English Pedagogy

TET 2023 English Pedagogy
Language & Acquisition: synonymously. The distinctions are not by cause and effect and develop sense of
always very explicit. But when it comes to grammar.
This chapter talks about second the question of Second Language
language and is devoted to learning and Acquisition (SLA), these languages 7) From their middle childhood years
acquisition of it.In society, there are (reffering to first language) are assumed to they start using language creatively; for
individuals who tend to use more than be the ones which are acquired during early serving their own purpose :
one language in their day-to-day childhood (generally starting before three They move to inner speech,
interactions.In such situations, the years of age) and are developed during the They tend to use language figuratively,
individual has recourse to the first process of growing up amidst the people And they are able to communicate more
language (L1) and also to the second who speak those language. effectively.
language (L2). First language is normally
our mother tongue while the second What is a Second Language: The teacher needs to know the process
language is something that is learnt or of language development because this
acquired. The extra language that is learnt under a process depends on :
formal teaching set-up is called second 1) Desire to learn
In our society, English is considered to language (L2), even though it may actually 2) Ambience
be the second language and is accepted be the third, fifth or ninth to be acquired. 3) The assistance provided by the
as one of the important means to a Sometimes, it is also referred to as target teacher.
successful career.During the British language (TL). The scope of SLA includes :
period, English was the language of It is believed that a student requires aid
1) Informal L2 learning in naturalistic from the teacher as well as from his peer-
administration and enjoyed a prestigious
contexts. group for language skill development. If
position.It was a link, language then.
2) Formal L2 learning in formal classrooms. the student has any speech problem, the
After attaining independence, it was
3) L2 learning involving a combination of teacher may facilitate co-operative
thought by some people that this
such settings and conditions. learning. The teacher must inspire the
language of colonial rulers should be
rejected. However, most of the people student for using language in order to
There are consistent suggestions that
decided otherwise and English was organise their thinking and to talk about
people with multiple language competence
retained as the official language. their aims which they want to
are a unique combination. The differences
accomplish.
between monolinguals and bilinguals may
The latest designation of English as the
be mentioned as under: Teachers can do a lot to help children
official language of India has
emphasised on the development of improve their speech, as language plays
L2 users differ from monolinguals in Ll
skills in the student.It is thought that, for a major role in learning: both inside and
knowledge.
using language properly employment Advanced L2 users differ from outside the classroom.
purposes, the functional aspect of the monolinguals in L2 knowledge.
same needs to be emphasised. Thus, Monolingualism, Bilingualism and
L2 users have a different meta-linguistic
while teaching the second language, awareness from monolinguals. Multilingualism:
skills like listening, speaking, reading L2 users have a different cognitive process. Monolingualism refers to the ability to
and writing are emphasised. use only one language.
Stages of Language Learning:
LAD or Language Acquisition Device is Human being is born with a natural Bilingualism refers to the ability of using
quite effective in a child’s puberty. capacity or ability to learn languages and more than one language. It is one's
Needless to say, English should be they start acquiring it from a very tender capability of using his native language
taught and learned well. To have fluency along with another, with equal level of
age. This process of acquiring is ever-
of a native speaker of english, a learner competency.
expanding and leads a student to attain
should be given chances to
expertise in the language.
commuhicate in L2 in informal Multilingualism refers to the ability to
situations. The role of the teacher is only 1) At about, 18 months, children try to use use more than two languages with high
to elevate a learner so much so that a words indicating tense and numbers. level of competency. In a country like
learner can be exposed to four skills so 2) When they are in their second year, they India, people living in metropolitan cities
as to acquire L2. start constructing simple sentences and like Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai
their 'stock of words' (vocabulary) also frequently use more than one language
Objectives of Teaching English: expands. simultaneously.
1) To enable the students to understand 3) By their fifth year, they are able to frame
No one can say for sure how many
English when spoken. sentences much like adults (though the
people are multilingual, but a reasonable
2) To enable the students to speak acquisition of language not complete).
estimate is that at lease half of the
correct English. 4) Children exhibit considerable amount of
world's population is in this category.
3) To make the students capable of expertise in their language by the time they
Multilingualism is thus by no means a
understanding written English. are 7 years of age.
rare phenomenon, but a normal and
4) To enable the students to write correct 5) By the age of 8 years, they are able to
common occurrence in most parts of the
English. write as well as understand that a particular
world. According to Francois Grosjean,
word can have more than one meaning
this has been the case as far back as we
What is a First Language: (multiple layered words).
have any record of language use :
6) In the next level, i.e, between 9 and 10
Concepts like first language (Ll), native years of age, they can describe situations Bilingualism is present in practically
language, primary language and mother
every century of the world, in all classes
tongue are treated somewhat
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of society and in all groups. In fact it is conscious process that results in knowing lack logical understanding, making them
difficult to find a genuinely monolingual. a language. grammatically conscious is not possible.
Not only is bilingualism worldwide, it is a Language learning is 'knowing the rules After the pupils have developed a sense
phenomenon that has existed since the and having conscious knowledge of of grammar through usage, the grammar
beginning of that has existed since the grammar and vocabulary', in case of the rules should be taught. So, at the higher
beginning of language in human learning of the second language, people are classes, only learning should be
history.It is probably true that no not exposed to the natural situation; rather encouraged so that the pupils may use
language group has ever existed in they are to depend on unreal, artificial their knowledge of grammar for
isolation from other language groups situations. So they need to give a conscious monitoring their acquisition and for
and the history of languages is replete effort for the learning of the second correcting their own mistakes. Thus for
with examples of language contact language. the teaching of English as a second
leading to some form of bilingualism. language, emphasis should be given first
Most linguists believe that the first on acquisition and gradually it should be
Do We Learn the Second Language or language is acquired and the second shifted to 'learning' as shown in the
Acquire it: language is learnt. But for Others, the diagram:
process of learning the Ll and L2 are same.
The difference between acquiring and When an individual is learning its mother 1st Stage (Primary) → ACQUISITION ONLY
learning was first made explicit by tongue, its mind is young, as it is learning a
Stephen Krashen (1982) in his Monitor language for the first time. But, when a  This is in school
Learning and
Theory. For Krashen, the acquisition of a student is learning his/her second Acquisition, both go
language is a natural process, whereas 2nd Stage (Secondary) →
language, there is a confrontation between together
learning a language is a conscious one. the system of the first language and that of  in high school
While in the former, the learner needs to the second language which subsequently Emphasis is given on
take part in natural communicative affect the pace of learning. When an 3rd Stage (Final) → ‘Learning’.LEARNING
situations, in the latter, error correction is individual has taken to one language ONLY
present. system, the learning of the second Theories of Learning:
language is somewhat difficult.
Not all educators in second language
Behaviourist:
teaching agree to this distinction; Differences between Language
however, the study of the way in which a Acquisition and Language Learning: 1) Skinner is an exponent in this field.
second language is learned/acquired is 2) He suggested that a child imtates the
referred to as Second Language Language language of its parents or those of family,
Language Learning
Acquisition or SLA. Acquisition because they imitate adults.
Native-like 3) Successful attempts are rewarded
Language experts are of the view that Guarantee of fluent
language because an adult who recognises a
words like acquire or acquisition should competence is
competence is spoken word will praise the child and/or
be used in case of the first language. hard to achieve
achieve give it asking for.
Acquisition means subconscious Tutoring is not
Teaching is useful 4) Successful utterances are therefore
picking up of, a language in a natural mandatory
reinforced while unsuccessful ones are
setting. Generally people are constantly Development of
Development forgotten.
exposed to the first language at home, or Language is
takes place under
in the society or in school and thus undertaken In Innateness:
artificial situation
develop the habit of listening and normal setting
speaking it without any formal Motivation for 1) Noam Chomsky propagated this in
instruction. In the dictionary sense of the learning the Motivation is opposition to the behaviourist theory.
term, it is correct to say that people language is extrinsic 2) According to this theory, the process
acquire the first language. automatic is biologically determined - the human
Frequent exposure species has evolved a brain whose neural
Lack of exposure
"Acquisition is a subconscious process to the language is circuits contain linguistic information at
hampers learning
identical in all important ways to the the strongest point
birth.
process children utilise their first Less of editing or Conscious
3) The child's natural predisposition to
language" (Krashen). Acquiring language correcting in correcting of the
language acquired language learn language is triggered by hearing
is picking it up, i.e., developing an ability speech and the childi's brain is able to
to use a language in a natural and In countries like India, where English is interpret what (s) he hears according to
Communicative situation at home, where taught as a compulsory second language, the underlying principles or structures it
there is no threat of being criticised for acquisition and learning are equally already contains.
mistakes, or by exposure to peer group important for the development of the 4) This natural faculty is known as
and other users in the community. language, In the initial stage, the teachers Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
should focus on acquisition and provide
People have suffitient exposure to their 5) Chomsky did not suggest that an
scope for natural use of language. Students
first language, but not to their second English child is born knowing anything
should be inspired to listen and use the
language. Neither does everyone get to specific about English, of course.
language in their own individual way, even
learn the second language in natural 6) He stated that all human languages
with some mistakes. Direct correction of
circumstances as in case of one's first share common principles. For example,
the mistakes should be avoided as it may
language. People often learn it through they all have words for things and
affect the morale of the student. The
formal instruction. Learning is a actions: nouns, verbs, etc.
teacher should facilitate correct language
input. This is because, at this stage, as they
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Cognitive: habit level. It does not just mean knowing sounds, words, phrases and meanings are
about the language. Make language to be taught.
