GEOMORPHOLOGY:

Geomorphology:
The study of landforms and the various processes which lead to their formation e.g Fluvial
action, Wind/Aeolian action, Weathering, Tectonic processes – folding, faulting,
earthquakes, volcanism.

The Theory of Plate Tectonics:

Plate Tectonics:
Movement of plates (rigid crustal slabs of the earth’s crust) along their edges and the
resultant landforms. The earth’s crust is made up of giant plates that move relative to each
other. It is believed that oceans and continents are passengers on these moving plates. The
plates float on partially molten rocks in the upper mantle. The movement of plates is due to
convectional currents. Nearly all major tectonic activities such as volcanic action,
earthquakes, folding, faulting occur along plate boundaries.
The major Tectonic Plates are: (map) - (1) Pacific Plate (2) North American Plate
(3) South American Plate (4) African Plate (5) Eurasian Plate
(6) Antarctic Plate (7) Nazca Plate (8) Arabian Plate
(9) Indo-Australian

Types of Tectonic Plates:

(1) The Continental Plate/Sial: This consists of both continental and oceanic crust, e.g
N.American Plate, African Plate. The continental crust is thicker and less dense. It is
composed of older and lighter granite rock, which contains Silica and Aluminium.
(2) The Oceanic Plate/Sima: This mostly consists of oceanic crust which is thinner,
younger/more recent and denser, e.g Pacific Plate, Nazca Plate. It can be easily dragged and
reabsorbed into the mantle while the continental crust resist subduction. The oceanic plate
is made up of basalt rock and contains minerals like Silica and Magnesium.

Types of Plate Boundaries:

Movement of plates occurs along plate boundaries/margin/edges. There are 3 types of
plate boundaries.
(1) Convergent/Destructive Plate Boundary:
Plates move towards each other. At this boundary, plates are destroyed. For instant, if a
continental plate move towards an oceanic plate, the oceanic plate sinks into the mantle
(since it heavier) and is destroyed forming trenches, island arcs. This zone where rocks of an
oceanic plate are forced to sink below the continental crust is called Subduction Zone.
When two continental plates move towards each other, the plates don’t sink but their edges
are forced up into fold mountains. This zone where two continental plates collide is called
Collision Zone.
Landforms Produced at convergent Plate Boundaries 1) Oceanic Trenches
(2) Fold Mountains (3) Volcanic Islands/mountains (4) Island Arcs (5) Faulting
(6) Earthquakes.

(2)Divergent/Constructive/Spreading Plate Boundary: The plates move/spread apart.

Plates move away from each other. At this boundary new oceanic/continental crust is
formed. As plates move apart magma rises to fill the gap creating new crust. As magma rises
from the mantle, it spreads on the sea floor causing the edges of the plates to buckle
upwards into ridges such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Landforms Produced at Divergent Plate Boundaries: (1) Oceanic Ridges (2) Rift Valley
(3) Volcanic Islands (4) Volcanic eruption (5) Earthquakes.

(3) Conservative/Transform/Neutral/Passive Plate Boundary: The plates move sideways

past each other. The plates slide past each other along a fault, e.g the San Andreas Fault in
California (The Pacific and N.America Plates slide past each other). Conservative boundaries
are associated with earthquakes and formation of rift valleys.

Evidence Upon Which the Theory of Plate Tectonic is Based: (Jun 2014). (1) Distribution of
earthquakes/Volcanoes/Fold mountains (2) Seafloor spreading (3) The jig-saw fit of
continents (4) Palaeo climates/Geological sequence of matching rocks (5) Fossil
comparisons along edges of continents/fossil remains of animals/plants (6) Splitting of the
horn of Africa (7) Changes in Earth’s magnetic field.

Tectonic Processes:
(1) Folding (2) Faulting (3) Volcanism (4) Earthquakes.
*NB- 1(a) Draw labelled diagrams to illustrate the main types of faults.
(b) Describe and explain landform development in areas that have been affected by faulting.
(c) How have local communities benefited from faulting .
2(a) Describe and explain the global distribution of volcanic hazards (J2017).
(b) Outline the nature of hazards associated with volcanoes (J2011).
3(a) Describe and explain how and where earthquakes occur (N2013).
(b)Assess the measures that can be taken to reduce the impacts of earthquakes/volcanoes
(J2019)
4(a) Describe and explain landform development in areas that have been affected by folding
(N2013).
(b) Show how the evolution of drainage may be influenced by folding (N2013).
(c) Assess the benefits of folding to man.
(5) To what extent can these hazards be predicted and prevented.
Rocks and Weathering:

Rock: A combination of minerals. A compact mass of mineral elements. An assembly of

different elements and compounds of minerals.

