CN 4340703 Gtu Questionpaper Solution
CN 4340703 Gtu Questionpaper Solution
CN 4340703 Gtu Questionpaper Solution
Communication speed
Network provides us to communicate over the network in a fast and efficient manner.
File sharing
File sharing is one of the major advantages of the computer network. Computer network provides us to
share the files with each other.
We can install the applications on the main server; therefore, the user can access the applications
centrally. So, we do not need to install the software on every machine. Similarly, hardware can also be
shared
Security
Network allows the security by ensuring that the user has the right to access the certain files and
applications.
Scalability
Scalability means that we can add the new components on the network. Network must be scalable so that
we can extend the network by adding new devices. But, it decreases the speed of the connection and data
of the transmission speed also decreases, this increases the chances of error occurring. This problem can
be overcome by using the routing or switching devices.
Reliability
Computer network can use the alternative source for the data communication in case of any hardware
failure.
Q-2 What is proxy server? Write its two Advantage and Disadvantage.
proxy server
A proxy server is which service the requests of its client by forwarding requests to other server
A client connects to the proxy server requesting some service such as file connection, webpage, or
other resource available from a different server.
A proxy server provides the resource by connecting to the specified server and requesting the service
on behalf of the client.
A server that sits between a client application such as a web browser and a real server.
Proxy server is a computer that acts as getaway between a local network and internet with in company
Advantage
Provide a fast internet experience
Reduce the bandwidth consumed over the internet link
Disadvantage
Not cost effective for low bandwidth internet use.
Can be sticky setup
Bus Topology:
In this arrangement, the nodes (computers) are connected through interface connectors to a single
communication line (central cable) that carries the message in both the directions.
The central cable to which all the nodes are connected is the backbone of the network. It is called a
bus.
The signal in this arrangement travels in both directions to all the machines until it finds the recipient
machine.
It is easy to set up than other topologies as it uses only a single central cable to establish the network.
Advantages:
Disadvantages
Due to the multipoint communication model, it is difficult to identify and isolate the faulty terminals.
The reconfiguration will affect the network and slows down the performance.
Signal interference is another drawback of the bus topology; if two or more nodes transmit the messages
simultaneously, their signals will collide.
A single node failure also causes the breakdown of the whole network.
Star Topology
in Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node.
The hub can be passive in nature
Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
Passive hub: - passive hub not amplify received signal but it is forwarded that signal as it is. And passive
hub does not required electric power
Active hub: active hub amplify the received signal and forwarded to that signal next device active required
the electrical power to run. active also called multiport repeater.
Centralized management of the network through the use of the central computer, hub, or switch.
Easy to add another computer to the network.
If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally.
Disadvantages of star topology
It may have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the central network
device.
The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the network can handle.
If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down, and all computers are
disconnected from the network.
Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each node is linked with its neighbor to form a closed network.
This configuration see the data move from one node to another, either unidirectionally or bidirectionally.
Such network topology is used in smaller networks, like those in schools.
Token passing is a method of sending data in ring which system has token then server send packet to that
system. After completion of data transfer token passing to another device those system want to transfer
data it wait for token.
Advantages
The data transmission is high-speed.
The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
Cheap to install and expand.
It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantage
The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
Less secure.
Q-4 List the types of networks. Explain any one type in detail.
Features of LAN
Advantage of LAN
Define network
A network is a group of two or more computers or other electronic devices that are interconnected for the purpose
of exchanging data and sharing resources
Computer Network
Computer network define as two or more computer are connected each other for sharing information or data is
called computer network
1. Resource Sharing
Resource sharing is an application of a computer network. Resource sharing means you can share one Hardware
and Software among multiple users. Hardware includes printers, Disks, Fax Machines, etc. Computing devices.
And Software includes Atom, Oracle VM Virtual Box, Postman, Android Studio, etc.
2. Information Sharing
Using a Computer network, we can share Information over the network, and it provides Search capabilities such
as WWW. Over the network, a single information can be shared among the many users over the internet.
3. Communication
Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast, electronic funds transfer system etc.
4. Entertainment Industry
In Entertainment industry also uses computer networks widely. Some of the Entertainment industries are Video
on demand, Multiperson real-time simulation games, movie/TV programs, etc.