1) Jean Piaget is an important patterns as habit through intensive pattern Thus we have:
contributor in this field. practice in variety of situations. The Phonetic grouping, i.e., grouping
2) He argued that a child has to students must be taught to use language according to sounds, For example, words
understand a concept before (s) he can patterns and sentence constructions with having the same sound placed in the one
acquire the particular language form appropriate vocabulary at normal speed for group as, cat, bat, mat, pat, fat, sat; it, bit,
which expresses that concept. communication. In fact the habitual use of fit, hit, kit, it, etc.
3) Language is just one aspect of a the most frequently used patterns and Lexical grouping, i.e., grouping according
child's overall intellectual development. items of language, should take precedence to lexical situations. Example: school,
Suppose a child has been given number over the mere accumulation of words. teacher, headmaster, peon, class-room,
of sticks and asked to arrange. If the
library. All these words are grouped
intellectual development of the child is Principle of Imitation: Imitation is an
around "school".
not such that he will be able to compare Important principle of language learning.
Grammatical grouping, i.e., grouping
then he will not be able to understand No learner by himself ever invented
according to similar patterns as, my
and use comparative adjectives like language. Good speech is the result of
book/ his book, (pattern grouping): in the
bigger or smaller. imitating good models. The model should
room, in the corner/ in the class/in the
be intelligible. Imitation followed by
Interaction: garden, etc, (phrase grouping)
Intensive practice helps in the mastery of
the language system. Semantic grouping, i.e., grouping
1) This theory emphasises on the according to meaning, Example: school,
interaction between children and people Principle of Controlled Vocabulary: college, university; bicycle, rickshaw, car,
upbringing them. Vocabulary should be kept under control. tonga, train, aeroplane, etc.
2) Interactionists such as Jerome Bruner Vocabulary should be taught and practised Sructure grouping, i.e., grouping in the
suggest that the language behaviour of only in the context of real situations. This structures means how the selected items
adults when talking to children is way, meaning will be clarified and fit one into the other-the sounds into the
specially adapted by the babies and thus reinforced. words, the words into phrases, the
affect their acquisition process. phrases into the clauses and the
Principle of Graded Patterns: "To teach a sentences, and the sentences into the
Principles of Language Teaching: language is to impart a new system of context.
complex habits, and habits are acquired
The modern approach to all language Sequence means what comes after what.
slowly" (R. Lado). So, language patterns
learning and teaching is the scientific equence should be there in the
should be taught gradually, in cumulative
one and is based on sound linguistic arrangement of sounds (phonetic
graded steps. This means, the teacher
principles. The principles discussed sequence), phrases (grammatical
should go on adding each new element or
below in no way claim finality: they are sequence) words (lexical sequence) and
pattern to previous ones. New patterns of
subject to change in light of new facts in meaning (semantic sequence).
language should be introduced and
exposed by linguists and language users. Sequence of structures implies direction,
practised with vocabulary that students
These principles are general principles expansion, variation and length of the
already know.
and are applicable to English language. structures.
Principle of Selection and Gradation:
Principle of Sound Priority: The sounds Principle of Oral Way: Experts believe
Selection of the language material to be
of English should receive priority. Sounds that the oral way is the surest way to
taught is the first requisite of good
should be given their due place in the language leaning. Prof. Kittson rightly
teaching. selection should be done in
scheme of teaching. Sounds should not observes: "Learning to speak a language
respect of gammatical items and
be presented in isolation. They should is always the shortest road to read and
vocabulary and structures.
appear in proper expressions and write it." Prof Palmer also writes: "We
sentences spoken with the intonation Selection of language items should involve: should refrain from reading and writing
and rhythm which would be used by a Frequency: how often a certain item or any given material until we have learnt to
native speaker. word is used use its spoken form".
Range: in what different contexts a word or
Principle of Presenting Language in Principle of Priorities of Language
an item can be used
Basic Sentence Patterns: Present, and Skills: Listening (with understanding),
Coverage: how many different meanings a speaking, reading and writing are the four
have the students memorise, basic
word or an item can convey fundamental skills. Listening and
sentence patterns used in day to day
Availability: how far an item is convenient speaking are primary skills, while reading
conversation. From small utterances the
to teach and writing are secondary skills. Reading
students can easily pass on to longer
sentences. In case of learning mother- Learn-ability: how far an item is easy to and writing are reinforcement skills. They
tongue, the student's memory span can learn reinforce What has been learnt through
retain much longer sentences than those Teach-ability: how far and item is easy to understanding and speaking. In fact,
of a foreign language. The facility thus teach - in the social context understanding and speaking speed up
gained in a foreign language enables the Gradation of the language material means the reading process. Writing should be
learners expand the grasp of the placing the language items in an order. introduced after reading.
language material in respect of sounds Grading involves grouping and sequence.
Grouping concerns (i) the system of Principle of Multiple Line of Approach:
and vocabulary items.
language, and (ii) its structures. Grouping "The term multiple line implies that one is
Principle of Language Patterns as the system of language means what to proceed simultaneously from many
Habits: Real language ability is at the different points towards the one and the
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same end. We should reject nothing pronunciation. The aini is to have the should be helped, if they fail) something
except the useless material and should students maximally exposed to the target familiar which is related to or contrasts
selected judiciously and without language in variety of contexts and with a new language item to be learnt.
prejudice all that is likely to help in our situations, not in isolation. The teacher
work". In teaching a language, it implies should prompt connections, feedback and Role of listening & Speaking:
attacking the problem from all fronts. correct errors, if any. The rule is leach, test,
With the growing demand of fluency in
Say, for example, there is a lesson on reteach and retest. The teacher' should
English throught the world, there has
'Holidays' in the text book, The teacher make continual and significant use of
been a considerable increase in the
can have a number of language activities language material m class-room situations.
interest of language teachers to find out
connected with the topic such as oral Palmer suggests the following six factors
different ways to teach the language. The
drill, reading, sentence writing, which lead to motivate and create interest
traditional position of skills like listening
composition, grammar, translation, among children:
and speaking has changed considerably
language exercises etc.
over the years. Recently, skills like
• The limitation of bewilderment, that is,
listening and speaking have earned
Principle of using language: Language minimum of confusion;
Habit through Language Using: A considerable acceptability in context of
language is best learnt through use in • The sense of progress achieved; language learning and quality research
different contexts and situations, Prof. • Competitions; has influenced our understanding of the
impotence of these two skills.
Eugene [A] Nida rightly observes, • Game-like exercises;
"Language learning means plunging
headlong into a series of completely
• The right relation between teacher and In the traditional ways of learning
student; and language, speaking was considered
different experiences. It means exposing
insignificant because it merely involved
oneself to situations where the use of • Variety
repetition after the teacher. It involved a
language is required". Another expert
Immediate Correction: Do make mechanical memorising of any Ianguage
expresses a similar opinion by saying:
corrections. Corrections make all the structure or any textual piece and simply
"Learning a language means forming
difference .They help in improving pupils' imitating the teacher's supposed ideal
new habits through intensive practice in
responses. But remember, when correction spoken words.
tearing and speaking. The emphasis
are made, they should be made
should always be on language in actual But when communicative language
immediately. Moreover, the corrections
use". teaching emerged in 1980s, it bought
should be made in such a way as will bring
about a remarkable change in syllabus
Principle of Spiral Approach: The "spiral" about learning and not frustration or
constuction by influencing the teaching
approach to language learning should be discouragement.
methods of speaking skill. Grammar
followed. Previously taught vocabulary
Reinforcement: Immediate reinforcement based syllabi were replaced by their
and structures should be reintroduced in
is an important principle.it has been communicative counterparts, primarily
subsequent units whenever logical or
experimentally proved that reinforcement based one non-grammatical units. The
possible. This is spiral approach.
of correct responses helps in better ultimate goal of the communicative
Principle of Use Mother-tongue learning.The student should be told his courses was fluency, which could be
Sparingly: The mother-tongue should be response is correct immediately after it is developed with less emphasis on
sparingly and judiciously used during given by him. grammar. For this, communicative
teaching English. Of course, at the early strategies were developed for enhancing
Frequent Review: An important the competency in skills like listening
stage, some explanations will have to be
psychological principle is the principle of and speaking.
given in pupil's mother tongue. It is
frequent review. Frequent review and re-
important that student do not use their
entry of the same material is necessary for Let us consider the role of listening from
mother-tongue in the classroom.
retention. During the process of reviewing, two different perspectives : 1) Listening
Psychological Principles of Teaching variations in material should be essentially as comprehension 2) Listening as
be introduced and practised. acquisition.
