Petroleum Technology

PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 1: Basic Geology

Topic 1: Basic Geology

Review

In this topic the student is introduced to the fundamentals of the Earth’s

structure, plate tectonics and rock types.

Content
Earth Structured

Figure 1 illustrates the structure of the Earth. There is a central solid iron core,
surrounded by a liquid iron core, the lower mantle and the upper mantle. The upper
mantle consists of a weak, partially molten asthenosphere and a strong lithosphere with
a surficial crust of light rock. About 90% of the earth’s crust is made up of the four
elements: iron, oxygen, silicon and magnesium, which are the fundamental building
blocks of most minerals. Iron, being heavy, sinks to the core, and lighter elements such
as silicon, aluminium, calcium, potassium and sodium have risen to the crust.
Figure 1. The Earth’s Structure. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter,
copyright © 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 1: Basic Geology

Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics was first proposed in the 1960’s. The central idea is the division of the
lithosphere into 12 rigid plates (6 major ones), which each move as distinct units (Figure
2). The plates consist of rigid lithosphere (with either thin, dense oceanic crust or thick,
less dense continental crust), which ‘floats’ on the partially molten asthenosphere
(Figure 3). Convection currents within the asthenosphere are thought to be the driving
force behind the plate movement. Where hot matter rises under the ocean it flows apart
and carries the plates along with it (Figure 4). When this hot matter cools and sinks the
plates also begin to sink. The plates are constantly moving, which explains why the
Atlantic Ocean did not exist 150 Ma (million years ago). At this time it has been
established that Eurasia, Africa and the Americas were all one continent called Pangea.
It is possible to trace the effects of tectonics back approximately 4.6 billion years,
although the rock record and hence history becomes hazy after about 1 billion years.
The margins between the 12 plates are Divergent (spreading apart), Convergent
(colliding together) or Transform (sliding past each other). Plates are constantly
produced and consumed. Volcanic and seismic activity along plate margins varies
depending on type. Trailing edges tend not to be particularly active (most of Europe)
wheras leading edges tend to be very active.
Figure 2. Tectonic Plates Today (Peter J Sloss, NOAA-NESDIS-NGDC).

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Figure 3. Close-Up of Crust and Asthenosphere. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank

Press and Raymond Siever, © 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Figure 4. Convection Currents and Plate Movement Theories. (From UNDERSTANDING

EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever, © 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with
permission.)

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 1: Basic Geology

Divergent Margins

Figure 5A illustrates a divergent plate boundary. Related features include linear Mid
Ocean Ridges (the Mid Atlantic Ridge) where the lithosphere breaks and a rift develops.
As the lithosphere breaks hot lava rises from the asthenosphere. The rift continues to
open thus separating the two plates. This occurred between America and Africa and
lead to the formation of the Atlantic Ocean basin. The Mid Ocean Ridge (MOR) is
characterised by earthquakes and volcanism. Different lavas have different
viscosities.This leads to a variation of divergent speeds, and in turn to offsets in the
plate margin. The mid atlantic ridge shows an average speed of 2.5 cm/year whereas 18
cm/year can be found in the South Pacific.

Convergent Margins

When two plates are being pushed together the denser one will ride below the lighter
one, creating a subduction zone. Less buoyant oceanic crust usually sinks below the
thicker, lighter continental crust. Features associated with this ‘subduction’ include
mountain building, trench formation, earthquakes and volcanism. The contact of the
Nazca plate and the South American plate led to the formation of the Andes mountain
range and the Chilean deep-sea trench (Figure 5B). The Nazca plate (plate 1) buckles
downwards and the overriding South American plate (plate 2) is crumpled and uplifted.
As the subducted plate sinks it will melt, generating a source of hot molten rock that
rises into the overlying crust, inducing volcanism.
Where two plates converge at thick continental crust edges, subduction is low and an
ever growing mountain range is formed, termed a collision boundary (Figure 5C). The
Himalayas are formed due to collision of the Asian and Indian plates for example.

Transform Faults

Transform faults occur where two plates slide past each other (Figure 5D). The
movement is generally not regular and uniform but occurs abruptly as a series of sudden
slip faults. The San Andreas Fault in America where the Pacific plate slides past the
North American plate is an example. The sudden slip movements produce a series of
damaging earthquakes along the fault.