6. Home applications
There are many common uses of the computer network are as home applications. For example, you can consider
user-to-user communication, access to remote instruction, electronic commerce, and entertainment. Another way
is managing bank accounts, transferring money to some other banks, paying bills electronically. A computer
network arranges a robust connection mechanism between users.
7. Business applications
The result of business application here is resource sharing. And the purpose of resource sharing is that without
moving to the physical location of the resource, all the data, plans, and tools can be shared to any network user.
Most of the companies are doing business electronically with other companies and with other clients worldwide
with the help of a computer network.
8. Mobile users
The rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile devices like notebook computers and PDAs
(personal digital assistants). Here mobile users/device means portable device. The
computer network is widely used in new-age technology like smartwatches, wearable devices, tablets, online
transactions, purchasing or selling products online, etc.
9. Social media
Social media is also a great example of a computer network application. It helps people to share and receive any
information related to political, ethical, and social issues.
Q-6 Compute no of cables required to connect 8 computers using Mesh topology and Ring topology.
ANS:
= 8(8-1)/2
According to structure of ring topology no. of cable required equal to no of nodes or computers
Here 8 computers is given.
So, here n = no of computer
n= 8
So, there 8 cables required for ring topology
Q-7 Define server. List out various type of servers and explain any two in detail
Definition of Server
A server is a computer or system that provides resources, data, services, or programs to other computers,
known as clients, over a network. In theory, whenever computers share resources with client machines,
they are considered servers. There are many types of servers, including web servers, mail servers, and
virtual servers.
Types of Server
1. File server
2. Print server
3. Mail server
4. Web server
5. Proxy server
1.File server
The central server in a computer network that is responsible for the storage and management of data
files is called a File Server.
In a File Server, users access a central storage space that acts as a medium to store the internal data. The
users can share information over a network without having to physically transfer files.
The server administrator has given strict rules that which users have the access to the files. These rules
include opening, closing, adding, deleting, and editing a file.
Advantages:
Helps in resource and information sharing.
Helps in central storage of data.
Helps in connecting with multiple computers for sending and receiving information when accessing
the network.
Faster-problem-solving.
Boots Storage Capacity.
Highly flexible and reliable.
Disadvantages:
Costly setup.
The risk from viruses and malware.
It lacks independence.
Requires time for constant administration.
It lacks Robustness.
2.proxy server
A proxy server is which service the requests of its client by forwarding requests to other server
A client connects to the proxy server requesting some service such as file connection, webpage, or
other resource available from a different server.
A proxy server provides the resource by connecting to the specified server and requesting the service
on behalf of the client.
A server that sits between a client application such as a web browser and a real server.
Proxy server is a computer that acts as getaway between a local network and internet with in company
Advantage
Provide a fast internet experience
Reduce the bandwidth consumed over the internet link
Disadvantage
Not cost effective for low bandwidth internet use.
Can be sticky setup
1.File server
The central server in a computer network that is responsible for the storage and management of data
files is called a File Server.
In a File Server, users access a central storage space that acts as a medium to store the internal data. The
users can share information over a network without having to physically transfer files.
The server administrator has given strict rules that which users have the access to the files. These rules
include opening, closing, adding, deleting, and editing a file.
Advantages:
Helps in resource and information sharing.
Helps in central storage of data.
Helps in connecting with multiple computers for sending and receiving information when accessing
the network.
Faster-problem-solving.
Boots Storage Capacity.
Highly flexible and reliable.
Disadvantages:
Costly setup.
The risk from viruses and malware.
It lacks independence.
Requires time for constant administration.
It lacks Robustness.
A network is two or more devices connected through a link. A link is a communication pathway that
transfers data from one device to another. Devices can be a computer, printer, or any other device that
is capable to send and receive data.
1. Point-to-Point Connection
2. Multipoint Connection
Point-to-Point Connection:
1. A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
2. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
3. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but
other options such as microwave or satellite links are also possible.
a. Unicasting: In Unicasting, the data traffic flows from a single source node to a single destination
node on the network. It is a 'one-to-one' type of data transmission between the sender and receiver.
2.Multipoint connection
1. It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection, two or more devices share a single link.
2. If more than two devices share the link then the channel is considered a ‘shared channel’.
A B
Full Form OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Interconnection. Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
Replacement Replacement of tools and changes Replacing the tools is not easy as it is
can easily be done in this model. in OSI Model.
Reliability It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model. It is more reliable than OSI Model.
Q-2 Draw OSI reference model. Give functionality of each layer of the OSI model.
