Chapter 1

Curriculum Theories
By
Dr. I.F. Okoro
Introduction
The society in which we live changes from time to time.
This Change in a society is in relation to the needs of the
people living in it. For reaction to the changes in the society,
schools were established for equipping the learners with the
societal desirable skills, attitudes, values and knowledge that
will make them become competent enough for the solution
of the individual and societal needs and aspirations. The
school is, therefore, charged with the responsibility of
creating teaching environment that will make for meaningful
teaching and learning.
This cannot be achieved by the school without a curriculum.
It is curriculum content that provides adequate learning
experiences that develop in the learners the desired
competences. Curriculum here represents a vehicle through
which the society achieves her aims. It is based on this that
curriculum is seen as desired competences, knowledge,
skills, attitudes and values meant to be imparted to the
learner for society to function effectively. Learners are
guided to understand things they do not know through
theory.
This chapter critically examined the idea of “theory” in
relation to the field of study called curriculum. This field of
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study has a process which is affected by theories,
assumptions, ideas and beliefs, which need to be studied for
meaningful conception of the field. Thus, the development,
knowledge, distribution, how the learning is processed and
significances of what is learnt tend to relate to the
interactions of historians, philosophers, psychologists and
sociologists for various ideals and idea of learning to be
studied.
The following subheadings are, therefore, considered in
discussing this chapter;
1. Concept of Curriculum
2. Idea of Theory
3. What is Curriculum Theory?
4. Kinds of Curriculum Theory
5. Attributes of Curriculum Theory
6. Importance of Curriculum Theory

Concept of Curriculum
Curriculum does not have one generally accepted definition
but is viewed differently by educators, educationists,
students and Laypersons. All the definitions are tailored
towards things they expect from social cum academic
institution which is called school. They, therefore, think of
why school should be established, things the learner is
exposed to and the mode of the exposure, the effectiveness
of the exposures with their relevance to educational
programme in relation to the need and interest of not only
the learner but also the society.
Curriculum, therefore, refers to organized educational
experiences which are planned sequentially and administered

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to the learner by the school for the benefit of not only the
learner but also the society at large (Okoro, Emenyeonu &
Akaraonye, 2012). Curriculum contains knowledge,
attitudes, skills, values among others otherwise called
content that helps in all round development of the learner.
It can also be seen as a working tool that
gives a sense of direction to what to do and
how to do it for the purpose of realizing any
educational goals. It is an attempt to capture
appropriate contents in order to facilitate the
realization of the needs of the society as
reflected in objectives (Uwatt, 2009:65)

“It is an embodiment of all the knowledge, skills and

attitudes which a nation, through her schools, imparts to her
citizens,” (Dike & Eze, 2009:40). These tend to summarize
that contents of the curriculum give rise to the production of
different kinds of manpower relevant for different fields of
endeavors in the society. Curriculum reflects the societal
culture, needs, interests, real life experiences as well as
societal aspirations. Comprehensively, curriculum is
“planned and intended learning outcomes formulated
through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and
experiences under the auspices of the school for the learner’s
willful growth in personal social competence” (Tanner &
Tanner in Duru 2012:9).

Idea of Theory
For clearer understanding of issues in curriculum at the
earlier stage, theorists of curriculum made use of theories
that were not within the field of education. Curriculum
experts utilized findings of scientific theories emanating
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from psychological findings and philosophical values to
predict and validate objective goals as well as curriculum
content of the schools. This tends to clarify that there was no
theory specifically meant for curriculum.
Theory originates from a Latin word Theory which means
‘contemplate’. To contemplate means a way of seeing one
thing as if it is something else. It means something one is
contemplating on, due to its unclarity but when clearly
looked into, its meaning may start to show; thereby
attracting actions from people due to beliefs they have built
on it.
Theory is a set of interrelated constructed
concepts, definitions and propositions that
proceed for systematic view of phenomena by
specifying relations among variables, with the
purpose of explaining and predicting
phenomena. It is also believed to be a set of
original principles, rules of inferences that can
be deductively arrived at to describe the
interaction of social affairs, (Tanner & Tanner
in Esu, Elukoha & Umoren, 2009:228).
They visualize the basic principles as being abstract, not
dealing with contents specifically and can predict behavior
under specified conditions. Relationships among facts of the
world are described using theory.
Generally, it is suspected that a theory should be made to
focus upon specific phenomena that have been clearly seen.
This is not followed in that curriculum is seen to be narrow
because it is not the subject matter to be learned and its
broadness is observed in terms of all the school experiences
the students have. Thus curriculum Theory varies from one

