Influencing Factors of Cost Control and Environmental Sustainability in Saudi Arabia For Low-Rise Building Construction
Influencing Factors of Cost Control and Environmental Sustainability in Saudi Arabia For Low-Rise Building Construction
Influencing Factors of Cost Control and Environmental Sustainability in Saudi Arabia For Low-Rise Building Construction
Abstract Keywords:
Several elements contribute to the environmental effect of building Energy efficiency;
construction, and many stakeholders share responsibility for these Building construction;
issues. Architects and engineers have a considerable interest in the Cost effectiveness;
design of the materials and building methods because they are vital in Environmental;
the creation of a design. The environmental effect of various building Sustainability.
construction materials should be evaluated to select environmentally
friendly building materials. The environmental effect of life cycle of a
material comprises not only the energy used in its production but also
emissions released into the environment at each stage of production.
Embodied energy is one way of measuring construction and recycling
environmental impact and the effectiveness of CO2 emissions. The
use of indigenous and local construction materials together with
energy-saving and environmentally friendly alternatives, including
different forms, construction, and management techniques, reduces
needless spending by cutting down on construction expenses. This
study focuses on developing a comprehensive and integrated
approach to environmental sustainability and cost control in low-rise
building construction in Saudi Arabia and some other Arab countries
by using alternative construction and management techniques and
environmentally friendly and energy-efficient innovative materials.
Multiple design alternatives, which utilize appropriate cost effective
building materials, consider the physical environment, utilize methods
of industrialization, and incorporate cost effective construction
techniques, are discussed.
1 Introduction
The housing market is becoming more unaffordable for a substantial number of individuals.
Every nation in the world today has a pressing need for low-cost housing and the capacity to maintain
civilization without damaging the environment. Alternatives to traditional techniques and inputs, such
as the use of locally sourced and indigenous building materials with energy-saving and
environmentally friendly choices, alternative forms, and alternative construction and management
practices, may reduce wasteful spending on construction [1].
The term “sustainability” relates to the concept of anything being maintained or supported
throughout time. Specifically, the earth’s carrying capacity is the earth’s ability to support life and
rejuvenate at the same time [2]. All development efforts should focus on sustainable development as
outlined in the Rio Declaration (1992). According to the Montreal Protocol (1985), signatory nations
are committed to limiting emissions of chemicals that degrade the ozone layer, as well as greenhouse
gas emissions (1997). Housing and life-support systems are the most pressing material needs in
Saudi Arabia and the rest of the world today, and they play a critical part in the evolution of civilization.
About 17 % of the world’s freshwater is used in building construction and operation, as is 25 % of the
world’s forest, and 40 % of all material and energy flows. This situation significantly negatively
influences water storages, air quality, and travel routes. Nearly 25 % of all CFCs and nearly 40 % of
© Author(s) 2022. This work is distributed under the Creative Commons BY 4.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Civil and Environmental Engineering Vol. 18, Issue 2, 408-423
worldwide CO2 emissions are attributed to the construction of the built environment. The future
generations will face more difficult times if current tendencies are not reversed, which makes
environmental preservation a pressing issue now.
One of the most important aspects influencing the environmental effect of building construction
is a multitude of different factors [2]. However, designers (architects and engineers) have a critical role
to play in the process given that the materials and building methods they choose are so critical.
Notably, the important considerations are not only the material and the other elements that perform
with it but also on the way they are installed, maintenance requirements, and system longevity. The
distance between where they are purchased and construction site and other factors also play a role in
the environmental impact of building materials. A rigorous life cycle analysis (LCA) is required for the
selection of materials or construction systems, Fig. 1, [2-5]. Aside from the obvious considerations of
cost and aesthetics, additional considerations that significantly affect material choice include the
capacity to build structures quickly, the strength and longevity of the materials, environmental issues,
cost, and social concerns such as thermal comfort and good interior (aesthetic). Integrating
environmental, economic, social, and cultural aspects gives a holistic view of a material, which allows
for a multi-criteria decision-making technique to be used when choosing materials for structures.
The embodied energy of a substance and the emissions released to the environment over the
life cycle of that material are the two most important environmental impacts. An important
environmental measure for comparing materials and goods is the amount of embodied energy they
contain. At each stage of the production process (from raw material extraction to finished product
assembly), energy is utilized to measure the amount of energy used. Transporting raw materials to the
production and completed goods from there to the customer also uses energy. Several ways can be
used to quantify the environmental impact of building on the environment, including CO2 emissions [6].