If we go from bottom to top the 7 layers of this model are as given below
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
1. Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them
to the Data Link layer
Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock.
This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e.
bus, star, or mesh topology.
Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices.
The various transmission modes possible are simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the
NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the
wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of
bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the
beginning and end of the frame.
Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses)
of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow
control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer
of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
3. Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks.
It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the
number of routes available.
The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.
Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer.
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-
transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It
also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.
Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the
message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header
includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the
transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
Connection Establishment
Data Transfer
Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet
or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission,
the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
5. Session Layer
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and
also ensures security.
Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization
points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in
half-duplex or full-duplex.
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here
and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
7. Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is implemented
by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the
received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Q-3 Give comparisons of connection oriented and connection less service.
OR
Give the comparisons between TCP and UDP.
Connection-oriented Service gives the guarantee of Connection-less Service does not give a
6. reliability. guarantee of reliability.
9. Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
TCP/IP model
o he TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link
layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport
functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented
in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides specific
functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level protocols.
Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive at
the destination irrespective of the route they take.
o IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part
o of the entire TCP/IP suite.
o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The IP
addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide internetwork
routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer protocol.
An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it encapsulates the data into message
known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link layer
protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the
MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the
local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all
the fragments are reassembled to form an original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN, it is known
as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent
indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol
ICMP Protocol
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is being sent
over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission control
protocol.
It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to the sender that user
datagram has been damaged.
UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data
segment.
It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of the transmission.
TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all
the segments must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be completed and a
virtual circuit is discarded.
At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment, and each segment
contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form an original message.
At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence numbers.
Application Layer
o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it forwards
its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed inside the
application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For example: text editor
cannot be considered in application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.
o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the data over the
world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext
transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps
from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for managing
the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is
known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail
address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the connection of a host
to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system
that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the local
computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the
remote system.
FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting
the files from one computer to another computer.
Q-5 List out full forms of OSI, TCP/IP and ISO, UDP.FTP, LAN.WAN.MAN, HTTP,
SNMP,SMTP,DNS,ARP,RARP,ICMP
OSI: - open system Interconnection
TCP/IP: Transmission control protocol/internet Protocol
ISO: international Standard Organization
UDP: - User Datagram protocol
FTP: File transfer protocol
LAN: local Area Network
WAN: Wide Area Network
MAN; Metropolitan Area Network
HTTP: Hypertext transfer protocol
SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol
SMTP: Simple mail transfer protocol
DNS: Domain Name System.
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol.
Higher bandwidth
Light weight
High Cost
ADVANTAGES
1) Infrared transmission requires minimum power to operate and can be set up at a low cost.
2) This is a secure way to transfer data between devices as the signal cannot pass beyond a room or
chamber.
DISADVANTAGES
Q-4 Identify on which layer of OSI model bridge works? Explain Bridge in detail.
BRIDGES
At layer 2, it is used to filter traffic on a LAN and to keep local traffic local and also allow
connectivityto other segments of the network.
To provide security, it Filters traffic by looking at the MAC address and prevent unauthorized access.
If the frame is addressed to a MAC address on the local side of the bridge, it is not
forwarded to theother segment. Frames having MAC addresses on the other segment only
are forwarded.
Bridges maintain a MAC address table for both segments to which they are connected.
Types of bridges:
1. Simple bridge:
2. Multiport bridges:
REPEATERS
Repeaters does not amplify the signal, it regenerates it. When it receives a signal affected by noise signal, it
creates a copy bit to its original strength
Advantage of Repeaters
Extend the network physical distance
Do not seriously affect the performance of network
Disadvantages Of Repeaters
Cannot connect different network architectures
Token Ring and Ethernet (Star)
Cannot reduce network traffic
Repeaters do not filter data
Do not segment (divide) the network
Repeat everything without discrimination
Number of repeaters must be limited
SWITCHES
It works on Datalink layer of OSI model.
It provides bridging with greater efficiency.
They have buffer for each link to which it is connected
Switch
Switch sends
signal out to
Station A a single Port
Transmits
to Station C
Types of switches:
1. Store and Forward Switches:
Do error checking on each frame after the entire frame has arrived into the switch.
The switch looks in its MAC address table for the port to which to forward the destination device.
Reads address information for each frame as the frames enter the switch.