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pole to another ranging from statements of knowledge
(epistemological statements) to philosophy of living.
Role of theory is concerned with technical cognitive interest
that is geared towards the provision of rational procedures
for the purpose of testing, validation or rejecting hypotheses
concerning identified social issues. This simply points out
that a theory does the following:
 Defines a problem
 Identifies possible variables from literature
 Collects data
 Analyses relevant data
 Draws relevant inferences as it concerns
relationships of the variables.
In relation to curriculum, theory generates information on
how curriculum materials could be utilized for effective
instruction as well as how the materials could be learned for
a change in behavior to be recorded in the learners.
It is important to relate to the nature of curriculum theorizing
in the olden days. Curriculum experts made use of
metaphors in explaining unusual events (phenomena).
Metaphor helped people to reason theoretically and so
functioned as fundamental thinking theory. This means that
through the use of metaphor, people’s thought are well
organized thereby leading to good analyses of the things
seen. Metaphor, which is a thinking theory, is concomitant
with substitution theory, comparison theory and interaction
theory of metaphor. In clarifying their relationships, Esu,
Elukoha and Umoren (2009: 229) observed that:

In theory of substitution, any metaphorical

statement could be translated literally

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 especially if two similar things are involved.
Also, comparison, theory of metaphor can be
translated literally with two things of similar
characteristics. On the other hand, interaction
theory of metaphor deals with the interaction of
objective conditions, i.e. it creates the
conditions for interaction to describe what
exists.
The above explanation identifies among others that metaphor
arouses interest in research finding to the extent of achieving
the states of theory. Explaining things with metaphor makes
it difficult for one to understand those things.
The above notwithstanding, there is also predominant
metaphor in curriculum which surfaces in the variety of
discussions in the field of study. In the early 1900s, it was
one of the cardinal principles in the field and was regarded
as ‘production metaphor’. Production metaphor advocates
for stating in advance prior to the end of product of
instruction. The level of change in behavior at the end of the
instruction determines the success.
This metaphor demands that teachers be used as managers,
schools be used as industries and students be used as
products as well as output of the school system. This
continued till the 1960s as a criterion to education up to 21 st
century.
Metaphor helps in organizing thoughts about things but it is
not a theory. What then is curriculum theory?

The Concept of Curriculum Theory

A set of beliefs regarding all curriculum decisions that form
the basis for school actions is curriculum theory. It is seen as
a guiding principle employed by curriculum experts in
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curriculum planning, development and implementation in
schools. These actions are made to relate to the teacher,
learner, learning experiences and contents called organized
body of knowledge, learning theories, and the study of
various specialists. Thus, curriculum theory is known to
explain the functions of description, prediction and
explanation of curriculum issues of facts to serve as a
guiding principle to the activities of curriculum. This is to
say that curricular decisions on organized body of
knowledge, ways of imparting knowledge, instructional
materials and determination of the extent to which
instructional objectives have been achieved must be
adequately made in relation to valid curriculum theory. What
then are the kinds of theory that exist in curriculum?

Kinds of Curriculum Theory

There are different kinds of curriculum theory as discussed
viz:
i. John Dewey’s Curriculum Theory:
John Dewey felt that the world changes from time to time
and with the modern world, curriculum should be that
which would be able to produce students who would adjust
effectively and deal with the experiences of the modern
world. Curriculum should not be presented with abstract
ideas. The child’s own perception of her own world as well
as prerequisite knowledge should be incorporated in the
curriculum. Dewey showed how to characterize children’s
behavior using four instincts which are social, constructive,
expressive and artistic. The world where the child lives
should be orderly built using curriculum. He related
occupation to fundamental life classroom activities of the
learner. Achieving this goal means effective combination of
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 subject areas with materials of instruction thereby
connecting the subjects with the child’s life. Dewey’s
theory contributed to the development of schools that are
progressing even till today.