Embodied energy is one of these measures. Rapid building approaches are being offered by some
businesses, such as precast RCC or steel frames with lightweight infill and cladding. Although they
have a speed advantage, they are costlier and have significantly greater carbon footprints than
traditional home building. Seventy percent of the carbon is accounted for by the primary structural
support system and walling materials [7].
In an earlier study by Churkina et al. [8], high-rise, heavy-duty urban buildings constructed of
concrete and steel, produced from raw materials and fuels extracted from deeper layers of the earth’s
crust, and with intense energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions were compared with cities
built from other materials, Fig. 2. Vital such as timber and bamboo can serve as manufactured carbon
sinks. Storing and maintaining carbon in densely constructed carbon pools will help replenish
terrestrial carbon stocks, which reduces current levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and
offsetting future emissions.
Engineers and scientists are always finding better ways to manage resources to create a more
sustainable lifestyle and equal access to a good standard of living for everyone. A civil engineer’s
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main goal is to build a home that is low cost and efficient in its use of resources. In the long run,
proper planning and design may save money and generate a superior result. One of the most
important aspects of a sustainable low-cost home design is that it uses resources (e.g., raw materials,
labor, and equipment) as efficiently as possible while still minimizing its financial and environmental
effect.
2 Literature review
Studies on energy efficiency, environmental sustainability, and building construction cost-
effectiveness have been conducted in recent years. An economic cost-benefit model was presented
by Rysanek and Choudhary [9] as part of a comprehensive approach to modifying building energy
models. Building systems, weather conditions, schedules, occupancy patterns, and other factors were
all considered when Jradi et al. [10] established a holistic energy model for Danish nonresidential and
public building energy renovations. Dotzler et al. [11] undertook a project to create automated tools for
the inventory and assessment of buildings in the tertiary sector with diverse uses and construction
features as a way to assist decision makers in the process of energy retrofitting.
Numerous past studies have noted problems or concerns with the current state of Saudi
Arabian residential buildings in terms of sustainability and resilience. Some recent studies have
focused on the assessment of environmentally sustainable domestic building materials in Saudi Arabia
(e.g., Almulhim et al. [12]). Almulhim et al. [12] found that the carbon footprint of construction materials
may be decreased by around 23 % by substituting powdered fly ash or crushed granulated blast
furnace slag for a part of cement. Furthermore, the researchers concluded that a 19 % decrease in
yearly cooling and heating energy consumption was also accomplished over the building’s lifetime.
Abd-ur-Rehman et al. [13] investigated several energy saving strategies and clean energy usage
potential for Saudi Arabian residential structures. The authors discovered that the energy performance
of the system is improved (IECC) by adding the design criteria of the International Energy
Conservation Code into simulation programs. The IECC standardized building uses 56 % less energy
for space cooling, 37 % less for space heating, 46 % less for lighting, and 27 % less for appliances
according to the optimized findings. Stevulova and Junak [14] developed green building materials by
incorporating an alternative binder (AB) into a bio-aggregate-based composite. The authors present
technical important parameters (density, thermal conductivity, water absorption, and compressive
strength) of 28, 60, and 90 day hardened green composites containing chemically and
physicochemically modified hemp hurds (HH) with AB compared to Portland cement (PC). The authors
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discovered that bio-composites with original HH confirmed higher values of compressive strength and
thermal conductivity, whereas water absorption was lower for all hardened specimens based on
alternative binder (MgO-cement) compared to conventional PC. DĘBSKA [15] conducted a work that
measures the user satisfaction of the intelligent building in terms of evaluating the internal
environment in the intelligent building, and it was discovered that a temperature range of 19.3 °C to
27.6 °C is acceptable and comfortable for nearly 78 %. Following further investigation, it was
discovered that the research group prefers and feels better in cold temperatures.
In summary, the literature primarily focuses on nonresidential buildings, and a clear vision for
developing a comprehensive and integrated approach to environmental sustainability and cost control
in building construction is lacking. Thus, the present study aims to develop a comprehensive and
integrated approach for environmental sustainability and cost control in low-rise building construction
in Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries by utilizing alternative construction and management
techniques and environmentally friendly and energy-efficient innovative materials. Various design
alternatives are discussed, including the use of appropriate and cost-effective building materials,
consideration of the physical environment, manufacturing methods, and the incorporation of cost-
effective building techniques.
3 Research methodology
Multiple design options should be synthesized to consider the genuine needs of the people, use
suitable and cost-effective building materials, regard the physical surroundings, utilize industrialization
technologies, and combine cost-effective construction procedures. Alternative designs may be
evaluated on the basis of life cycle costs, materials’ life cycles, and design usefulness and familiarity.