After looking up the port of the destination device, frame is forwarded without waiting for entire packet
to arrive.
Advantages of switches
Increase available network bandwidth by reducing its workload, computers only receive
packets intended for them specifically
Increase network performance
Smaller collision domains
Disadvantages of switches
More expensive than hubs and bridges
Difficult to trace network connectivity problems through a switch
Does not filter broadcast traffic
HUB
It works on physical layer of OSI model.
Hubs is a central network device that network nodes and provide central management
They connect devices centrally in a star topology.
They cannot filter network traffic.
They cannot determine best path.
They are also known as network “concentrators”.
They have multiple inputs and outputs active at the same time.
It provides connections for all guided media types.
They provide high speed communication
TYPES OF HUB:
1. Active hubs:
2. Passive hubs:
A passive hub serves simply provides connection between devices, enabling data to go from one
device (or segment) to another.
3. Intelligent hubs:
A third type of hub, called a intelligent hub, actually reads the destination addressof each
packet and then forwards the packet to the correct port. Intelligent hubs are also called manageable
hubs.
ROUTERS
It operates on Physical, Datalink and Network layer of OSI model.
It is most active in Network layer of OSI model.
Different networks can be connected via routers.
It stores IP address of the devices of networks in a table called routing table.
Function of router is to receive packets from one network and forward to another network based on
information stored in routing table.
Routing strategies:
Adaptive Routing
In adaptive routing, router may selectnew route for each packet.
Non-Adaptive Routing
In non-adaptive routing router choose same path for all the packets whose destination is same.
Routing table contains:
Network address of each device,
Possible paths between routers,
Cost of sending data over paths
Types of routers:
1.Static router:
1. They use same path for all packets of same destination.
2. More secure.
3. Needs to maintain manually.
4. Cannot updated automatically.
2. Dynamic router:
1. It uses a routing protocol such as OSPF or BGP to select best paths for packets.
2. Each packet is sent via different path.
3. Less secure.
4. Can be updated and maintained automatically.
Advantages of routers
• Can connect networks of different architecture
Disadvantages of routers
Q-7 Identify on which layer of OSI model router works? Explain Router in detail
ROUTERS
It operates on Physical, Datalink and Network layer of OSI model.
It is most active in Network layer of OSI model.
Different networks can be connected via routers.
It stores IP address of the devices of networks in a table called routing table.
Function of router is to receive packets from one network and forward to another network based on
information stored in routing table.
Routing strategies:
Adaptive Routing
In adaptive routing, router may selectnew route for each packet.
Non-Adaptive Routing
In non-adaptive routing router choose same path for all the packets whose destination is same.
Routing table contains:
Network address of each device,
Possible paths between routers,
Cost of sending data over paths
Types of routers:
1.Static router:
5. They use same path for all packets of same destination.
6. More secure.
7. Needs to maintain manually.
8. Cannot updated automatically.
3. Dynamic router:
1. It uses a routing protocol such as OSPF or BGP to select best paths for packets.
2. Each packet is sent via different path.
3. Less secure.
4. Can be updated and maintained automatically.
Advantages of routers
• Can connect networks of different architecture
Disadvantages of routers
It uses MAC address for filtering and provide It uses MAC address to provide packet forwarding.
bridging
It behaves as a multiport transparent bridge. It behaves as a router.
It is used to connect server and clients. It is used to connect hosts in a large network like
VLAN.
It is having buffer to store frames like cut- it is having faster table lookup and forwarding
through switches. capacity.
S.No.
Guided Media Unguided Media
The signal energy propagates through wires The signal energy propagates through the air in
2.
in guided media. unguided media.
Guided media is used for point-to-point Unguided media is generally suited for radio
3.
communication. broadcasting in all directions.
4. It is cost-effective. It is expensive.
Discrete network topologies are formed by Continuous network topologies are formed by the
5.
the guided media. unguided media.
Signals are in the form of voltage, current, Signals are in the form of electromagnetic waves in
6.
or photons in the guided media. unguided media.
S.No.
Guided Media Unguided Media
By adding more wires, the transmission It is not possible to obtain additional capacity in
8.
capacity can be increased in guided media. unguided media.
1. Bridge works in data link layer. While Router works in network layer.
Through bridge, data or information is not store While through router, data or information
2.
and sent in the form of packet. is store and sent in the form of packet.