1. Social Efficiency Educators Theory:

This theory aims at making a social utility of the members
of a society perfect or efficient. The theorists are Ross,
Bobbilt, Gilbreth, Taylor and Thorndike. They believed that
education as an efficiency tool could be used to control the
society. Evaluation of students would be made
scientifically, intelligent quotient (IQ) determined, while
their education would be channeled towards the roles
predicted in the society. This considers the introduction of
vocational schools as well as junior high schools to ensure
that the curriculum is designed to address students’ life
activities in relation to each student’s future life in the
society. This theory advocates that socially efficient
curriculum be made to accommodate component parts of
concept that forms a whole concept when made to be
together. This educational view tends to relate to factory’s
efficiency of work which gives rise to the production of
competent factory workers to help boost the efficiency of
factory work. This theory is criticized due to its emphasis
on testing and classifying students based on the results of
that testing.

2. Developmentalists Theory:
In this theory, emphasis lies on developing children’s
emotional and behavioural qualities. Attention is on the use
of children and youth characteristics to build the curriculum.
Some critics are of the view that this model is at the expense
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of other factors that are relevant. It was advocated that
instruction be organized differently based on endowed
natural features. Again, separate schools are established for
dullards in the elementary grades.

3. Mental Disciplinarians and Humanists Theory:

Mental disciplinarians and humanists theory believes that
education aims at the students’ systematic development of
reasoning power and not for social reforms. They believe
that all students should have the ability to develop mental
reasoning. The society would be better if her inhabitants
have good reasoning power. They advocate for five subjects
that would be taught for the development of reasoning and
regard those five subjects as “five windows”. The five
subjects are; grammar, literature and arts, mathematics,
geography and history and prescribed them in that order to
be taught (Kliebard, 2004:15). This was criticized by critics
as having too much emphasis on the “classics” as determined
by the dominant groups in a society. In the society today,
this group has cultural bias towards the upper class.

4. Social Meliorism Theory:

Here, education is believed to be a tool of restructuring for a
better change. Emphasis here is in using education to develop
the individual’s intellectual ability for better improvement
and performance. Factors such as gender, race, socio-
economic status and heredity do not have access to
individual’s future improvement on intelligence. “The
corruption and vices in the cities, the inequality of race and
gender, and the abuse of privileges and power could all be
addressed by a curriculum that is focused directly on those
very issues, thereby raising a new generation equipped to deal
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effectively with those abuses”(Kliebard, 2004: 24). Criticism
labeled against this view is that the goals are difficult to
achieve with concomitant slow results.
Furthermore, McNeil (1981:11) identified four kinds of
curriculum theories as:
1. Formal curriculum theory
2. Valuational curriculum theory
3. Event theory or scientific theory
4. Praxiological theory
Their discussions are given as follows:

1. Formal Curriculum Theory:

This theory exposes how the mind works and it greatly
relates to the theory of mental discipline, as well as structure
of knowledge. A student’s discipline is built based on the
type of mind he/she has that connects to the discipline. The
mind in question consists of memory, imagination,
reasoning, observation and will which are called the mind’s
muscles. The focus here is the student’s ability to learn and
not what the student learns. Thus the need for “ability
grouping” in schools.

2. Valuational Curriculum Theory:

This theory advocates for proper means for the attainment of
desirable objectives and content of the curriculum. All
efforts are geared towards identification and utilization of
ways or means of achieving the set objectives of the
curriculum.

3. Event Theory or Scientific Theory:

This tends to make something known in advance when
certain conditions are present. This theory aims at making
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certain conditions meaningful through the organization of
empirical researches and data.

There are several sources of descriptive

educational theory. E.g. teachers and
curriculum. Curriculum planners make use of
many descriptive scientific theories based on
the complex nature of learners and learning as
well as social aspects of human nature. This
suggests that one’s preferred value position
should be tested in the light of these areas of
theory, (Esu, Elukoha & Umoren, 2009:231).

4. Praxiological Theory:
This deals with the process of decision making on the ideal
means of attaining what is assessed to be desirable. This
forms the theoretical base for determining a policy as well as
the decision to adopt certain objectives and practices. Mental
discipline theory relates with this theory due to its ability in
maximally utilizing the mind adequately, thereby resulting in
the ability of the mind to remember the learnt concept. This
theory allows for curriculum decision. One is made to work
through the problem for the purpose of justifying why a
particular subject is taught rather than the other. To clarify
issues here, mental discipline is not a content of the
curriculum but ability to learn is enhanced using adequate
exercise skills and knowledge gained during learning
improve mental discipline.
In another situation, as identified by
www.globalacademicgroup.com,2015, the purpose of
theorizing resulted in disagreement among theorists. They

11
were three major groups that were involved. Those groups
are discussed as shown.