In summary, divergent zones are sources of new lithosphere and subduction zones are
sinks. Material is created and consumed in equal amounts. If this were not true, the
Earth would change in size.
Figure 5. Types of Plate Margin. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter,
copyright © 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 1: Basic Geology

Magnetism

Motions in the fluid iron core of the Earth set up a dynamo action thus generating the
Earth’s magnetic field (Figure 6). Rocks are magnetised in the direction of the magnetic
field at the time of their formation. The rocks can be dated radiometrically and thus the
history of the magnetic field recorded. Such studies have shown that the field reverses
direction (the reason for which is unexplained) with such reversals evident on the
seafloor. Figure 7 illustrates the symmetrical pattern of magnetised rocks either side of a
MOR.
Figure 6. Magnetic Field Lines. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter,
copyright © 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Figure 7. Magnetised Rocks Either Side of a MOR. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by

Frank Press and Raymond Siever, © 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 1: Basic Geology

Minerals and Crystals

A mineral is defined as any naturally formed, solid, chemical substance having a specific
compostion and characteristic crystal strucure. Diamond is a mineral as it has a defined
composition (pure carbon) and crystal structure (the atoms are packed in a three
dimensional array). Graphite is also a mineral of pure carbon, but with a sheet like
crystallographic strucure. Coal is not a mineral as it is composed of many different
compounds (although mainly carbon), the proportion of which varies from one place to
another, and has no defined structure. Coal is a rock, which is an aggregate of minerals.
Most minerals are made up of several elements.
Table 1 shows the percentage of different elements in the Earth’s continental crust.
These elements combine to form molecules, which in turn combine to form minerals.
Silicates form the majority of the Earth’s minerals. Figure 8 shows the evolution of rock.
Crystals take on seven basic shapes or structures (Figure 9). Some elements and
compounds are polymorphic, ie, they can take on more than one crystal strucure
(carbon forms both diamond and graphite). Examination of the crystallographic strucure
of a particular rock mineral can tell us a lot about it’s history and formation. If a crystal is
allowed to grow unhindered space wise, it will take on a perfect shape (Figure 10). Salt
for example forms cubic crystals. Commonly however in rock formation, crystal growth is
halted by growth of neighbouring crystals, or the crystals are abraded and fractured.
Although there are many hundreds of minerals, there are 20-30 major rock forming
minerals.
Table 1. Most Abundant Elements in the Earth’s Crust.
Element % by weight Element % by weight
O 45.2 Na 2.32
Si 27.2 K 1.68
Al 8 Ti 0.86
Fe 5.8 H 0.14
Ca 5.06 Mn 0.1
Mg 2.77 P 0.1
All Other 0.77

Figure 8. Evolution of Rock.

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Figure 9. Basic Crystal Shapes.

Figure 10. Example of Quartz Crystal in Rock Matrix Pore Space (approximately
10µm across).

Mineral Properties

Each mineral has properties dependant on composition and structure. Once we know
which properties are characteristic of which minerals it may not be necessary to carry
out a chemical analysis. Various tests can be used to identify the type of structure, and
to indicate the mineral present. Properties such as crystal shape, colour & streak, luster,
hardness (Mohs scale), cleavage, specific gravity and optical characteristics can be
used for identification (Figure 11).

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Figure 11. Examples of Common Mineral Properties. (Photos top to bottom: Breck P Kent, Ed
Deggenger & Bruce Coleman, Chip Clark, Chip Clark)

Physical Properties of Minerals

Property Relation to Composition & Crystal Structure
Hardness Strong chemical bonds give high hardness. Covalently bonded
minerals are generally harder than ionically bonded minerals.
Cleavage Cleavage is poor if bond strength in crystal is high and is good if
bond strength is low. Covalent bonds generally give poor or no
cleavage; ionic bonds are weak and so give excellent cleavage.
Fracture Type is related to distribution of bond strengths across irregular
surfaces other than cleavage planes.
Lustre Tends to be glassy for ionic bonds, more variable covalent bonds.
Colour Determined by kinds of atoms and trace impurities. Many ionic
crystals are colourless. Iron tends to colour strongly.
Streak Colour of fine powder is more characteristic than that of massive
mineral because of uniformly small grain size.
Density Depends on atomic weight of atoms and their closeness of
packing in crystal. Iron minerals and metals have high density.
Covalent minerals have more open packing, hence lower
densities.

Mohs Scale of Hardness

Mineral Scale Common
Number Object
Talc 1
Gypsum 2 Fingernail
Calcite 3 Copper coin
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5 Knife blade
Orthoclase 6 Window glass
Quartz 7 Steel file
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Mineral Lustre Diamond 10
Metallic Strong reflections produced by
opaque substances
Vitreous Bright, as in glass
Resinous Characteristic of resins, such
as amber
Greasy The appearance of being
coated with an oily substance
Pearly The whitish iridescence of
materials such as pearl
Silky The sheen of fibrous materials
such as silk
Adamantine The brilliant lustre of diamond
and similar minerals

Some Chemical Classes of Minerals

Class Defining Atoms Example
Native elements None: no charged atoms Copper (Cu)
2-
Oxides & Oxygen ion (O ) Hematite (Fe2O3)
-
hydroxides Hydroxyl ion (OH )
- -
Halides Chloride (Cl ), fluoride (F ), Brucite (Mg[OH]2)
- -
bromide (Br ), iodide (I ) Halite (NaCl)
2-
Carbonates Carbonate ion (CO3 ) Calcite (CaCO3)
2-
Sulphates Sulphate ion (SO4 ) Anhydrite (CaSO4)
4-
Silicates Silicate ion (SiO4 ) Olivine (Mg2SiO4)

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Table 2 shows commonly occurring minerals in different rock types.