5. In bridge, routing table is not used. While in routers, routing table is used.
S.NO Bridge Router
Bridges are good for segment network and While Routers are good for joining remote
10.
extends the existing network. networks.
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include Twisted-
Pair Cable,Coaxial Cable, and Fiber-Optic Cable.
• Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable:
• Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
Copper is used in this as Centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is
surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
barid or both.
• Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which
completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost
part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
• Bandwidth is high
• The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared
to twistedpair cable
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
• Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
• Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the entire network
usedcoaxial cable. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
• In traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of it high bandwidth, and consequence high data rate,
coaxial cable was chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs. The 10Base-2, or Thin
Ethernet, usesRG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10Mbps with a range
of 185 m.
Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type
of
• Radio waves
• Micro waves
• Infrared waves
Radio Waves
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio
waves.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated
in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.
• A sending antenna send waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The
omnidirectional property has disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna
are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signal suing the same
frequency or band.
• Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because, an AM
radio can receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a
communication to just inside or outside a building.
• The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting in which
there is one sender but many receivers.
• AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of
multicasting.
Micro Waves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 to 300 GHz are called micro waves. Micro waves
are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that
the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious
advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
• Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast(one-to-
one)communication is needed between the sender and the receiver.
• They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.
• It is very costly
Infrared Waves
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
• This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another, a
short-range communication system in on room cannot be affected by another system in the next
room.
• we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves
that can interfere with the communication.
• The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Such a wide
bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate.
• The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared waves, has
established standards for using these signals for communication between devices such as
keyboards, mouse, PCs and printers.
2. A switch can have a lot of ports. A bridge can have 2 or 4 ports only.
3. The switch performs the packet forwarding The bridge performs the packet forwarding by
by using hardware such as ASICS hence, it using software so it is software based.
is hardware based.
4. The switching method in case of a switch The switching method in case of a bridge is store
can thus be store, forward, fragment free or and forward.
cut through.
5. The task of error checking is performed by a A bridge cannot perform the error checking.
switch.
Time-to-live: Specifies how long the datagram is allowed to “live” on the network. Each
router decrements the value of the TTL field (reduces it by one) prior to transmitting it.
If the TTL field drops to zero, the datagram is assumed to have taken too long a route
and is discarded.
Protocol: This field is used only when an IP datagram reaches its final destination. The
value of this field indicates the specific transport-layer protocol to which the data portion
of this IP datagram should be passed. For example, a value of 6 indicates that the data
portion is passed to TCP, while a value of 17 indicates that the data is passed to UDP.
Header checksum: The header checksum aids a router in detecting bit errors in a
received IP datagram.
Source and destination IP addresses: When a source creates a datagram, it inserts its
IP address into the source IP address field and inserts the address of the ultimate
destination into the destination IP address field.
Options: The options fields allow an IP header to be extended.
Data (payload): The data to be transmitted in the datagram, either an entire higher-layer
message or a fragment of one
Q-2 Explain classful addressing in detail
OR
Classful Addressing
The 32-bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are given below:
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
Class E
Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes D and E are reserved for multicast
and experimental purposes respectively. The order of bits in the first octet determines the classes
of the IP address. The IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
Network ID
Host ID
The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and host ID and the
number of total networks and hosts possible in that particular class. Each ISP or network
administrator assigns an IP address to each device that is connected to its network.
Classful Addressing
Class A
IP addresses belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of
hosts.
The network ID is 8 bits long.
The host ID is 24 bits long.
The higher-order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to 0. The remaining 7 bits in the
first octet are used to determine network ID. The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine the
host in any network. The default subnet mask for Class A is 255.x.x.x. Therefore, class A has a
total of:
2^24 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID
IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255.
Class B
Class C
Class D
IP address belonging to class D is reserved for multi-casting. The higher-order bits of the first
octet of IP addresses belonging to class D is always set to 1110. The remaining bits are for the
address that interested hosts recognize.
Class D does not possess any subnet mask. IP addresses belonging to class D range from
224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255.
Class D
Class E
IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes. IP
addresses of class E range from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254. This class doesn’t have any subnet
mask. The higher-order bits of the first octet of class E are always set to 1111.
Class E
IPv6 has a 128-bit address length IPv4 has a 32-bit address length
It supports Auto and renumbering address It Supports Manual and DHCP address
configuration configuration
IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes.