1. The Largest Group Theory:

This group sees theory as a guiding frame work for applied
curriculum development and research and as a tool for
evaluation of curriculum development. Theory is seen here
as spring board for presentation and guidance of practical
activities in curriculum. This group sees theory as
functioning like philosophy which is not subjected to
empirical validation. This approach is so primary and is not
called curriculum philosophy for it is untrained philosophers
that are engaged in it but much involved in it is a form
philosophizing (www.globalacademicgroup.com,2015).

2. The Fewer Group Theory:

This is a second group called a second “camp”. The group is
far fewer and younger than the first group. The theorizers lay
emphasis on scientific theory with regards to a convention,
as in following generally accepted principles methods and
behaviour. They identify and describe the variables and their
relationships in the field of curriculum. This theory does not
aim at the test of efficiency and effectiveness of curriculum
content but rather focuses on the concept as it appears
naturally, using research for empirical validation of the
variables and relationships.

3. The Third Group Theory:

This group of theorizers sees theory as a creative intellectual
task not as a basis for prescription or empirically testable set
of principles and relationships. Theorizers aim to develop
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and criticize concepts with the realization of new ways of
talking about curriculum to be more fruitful in future than
the orientation it has presently. They advocate for playful
free floating process that can be desirable.
It is important to note here that individuals may operate well
in the three realms above but in different occasions
depending on specific professional factors and tasks which
arise.
In addition to the above, other curriculum experts such as
Eisner in Esu, Elukohaand Umoren (2009) and philosophers
observed that curriculum theories are classified into two
main areas; namely Normative and Descriptive theories.

1. Normative Theory:
This theory emphasizes on articulation of ideas and
convincing reasons for justification of a set of values. It aims
at providing a persuasive case for the value of a particular
end of a state of being. This theory sees growth as the
development of individual’s intellectual mode that enhances
meaningful experience. At the same time it sees education as
an end for fostering this growth in the individual.
Knowledge here is seen as experiences that have been
rearranged and put together. These experiences are
normative in nature. Education is a normative enterprise and
normative ideas occupy a central position in curriculum
theorizing as evidenced in available literature. Experience is
educational due to its inclusion in a set of values that is why
normative commitment is inevitable in curriculum planning
and development. This tends to explain that those variables
such as information, ideas and data are influenced by images
of educational virtue. Again, they are very important in
making decisions in the field of curriculum.
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 Theorizers in normative theory are of the view that theory
cannot be predicted and that normative theory goes from
general statements and beliefs to highly complex, detailed
efforts to provide an angle of a point of view of what is
good, useful or pleasant.
It is important to note that theoretical construction of value is
part of intellectual activity of ordinary men and women.
Thus describing a social fact greatly differs from the ability
in theorizing as well as conceptualizing a body of
knowledge. This explains further that when one makes a
claim of a fact, the person has not made a value statement
about it. He/she has not conceptualized as well as theorized
it.