Classification of Rocks:
Rocks are grouped into 3 main classes on the basis of their formation:
(1) Igneous Rocks (2) Sedimentary Rocks (3) Metamorphic Rocks
*NB* (a) Formation (b) Characteristics (c) Examples:

*Uses/Importance of Rocks:

Granite Rocks:
(1)Characteristics (2) Landforms of Granite Rocks
(3)Benefits/Problems of Granite Rocks (4) How Humans modify granite rocks.

Limestone Rocks:
(1) Characteristics (2) Landforms of Limestone rocks (3) Benefits/Problems
(4) How humans modify areas with limestone rocks/karst areas.

Weathering:
The breaking down/disintegration and decay/decomposition of rocks in situ at or near the
earth’s surface.
Erosion: The removal of weathered materials by agents of running water, wind, ice, waves.
Mass Movement/Wasting: Downhill movement of weathered materials under the influence
of gravity. Downhill movement of surface materials such as soil, loose stones, rocks in
response to gravity.
Denudation: The wearing down of the land through the combined processes of weathering,
erosion and mass wasting.
Striping: The removal of weathered material by erosion. Stripping of regolith result in the
exposure of the basal surface of weathering.
Basal Surface of Weathering/Weathering Front: The zone which separates the weathered
rock and the fresh unweathered rock. A line of uneven depth beneath the earth’s surface.
The BSW is uneven/irregular due to rock type, time to which deep weathering has been
operating, the rate of removal of regolith.
Regolith: Loose unconsolidated partially weathered materials resting on bed rock at/near
the surface. Consists of coarse materials with no distinct layers.
Saprolite: Totally/deeply decomposed rock. Consists of consolidated and fine materials. Has
more and clearly defined layers.
Bed rock: Continuous solid rock that underlies the regolith. An exposure of the solid rock is
called an outcrop.
Block Disintegration: Breaking down of rocks into large, angular blocks/boulders. Occurs in
well jointed rocks , along joints/bedding planes/lines of weakness. Common in areas of
homogeneous rocks. Mainly due to physical weathering processes like frost action, pressure
release, root action, exfoliation etc.
Granular Disintegration: Breaking down of rocks into small fragments/individual grains.
Common in rocks which are made up of different minerals. There is a change in the chemical
composition of the rock. Mainly due to chemical weathering processes like oxidation,
hydration, hydrolysis, carbonation, chelation and also salt crystallisation.

Physical/Mechanical Weathering:
Breaking down/disintegration of rocks into small fragments. There is no change in the
chemical composition of the rock/no alteration of rock minerals. The products are visible,
coarse and angular. Affects exposed rocks on the surface. Mainly due to temperature
changes and crystallisation. Common in areas of low rainfall and large temperature range
and areas with temperature e.g Deserts and Temperate regions.
Processes of Physical Weathering:
(1) Insolation/Exfoliation/Thermal Expansion (2) Frost Action/Freeze-Thaw Weathering
(3) Pressure Release/Unloading/Dilatation/Sheeting (4) Salt Weathering
(5) Alternate Wetting and Drying (6) Action of Rain and Hail
(7) Action Plants and Animals.

Chemical Weathering:
Decay/decomposition of rock minerals. Involves alteration of rock minerals. The products
are fine and usually removed in solution. Occurs on and below the surface. Mainly due to
chemical reactions taking place between rock minerals and carbon dioxide/ oxygen/ acids.
Common in areas of high rainfall and high temperature ,e.g Humid Regions.
Processes of Chemical Weathering:
(1) Oxidation (2) Solution (3) Hydrolysis (4) Hydration
(5) Carbonation (6) Chelation/Humification (7) Reduction

Biological/Biotic Weathering: Weathering that is caused by the action of living organisms –

Vegetation, Animals and Humans. Can be Physical/Chemical.
Vegetation: Root action, humic acid from decaying vegetation, vegetation cover promote
infiltration hence sub-aerial weathering.
Animal Action: Animals burrowing and walking on rocks, humic acid from decaying animals.
Micro-organisms like bacteria promote physical/chemical weathering.
Human Activities: Mining, Farming, Construction, Borehole drilling, Industrial emissions,
man induced erosion.

