: IWS is a form of diversion or disposal in some parts of
North America whereby materials with no economic value between 0.75 to 8 inches dimension
are disposed in industrial waste landfills, to promote physical stabilization of the landfill.
Gravel, aggregate and fines—20%: Gravel, small stones, concrete chips and similar materials
can be diverted from disposal with trommel screens positioned before the inclined chain belt, or
debris roll screens positioned at the end of the sortline belt.

Disposal as refuse—5%: Refuse passes off the end of the sortline belt. Generally the proportion
of refuse should be less than 10%.

Window glass—0.15%: Window glass is a nuisance material with a nominal value as a

recyclable commodity. Its relatively high weight per volume is a factor in restricting economical
transport. Window glass usually ends up in a landfill unless a recycler is located in the vicinity of
the diversion facility.

Carpeting—0.85%: Diversion of carpet from the landfill is very significant in reducing

greenhouse gas emissions associated with manufacture of new carpet. Carpeting is a nuisance
material in the picking and sorting process, complicating the efficient recovery of materials with
higher values. Carpeting is generally picked from stockpiles on the receiving floor, and deposited
in containers for transport to manufacturers who can make use of the fiber materials to make new
products.

Drywall—3%: Drywall is 100% recyclable. Gypsum is a nuisance material in picking and

sorting operations, producing dust which discomforts labor, and reduces the value of recyclable
materials through contamination. Gypsum may be incorporated into new drywall, or used as a
soil amendment.

Asphalt roofing—5%: Asphalt roofing shingles may be ground, sized and graded for remelting in
asphalt paving applications, road base, new roofing, and fuel oil. Asphalt shingles consist of felt
saturated with asphalt, and with mineral stabilizers and rock granules added. Asphalt constitutes
20 to 35% of the product weight. Contaminants including metal items and any wood waste must
be removed.

Usually destined for other facilities: Appliances, equipment, tires, electronics, plumbing fixtures,
asphalt, non-ferrous materials including copper, brass and stainless steel, land clearing debris.
These materials may have value in secondary markets when one is available, or require special
handling and management such as is the case with tires and appliances. Tires must be shredded
in order to reduce the likelihood of being disposed of in unmanaged tire landfills. Appliances
may contain refrigerants and other materials which pose environmental hazards.
Usually destined for reuse: Doors, windows, hardware: these materials often have value in a
secondary market when one is available.
Nuisance materials: Sheet plastic, carpeting, drywall each require specific handling procedures
to promote efficient handling of the rest of the waste stream. When commingled with other
construction and demolition waste, these materials are generally picked with hydraulic
excavating equipment or grapples—a costly and time-consuming process - before the bulk of
waste is loaded onto a chainbelt and passed across a manual sort line.
JOBSITE WASTE REDUCTION
There are a variety of ways a Contractor can divert construction waste or demolition debris at the
jobsite. The following general practices are common:

1. Up to 10-12% of a project's construction waste stream can be cardboard alone. While

protecting new materials is necessary, the Contractor can direct their subcontractors and
suppliers to reduce extraneous packing and packing.
o Purchase materials in bulk where possible. Avoid individual packaging for
volume purchases.
o Use returnable containers and packing materials
o Reuse non-returnable containers on the jobsite to the maximum extent possible.
Develop one-hundred-and-one-uses for plastic barrels, buckets, and tubs.
o Give away non-returnable containers. Contact local and community organizations
(schools, youth groups, community service groups, Habitat for Humanity, others
similar).
2. Use scrap in lieu of cutting full new materials. Direct subcontractors and trades to collect
and keep scrap at cutting and fabricating locations. Collect paints and liquids from
almost-empty containers; avoid disposing of useable materials simply because there is
not enough in one container to finish a job.
3. For materials that are heated, mixed, exposed to environmental conditions, or otherwise
subject to spoilage, limit preparation of these materials to quantities which can be
installed within their expiration times. Working in smaller batches will reduce the
necessity to throw out expired or spoiled materials. Ensure volatile materials, and
materials that degrade when exposed to heat, cold, or moisture are protected from
spoilage and are not wasted.
4. Recycle damaged components, products, and materials, or disassemble them into their
constituent materials for recycling.
5. Establish a return or buy-back arrangement with suppliers. Alternatively, unused, or used
but serviceable materials and products can be sold to architectural salvage or used
materials retail outlets. Donations to a non-profit outlet, such as a Habitat for Humanity
(HfH) ReStore, are usually tax-deductible.