2. Descriptive Theory:
This is also called scientific theory. This theory involves
those statements or concepts that attempt to explain usually
through their power and to predict the events of the world.
Such theory is exemplified in the natural sciences (Eisner,
1979). Educational matters are value-laden when compared
with any of the science subjects. Thus this theory (which was
borrowed from psychology) became popular right from the
beginning of Dewey’s laboratory experiment in education,
Piaget’s conception of man as a biological being, the
application of theory of scientific management to curriculum
and teaching, Edward Thorndike’s experiment and Standford
B.net’s mental measurement (IQ testing) and movement,
(Esu, Elukoha &Umoren, 2009).
Powerful decisions by planners in curriculum are made
possible by descriptive theory. These decisions create room
for empirical generalization which would be considered for
describing specific situations. Descriptive theory is greatly
14
influenced by many theories that are related to cognition,
learning, perception, reinforcement, problem-solving,
sequence and instruction particularly in educational thoughts
and practices.
Good educational thoughts and practices increase the
efficiency of schools. This theory, through Bobbit and
Dewey, advocates a situation where ideas of scientific
management are applied to curriculum and teaching for
instructional and school efficiency. It should be noted here
that norms are formed; the descriptive data used for
supporting one’s norm are influenced by the norms that have
been formed.It is clearly seen that normative theory is
complemented by descriptive claims from descriptive theory.
From Dewey’s philosophy, the understanding of future
world has influence on the conception of its coming into
being, thereby shaping one’s ardent desires or wishes. This is
to say that different beliefs give rise to different conceptions
of knowledge which result in the utilization of different
methods of enquiry thereby deriving at different conclusion
of the world.
This shows that there are two main types of theory in
curriculum and they are supportive of each other. It is
normative theory that identifies the values for the direction
of educational programme, while provision of concepts and
generalization need for planning programme of the school is
provided by descriptive theory. Problems in developing
curriculum are made practical by theory thereby giving
meaning to what is learned in school. Thus, learning
activities are brought into reality. It makes learning have
lasting effects on students. Thus, teachers’ imaginative
ability comes into play during curriculum development. It is
during curriculum developmental process that ideas through
15
educational imagination are transformed in relation to the
needs of the students. Curriculum Theory aims at effective
sequencing of concepts, arrangements and development of
skills and facts for adequate rate of learning by individual
students.

Attributes of Curriculum Theory

Theory has a significant role in educational development.
Educators in their everyday activities in relation to schooling
make observations; gather information about certain
educational issues. The observation and data collection lead
to certain conclusion concerning learning. For instance, the
observation that conducive environment makes for
meaningful learning is due to facts and information collected
based on this. It is important to identify that this does not
make a theory.
Theory is experienced when there is order, classification,
exploration and definition of facts and principles as well as
their relationships. When a set of statements is made to
clarify a given phenomenon comes a theory.
Certainly, all theories are not useful. The irrelevant ones can
be discarded. Useful theories are bound to make sense and
should possess certain attributes as indicated viz:
1) A useful theory should be clear, free from contradictions.
Its principles should be well understood and not to
contradict with others.
2) A good theory has to be specific and detailed. It should
bear terms that are precise and straight to the phenomena.
3) Comprehensiveness is the hallmark of a useful theory.
This is to say that it must relate issues to one another and
not being restricted to a particular phenomenon. The

16
 domains of educational objectives (cognitive, affective
and psychomotor) should be greatly emphasized.
4) A useful theory is capable of generating useful research,
possessing tentative statement that is fundamental for
more observation and fact finding which may eventually
lead to another theory.
5) A good theory restricts itself to relevant facts and
principles. Its simple explanations to facts are highly
commendable. It is said to be parsimonious.
6) Testability is an important feature of a theory.

Importance of Curriculum Theory

1. A theory is known for its set of interrelated concepts,
definitions and propositions that tend to predict situations
by identifying relationships of the variables concerned.
This tells how clearly theory presents a systematic way of
comprehending events or situations.
2. Organization of some aspects of human behavior or
performance is clearly explained by theory. Through this,
predictions can be made about that behavior.
3. Concepts are provided by theory for identification of
what one observes and explain relationships among
concepts for the purpose of bringing about change.
4. Theory helps in the identification of problems as well as
planning for the means of preferring solution to it.
5. Theory justifies reimbursement of fund, and supports the
reason for explanation of what has been done as well as
demonstrates that it works through research.
6. Theory is the only guide to research which helps one in
the understanding of that thing one does not know.
7. Theory enhances ability to solve problems at any time
and place.
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Conclusion
This work has looked at the society and its nature of change
from generation to generation. This is related to the need for
dynamic curriculum that would address the need of not only
the individuals but the society. Curriculum cannot
effectively administer its contents to the students/pupils
without curriculum theory which unveils beliefs regarding
all curriculum decisions that form the basis for school
activities.
Many kinds of curriculum theory have been x-rayed. They
are; John Dewey’s, Social Efficiency Educators,
Developmentalists’s Mental Disciplinarians and Humanists,
Social Meliorism, Formal, Valuational, Event, Praxiological,
Largest Group, Fewer Group, Third Group, Normative and
Descriptive Curriculum Theories. In all, this chapter
emerged with two main types of curriculum theory namely:
Normative and Descriptive Curriculum theories. They are
complementary to each other and effective utilization of
them increases efficiency of school works as well as
curriculum development and sustainability based on their
theories parsimonious nature.