Subnetting
Dividing a large block of addresses into several contiguous sub-blocks and assigning these sub-
blocks to different smaller networks is called subnetting. It is a practice that is widely used when
classless addressing is done.
A subnet or subnetwork is a network inside a network. Subnets make networks more efficient.
Through subnetting, network traffic can travel a shorter distance without passing through
unnecessary routers to reach its destination.
EXAMPLE:
Five steps of subnetting are:
Step 1: Identify class of IP address and note the Default Subnet Mask.
255.255.255.0=11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Step 3: Note the number of hosts required per network and find the
Subnet Generator(SG) and Octet position
255.255.255.0=11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Now for finding the network ranges, our increment is 64 (ie value of SG).
Step 1: Identify class of IP address and note the Default Subnet Mask.
Here address 130.56.0.0 belongs to Class B and Default Subnet Mask of Class C
is 255.255.0.0.
255.255.0.0 = 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Step 3: Note that 1024 subnet create and find the Subnet Generator (SG) and Octet
position
So, we need 10 bits in the network portion of the address in our default
subnet mask. Our default subnet mask is
255.255.255.0=11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Here we need to reserve from left to right in last octet of default subnet
mask ie keeping rightmost 6 zeros and remaining bits are to converted to 1’s
255.255.255.192 =11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
Q-7 An organization is granted the block 211.17.180.0/24. The administrator wants to create
32 subnets
1. Find the Network ID.
2. Find the subnet mask.
3. Find the number of addresses in each subnet
Step 1: Identify class of IP address and note the Default Subnet Mask.
Here address 211.17.180.0 belongs to Class C and Default
Subnet Mask of Class C is 255.255.255.0.
255.255.255.0=11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Step 3: Note that 32 subnets create and find the Subnet Generator (SG) and Octet
position
So, we need 5 bits in the network portion of the address in our default
subnet mask. Our default subnet mask is
255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Here we need to reserve from left to right in last octet of default subnet
mask i.e. keeping rightmost 3 zeros and remaining bits are to converted to 1’s
255.255.255.248 =11111111.11111111.11111111.11111000
So the new subnet mask is 255.255.255.248 or /29. So, 32subnets’ needs 5 bits
in the host portion.
Q-9 Define subnetting and list out subnet mask of class A, class B, class C
Subnetting
Dividing a large block of addresses into several contiguous sub-blocks and assigning these sub-
blocks to different smaller networks is called subnetting. It is a practice that is widely used when
classless addressing is done.
A subnet or subnetwork is a network inside a network. Subnets make networks more efficient.
Through subnetting, network traffic can travel a shorter distance without passing through
unnecessary routers to reach its destination.
Each IP address consists of a subnet mask. All the class types, such as Class A, Class B and
Class C include the subnet mask known as the default subnet mask. The subnet mask is intended
for determining the type and number of IP addresses required for a given local network. The
firewall or router is called the default gateway. The default subnet mask is as follows:
Class A: 255.0.0.0
Class B: 255.255.0.0
Class C: 255.255.255.0
The subnetting process allows the administrator to divide a single Class A, Class B, or Class C
network number into smaller portions. The subnets can be subnetted again into sub-subnets.
Q-10 Identify whether following IPv4 address are valid or not. If invalid then write the reason.
1) 204.10.2.3 Given IP belongs to class c it is valid ip address.
3) 11011001.24.5.10 Given IP is invalid because in 1st octet given in binary remaining octet decimal so
it not allowed.
Classes of IPV4
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
Class E
Write IP range of different class
Both MAC Address and IP Address are used to uniquely define a device on the internet. NIC
Card’s Manufacturer provides the MAC Address, on the other hand, Internet Service Provider
provides IP Address.
The main difference between MAC and IP address is that MAC Address is used to ensure the
physical address of the computer. It uniquely identifies the devices on a network. While IP
addresses are used to uniquely identifies the connection of the network with that device takes
part in a network.
MAC Address stands for Media IP Address stands for Internet Protocol
1.
Access Control Address. Address.
A device attached with MAC Address A device attached with IP Address can
3.
can retrieve by ARP protocol. retrieve by RARP protocol.
MAC Address is used to ensure the IP Address is the logical address of the
5.
physical address of a computer. computer.
MAC Address of computer cannot be IP Address modifies with the time and
8.
changed with time and environment. environment.