Design parameters may be altered and re-evaluated to improve the system’s performance, and this
process should be repeated until the desired result is achieved. The following three major components
may be considered in the process: (i) Architectural Planning; (ii) Alternate Materials, Methods, and
Forms; and (iii) Construction Planning and Management.
The coverage of all of the three components mentioned above would result in diversity. The
project would mainly focus on the second component, whereas guidelines for the remaining two
components would be formulated that would help in achieving the objectives of sustainability and cost
control in building construction. The three components mentioned above are closely linked and have
been considered for completeness.
humanity to achieve environmental, social, and economic sustainability and thus improve life in a way
that allows others to meet their needs in the present and future. Successful sustainable design
necessitates a change in thinking about the current quo and how to bring things together and operate
harmoniously, and if the sustainable design process could only have one term, then it would be holistic
design. The concept of sustainable environmental urbanization is based on the principle that the
human person is at the core of the interaction among the environment, economics, and sociology. The
goal of sustainable design is to establish a management system that is based on the effective use of
environmental resources in such a manner that the negative effects on interior spaces are codified via
the efficient use of energy and resources. Traditional aesthetics (e.g. sizes, proportions, scales,
texture, shadow, and light) with long-term environmental, economic, and human consequences.
In this section, a set of criteria that are consistent with the principles of sustainability and that
can be worked on for the design of sustainable housing will be reviewed, including many engineering
points, materials selection systems, and human design that have previously been overlooked by most
studies in the field of sustainable design.
Some studies have also shown that the most central shapes for the construction site are the
circle and square, where the surfaces exposed to solar radiation are minimal, and the flexibility of the
design rises with the disruption of mass and the formation of an interior courtyard, such as the
flexibility of the design increases [17]. In suitably hot and dry environments, the optimal elongation of
the projection is 1: 1.3, and this ratio may be raised to 1 : 1.6 on the eastern and western axes. The
cubic shape of the individual building on the site acquires the surrounding heat through five sides;
however, if these buildings are attached or converge, then the surfaces exposed to heat gain will
decrease and reduce heat gain [18], and thus, they can provide energy consumption inside the
building through:
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• Reducing the building surface, which helps rationalize the energy consumed, whether in
cooling or heating.
• Reducing the horizontal projection’s depth to allow for ventilation and natural sunlight.
• Carefully selecting interior places to take advantage of the prevailing wind direction.
b) Building orientation
In the subject of sustainable design, the general orientation of the structure influences energy
consumption via its effect on thermal comfort and ventilation, in addition to the highly significant
natural illumination, Fig. 4. Table 1 shows the favored direction and vice versa for cities in the Middle
East throughout the summer and winter seasons [19].
Fig. 4: Thermal comfort, ventilation, and natural light effects of building orientation.
The directive's significance and the extent to which it affects the thermal performance of the
housing unit vary according to numerous aspects, the most significant of which are:
• Geometric shape: when the orientation is changed, square or near-square forms are less
affected than rectangular ones.
• The composition of construction materials.
• The dimensions of the apertures.
• The building’s relative placement in relation to nearby structures: the orientation becomes
less essential when the buildings are closer (a compact fabric).
• Color: when the outer walls are white or light in color with adequate thermal resistance and
the windows are well misleading, the change in orientation does not affect the internal temperature of
the dwelling unit.
c) Building envelope
The aim of the building envelope is to be the building’s exterior wall; the more resources and
time are necessary when it is thicker given that the design is constructed with varying thicknesses of
bricks. This procedure may be conducted using different materials. The building envelope may be
created from glass facades, as in many skyscrapers, and this is the costliest option, and the kind of
exterior finishes are among the elements that affect the design and construction cost. Many materials,
such as paint or natural stone, may be used to finish brick cladding, and natural stone is costlier than
paint.
Solar diffuser shading is one of the most important methods for reducing thermal loads on walls
and thus rationalizing energy usage within buildings. The employment of plant elements such as trees,
bushes, and evergreen climbers is also addressed within the auxiliary shading techniques in
accordance with the general direction of facades and protection requirements.
d) Opening design
The openings are described as the vacant spaces within the exterior walls, and one of their
primary roles is to let natural light and air in. They are also employed for cosmetic reasons; however,
they may be the primary source of heat infiltration into the structure. Finishing the openings with
readily formed materials is common, and glass is favored because to its high transmission to light or
sunshine or for visual reasons, Fig. 5.