English:
It will not be out of place to list down Correct Responses: It is an important Listening as Comprehension:
certain principles which have been psychological principle that classroom
activities should strengthen the language As far as the role of listening is
derived from the science of psychology. concerned, the traditional view is to
skills. The techniques used by the teacher
Motivation: Motivation is an imponant of English should encourage the maximum consider listening as a means of
factor in language learning, particularly in rate of correct responses. This will give comprehension. The view depends on
learning a second language. It creates children the feeling of success, the concept that the main purpose of
interest as well as the need to learn the achievement and assured progress. listening is to assist the comprehension
language in hand. If the need for the of the spoken language.
language we use is felt, it is learnt easily. Practice in Everyday Situations: A
language is best learnt when its need is felt Characteristics of Spoken
Pupils' interest enti be aioused in a Communication:
number Of ways, and language learning in everyday situations. So, English should
can be made increasingly intcrcsting and be practised in everyday situations with Speaking is the most important skill
attractive. It can be done with the help of which children can easily identify. which is emphasised above all in English
pictures, charts, models, flash cards, learning for EFL. There is little doubt that
In short, the children, their environment
black board sketches and similar other learning to speak a foreign language
and their experiences, should be the
visual devices. The use of tape-recorder requires more than knowing its
starting point.Let them recall (and, they
can be most effective in the teaching of grammatical and semantic rules.
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Learners should require the knowledge Top-down processing: Role speaking:
of how native speakers use English in
specific situations in order to exchange It refers to the utilisation of background Mastery of speaking skills is a priority for
interpersonally. knowledge in appreciating the message second language learners. Learners try
utterance. The background knowledge to understand the effectiveness of the
Characteristics of spoken needed for top-down processing can be course in English by the proficiency level
communication are different from that of classified as under: attained in speaking. Both teachers and
its written counterpart. textbooks use different approaches for
1) It is normally instantaneous. 1) Previous knowledge of the topic enhancing the level of fluency.
2) The listener needs to listen to it at the 2) Situational or contextual knowledge,
moment it is happening because it is not 3) Knowledge in the format of schemata (a Functions of Speaking:
repetitive. diagram, plan, or scheme) or scripts. Most
of the 'knowledge of the world' depend on Several attempts have been undertaken
3) It is unplanned to classify the functions of speaking.
specific situations, people, goals and
4) Its structure is linear (speaking does Brown and Yule (1983) have
purposes and in applying 'prior knowledge'
not involve organising information as per considerable contribution in this section.
about these things is to comprehend the
importance) The functions are mentioned as under:
meaning of the topic. The actual discourse
5) It is personal and depends on the
heard is used to confirm expectations and
context. Talk as interaction: This refers to
to fill out detail.
6) It can be uttered with varying accent - conversation as well as exchange of
both standard and non-standard. Listening as Acquisition: ideas in any social function. When people
meet, they exchange greetings, get
Understanding of the Spoken Till now we have discussed about, listening involved in talking to each other on
Discourse: as a means to comprehension.The aim of several issues, recall experiences, etc.
any language learning course is based on Focus is on speakers and the way they
This involves two different processes:
the supposition at the role of listening is to present themselves. Main features of
1) Bottom-up processing, which moves develop the ability of the learner to talk as interaction are as follows:
from language to meaning understand what is spoken to him. This
approach to teaching of listening depends 1) Primarily linked to social functions 2)
2) Top-down processing which move
on the following: Deals with role relationships 3) Marks the
from meaning to language.
speaker's identity 4) Can be either formal
Bottom-up processing: 1) Listening aims at acquiring the meaning or casual 5) Conversational conventions
of the discourse. are used 6) Degrees of politeness are
1) It refers to the utilisation of the 2) For this, the student should be taught the reflected 7) Jointly constructed
incoming input as the foundation for way to use both bottom-up and top-down
understanding the message. processes (as explained earlier). Learning the skill of talk as interaction
2) Comprehension of message is may not be a priority for all the learners.
3) Language of utterances, like precise
analysed at several layers; it is observed But students who lack such skills feel
words, syntax, and expressions carry
as a simple process of decoding. awkward when talking to someone
meaning but in the temporary sense.
3) In order to understand the spoken text, because they tend to fumble due to the
4) If meaning is understood then there is no
one takes help of the process of lack of vocabulary. This hampers the
need for the words except in the case of
chunking (mental breaking up of the creation of any positive image of the
any difficulty.
components), where the whole utterance speaker in front of others. For
5) If the learners are taught how to listen
is broken up into short yet meaningful improvement, the learners may start to
more effectively, then their listening ability
units. practice on topics that are familiar to
can be enhanced considerably.
4) These meaningful units aid us to them. Moreover, they also need to
Teachers should undertake tasks which
remember the meaning of the utterance practice the skill of introducing new
may help the students to recognise and act
and not the form in which we hear. topics in their conversation, so that can
on the general, specific, or suggested
proceed to the next level of development
meanings of utterances (so that the role of
Examples of tasks that enhance bottom- in the act of speaking.
language as acquisition is fulfilled).
upl listening skill require the listeners to
do the following: Talk as transaction: Talk as transaction
These tasks are:
refers to such situations where the
1) Sequencing
1) Recognise the referents of pronouns emphasis is more on what is said or
2) True-false comprehension
In any utterance. done. In such cases, talking is
3) Picture Identification associated with other activities, e.g.
2) Distinguish the time reference of any
4) Summarising hands-on (practical) activities for
utterance.
5) More activities for 'effective listening science lesson. Examples are :
3) Discriminate between both posittve
strategies'.
and negative statements.
1) Group discussions in class and
4) Identify the order of words and their So it can be proposed that in situations, activities of problem-solving.
occurrence In any utterance. when comprehension and acquisition are 2) Students designing some posters.
5) Recognise sequence markers. the aims of listening, a two-part strategy 3) To ask someone for directions.
6) Recognise key words that can be (listening as comprehension and listening
4) To buy something from a shop.
found in the spoken text. as acquisition) may be employed for better
5) To order food in any restaurant
7) Recognise the definite modal verbs comprehension and subsequently better
and their occurrence in the text. performance. Main features of talk as transaction are:
1) Focus on information.
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2) Focus on message and not on Function of Language and How Acording to P. Gurrey, "Our chief concern
participants. Children use it as a Tool: should not be about the difficulties of
3) Employment of Strategies by the pronunciation, growth of vocabulary,
participants for making themselves Language is considered as a tool, and has grammar and structure of language
understood. implications on human development. One abilities". The key concern for an indian
4) Items like frequent questions and such implication is the ability to transform student is not only to understand spoken or
repetitions for better comprehension. the quintessence of culture. Language is written English but to be able to speak or
5) May involve negotiation and that form of conveyance, which 1) creates, write the language correctly. According to
digression. 2) transforms and 3) recreates culture.
Communicative Approach to ESL, a
6) Accuracy in language is not important. Functions of language: learner should lay more emphasis on
Skills which involve talk as transactions listening to native speakers and
1) Social function
are : speaking. The main aims are:
2) Development of the fourfold skills
1) Explaining some need (listning, speaking, reading and writing) 1) Student should be able to speak with
2) Description of something 3) Cultural function desired pronunciation.
3) Asking any question 4) Oral interaction 2) He should be able to write legibly with
4) Asking for some clarification 5) Expressive function a standard punctuation and correct
5) Confirming something 6) Communicative approach - aids in spellings.
6) Justifying or making some comprehension of pronunciation, spellings 3) He should be able to make simple,
suggestions and that of grammer. grammatically correct sentences.
7) Aesthetic aspect - in the literary texts. 4) He should be comfortable in
Talk as perfomance: This variety refers responding to short answer type
to public talk, i.e., communication that How children use it as a tool: questions properly.
transmits Information before an 5) He should be able to improve his
1) They use their own form of language to
audience, like presentations in reading skills.
correspond their ideas, demands, needs
classroom, public announcements, and feelings. 6) He should develop sufficient
speeches, etc. vocabulary.