Revision Questions
a. What is Curriculum?
b. Define curriculum theory
c. a. Briefly discus social meliorism theory.
4. a.What are the attributes of curriculum theory?
b.Of what importance is curriculum theory to
teaching?

18
 5. a. Identify four kinds of curriculum theory according
to McNeil (1981).
b. Briefly discuss any two of them.
6. Discuss fully, the two main kinds of curriculum
theory.

References
Dike, H.I & Eze, R.O. (2009). Designing a Curriculum.
UMO Ivowi, K. Nwufo, C. Nwagbara, J. Ukwungwu,
I.E. Emeh & U. Uya, Curriculum Theory and
Practice. Nigeria: CON

Esu, A.E.O., Enukoha, O.I. &Umoren, G.U. (2009).

Curriculum Development in Nigeria for Colleges and
Universities, Calabar: STIH Faith Print.

Eisner, E.W. (1979). The Educational Imagination: On the

Design and Evaluation of School Programme. New
York: Routledge Falmer.

Kliebard, H.M. (2004). The Struggle for the American

Curriculum. New York: Routledge Falmer.

McNeil, J.D. (1981). Curriculum: A comprehensive

Introduction. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.

Okoro, I.F., Emenyeonu, B.C. & Akaraonye, J. (2012).

Essentials of curriculum implementation. Owerri:
Doming Press.

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Uwatt, L.E. (2009). Curriculum Dissemination. UMO Ivowi,
K. Nwufo, C. Nwagbara, J. Ukwungwu, I.E. Emeh &
U. Uya. Curriculum Theory & Practice. Nigeria:
CON.
www.globalacademicgroup.com (2015). Retrieved
20/11/2015.

Chapter 2
The Changing Conceptions of Curriculum
By
20
 Dr Alice E. Udosen

Introduction

Curriculum as a field of professional study in education

has a fledgling history. The field was born in the United
States of America so to speak, with the publication of the
book “curriculum” in 1918 by Franklin Bobbitt. This was a
landmark publication which sparked interest in the field of
curriculum and drew the attention of researchers who now
saw a new area to focus their interest. A number of
professional studies that assessed and sorted out choices and
procedures sprang up due to the new area and interest. This
was especially important because at that time there were
many conflicting opinions about the concept of education.
Earlier in the century, the general concern was that education
was the process of becoming knowledgeable. Shortly
thereafter, dissension arose regarding what formal education
was and the role that schools play in the process. Coupled
with these were differences in opinion regarding how
learning occurred. It was in the midst of all these confusions
that Bobbitt’s book on curriculum arrived. Thus, while the
debate on what constituted education by scholars multiplied,
the field of curriculum expanded to address the development
of the whole educational programme and their meaning to
the society (Wiles & Bondi, 2011). Curriculum can therefore
be said to occupy a centre stage in the education process.
From that early beginning till now, there has not been any
consensus as to the precise definition of the term curriculum,
both among professional educationists and non educationists.
The conceptualization of curriculum has always been given
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 according to the perspective of the person involved. One
sure thing is that the definition of curriculum changes from
time to time, to reflect the social conditions prevalent in the
society, the way knowledge is conceived, the way the
learners are viewed and of course, how education is
conceived (Onwuka, 1996). This chapter attempts to revisit
some of these definitions and show how it has traversed to
the present circumstance and development in the society. It
is hoped that the reader would be able to:
(1) trace the origin of the term curriculum and show how it
affected its definition at the beginning;
(2) critically analyze the definition of curriculum as given by the
three schools of thought that make up the traditionalists;
(3) compare and contrast the narrow and the broad conceptions
of the curriculum;
(4) define curriculum in line with present development in the
society; and,
(5) differentiate between planned and unplanned curriculum,
intended and achieved curriculum, etc.