Fig. 5: Techniques for shading in line with the general orientation of facades and protective needs.
e) Movement space
Some buildings have a lot of movement spaces, such as exits, entrances, and corridors, and
these spaces eat up room from the building area, such as in some apartment designs that use up to a
quarter of the apartment space and thus must be minimized to save construction costs.
f) Exterior design colors
Dark surfaces absorb heat and reflect it slightly, and thus, they heat up quickly in contrast to
light surfaces, which reflect the sun’s heat and thus are less hot. Heat is transmitted in the form of
electromagnetic radiation (radiation), and it is transmitted from the warmer body to the less heated
body through a vacuum or any transparent medium such as air or glass [20]. A body’s emissivity is
defined as the ratio of radiation emitted by it to that emitted by a black body at the same temperature.
Absorbance for long waves of many materials varies from their absorbance for short waves. Thus, we
observe a relationship between absorbance and emissivity. For example, buildings painted white have
absorbance varying from 10 % to 30 % with emissivity ranging from 80 % to 90 %). When this large
difference in absorption does not emerge, the shiny metal cover is used to cover buildings, and so on,
Fig. 6.
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Conventional construction technologies are generally costly and require a significant quantity of
nonrenewable natural resources such as energy, minerals, and other materials. This situation
increases a country’s reliance on imported resources and labor, and they pollute the environment in
general. For construction materials and technologies to contribute to long-term sustainability and a
higher-quality environment, they must also meet half or more of the following conditions in addition to
being functionally efficient: (1) not endanger bio-reserves and pollute the environment; (2) be self-
sustaining and promote self-reliance; (3) recycle polluting waste into usable materials; (4) utilize locally
available materials; (5) utilize renewable energy sources; (6) be easily accessible to the general
public; and (7) be low cost in terms of monetary cost.
Four major components influence the sustainability, energy efficiency, and cost of construction
a building: a) Foundation, b) Walls, c) Floor/Roof slabs, and d) Miscellaneous Components, Fig. 7.
These components can be analyzed individually to find cost-effective, energy-efficient, and
sustainable alternatives to the conventional ones. The suggestion for the adoption of any of these
alternatives should be based on the rigorous LCA.
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3.2.1 Foundation
For low-rise constructions, conventional approaches using in situ procedures are shown to be
more cost effective and practicable than alternative ways. The shell foundation [21] is a cost-effective
alternative to the traditional foundation that may be utilized to carry large loads to poorer soils while
maintaining structural integrity, Fig. 8. The load-carrying capacity of shell footing is on average 40 % –
45 % higher than that of its existing flat counterpart, with a slightly better improvement of 5 % over the
upright shell case, when tested under identical soil and loading conditions. This finding demonstrates
the superiority of the shell configuration over its plain and upright counterparts [22]. Although the use
of shell is a material-saving approach, it incurs an extra expense for formwork that would not be
necessary if it was used in the foundation when it is employed in the superstructure. The shell
foundation would however require additional labor cost for making up the bed, which may be
controlled by using forms that are not labor intensive.
Various geometrically shaped shell foundations have been thoroughly studied on the structural
side in terms of the elastic and final phases. Few studies have examined the bearing capacity and
settlement of these structures, which are essential to their geotechnical design, in relation to their
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geotechnical performance, Fig. 9. However, their commercial acceptance is associated with earthwork
involving the formation of a soil bed that requires significant outlays of manual labor. Commercial
acceptance of foundations in tamped trenches has indicated that stable trenches can be successfully
tamped-out in some soils. The shell foundation for isolated columns may be in the form of conical
shells, Fig. 10, and combined flat footing may be replaced by triangular shell. By contrast, a folded
plate-type foundation may be a substitute for raft foundation.
a) b)
Fig. 9: Typical rupture surface: a) flat and upright shell foundation, b) sinusoidal and i-Shell foundation
[22].
a) b)
Fig. 10: Conical shell foundation: a) upright, b) inverted [23].
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3.2.2 Walls
The walls have the greatest share in the consumption of material in building construction. The
building construction in the country usually employs the reinforced concrete frames with infill walls
consisting of concrete blocks even for low-rise buildings, which for most of the cases would otherwise
have been carried safely only by the masonry walls. The reason may be the unavailability of design
codes or guidelines for the design of load- bearing structural masonry walls. Another problem in its
adoption is perhaps the construction of wall junctions using the prevalent blocks. The use of reinforced
concrete frames not only makes it costly but also takes time in its construction. For low-rise structures,
the use of load-bearing structural masonry walls may be more cost effective and quicker to install than
framed building construction. This utilization would also result in considerable saving of steel, which is
a high energy consuming material. The concrete blocks used in the construction of walls may have the
following cost-effective, energy-efficient, and environmentally friendly alternatives:
a) bricks made from sand,
b) interlocking blocks,
c) lightweight blocks,
d) stone masonry.
a) Bricks made from sand
The bricks may be produced using sand, the most abundant raw material in the country, and
some industrial waste. A small quantity of lime or cement may also be required depending on the type
of waste utilized in the production. This way will not only address the environmental problems arising
from the disposal of waste but also would be a cost-effective and energy-efficient alternative to the
conventional concrete blocks used in the construction of walls.