C&D recycling pick line

6. The Contractor may contract with a C&D recycling firm who accepts commingled debris.
At the recycling site, concrete and masonry rubble are separated out of the debris for
crushing into aggregate products. The remaining debris is typically crushed or shredded,
then conveyed along a pick line for sorting and recycling. Recycling commingled debris
 and waste off-site requires virtually no adjustment in practice on the Contractor's part.
C&D waste recyclers generally describe their fees as "competitive" with landfill disposal,
which means a modest savings over prevailing landfill tipping fees. This method
typically achieves a very high diversion rate. However, clean wood is frequently sold for
boiler fuel, and some agencies do not allow incineration to be counted as diversion.
7. The Contractor may contract with individual recycling firms who deal in specific
materials, in addition to a general waste hauler. This requires the Contractor,
subcontractors and tradespersons to segregate waste, deposit it in the appropriate
receptacles, and guard against contamination by other materials. The key to effective
jobsite segregation is to place receptacles in the path of least resistance to the workforce,
training the workforce to observe segregation practices, and policing the jobsite to
prevent contamination. The construction process lends itself to on-site segregation. As
trades enter and leave the jobsite, each generates a relatively homogeneous waste stream,
given the specific tasks and the materials with which they work. As the recyclable
materials are segregated, the recycling firms generally offer a higher price for the
material (if the contractor hauls), or a lower hauling rate (if the recycler hauls).
Alternatively, the Contractor can contract with a waste hauler who provides receptacles
for recyclable materials and debris, and hauls all materials as a one-stop service. While
some contend site separation increases the cost of construction, efficient materials
movement and site layout should minimize any increased effort.

"Wood only" receptacle

"Metals only" receptacle with steel deck trimmings

8. The waste diversion potential in a demolition scenario is considerable. The building's

construction type and project schedule are the two primary factors in determining what
and how salvage, reuse, and/or recycling can be accomplished. Consider the following:
o Develop the project schedule to accommodate salvage, reuse, or recycling. The
quality and quantity of materials salvaged is a direct function to the time available
for salvage.
o Prior to demolition, salvage as much useable material and components as the
schedule will allow. Windows and doors, wood flooring, cabinetry, architectural
millwork, electrical fixtures, plumbing fixtures, mechanical equipment …
anything that can be detached and removed … can be usually be salvaged and
reused. When developing the C&D Waste Management Plan, identify the most
 accessible and valuable materials, thereby optimizing the application of resources
to this task.
o Concrete and masonry materials can be recycled to produce aggregate. This may
be accomplished on-site with mobile equipment, or rubble can be hauled to a
permanent recycling facility. Preferences vary among demolition contractors and
recyclers about whether the building should be gutted prior to demolition, leaving
only concrete and reinforcing to be crushed, or demolished intact, and the debris
sorted as part of the concrete crushing process. Consider how the recycled
concrete aggregate (RCA) will be used, what RCA products are most useable, and
how the rubble should be processed to produce these products. If aggregate
materials are required for the project, on-site recycling can provide these materials
at a reduced net cost. The Construction Materials Recycling Association (CMRA)
can provide information on methods and service providers.
o Landscape materials and wood that is not painted with lead-based paint, treated
with an arsenic-based preservative, or otherwise contaminated with a hazardous
or toxic material can be shredded into mulch, composted, or chipped for boiler
fuel. This can be accomplished on-site or off-site. If mulch or compost is required
for the project, shredding on-site can provide these materials at a reduced net cost.
o Structural steel and metals are almost universally recycled. This should be
standard practice with any demolition contractor.
o Old growth timber is a valuable material and will usually justify the time required
for a more delicate removal process. Timbers are generally sold through timber
brokers to be cleaned and resold for timber framing, or as feedstock for high
quality architectural millwork.
o Some species of dimensional lumber can also be quite valuable. Wood framed
buildings can be partially or totally deconstructed. While this is often a more labor
intensive approach, cost avoidance and the value of the materials can offset initial
cost. The Building Materials Reuse Association (BMRA) can provide information
on deconstruction contractors and used building materials retail businesses.
o If none of the alternative salvage, reuse, or recycling options are possible, mixed
demolition debris can be hauled to a C&D debris recycling facility, as described
above.

Segregated piles
Concrete recycling
Wood building deconstruction
Salvaged lumber at the jobsite