Factors Affecting Weathering:

(1) Climate (2) Relief (3) Rock hardness (4) Rock joints (5) Rock Colour
(6) Rock chemical composition (7) Aspect (8) Vegetation (9) Animals
(10) Human Activities
Climate: Affects weathering on a global scale. The most important factor in rock
weathering. It determines the type and rate of weathering in a given area as shown in the
Table below.

Climate and the Depth of Regolith :(dia) .

*NB - Describe and explain the changes in the depth of regolith shown in the diagram.
Ans: The deepest regolith is found in the Humid Tropics because of high rainfall and
temperature which promote chemical reaction. Shallow regolith is in Semi-arid and Arid
areas due to low rainfall. Shallow regolith is also found in Peri-glacial areas because of
limited chemical weathering. Moderate regolith is in Humid Mid-latitude areas because of
seasonality of rainfall and high rates of stripping.

Peltier’s Model: (dia).

*NB – (a) Describe and explain how climate influences the rate and types of weathering
shown.(N2012). (b) Describe and explain the variations in weathering shown. (N2003).
Ans: High temperatures and rainfall promote chemical weathering since they speed up
chemical reaction. Strong physical weathering is when there is low temperature and
moderate rainfall due to cycles of thawing and freezing. Slow physical weathering in areas
of low rainfall and high temperatures.

Rock Joints: Narrow and extensive cracks/fissures in rocks e.g faults, bedding planes.
Origins of Joints: (1) Shrinkage of igneous rocks during cooling and solidification
(2) Shrinkage of sedimentary rocks during drying (3) Pressure- release (4) Tensional forces.
How Joints Influence Weathering: Joints allows easy penetration of water, acids, oxygen
etc. Joints increase the sub-surface area exposed to weathering agents. Joints promote frost
action. Closely jointed rocks increase chemical reaction. Massive rocks resist weathering. In
joined rocks like limestone, the joints are widened to produce features like grikes, clints,
valleys, dolines etc.

Aspect: The degree of exposure to the sun. The more the exposure the faster the rate of
weathering.

Deep Weathering:
Chemical weathering which occurs underground through the agency of acidulated water. It
operates slowly and mainly affects well jointed igneous rocks. May include all forms of
chemical weathering.
Factors Which Promote Deep Weathering are: (1) areas of high rainfall and temperature
(2) dense vegetation (3) permeable and porous rocks (4) tectonic stability
(5) gentle slopes (6) presence of lines of weakness like bedding plains.
Landforms produced by deep weathering and stripping are Inselbergs, Duricrusts,
Etchplains, pediplains etc.
Nature of Deep Weathered Layers: (dia):
According to Ruxton and Berry, deep weathered layers consist of 4 zones/layers underlain
by a weathering front/BSW. The layers develop over many (thousands) years of sub-aerial
chemical weathering.
A – Regolith ; Fine weathered material ; Fully decomposed rock.
B - Regolith with core stones.
C – Core stones with few regolith .
D - Slightly/partially weathered rock.

Inselbergs:
An inselberg is an island mountain or a rock island. A steep sided, isolated mountain
standing high above surrounding plains. A residual rock mass rising from a nearly level
surface which makes it appear as an island in the sea.

Types of Inselbergs:
(1) Bornhardt/Domed Inselberg: (dia)
The most common type. Dome shaped, steep sided, elongated.Very high (300m). Have
curved summits. Associated with sheet joints. Have bare rock surface.
(2) Ruware Surface/Dwala/Whaleback: A low rock pavement. Low-lying rock outcrop. Have
steep vertical sides below the ground. A batholith can give rise to a dwala when exposed by
erosion.
(3) Castle Kopje: Kopje means a hill. A castle kopje is a hill with a castle shape. A steep sided
pile of massive crystalline boulders. A heap of crystalline boulders.
(4) Tors : Common in temperate regions. These are small masses of jointed rocks projecting
above the basal surface. A pile of boulders/ridges of boulders which have bases in the
bedrock and are surrounded by debris.
*NB- Other geographers regard Mesas and Buttes as inselbergs.

Theories of Inselberg Formation:

(1) Pediplanation Theory/Parallel Slope Retreat:(L.C. King 1948):
The theory accounts for the origin of inselberg by the process of scarp retreat and the
extension of the pediment (Pedimentation). It involves the wearing back at the scarp face
as shown in the Pediplanation Cycle below. (dia)
Strengths of the Pediplanation Theory: (a) Explains very well the existence of inselberg
above 300m and inselbergs near highland areas. (b) Accounts for inselbergs surrounded by
rivers.
Weaknesses: (a) Can’t explain the existence of paleo-surface marks on inselbergs.
(b) Some inselbergs are found where there are no rivers.