Table 2. Common Minerals in Rock.
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
Quartz * Quartz * Quartz *
Feldspar * Clay minerals * Feldspar *
Mica * Feldspar * Mica *
Pyroxene * Calcite Garnet *
Amphibole * Dolomite Pyroxene *
Olivine * Gypsum Staurolite *
Halite Kyanite*
* Indicates mineral is a silicate.

Basic Rock Types (Rock Clans)

The rock cycle (Figure 12) illustrates the relationship between the three main rock types
or clans: Igneous, Metamorphic and Sedimentary.
Figure 12. The Rock Cycle. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever,
© 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Igneous

The cooling and solidification of hot molten magma from the mantle forms igneous rock.
Igneous rock can be classified as intrusive (intrinsic, plutonic) or extrusive (extrinsic,

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volcanic). Intrusive igneous rocks form as magma pushes its way up through cracks and
fissures into surrounding rocks. Intrusives cool relatively slowly and crystals therefore
have time to develop. They are characterised by large crystal growth. Extrusive igneous
rocks form when magma reaches the Earth’s surface, for example as lava flows from
volcanic eruptions. These rocks are cooled rapidly and are characterised by fine crystals
that have not had time to develop (Figure 13). If the lava is cooled extremely rapidly, the
atoms have no time to rearrange into crystalline structures, and glass type structures or
minaraloids are formed, obsidian for example.
Figure 13. Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rock Sources and Terms. (From THE
DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright © 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is
used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Igneous rocks are the most abundant type of rock found in the Earth today, about 70%.
Minerals such as quartz, feldspar, mica and olivine are important building blocks of
igneous rocks (Figure 14). Characteristically, the mineral crystals in igneous rocks have
been restricted in growth by surrounding crystals, so their edges are amorphous in
appearance (Figure 15). Igneous rocks of the same composition can be classified as
different rocks depending on cooling rate and resultant texture. For example, granite
(intrusive) is coarse grained, but when the same compositional lava is cooled rapidly it
forms fine grained rhyolite (extrusive).

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 1: Basic Geology

Lavas vary from extremely fluid basalts to viscous and explosively eruptive rhyolites,
depending on composition. Basalts are the most common fortunately as all major
volcanic disasters around the World have been related to rhyolitic eruptions.
Figure 14. Minerals in Common Igneous Rocks. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank
Press and Raymond Siever, © 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Figure 15. Igneous Rock and Crystal Structure.

Sedimentary

Sedimentary rocks form when igneous, metamorphic or pre-existing sedimentary rocks

are subjected to erosive forces (glaciation, wind, rain, and snow) (Figure 16). The rocks
are broken down, and the individual grains and rock particles (detrital or clastic
sediment) are transported away from the source area and redeposited in low-lying
areas. It is within such low lying basin areas that the majority of petroleum is found.
Stratification of sedimentary rocks results from the arrangement of sedimentary particles
in distinct layers known as beds.

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PgDip/MSc Oil and Gas Engineering/Petroleum Technology 1 Topic 1: Basic Geology

The conversion of unconsolidated sediment to rock is termed lithification. Diagenesis

is a term used to describe all the chemical, biological and physical processes involved in
a rock’s formation during and after lithification.
Clastic particles can be defined by size (Table 3) which in turn form different types of
rock (Figure 17). Crystals within sedimentary rocks that have been formed by
mechanical erosion of source rocks tend to be rounded in appearance due to abrasion.
Figure 16. Erosion and Sources of Sedimentation. (From UNDERSTANDING EARTH by
Frank Press and Raymond Siever, © 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.)

Table 3. Clastic Particle Definitions.