No classes are used for MAC IPv4 uses A, B, C, D, and E classes for IP
11.
addressing. addressing.
MAC address help to solve IP address IP addresses never able to solve MAC
13.
issue. address issues.
.NO MAC Address IP Address
MAC addresses can be used for The IP address can be used for
14.
broadcasting. broadcasting or multicasting.
Ans : We minus 2 address from total addresses when we calculate valid host because first
address used for network address(network id) for to identify the network and last address
used for broad cast Address.
(2) How many subnets and maximum hosts per subnet can we get from the subnet network
172.27.0.0/23?
Ans :
= 255.255.255.224
NO of subnet = 2 where n is no of network bits in host portion.
=2
=8
The number of Host addresses = 2 where h is no of host bits in host portion.
= 2 5 = 32
Confidentiality
Confidentiality is the protection of information in the system so that an unauthorized
person cannot access it. This type of protection is most important in military and
government organizations that need to keep plans and capabilities secret from
enemies.
However, it can also be useful to businesses that need to protect their proprietary
trade secrets from competitors or prevent unauthorized persons from accessing the
company’s sensitive information (e.g., legal, personal, or medical information).
Privacy issues have gained an increasing amount of attention in the past few years,
placing the importance of confidentiality on protecting personal information
maintained in automated systems by both government agencies and private-sector
organizations.
Confidentiality must be well-defined, and procedures for maintaining confidentiality
must be carefully implemented. A crucial aspect of confidentiality is user
identification and authentication. Positive identification of each system user is
essential in order to ensure the effectiveness of policies that specify who is allowed
access to which data items.
Threats to Confidentiality: Confidentiality can be compromised in several ways. The
following are some of the commonly encountered threats to information confidentiality
Hackers
Unauthorized user activity
Unprotected downloaded files
Local area networks (LANs)
Trojan Horses
INTEGRITY:
In the world of information security, integrity refers to the accuracy and completeness of data.
Security controls focused on integrity are designed to prevent data from being modified or
misused by an unauthorized party. Integrity involves maintaining the consistency and
trustworthiness of data over its entire life cycle. Data must not be changed in transit, and
precautionary steps must be taken to ensure that data cannot be altered by unauthorized people.
For example, in a data breach that compromises integrity, a hacker may seize data and modify it
before sending it on to the intended recipient.
Availability
Data availability means that information is accessible to authorized users. It provides an assurance
that your system and data can be accessed by authenticated users whenever they’re needed. Similar
to confidentiality and integrity, availability also holds great value.
Availability is typically associated with reliability and system uptime, which can be impacted by
non-malicious issues like hardware failures, unscheduled software downtime, and human error, or
malicious issues like cyberattacks and insider threats. If the network goes down unexpectedly,
users will not be able to access essential data and applications. Information security policies and
security controls address availability concerns by putting various backups and redundancies in
place to ensure continuous uptime and business continuity.
Your information is more vulnerable to data availability threats than the other two components in
the CIA model. Making regular off-site backups can limit the damage caused to hard drives by
natural disasters or server failure. Information only has value if the right people can access it at
the right time. Information security measures for mitigating threats to data availability include:
1. Off-site backups
2. Disaster recovery
3. Redundancy
4. Failover
5. Proper monitoring
6. Environmental controls
7. Virtualization
8. Server clustering
9. Continuity of operations planning
1. Masquerade: An individual who is not authorized to use the computer but he gets access to
the computer system and exploit (misuse or take advantage of) user data and account.
2. Misfeasor: A legal user who accesses data, programs or resources for which he is not
authorized.
3. Clandestine user: User who gains administrative access to the system. The masquerade is
likely to be an outsider, the misfeasor generally is an insider and clandestine user can be
either insider or outsider.
The risk of network intrusion
1. Corruption of Data
2. Financial Loss for the Organization
3. Theft of Data
4. Loss of Reputation
5. Operational Disruption
INSIDERS
An insider threat is a malicious threat to an organization that comes from people within
the Organization. Insider attacks are typically passive attacks that are harder to detect
because they are carried Out by employees, former employees, contractors, partners, or
business associates who have inside information about an organization’s data, computer
systems, and security, Insiders are More dangerous than outside intruders.