2) Maintain relation with society and also
share culture by interacting through their 7) He should be able to understand
'Talk as performance' occurs in the form
form of language. different accents.
of monologue rather than dialogue, (e.g.,
3) Apply words and sentences learnt from 8) He should be in a position to
some welcome speech), and is nearer to
different places for communicating with correspond well in day-to-day English.
written language rather than
conversational language. It is generally each other.They learn about different
Aims of teaching english at senior
evaluated according to the effectiveness aesthetic values from the stories or poems
told to them or read out.
level:
or may be its influence.
At the stage of learning in classes IX to
Examples of talk as performance are: Aims of teaching english at junior level:
XII, both language development and
1) Giving some report on a trip Before we start reading and understanding literary development should take place
2) Conducting some class debate the challenges of teaching second simultaneously. The basic aims are:
3) Making some sales presentation language in classroom situation, we need
1) A student should be able to express
4) Giving lecture in a class to understand the aims and objectives of
freely.
teaching English. People have certain
2) He should be able to speak fluent and
Main features of talk as performance misconceptions in relation to the aims and
accurate English.
include: objectives of language teaching - for some,
3) He should be able to read books with
teaching of English seems to be merely
1) Focus on message and audience. proper understanding.
training them in literature and not the
2) Both form and accuracy are important. development of the skills (reading, 4) He should be able to grasp a
3) More like written than spoken. understanding, writing and speaking). vocabulary database of about 2500
4) It is often monologic. words, along with idioms and quotations.
There is a stark difference between the 5) He should be able to compose freely.
Skils involved in the usage of talk as teaching of first language and that of the 6) He should develop proper translating
performance are: second language. In both the situations, ability.
learning of the language is of principal 7) He should develop an inclination
1) Appropriate format should be used.
importance, but the aims and objectives towards English literature.
2) Information should be used in
differ profoundly. In the former, 8) He should be able to use resource
appropriate sequence.
understanding of the literary aspects is of material, e.g., dictionaries, reference
3) Audience engagement should be
central importance, but in the latter, books.
maintained.
development of the four-fold skills is
4) Correct pronunciation as well as Objectives of teaching english:
significant.
grammar is mandatory.
5) Creation of effect. During the stage starting from primary Reception:
6) Proper opening and closing. school to class VIII, the main aim of
To enable the students to understand
teaching language, especially a second
English when spoken:
language, is language development.
The pupil should be capable of
In simple words, English should be taught
understanding English when spoken
as a language and not as literature.
6
within a common vocabulary under the to a person who is native of another state. 3) The students should bring in proper
conditions of normal communication The child should be provided with accent to the word.
among native speakers at conversation opportunities to use those verbal symbols 4) The students should be able to read at
speed. But spoken English is more which he has started understanding, This a reasonable pace.
difficult to understand than written means: 5) Reading faults related to hand and eye
English due to pronunciation, unfamiliar movements are not committed by them.
accent and the speed at which words are 1) The child should make the sounds-single
spoken. This ability is needed in sounds as well as sound in combination. The students should be helped in
conversation, greetings, receiving orders, 2) The child should know the use of proper understanding new words and sentence
listening to lectures, new bulletins and stress and accent. patterns by the teacher. Recognition of
participation in school debates and 3) The child should use short simple vocabulary by the students should be
dramas. For this, students should be sentences for expressing himself. increased.
given opportunities to listen to radio and 4) The child should have the ability of
conversation in English, answering and To enable the students to write correct
T.V. The aim should be making the
asking simple questions, English:
students capable to understand spoken
English. 5) He should talk about events, places, After listening comprehension, comes
things and persons in simple English. the turn of speaking, reading and then
To make the students capable for
writing. Writing is last but not the least.
understanding written English: This aim of teaching English can be
This aim should enable the students to
achieved by the teacher in the following
To enable learners understand written write simple letters, applications,
ways:
English is very important for the students descriptions, etc. English is likely to
in our country. It enables them to get 1) The teacher should give the child too continue as the official language of India
latest information in their subject of many opportunities for listening and and so, we should aim at giving our
studies. After leaving the school, a speaking English. students enough knowledge of English
student is expected to read as well as so that they may not face any difficulty. It
2) The teacher should present a good is a very sad fact that in India, a high
accurately comprehend books,
model of speech for the child - a good school student or even a college student
magazines and newspapers in English.
speaker will be produced by a good model finds it difficult to write an application
At higher level, he should be able to adopt
and a bad speaker by a bad model. correctly.
English as the medium of instruction and
examination. 3) The teacher himself can be a good The reason behind this is the wrong end
model by learning and practicing English outdated orthodox methods of teaching.
When the learners read something, they
sounds. Students cram a few important
can enjoy the aesthetics of a language
the best. Literature enhances a lahguage. compositions and the teachers do not
4) Linguaphone, gramophone, tape-
So literature of a language should be an care giving them the required knowledge
recorder, radio, CD-player, computer etc.
integral part of language learning. of writing English correctly. Writing is a
should be used as teaching aids during the
complex process for which the
teaching hours.
Expression: knowledge of language, grammar and
To enable the students to read correct familiarity with the subject are required.
To enable the students to speak correct Writte work should be planned for the
English (loud reading):
English: students.
For expressing the ideas; reading is an
It is difficult to speak English than to read
important means. Many educationists General aims at Junior and Senior
and write it. Similarly reading is easier
suggest that before starting the reading of Levels:
than writing. For speaking, the ability to
foreign language, the young students
produce sounds and to speak with There are several general aim of learning
should be equipped with a sound training in
proper stress and accent is required. English. For the study of technical
reading mother tongue. In learning English,
Speech is the base for all language subjects, more and more technical terms
reading refers to verbal symbols with
learning. in English should be learnt. Our aim
written shapes. Ability to read well and
reading with comprehension should be should be to give our Indian students a
This aim of teaching is being ignored in
developed in the learners. Loud reading is working knowledge of English so that
our country. It is very sad that a student
the first form of reading. Base for silent they can work efficiently.
who is quite good at reading and writing
can hardly speak few correct sentences reading in higher classes and in adult life Thus, ESP (English for Specific Purpose)
in English. This subject is still being will be prepared by this. Learners can get is very important because it has been
studied with the aim of passing an pleasure out of language through reading. concerned with practical outcomes.
examination so as to secure a job in an Though it is a separate branch of English
Learning of foreign language brings forth
office or elsewhere. language teaching, it has always seen
many problems. The teacher should know
the problems of the learners and the latter itself as material-driven and classroom-
To fulfill this aim of teaching English,
should be helped in every way to read well. based activity. It may be taught to
greater opportunities to learn speech
During loud reading the teacher should intermediate and advanced students and
should be provided to the students. For
keep in mind that: beginners. It is of course designed to
learning a language, eartraining imitation
meet the specific needs of the learners.
and constant practice is needed. For this
1) The students should pronounce the For international communication, English
purpose, tape-recorders can be used.
words correctly. is very important. The intelligent and
This ability of speaking English is
2) The students should give proper stress trained teachers should give their
required in big cities and while speaking
on the words. students a balanced knowledge of the
7
different aspects of learning English so experiment with newer methods of 7) Difficulty in retaining details of any
that various aims of learning the teaching language. story.
language may be achieved easily. 8) Difficulty in responding suitably to
Poor Monitoring: questions.
Challenge of Teaching Language in a 9) Difficulty in reading or in writing
This is a very disgusting scene in various
diverse classroom: spellings.
schools, where English language teaching
After knowing the aims and objectives of takes place but there is no system of 10) Difficulty in recalling sequences
teaching English in a second language monitoring to assess the standard of (numbers or letters).
scenario, let us focus on the area of teaching and learning. 11) Difficulty in understanding and use of
effective teaching. speech sound errors or substitutions.
Shortage of Trained English Teachers: 12) Repetition of sounds or phrases (e.g.
Teaching and effective teaching are two "He-he-he wants my car" or "I-I-I want to
There is an acute shortage of trained
terms quite synonymous with practice go home").
English teachers, who are basically capable
and perfect practice. Effective teaching 13) They appear to get stuck-up on a
of taking challenges of language
can be achieved primarily by taking particular sound (e.g. "S-s-s-s-sorry for
proficiency for students. Training
certain pre-empt measures based on being Iate").
programmes or workshops can always
tracing the problem, anticipating and 14) Students grow frustrated when they
prove to be handy. A teacher, who is also a
marking the ups and downs and then are unable to convey their idea; this
learner should teach the students in
suggesting solutions and remedies. situation gives rise to the withdrawal of
informal situation so must so that the
Considering this, some important factors one's ownself from any communication.
learners become capable of using four
affecting teaching can be framed and
skills adequately. To eradicate the above difficulties, the
discussed as follows:
following steps should be adopted by the
Clarity of Aims:
Teacher-student Ratio: teacher:
Target oriented teaching should be
Generally it is seen that for higher 1) Create an ambience which is learner-
prevalent. Generally, teachers tend to
classes, viz. Xl and Xll, the number of friendly. It should be such an ambience
unfold the essentials of syllabus only and
students is between 60-90.Under such where the students can learn without any
the students are not encouraged to bring
condition, the teacher cannot give his anxiety.
about any creative expression. It is just
best to all. So the number of students in 2) The students must be encouraged
more or less a process of mugging up.
each class should be a maximum of 30- active listeners.