Name of Range Limits of Name of Loose Name of Consolidated
Particle Diameter (mm) Sediment Rock
Boulder > 256 Boulder gravel Boulder conglomerate (b)
Cobble 64 - 256 Cobble gravel Cobble conglomerate (b)
Pebble 2 - 64 Pebble gravel Pebble conglomerate (b)
Sand 1/16 – 2 Sand Sandstone
Silt 1/256 – 1/16 Silt Siltstone
Clay (a) < 1/256 Clay Mudstone & Shale

Notes: (a) Refers to particle size only and not to clay minerals. (b) If clasts are angular,
rock is termed Breccia rather than conglomerate.
Sediments may also be chemical in origin. Chemical sediments are the result of
dissolution of the source material, rather than erosion, and subsequent precipitation at
another location. Biogenic chemical (bioclastic) sediments are formed from the
accumulation and fossilisation of the remains of plants and animals. Calcium carbonate
based rocks for example may be formed from remains of marine shells. Organic
substances within biogenic sediments may also be transformed into fossil fuels if
composition and conditions are correct.

It is also possible to have a rock that is ‘half way’ between igneous and sedimentary.
This occurs as lava is thrown rather than flows from a volcano, and covers the
surrounding area. Grains are usually angular due to rapid solidification and termed
Breccia.

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Figure 17. Rocks from Sedimentary Particle Types. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J.
Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright © 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

Sedimentary rocks are the primary rocks involved in oil and gas formation and will be
covered in greater detail in Topic 2.

Metamorphic

Metamorphic rocks form when igneous, sedimentary or pre-existing metamorphic rocks

are altered by heat and pressure due to their deep burial in the Earth or due to a hot
molten rock intrusion. For example, in the subduction zone the pressure, temperature
and deformation which rocks are subjected to will lead to the formation of new mineral
grains, textural changes and thus new metamorphic rocks.
Metamorhpic rocks can be characterised by both ‘grade’ and ‘type’ of metamorphism.
Figure 18 illustrates the grades of metamorphism depending on pressure and
temperature. The end result is controlled by factors such as chemical reactivity of inter-
granular fluids, pressure, temperature, differential stress across the zone of
metamorphosis and of course the time span involved.
Figure 18. Metamorphic Grades. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter,
copyright © 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

The ‘types’ of metamorphosis are defined relative to the physical conditions that are
present during metamorphosis.
Regional is most common in the continental crust and may occur over tens of
thousands of square kilometres. Regional metamorphism involves high differential

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stress levels and a considerable amount of mechanical deformation, along with chemical
recrystallisation. Low grade, regional metamorphosis of shale or mudstone forms slate.
The ‘slaty cleavage’ planes are formed perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress
during metamorphosis. Regional metamorphism is a consequence of plate tectonics.
Contact metamorphism occurs more locally adjacent to bodies or intrusions of magma,
due mainly to chemical recrysatallisation. The zone affected is termed an aureole.
Mechanical deformation tends to be minor due to generally homogenous stresses
around the magma intrusion.
Cataclastic, or dynamic, metamorphism may be found along faults where tectonic
movement leads to high differential stresses, and rock deformation. The rocks may be
fractured and ground almost to a paste resulting in a pulverised texture. Cataclastic
rocks are often found alongside regionally metmorphosed rocks in narrow zones along
fault perimeters. These rocks often act as a major fluid barrier between rocks.
Burial metamorphism genarally occurs in deeply buried sedimentary basin rocks
where temperatures may be as high as 300 Celsius. The presence of water within the
sedimentary rock speeds up chemical recrysatallisation processes. As with contact
metamorphism, there is little mechanical deformation. The resultant rock may appear
physically very similar to the original sedimentary rock, but will differ in it’s mineral
content.
Hydrothermal metamorphism occurs due to chemical reactions between fluids and
heated rocks, and is often associated with mid ocean ridges.

Figure 19 shows examples of the rock types formed during metamorphosis dependant
on pressure and temperature zones, termed ‘facies’.
Figure 19. Metamorphic Facies with Common Tectonic Settings Superimposed. (From
UNDERSTANDING EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever, © 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and
Company. Used with permission.)

Figure 20 illustrates the minerals present during metamorphosis of shales. Quartz seen
all way through, but changes in character. Plagioclase is only found in metamorphic
rocks. Muscovite is an index for low and intermediate grade metamorphosis, Biotite for
intermediate and Garnet for high grade metamorphosis.

Figure 21 illustrates areas of metamorphosis related to plate tectonics.

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Figure 20. Metamorphosis of Shales. (From THE DYNAMIC EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C.
Porter, copyright © 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by permission of John Wiley and Sons,
Inc.)

Figure 21. Plate Tectonics and Metamorphosis Examples. (From UNDERSTANDING

EARTH by Frank Press and Raymond Siever, © 1998, 1994 W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with
permission.)

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Summary

Figure 22 Pictorially summarises rock types and Earth processes involved in their
development.
Figure 22. Interaction of the Water, Rock and Tectonic Cycles. (From THE DYNAMIC
EARTH by B.J. Skinner and S.C. Porter, copyright © 2000 John Wiley and Sons. This material is used by
permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)

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