Threats related to Insiders:
1. Fraud
2. Theft of confidential information. 3. Theft of intelligent property.
3. Damage of computer system.
4. Corruption, including participation in transnational organized crime
Damages caused by Insiders:
1. Loss of critical data
2. Financial Impact
3. Legal Impact
4. Loss of Reputation
5. Loss of Competitive Edge
6. Intellectual Property Theft
7. Market Value Reduction
8. Increased Expenses
The following steps will help reduce the risk of insider threats :
1. Protect critical assets
2. Enforce policies
3. Increase visibility
4. Promote culture changes
5. Encryption of data
Viruses
A virus is a software programs or pieces of code that is capable of copying itself and infecting a
system without the knowledge of the user.
It is a type of malware that spreads from of Computer to another cleaning up its trails as it goes.
It can harm other software programs Modifying them and it is a type of malware.
Generally, viruses are attached to the executable (exe) files and when user runs that program
viruses spread in the system. They may create mild effects and can cause crash of data software
may cause denial-of-service attack. Viruses may infect memory, a floppy disk, a t drive, a backup
tape, or any other type of storage.
1. Parasitic Virus.
4. Stealth Virus.
5. Metamorphic Virus.
6. Macro Virus.
7. Resident Virus
8. Multipartite Virus
9. Direct Action
A firewall is a type of network security device that filters incoming and outgoing network
traffic with security policies that have previously been set up inside an organization. A
firewall is essentially the wall that separates a private internal network from the open
Internet at its very basic level.
Firewall match the network traffic against the rule set defined in its table. Once the rule is
matched, associate action is applied to the network traffic. For example, Rules are defined
as any employee from Human Resources department cannot access the data from code
server and at the same time another rule is defined like system administrator can access the
data from both Human Resource and technical department. Rules can be defined on the
firewall based on the necessity and security policies of the organization. From the
perspective of a server, network traffic can be either outgoing or incoming.
2. Internal threats: This type of threat is posed by malicious insiders, such as disgruntled or
improperly vetted employees who are working for a competitor. According to a report from
Cybersecurity Insiders published in 2022, 57% of organizations believe that insider attacks
have Become more frequent in the recent past.
3. Structured threats: The term structured threats refer to attacks conducted by organized
groups of cybercriminals with a clear objective or goal in mind, such as state-sponsored
attacks
4. Unstructured attacks: Attacks that are unstructured usually originate from amateurs who
do not have a clear objective in mind.
Q-6 Explain viruses and worms
Viruses
A virus is a software programs or pieces of code that is capable of copying itself and infecting a
system without the knowledge of the user.
It is a type of malware that spreads from of Computer to another cleaning up its trails as it goes.
It can harm other software programs Modifying them and it is a type of malware.
Generally, viruses are attached to the executable (exe) files and when user runs that program
viruses spread in the system. They may create mild effects and can cause crash of data software
may cause denial-of-service attack. Viruses may infect memory, a floppy disk, a t drive, a backup
tape, or any other type of storage.
1.Parasitic Virus.
Stealth Virus.
Metamorphic Virus.
Macro Virus.
Resident Virus
Multipartite Virus
Direct Action
Browser Hijacker
WORMS
A computer worm is a subset of the Trojan horse malware that can propagate or self-replicate
from one computer to another without human activation after breaching a system. Typically, a
worm spreads across a network through your internet or LAN (Local Area Network)
connection. It does not require any host to spread. Worms can be remorselessly destructive .
1. P2P-Worm 2. Net-Worm
2. Email-Worm
3. IRC(Internet Relay Chat) –Worm
4. File sharing Worms
5. IM (Instant Messaging) – Worm
Performance issues
Identity theft can even be caused by worms
Delete or change our files
Keep us out of important files
Hard drive reformatting
1. Physical Barrier: A firewall does not allow any external traffic to enter a system or a
network without its allowance. A firewall creates a choke point for all the external data
trying to enter the system or network and hence can easily block access if needed.
2. Multi-Purpose: A firewall has many functions other than security purposes. It configures
domain names and Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. It also acts as a network address
translator. It can act as a meter for internet usage.
3. Flexible Security Policies: Different local systems or networks need different security
policies. A firewall can be modified according to the requirement of the user by changing
its security policies.
4. Security Platform: It provides a platform from which any alert to the issue related to
security or fixing issues can be accessed. All the queries related to security can be kept
under check from one place in a system or network.
5. Access Handler: Determines which traffic needs to flow first according to priority or can
change for a particular network or system. specific action requests may be initiated and
allowed to flow through the firewall.