35 for a teacher to teach. Now according Poor facilities in Classroom: 3) The students should not be interrupted
to the aims and objectives of RMSA when they are speaking; teachers should
(Rastriya Madhyamik Siksha Abhijan) the The classroom should be well ventilated not impose any time constraints on
students and teacher ratio must be 30:1 and seats for the students should be them.
comfortable, so that students may focus 4) The students should be encouraged to
Logocentric Approach: primarily on the aspects of learning. take time before talking. This time helps
Needless to say, without an efficient them to organise their thoughts.
Teachers of English have been observed
teacher a classroom is bare in spite of all 5) When students are speaking,
to have a greater stress on grammatical
advantages. correcting their grammatical errors
written portions of English, but when it
comes to the actual correct should be avoided.
Language difficulties:
pronunciation of words, such aspects are 6) Comprehending long sentences is
not covered thoroughly in the class, Research has referred to the Inter- tough for students with language
leading to the same old stage of relationship between language skills and problems. So, teacher should Instruct
hesitation in speech and lack of that of academic performance.The them in short and simple sentences.
confidence and the communication gap. language skills are important for 7) Instruction should involve multiple
transforming the classroom from merely senses (listening, seeing, smelling, etc)
It is recommended that there should be following the teacher's directions to that of 8) Positive reinforcement helps in better
an active knowledge of 300 words every expressing the learners own ideas.For and effective learning.
class till class X; in class XI, it could be children of all ages, problems like speech
extended further through suitable texts. and language difficulties can be very de- Errors:
A vocabulary of 500 words for active motivating and can also hamper their
usage and 500 words for passive usage, Error analysis (EA) is the first approach
learning process. Some of the typical
i.e., a vocabulary of 1000 words is to the study of SLA which includes an
language difficulties as far as children are
suggested. internal focus on learner's creative ability
concerned are enlisted below.
to construct language.It is based on the
Outdated Methodology: 1) Difficulty in following spoken directions description and analysis of actual learner
or those read from book or pamphlets. errors In L2, rather than on idealised
English teachers should ensure that they linguistic structures attributed to native
develop different ways of teaching for 2) Difficulty in comprehending stories.
3) Difficulty in organising the learner's own speakers of L1 and L2. A teacher must be
different target groups e.g. It is not at all aware of the fact that negative transfer
a suggestible norm to teach grammar- thoughts.
4) Difficulty in finding the appropriate often hinders the learner's attempt to
translation method to students of class X acquire L2.
when It is already there in the curriculum words for situations or things.
of lower standard. Taking in view the 5) Use of non-specific words.
psychology of the students, there is 6) Use of gestures in place of words for
definitely a need to improvise and conveying the message.
8
Identification of Errors: Evaluation of Errors: information. Problems, which are normally
experienced involve:
The first step in the analysis requires This step involves analysis of what effect 1) Grammar (syntax or morphology)
determination of elements in the Sample the error has on whoever is being
2) Semantics (meaning), or different
of learner language which deviates from addressed: e.g., how serious it is, or to what
aspects of language
the target L2 in some way. Corder (1967) extent it affects intelligibility or social
distinguishes between systematic errors acceptability (such as qualifying for a job). Such problems could be:
(which result from learner's lack of L2 1) Receptive (this involves 'impaired
knowledge) and mistakes (the results Language Disorders: language comprehension'),
from some kind of processing failure 2) Expressive (the involves 'language
Development of Speech and Language:
such as a lapse in memory), which he production'), or
excludes from the analysis. Child develops through different stages.A 3) Combination of both
child can acquire L2 quite successfully in
Description of Errors: Examples of such problems may incIude
puberty. It may however be noted that the
stages which are mentioned below may not specific language impairment and also
For purposes of analysis, errors are
be achieved by every child in the same time. aphasia among other problems.
usually classified according to:
Any child, who is late in achieving these Language disorders can influence both
1) Language level (whether an error is
milestones, does not necessarily suffer spoken and written language.
phonological, morphological, syntactic
etc.), from any developmental delay or speech
Aphasia:
2) General linguistic category (e.g. disorder.
auxiliari system, passive sentences, This is a type of language impairment
From birth to the 3rd month:
negative constructions), or and involves difficulty in remembering
1) Responds to sounds
3) More specific linguistic elements (e.g. words. This may range up to the
2) Smlles when interacted to complete disability of speaking, reading,
articles, prepositions, verb form)
3) Responds with 'cooing' or writing.
Explanation of Errors:
From 4th month to 6th month: Auditory Processing Disorder (APD):
Accounting for why an error was made is 1) Pays attention to sound
the most important step in trying to 2) Shifts attention to the direction of This also known as Central Auditory
understand the processes of SLA. sounds Processing Disorder. This includes
3) Babbles that resemble somewhat like disorders of different kinds, which
Two of the most likely causes of L2 speech influence the way the brain processes
errors are: auditory information. Individuals
1) Interlingual (between languages) From 7th month to 1st year: suffering from this cannot process
factors, resulting from negative transfer 1) Able to recognise basic words information which they hear similar to
or interference from L1. 2) Able to imitate varied speech sounds that of others.
2) Intralingual (within language) factors, 3) Able to produce first words (mama,
not attributable to cross-linguistic papa, etc.) Specific Language Impairment (SLI):
influence. These are known as This is characterised by deficiency in the
From 1st year to 2nd year:
developmental errors and often development of the child's language
represent incomplete learning of L2 rules 1) Simply listens to stories
2) Able to identify pictures to that of names faculty.
or overgeneralisation of them.
3) Able to speak two-word sentences. Dyslexia:
The weather is been1 very hot in the2
Washinton D.C. There climate3 last From 2nd year to 3rd year: It is characterised by learning disability
week warm4 1) Able to understand differences between that impairs a person's fluency or
1) Use of is instead of has with been words (for e.g. up-down) comprehension accuracy in being able
(intralingual / developmental error). 2) Able to produce sentences which are of to read. This is something which can
This is evident that the speaker/writer three-words manifest itseIf as a difficulty with
is learning the English auxiliary verb 3) Able to name most of the objects phonological awareness, phonological
system, but hasn't yet mastered the
decoding, orthographic coding, auditory
distinction between forms of be and From 3rd year to 4th year:
have. short-term memory, or rapid naming.
1) Able to understand questions
2) Use of the with a place name 2) Able to talk about different events Pragmatic Language Impairment:
(intralingual / developmental error). 3) Most children understand speech
This is evident that the speaker/writer This impairment involves problems in
is learning to use articles in front of From 4th year to 5th year: understanding pragmatic areas of
nouns but hasn't yet learned that they 1) Suitably responds to questions and language. This was earlier called
do not occur before most place stories semantic-pragmatic disorder (SPD).
names.
2) Able to speak clearly This is related to autism and Asperger's
3) There climate is a direct translation
3) Able to speak or narrate stories in a syndrome. People suffering from this
of the mother tongue phrase.
logical manner. have problems in comprehending the
4) The use of the word warm also
reflects an interlingual / interference 'semantic aspect of language - the
Various Language Disorders: meaning of the words uttered and also
error, because there is a reflection of
the mother tongue. the pragmatics of language - language
Language disorders or language
usage in social conditions.
impairments are those disorders that
include the processing of linguistic
9
Speech Repetition: Language Skills: 6) The listeners should understand the
distinctive word order model.
It is a situation wherein the speaker For a long period of time teacher of
repeats the words the other person has language used four basic language skills 7) The listeners should identify the short
spoken. viz., Listening, Speaking, Reading and forms of the word used in the
Writing communication.
Communication Disorder: 8) The listeners should detect the key
All the four basic skills are inter-related to words.
A communication disorder is a type of each other by two parameters:
speech and language disorder which 9) The listeners should be familiar with
1. Communication mode: Speaking or vocabulary.
involve problems in information to the
Writing 10) The listeners should imagine sense
learners with special needs for effective
2. Communication direction: Receiving or (guess the meaning) from circumstance.
learning.
Producing the message 11) The listeners should identify
The teacher should always keep in mind interconnected strategy.