The procedure may be developed for the production of bricks using sand and industrial waste.
One such waste that may be used for this purpose is the waste product of aluminum industry. It is
muddy red residue which contains alumina, iron oxide, titanium oxide, and small quantities of silica,
calcium oxide, and alkali. The aluminum factories of the country are generating this by-product which
is not otherwise put to any use. The bricks may also be produced by mixing hydrated lime with sand.
The mixture is pressed to form bricks, which are then steam cured for attaining strength.
The bricks may be used for constructing solid walls using flat bricks or hollow walls using bricks
on-edge depending on the loads to be carried by the walls. The hollow wall option would result in 25 %
saving in the number of bricks and same amount of saving in the quantity of mortar compared with the
solid wall, Fig. 11.
a) b)
Fig. 11: Bricks made from sand: a) solid brick, b) hollow brick.
b) Interlocking blocks
Building walls using interlocking hollow blocks (IHB) rather than traditional concrete blocks may
also save money [23]. Mortar would be omitted entirely in favor of a block-and-groove construction,
which would allow the IHB method to save time and money. Construction might go more quickly if it
did not need any additional mortar layers owing to interlocking load-bearing hollow blocks. These
blocks may be used to build non-load-bearing and load-bearing walls, Fig. 12. The interconnections
between the blocks must be constructed to tolerate these stresses for enduring the stresses that
emerge in a wall as a result of applied loads [24].
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c) Lightweight blocks
Increasing the size of wall blocks will save time and money, as well as reduce the amount of
mortar needed for the project. However, an increase in block size should not be accompanied by an
increase in weight for portability. This condition is possible by manufacturing lightweight blocks made
of some lightweight material. The reduction in the density of block material would reduce load
transferred to foundation, which requires lighter foundations. The lightweight blocks would provide
significantly greater insulating value than traditional concrete. The lightweight blocks may be produced
from the industrial wastes, such as blast furnace slag. The cellular lightweight concrete blocks may
also be produced using foaming agent.
d) Stone masonry
No alternative is better than the locally available material, which is especially available in
abundance in the region. The natural stone is one such material that is found in abundance in different
regions of the country. Many of the available stones possess good engineering properties for their
application in building construction. These stones may be used for making ashlar (using dressed
stones) or rubble (using undressed stones) masonry walls. However, this utilization would require
guidelines for the design of such load-bearing stone masonry walls especially for earthquake resistant
construction because of their large inertial force when subjected to earthquake excitation.
a)
b)
Fig. 13: Alternatives for floor and roof slabs: a) T‑joist section, b) T‑joist system.
•
a) b)
Fig. 14: a) building is exposed to sunlight [26]; b) building with green roof, Riyadh city.
4 Conclusion
This study focuses on developing a comprehensive and integrated approach to environmental
sustainability and cost control in low-rise building construction in Saudi Arabia and some other Arab
countries by using alternative construction and management techniques and environmentally friendly
and energy-efficient innovative materials. The research focused on three main areas: architectural
planning; alternative materials (methods and forms); and construction planning and management. For
architectural planning and its impact on environmental sustainability and cost control, this research
has established certain significant technical requirements to guarantee that the architectural design
achieves sustainability and adheres to its concepts and ideas, which include building plan shape,
building orientation, building envelope, opening design, movement space, and exterior design colors.
For alternative materials, methods, and forms, the construction and operation stages of a project may
benefit greatly from careful material selection and procurement. This research presented a
methodology for selecting materials in all structural elements, taking into account cost and
sustainability without compromising structural element function. The research suggests that for
construction planning and management, it is appropriate to use the agile project management
methodology, which has many benefits for management, individuals, teams, and customers. The
reason for this is that it focuses on and implements certain values and principles to create an effective
work environment, and it produces high-quality products that provide real value to the end customer
and the facility's owner (the customer).
Funding
This research was funded by the Researchers Supporting Project number PNURSP2022R271,
Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Acknowledgments
The author extends his appreciation to the Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University
Researchers Supporting Project number PNURSP2022R271, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman
University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
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