(2) Exhumation Theory/Etchplanation/Deep Weathering and Stripping: (Falconer and

Twidale 1948):
Inselbergs are formed due to cycles of deep chemical weathering followed by stripping of
regolith. It involves successive episodes of deep weathering followed by stripping of regolith
to expose the basal surface, as shown (dia).
Strengths: (a) Explains very well the various forms of inselbergs e.g Ruware Surface.
(b) Supports the existence of palaeo-surfaces on inselbergs.
Weaknesses: (a)Does not explain the height of inselbergs above 300m.

Duricrusts and Laterites:

*NB – Distinguish duricrusts from laterites (N2019).

Duricrusts: A hard layer/crust near/on the ground surface formed due to the accumulation
and cementation of salts. Made up of unstable and easily soluble mineral compounds. Form
at the upper soil profile. Usually form in Arid and Semi-Arid regions and are temporary. They
are due to capillary action whereby salts and other elements are drawn to the surface and
are cemented together to a hard layer. The hard layer is exposed to the by stripping to
mesas, buttes etc.
Laterites: A hard cemented later made up of oxides of iron, aluminium and magnesium.
Made up of stable mineral compounds which can’t easily dissolve. Form underneath/at the
sub-soil due to leaching of iron oxides. Usually form in the Tropical Climates and are
permanent. Removal of an overlying layer of regolith expose the laterites.

Factors Promoting the Formation of Duricrusts: (1) Presence of rocks with easily soluble
minerals to yield residues rich in iron and aluminium. (2) An effective rock
porosity/permeability to allow easy access and circulation of water. (3) Availability of
abundant rainfall to allow leaching and surface erosion (4) Presence of bacteria and organic
acids which cause active decomposition. (5) High temperatures which accelerate the rate
of chemical weathering. (6) Dense vegetation which produce humus after decomposition.
Duricrusts Produce Landforms like: (1) Cuesta (2) Buttes (3) Mesas (4) Plateau (dia).
A Cuesta is a ridge/upland with a steep scarp slope and a gentle back slope. When capped
by a resistant rock layer they produce a Plateau like feature. Further erosion leads to the
plateau to detach/to be broken to form a Mesa. A Mesa is flat-topped upland capped by a
layer of hard resistant rock (duricrust). The dissection of a mesa leads to the formation of
isolated hills called Buttes.

Slopes:
The angle which any part of the earth’s surface makes with the horizontal. Ground that is
rising and falling from the horizontal.

Origins of Slopes:
Slopes are a result of two major processes:
(1) Endogenetic/Internal Processes: These are processes which originate within the earth’s
surface such as Folding, Faulting, Volcanism.
(2) Exogenetic/External Processes: Processes that occur at the earth’s surface such as
Weathering, Mass wasting, Erosion, Deposition.
Slope Form/Morphology: Shape of the slope.
(1) Concave Slope: (dia); Land is steeper at the top and gentler at the bottom of the slope.
Contour lines are spaced at the bottom and close together at the top. Slope angle decreases
downwards.
(2) Convex Slope: Land is steeper at the bottom and gentler at the top of the slope. Contour
lines are close together at the bottom and spaced at the top of the slope. Slope angle
increases downwards.
(3) Rectilinear/Constant Slope: A straight slope.
(4) Cliff/Free Face: A vertical slope. Steepest part of a slope. So steep for any loose material
to hang on it.

Slope Profile: Section of a slope from top to bottom. Section of a slope from the highest
point on the summit to the lowest point in the valley. L.C King identifies slope profiles with
Four Components as shown (dia).

FORM/COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS PROCESSES

Waxing/Concave Slope
Cliff/Free Face
Rectilinear/Constant
Waning/Concave Slope

Inputs of a Slope System: Materials that come in and leads to other processes e.g solar
energy, rainwater, weathered material, organic material, human input.
Outputs of a Slope System: Materials that come out of slope processes. The result/end
product of slope processes e.g weathered debris, deep weathered layers, the different types
of slope e.g concave, convex etc.