The above relationships can be
that he / she is not responsible for
represented as follows: 2. Speaking skill: As stated earlier in the
recognizing the disability or taking
decision on the accommodations. table above, this skill is productive skill in
Mode Oral Written
oral mode. This skill is more complicated
Recetive Listening Reading
The point to be remembered while than what we think about speaking and
mode Skill Skill
Teaching in a Diverse Classroom: Productive Speaking Writing making pronunciation of word.
mode Skill Skill
As we know that students are diverse in We face three kinds of listening situation,
their cultures, backgrounds, experiences, In this way, we can see that there may be viz.,
learning styles, and many other four types of skills: a) Interactive situation
dimensions, so effective learning is 1) Listening-comprehension skill b) Partially Interactive situation
possible only when this diversity is kept 2) Speaking skill c) Non-interactive situation
in mind while formulating variety of 3) Reading skill
teaching methods to promote student 4) Writing skill a. Interactive situation: In face - to - face
learning. conversation and telephone calls we
1. Listening-comprehension skill: What we have the opportunities to interact and we
For a teacher it is important to recognize hear and understand on listening called have freedom to have some clarification
own learning styles and cultural Listening comprehension skill. This is about the doubts similar to Listening-
assumptions, as these styles and receptive skill In oral mode. comprehension skill as the listening and
assumptions influence how a teacher speaking goes simultaneously in such
teaches and what he/she expects from We face two kinds of listening situation, situation.
students. This awareness allows viz., (a) Interactive Situation and (b)Non-
teachers to develop a more wide-ranging interactive Situation b. Partially Interactive situation: It may
teaching style. be partially interactive situation.Where
a. Interactive Situation: In face-to-face one side of communicating persons may
Teacher should be communicative early conversation and telephone calls, we have understand the other only by body
in the paths that are related to meet the the opportunities to interact and we have language and otherwise, for example, in
needs of all students and he/she has to freedom to have some clarification about case of giving a speech to audience (a
help them learn. the doubts. leader giving speech to his party
b. Non-interactive situation: When we are members) where conventionally the
Teacher should take much care in
listening to radio, TV, movie theatres, audience are seldom allowed to interact.
appreciating individuals as each of them
have unique needs, standards, announcement on railways or airways, In this situation, the speaker has only
viewpoints and experiences. lectures, oration of any public meeting, opportunity to guess the
railways enquiry systems on phones etc., understandability of the audience by
Teacher should plan his course of action we have no opportunities for any types of observing the face and body language.
in such a way at each class gets multiple interaction.
examples to illustrate the teaching points c. Non-interactive situation: When a
reflecting different cultures, experiences, Richard (1983) has proposed some micro programme is recorded for radio
sexual orientations, genders, etc. In this - skills while listening to someone: broadcasting, there is no any scope for
way, all students may be included in the interaction with audience; this situation
1) The listener has to keep portion of
learning process. is non-interactive situation. Similar is the
language in short term memory.
2) The listeners should recognize stress case in dialogues, in plays or movies
Teache should help students in moving
and rhythm patterns, tone patterns into where the audience has the opportunities
between abstract, theoretical knowledge
national outline. to hear only without any scope -for
and concrete, specific experiences, to
speaking.
enlarge learning all the students in the 3) The listeners should identify
class. grammatical word classes. The speaker should follow some micro-
4) The listeners should notice sentence speaking skill in conversation:
Teacher should use diverse teaching component, such as subject, verb, object,
technique, viz., lectures; small group prepositions etc. The speaker should pronounce the
discussions, mutual learning etc. to meet 5) The listeners should distinguish basic distinguishing sounds of a language so
the multiplicity of learning needs. syntactic patterns. clearly that people can differentiate
them.
10
The speaker should use the stress, vii. The reader should get the central point According to Wiles, ‘Evalution is a
rhythmic and modulation patterns of the or the nearly all important information. process of making judgements that are
language so clearly that people can used on a basis of planning’. It consists
understand the statements. viii. The reader should keep in mind that the of establishing goals, collecting evidence
The speaker should user the correct main ideas are distinguished from concerning growth or lack of growth
forms of words, for example, changes in supporting ideas or information. towards goal, making judgement about
the tense, case, or gender putting words ix. The reader should adopt a reading the evidence, and revising procedures
together in correct word order. strategy for different purpose of reading as and goals in the light of the judgement.It
The speaker should use suitable for example whether reading is for grasping is a procedure for improving the product,
vocabulary. the main idea or studing in depth. the process, and even the goals
The speaker should use the variety of themselves’.
language which is appropriate to the 4. Writing skill: As stated earlier in the
table, this skill is productive skill in written One of the important process involved in
condition and the rapport to the talking
mode. This skill is more complex than what planning a language-curriculum (in fact,
partner.
we think of it and more often it is the this applies to any curriculum) is
The speaker should speak in such a away
toughest skill even for the native speaker evaluation. Here evaluation is used in a
that the major sentence components, like
as it requires not only the graphic much broader sense and refers not only
subject, verb and object are made clear
representation of the speech but also the to the assessment that is made of
to the listener.
improvement and arrangement of thoughts individual student’s performance but
The speaker should keep in mind that the
in a controlled way. That is to say, a writer also to the general assessment of
main ideas are conveyed first in
has to express his view systematically with whether the objectives and aims
comparison with supporting ideas or
the help of some symbols, i.e., the letters in specified in the curriculum have been
information.
most the languages. Establishing a relation achieved or not.How ever, in relation to
The speaker should make the
between the thought process and writing students we used other terms -
conversation suspend time to time, so
skills is very much complicated. examination, testing, measurement, etc.
that people can follow the saying.
to identify how far they have succeeded
3. Reading skill: As stated earlier in the The writer should follow some micro - in achieving the goals that were set for
table, this skill is receptive skill in written writing skill: them.Generally, these terms are used
mode. Reading skills can be developed i. The writer should apply the orthography interchangeably.However, evaluation
independently in comparison with properly, including the script, spelling and and measurement are broader terms
listening skills and speaking skills. But in conventional punctuations. than testing and examination. While
case of highly developed literary ii. The writer should utilize the proper forms examination lays emphasis on formal
tradition, this skill can be developed of words that express the right tense, or education, evaluation shows the total
along with listening skills and speaking case or gender. development of a learner.
skills. Reading skill helps in building iii. The writer should position words
together in proper word order.
Examination and Test:
vocabulary, which require in listening
skills and speaking skills in next stage. iv. The writer should make use of In education, two terms need our
vocabulary suitably. immediate attention - examination and
The reader should follow some micro v. The writer should apply appropriate style test. Examination usually refers to a
- reading skill: keeping in mind the genre and audience. formal assessment of student's
The reader should interpret the script. In vi. The writer should compose the most achievements that is organised by
alphabetic system, the words have to be important sentence components, such as schools or an examining body (the Board
syllabiflied and recognized, that is to say subject, verb and object very of School Education, for instance). This
that a relationship between sounds and comprehensible to the reader. is usually done through 21/2 - 3 hour
symbols has to be set up. If it is a vii. The writer should adopt the writing in question papers at the end of the session
pictograph (symbol) systems the such a way that the main ideas are / term (annually or biannually). Students
meaning of the words with written differentiated from supporting ideas or are assembled in what are generally
symbols should be associated. information. known as examination halls: each has a
viii. The writer should compose the text seat and none has access to textbooks,
i. The reader should be familiar With logical for followmg the development of the notes or any other material. The sole
vocabulary. ideas by other people. purpose of a examination seems to be to
ii. The reader should pick out key words ix. The writer should estimate the make an assessment of how much
of the topics and understand the main background knowledge of the audience on students have learnt during the session
ideas. the subject so that writer can make it clear and how faithfully they can reproduce
iii. The reader should outline the meaning to them, which are assumed that they don’t that in writing. The success and failure of
of the words together with unknown know. students is determined on the basis of
vocabulary from the written context. marks / grade he gets after the exminer
iv. The reader should identify Testing and Evaluation: essesses the answer-script.
grammatical word classes (parts of
Introduction: Evaluation can be defined as Most of our educational institutions rely
speech, e.g. noun, pronoun, verb, adverb,
‘a process of asscertaining or judging the heavily on annual examinations as the
preposition, adjective, etc.)
value or amount of something by careful sole criterion for assessing the
v. The reader should identify sentence
appraisal’. Evaluation concerns itslef with achievement of students.They have
components, such as subject, verb,
scholastic achievement as well as with become a necessary evil.However, it is a
object etc.
behaviour changes. fact that they have become problematic
vi. The reader should identify
fundamental syntactic patterns. in terms of management, administration,
11
finances and efficiency.That is why every classes or in particular groups of learning - answer to a question, individual
now and then we hear different voices beginners, intermediate and advanced. differences in marking do not arise.
calling for revamping the system. Selection examinations and placement Students record their answers non-
tests are proficiency tests. TOEFL linguistically by putting a cross, a tick,
Test or evaluation also assesses (Teaching of English as Foreign Language), encircling or by shading a particular
student’s performance but not in the and Cambridge Proficiency Eamination are response box on a response sheet. Most
narrower sense as in examination.Here, examples of such tests. of the questions are of multiple-choice
we not pass judgement upon the
type. On the other hand, subjective tests
learner.In fact, it is a way of identifying Achievement Test:
aim to test linguistic knowledge of
his strengths and weaknesses, his
An achievement test (also called students and are marked by evaluators
deficiencies and gains.The findings will
summative or attainment) is aimed to whose personal judgments matter a lot
help the learner to improve his learning
determine the standard / extent that the in determining the mark scheme. For
and grow.Test or evaluation may be
students have reached after pursuing a instance, in evaluating an essay, the
useful to the teacher also as they would
course of study over a period of time (an evaluator looks for so many things in
tell him/her whether or not he/she has
academic session). Usually conducted at order to make an overall assessment of
been successful in handling the Iearning.
the end of term or end of the year, the writing. He looks for spelling,
Thus, evaluation becomes an integral
achievement tests look backward to what grammar, punctuation, cohesion,
part off the learning process. nothing is
has been taught and how much of it has expression, content and so on before he
final here; it is a continuous
been learned by students. Indirectly, they gives a mark to the essay. Personal
comprehensive process of assessing
help to evaluate the teaching programme judgements, approaches, likes and
student's accomplishment.
as a whole. Annual examinations dislikes play a vital role In determining
Kinds of Tests: conducted by schools and other what marks the student deserves as a
educational institutions at the end of their result of which there, most of the time,
There are four kinds of tests to be academic sessions are all achievement there occurs great variation in marks
considered in terms of their purpose: tests. Achievement tests sre more formal between different evaluators.
in operation and economically more
Aptitude Test: Annual examinations as conducted by
demanding because they require a large
Boards of School Education in a lndia are
An educational institution or an number of paper-setters, examiners,
mostly subjective tests; they may be
examining body appointed for this evaluators and other staffs.Large rooms,
partially objective: in some board exams
purpose, may want to see whether or not commonly known as ‘examination halls’ are
students are given a separate sheet
a student will be able to learn English at needed to conduct such tests, especially at
containing 10-15 marks objective
all. The philosophy behind this test is that the levels - secondary level, for instance -
questions to be attempted before they
the learner will be involved in a different where the number of examinees runs into
receive the normal question paper.
code (language) of learning. We must several thousands.
evaluate/assess his overall ability to subjective tests have been a matter of
Assessment is made usually through a 3-
cope with the alien structures of the new controversy because they are usually
hour question-paper and generally through
language (English in our case). Such a unreliable. The variation in the marks of
essay-type questions. The question-paper
test is called the aptitude or prognostic different markers is often so great that
contains 8-10 questions out of which
test. one wonders whether the result obtained
students are asked to answer 5 questions,
could be taken as a real assessment of
An aptitude test, as mentioned above, is each carrying 15-20 marks.
student's abilities. It will also be seen that
designed to discover a learner's potential
Diagnostic Test: a marker who has awarded a particular
for acquiring English, or undertaking a
mark to the script, would invariably give a
particular course. The question being A diagnostic test is given to identify or different mark to the same script next
asked is, "Can students learn English at diagnose student's strengths and time. That is why it was needed to evolve
all?" Aptitude tests are indirectly weaknesses during a teaching programme. some checklist of points for the markers
language specific. Aptitude test items It determines what errors are occurring and to look for in a script so that the
include 1) using codes 2) generate or what corrective measures should be assessment becomes somewhat
create message(s) on the basis of given needed to rectify those errors. Class-tests reliable. Many have suggested multiple
data and symbols 3) memorise syllables that a teacher might give periodically to marking by different markers which,
etc. determine how far the students have though good, would be time consuming.
progressed in language learning are can
Proficiency Test:
example of diagnostic tests. Such tests are Discrete items tests:
A proficiency test is given to assess a usually informal and designed for quite
specific purposes, the difficulties that arise In discrete item tests, language is seen
student's ability to communicate in
and to do something to solve them. as a code which is made up of sounds,
future actual situations. Such a test
syntax and lexis. Knowing a language is
concentrates on questions like "Does the
Subjective and objective testing: therefore seen as knowing the rules of
student know enough English to … (for
grammar and/or the distinct points of
instance, to work as a secretary / sales- The words subjective and objective in phonology, morphology, syntax and lexis
executive etc. in a company)?" The test is testing refer to the mode by which the test of English, translating English
not based on any particular course or is marked. There is nothing intrinsically words/sentences into L1 or mother
content but aims to assess global ability objective or subjective about a test item as tongue of the learner, etc.
in students. such. Objective tests can easily be marked
mechanically, by an intelligent automation, Test items would normally be designed
Proficiency tests are used to place
a machine. Since there is one correct to test student's knowledge in, for
individuals in appropriate language
12
instance, declining verbs, tenses, etc. choosing the distracters. Sometimes the A long time back, dictation was a class
Most of the examination at the school items are designed in such a way that they test that teacher gave occasionally to
level will contain items like the following: pose comprehension problems to the check spelling, punctuation, etc. They
examinees. Study the follo ing definition : have never been used in our institutions
1) Fill in the blank with the correct to inflict great anguish as a serious testing device because there
option: has never been a provision for testing
a) Precede b) result c) ador d) torment
She is ______ her breakfast. spoken or listening skills in our schools.
a) eating b) ate c) eats d) eaten This item could be problematic to a large
2) Choose the correct option: section of students because of the two Cloze Test:
Rashid (lives) (is living) (has lived) in words in the lead: inflict and anguish - both
of them might be difficult for them. The Cloze tests originated in the 1950s as a
Delhi since 1940.
distracters a - d are the real problem that technique for assessing reading abilities
3) Write the past form of the following
they have to sort out. So, both the lead and of native speakers and later on, it was
verbs:
the choices are problematic here. The applied to test the reading
Pass, walk, relate, go, take, write
general rule in testing vocabulary is that comprehension of nonnative speakers
In fact, any grammatical item in isolation either of the two - lead or choices should as well.
forms an essential part of the question be problematic and not both. In the above, A cloze test is actually a passage in
paper. the lead could have been written as: to which some words have been deleted
cause great suffering. and students are required to fill up these
Discrete item tests are based on the
most traditional behaviourist theory of Similarly, In the following item, alternatives gaps with appropriate words. Two types
language teaching and learning which given are not of the same difficulty level; A of gaps are usually given : 1) functional -
considered language learning an is much more dlfflcult than other: conjunctions, prepositions, article, etc.
accumulation of isolated linguistic items Very evil which have only one correct filler and 2)
that the learner was supposed to repeat semantic - nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.
a) nefarious b) delicious c) prosperous d)
over a period of time till the items were that can be filled with any one of a
courageous
memorised (the process is called number of alternatives.
fossilisation). The argument presented Here, choices b - d are not related to the
Cloze tests are basically usage-based
against such teaching and testing was general idea. All of them are positive in
tests that do not say much about the
isolated and could tell us whether or not sense. With a little commonsense, the
communicative capacity of the learners.
the learner could frame a correct examinees could guess about the choice a)
They are not interactive in nature. Also,
structure, word, etc. but it did not as the only possible answer. This problem
gap filling was not systematic. There
necessarily tell us whether he would be occurs in the following item also:
existed two main marking schemes: 1)
able to use it to achieve communication A small branch
the 'exact' and 2) the 'acceptable' gap
in real life situations or not. a) twig b) frog c) doom d) plum
fillers. In the former, the student would be
Cognitivists or mentalists challenged the Choices b - d are not at all related to the given the original word which was found
very basis of Behaviourism and 'lead' definition. If we write the choices as: to be rather difficult. In the latter, more
maintained that techniques like than one acceptable forms could be
memorisation, imitation, repetition etc. a) twig b) reed c) shrub d) wreath given which made it difficult for the
would not account for the mental it would appear more challenging and more students to assess which one was more
capacity that the speaker possessed meaningful. appropriate than others. Such decisions
with the help of which they were able to would normally be taken by individual
The important point to keep in mind is that
not only to produce grammatically teachers on their own judgement that
even if the teacher is forced to keep
correct sentences but also novel ones by would affect the mark scheme as well.
discrete items in the examinations, they
applying necessary rules. Moreover, there was no scope in a cloze
must be carefully designed so that the
test to assess whether the student could
As mentioned above, the major criticism objectives of the test are achieved.
produce language spontaneously. Like
against this testing was that even if the dictation, it also assesses the knowledge
Dictation:
learner displayed the knowledge of the of the language and ignores the ability to
grammar of English, it did not in itself In the past, dictation was used by teachers use language as and for communication.
show that he would be able to use the to correct the student's listening problems.