Factors Influencing Slope Form and Development:

(1) Climate: Climate influence rate of weathering, regolith yield, mass movement and fluvial
transport. In humid areas where erosion is dominant, slopes tend to be gentler with
concave-convex profiles. In arid areas, slopes change slowly. Parallel retreat occurs in arid
areas due to lateral planation by streams and sheet floods. High rate of weathering speed
up slope development. High temperatures speed up chemical reactions.
(2) Rock Type: Hard, coherent rocks like granite, gneiss, gabbro promote steep slopes.
Weak rocks like sandstone tend to collapse leading to gentle slopes.
(3) Rock Structure: In sedimentary rocks where the the dip is inward, slope is stable and
tends to maintain its steepness. Where the dip is down slope, detached masses of rock
easily slide over bedding planes.
(4) Vegetation: Vegetation influence weathering and slope transport. A thick forest cover
anchors regolith, reduce rain drop impact, mass movement and erosion, thus slope form
changes slowly. Vegetation help stabilise the slope and maintain slope steepness. Bare
areas, there is more run off leading to gentle slopes like pediments.
(5) Earth Movement/Uplift: Areas with rapid uplift rivers cut down wards creating steep
slopes. In stable areas, there is less vertical erosion hence gentle slopes develop. Uplift also
leads to the formation of fault scarps.
(6) Human Activities: The activities stabilize/de-stabilize slopes:
(a) Devegetation (deforestation, overgrazing, veld fires) (b) Agriculture
(c) Road Construction (d) Mining (e) Terracing (f) Borehole drilling
(g) Building houses on steep slopes (h) Vibrations by heavy traffic
(i) Animal grazing (j) soil stitching.

Slope Evolution:
Gradual change in slope form over time. There are 3 main Theories of slope evolution.
(1) Slope Decline (W.M Davis)
(2) Slope Replacement (W Penck)
(3) Slope Parallel Retreat (L.C King) (*NB-Dia and Notes, D page 70.)

Mass Movement/Wasting:

Factors Influencing the Nature and Rate of Mass Movement:

(1) Slope angle (2) Climate (3) Saturation (4) Vegetation
(5) Earth Movement(Earthquakes/ Volcanic Eruption) (6) Depth of Regolith
(7) Rock Type/Jointing (8) Human Activities.

In What Ways do Different Kinds of Mass Wasting on Slopes be Classified: (D,pg 72)
(1) Rate/Speed of Flow (2) Slope Angle (3) Nature of Material

Measures to Control/Reduce the Occurrence of Mass Movement on Slpoes:

Activities which stabilize slopes : (1) Terracing (2) Revegetation of slopes/Afforestation
(3) Soil Stitching (4) Embankments (5) Land use zoning (6) Barrier fencing
(7) Drainage

Mass Wasting Processes:

Soil Creep ; Solifluction ; Talus Creep ; Debris Flow ; Earth Flow ; Mud Flow ; Slumping ; Rock
Slide ; Rock Fall ; Land Slide ; Avalanche ; Heave ; Slides ; Flows ; Rotational Slip.

*NB - (a) Explain how human activity may influence the processes operating on slopes.
(b) Explain how human activities can modify slope transport processes (N2013).
*Ans: Processes Operating on Slopes: (1)Mass Movement (2) Erosion (3) Deposition.
Human Activities which Modify/Influence Slope Processes: (1) Afforestation/Reforestation
slow down transport. (2) Devegetation increases erosion (3) Mine dumps increase slope
transport (4) Terracing, Soil Stitching reduce transportation on slopes (5) Settlement
(6) Road Construction accelerate the processes.

*NB*- Define the terms basal concavity, repose slope, waxing slope, waning slope.
Measurement of Aspects of Slope Profile:

Aspects of Slope Profile:

(1) Slope Angle (2) Slope segment Length (3) Slope Height
(4) Slope Materials (5) Slope Type

Equipment:
(1) Range Rodes/poles (2) Clinometer (3) Tape Measure/Metre Rule

Methods:
Lay out transect lines on one side of the valley. Transect lines may be equally spaced in a
down valley direction (Systematic Sampling). Along the transect, divide the slope into
segments (equally spaced/where there appear to be a change in slope-uniform/irregular
slope segments). Mount ranging rodes vertically. Measure and record slope angle using the
clinometer. Measure segment length using the tape measure. Leap-frog the equipment to
the next side down the slope.

Data Presentation:
Record the data. Tabulate the data. Draw cross profiles for different points. Draw bar graphs
to show slope height/angle.