knowledge to achieve communicative The claim was that it provided opportunity Qualities of a good test:
purposes in real life situations and to the learners to discriminate sounds and
Three qualities have been identified for
context. Language is not simply the then perceiving them as words to be written
any test to be good. They are:
knowledge; it is skill also. We may know down. As an alternative to discrete item
a lot about swimming, but the real test of testing, dictation got some popularity under Validity:
the knowledge is possible only when we the influence of structuralism/
really jump into the water and put our behaviourism. However, it was criticised for Validity is concerned with relevance, i.e.
knowledge into practice. Similarly, our three reasons: 1) it did not test grammar as whether or not the test actually tests
knowledge of language rules can be of it was provided by the teacher 2) since the what it aimed to test. In order to achieve
use only if we are able to use them for teacher gave full words, it could not be that goal, the test objectives must be
communicating effectively in called a test of lexis; and 3) grammatical clearly stated, breaking them down in the
sociolinguistic situations. form, there was not much for the learner to skills and abilities and define them in
discriminate between or to perceive. separate items and then assess them in
Aother problem with discrete item situations which are closely related to
testing has been found with writing the
test items. One has to be very careful in
13
the real-life situations in which they will that uses consumable booklets. A test that language class, if the teacher teaches
be used. involves lesser number of invigilators and vocabulary items every Tuesday, then
evaluators will certainly be cheaper than an both the teacher and the student can
Five types of validities have been examination where a large number of prepare themselves and get ready for
employed: people are needed for conduct and that class and in this way the approach
1) Face validity: The test looks like a evaluation. on both sides can be very focused.
good one (to the student it appears to
have credibility). Teaching Learning Materials: Differentiation of Instruction:
2) Content validity: The test accurately
Introduction: TLM can also assist teachers in
reflects the syllabus.
differentiation of instruction. This
3) Predictive validity: The test accurately In education, teaching learning material implies construction of lessons in
predicts performance in some (TLM) refers to a range of educational accordance to the varied styles of
subsequent situation. materials used in the classroom in order to learning and also the capacity of the
4) Concurrent validity: The test gives accomplish specific learning objectives as students within the classroom. Teaching
similar results to existing tests which laid out in the lesson plans. Learning Materials are very effective in
have already been validated.
nourishing and nurturing young learners.
5) Construct validity: The test reflects Teaching materials can be defined as a
But this aspect is quite neglected in
accurately the principles of a valid theory term used to refer to the resources that
several schools. And therefore, the
of foreign language learning. teachers use in order to convey
learners are not interested in their
instruction(s).
It has been argued that absolute validity monotonous classes which lay emphasis
is not possible. Except for face validity, Teaching learning materials support on lecture, board work and tedious
all other types are circular in definition: student learning and increase success in homework.
assumptions governing the nature of reference to second Ianguage learning of
Acquiring Teaching Materials:
language and language teaching will the students.
naturally lead to language tests which At first, acquiring teaching materials may
are valid in terms of those assumptions. Ideally speaking, teaching materials should
not seem to be a difficult task because of
Once the basic assumptions are be in accordance with the content which is
the internet. But materials from the
challenged (as happened with being used for teaching the students,
internet may not satisfy the respective
behaviourism), the test also loses its keeping in mind the class, the course and
teacher's specific needs. For this, the
ground. also the teacher. TLM may come in all
teacher should be able to develop his
shapes and sizes, but they have one thing
own materials which will satisfy his
Reliability: in common - the opacity to facilitate
typical demands.
student learning.
Reliability is objectivity and the efficiency
Function of Teaching Learning
of the test as a measuring device. Every Teaching materials (henceforth to be
time a test is given, it must show the referred to as TMs) are of many kinds: Materials:
same results. Reliability is reduced if 1) textbooks, audio and video assettes, 1) Helping the students to learn a great
the questions are ambiguos 2) the rubric handouts, charts, teaching aids of various deal directly from exposure to language
is not clear 3) the questions are so kinds which can all be used for different through reading and listening 2) Guiding
simple so that the student can guess the purposes by the teacher. Ordinarily, the teachers to get an idea of how to
answer very easily 4) the test paper however, most situations depend on the sequence the activities in the classroom
covers only a portion of the syllabus and textbooks. 3) Stimulation ot learning 4) Equipping
5) the test stresses the quantitative the students to deal with English
judgement of the marker. However, teaching materials are separate
from teaching resources; the latter include language communicatively 5) Exposing
Practicality: more theoretical and abstract items, such the students to examples taken from
as essays or support from other educators, real-life situations.
Everyone would agree that even when or places to find teaching materials.
our tests are valid and reliable, they Textbook as a Tool:
cannot achieve much success unless Significance of Teaching Learning Textbooks are to be used as tools.
they can be administered efficiently, or Materials: Teachers cannot be effective In
unless they are practicable. Practicality/ classroom without TMs - especially
practicability tests refer to the Student Learning Support:
textbooks. Teachers need textbooks
administrative decisions that have to be which should be available to the students
TLM can enhance student achievement by
taken before the test is given. Decisions as well. In a country like India, where
contributing to student learning. For
relating to the conduct of the test in textbooks are the primary source of
instance, worksheet may be used to give
terms of available resources, manpower, teaching, good textbooks are the need of
students necessary information for
equipment, arrangements, etc. should be the hour. But we should understand that
achieving the objectives of the course. This
taken much before the actual date of the no textbooks are either perfect or
process helps in allowing the student to
test. In this regard, two parameters need complete. In the teacher's hand it is the
explore the knowledge independently and
to be considered: economy - the cost in only tool for facilitating better
also providing repetition.
time, money and personnel (s) involved performance from the student's side. It
and ease - the difficulty experienced in Lesson Structure: should be used as a blueprint, a
adminis-tration and scoring of the test guidebook, or an outline. The teacher
and interpretation of the results. For TLM can add significant structure to the
should understand that he should not
instance, a standard test that uses re- planning of lesson and also influence the
base his teaching on a single textbook.
usable booklet is cheaper than a test delivery of instruction. For example, in a
14
Textbooks should be supplemented with mainly for teachers in distant schools. But
encyclopedia, reference books, cds, they call for special equipments and also
cassettes, internet, blogs, learning computer literacy among teachers.
games and activities. The sudent should
be involved in different learning activties Multimedia packages involve varied
and also participate in debates. thematic areas: 1) the central theme (the
context based on which language learning
Textbooks should be used JudiciousIy: is going to be undertaken) 2) grammar 3)
written 4) communication. Teachers need
1) Texbook should be a resource but not to involve multimedia packages in the
the only one 2) Textbook must be treated micro-plans of their lessons. Then, they can
as a guide, but it should not be treated as take decisions on the type of class,
a mandate 3) Textbook should be planning of the topic and also the domain
supplemented with lots of reference of the material which needs to be covered,
books 4) Teacher should be free to time which is needed to complete the
change and improvise on the information assignments, the cardinal objectives of the
as realised from the textbook 5) class, testing and the like.
Teacher-resource books should be
simultaneously used and also regular The use of multimedia packages call for the
interactions with experienced teachers satisfaction of definite teaching aims or
must be facilitated. objectives: 1) educational objective -
acquisition of new information 2)
Advantages of Textbook: behavioural objective - acquisition of
1) It is especially helpful for teachers who behaviour suited for socialising 3)
are new to the profession 2) It provides functional objective - acquisition of skills
organised units of work in a sequence 3) like reasoning, drawing, memorising,
It provides administrators, educators and observing etc.
teachers with a complete programme. 4) Multilingual Resources:
If properly written, It can be an excellent
teaching aid. The benefits of using multilingual
resources are many and furthermore, they
Multimedia materials: help in creation of an ambience which is
Today, developments in techhology free from any learning-anxiety: 1) Students
influence the human society more than will be provided with exposure in different
ever. it may be jobs, education, market, languages and also their respective sound
society and communications, etc. system, for better understanding 2)
Innovations in the different fields of Studenet will be inspired to seek rules of
tednologies have entered everyday life. different languages (comparative study)
Computers are being used by more or which will help in sharpening their skills -
less everybody, and more in the observing, deducing and reasoning. This
educational institutions. exercise will help in the development of
their linguistic and cognitive faculty 3)
Multimedia materials are used for Students will be asked to share knowledge
providing instructions in different of their mother tongue, enhancing their
subjects - math, foreign language contribution and their level of involvement.
learning, biology, chemistry, education
etc. There is a huge number of web
pages in the internet with sufficient
materials for day-to-day classroom
teaching. Apart from these, they have
materials for students of different age
groups. There is enough number of
exercises, drills, games, tests, and
explanations that could be used in
classroom teaching. The use of
multimedia as teaching material is
altogether a new method in the
education system of our country. The
multimedia educational packages are
comprised of varied and different forms
of knowledge items. They can be used
for several class periods, but depending
on the design - whether for single
semester, or for an entire academic year.
These packages help the teacher in
achieving his job in an easier manner,
15

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