Conceptualization of the Curriculum

Many scholars have defined curriculum in the past. The
literature is replete with such definitions. What is clear so
far is that there is no general consensus of what curriculum
means. We shall however try to examine some of those
efforts here. According to Onwuka (1996), the word
‘curriculum’ is derived from ‘currere’, a Latin word for the
infinitive ‘to run’. But the noun form which means ‘course’,
is more acceptable as the origin. The noun form of the word
‘Currere’ was used for a race course or a course which
competitors covered in order to win a prize or honour. The
22
 course or track always had a starting point, the runway and
a goal, the end. Just as it is in the field of athletics, one
would imagine that the distance to be covered varied
according to the prize to be won as well as the age of the
competitors.
By the 19th century, the word, curriculum came to be used in
reference to education. Certainly, it had become a
recognized term in Scottish universities where it meant a
regular course of study or training, at schools, college, or
university. By 1829, the University of Glasgow had come
out with a policy streamlining the duration for certain
courses in the curriculum for students taking degrees in
surgery to last for three years (Onwuka, 1996).
In spite of the time lag, its original Latin connotation as a
course to be covered is still retained, particularly when
referring to a course of study to be completed and mastered
for a prize; the passing of an examination or gaining of a
certificate or promotion. Curriculum is now regarded as a
course that students or pupils undertake as they ‘compete for
high grades, passes, Certificates or other forms of academic
rewards.
This definition presents curriculum as a subject and
subject-matter to be taught by teachers and learned by
students. It is the set of subjects or courses offered or
recommended to be gone through by learners. In this respect,
it could be regarded as the sum total of the schools planned
programme of studies designed to bring about desirable
changes in the bahaviour of students or learners both in and
outside its premises. This is gleaned from, Bobbits (1918:42)
who sees curriculum as “that series of things which children
and youth must do and experience by way of developing
abilities to do things well that makes up the adult life; and to
23
be in all respects what adults should be.” Broubacher
(1961:155) refers to curriculum as the “ground which pupils
and teachers cover in order to reach a goal or objective of
education”. Clearly, every definition of curriculum can be
regarded as a series of activities intended to be completed in
order to acquire desirable knowledge, skills, habits, and
values for life in society.
It is obvious from the foregoing that ever since curriculum
was adopted into education, that its general view is that of a
programme of studies to be completed by teachers and
learners. This view has however led to different and varied
definitions some of which are narrow and others broad.
The Narrow Conceptions of the Curriculum
The conception of curriculum as subject matter, a
syllabus, plan, etc constitutes the narrow view of the
curriculum and is held by the traditionalists. Even within
this school of thought, there are variant views as
represented by the Perennialists, Essentialists and the
Disciplines Doctrine Advocates. We describe their views
briefly.
The Perennialists’ conception of the curriculum relates
to their view of the functions of education. They reason that
since man is endowed with a rational faculty, that education
should focus on the cultivation of man’s intellect.
Therefore, they say that curriculum should consist of the
‘permanent studies. This is the view of Hutchins, (1936: 82)
when he asserted that “the curriculum should consist of
permanent studies – the rule of grammar, reading, rhetoric
and logic, and mathematics (for the elementary and
secondary school) and the greatest books of the western

24
world (beginning at secondary level of schooling)”. These
subjects they reason have lasting values that prepare the
learners both for the present and for all times. No
consideration however is given to the needs and interest of
the learners, nor is there room for modern scientific studies.
The development of logical faculty and correct thinking is
the pre-occupation of education and the curriculum
furnishes the school with the tool to accomplish that
purpose. To them, curriculum is compartmentalized,
atomized and segmented.
The Essentialists also share the same view with the
Perennialists in that the training of the intellect is uppermost
to them but differ slightly. They regard the organized bodies
of academic knowledge as race experience which the
children and youth should acquire and store for future use.
The curriculum and the work of the teacher to them
represent the storehouse of the organized race experience
which must be conserved for use in solving new problems.
The curriculum in their view should consist of five essential
areas of disciplined study which would develop the
intellectual power of the learners. Such academic studies
include: the command of the mother tongue along with the
systematic study of grammar, literature and writing;
mathematics, sciences, history and foreign language. Bestor
(1956) is one of the major advocates of this school of
thought. According to the Essentialists, the school’s first
duty is to provide a standard programme of intellectual
training in the fundamental disciplines. The needs and
interest of the learners have no place in their curriculum.
They however differ from the perennialists in that they
appreciate the place of sciences in the curriculum and also

25
acknowledge the need to use acquired knowledge for the
future.
The Disciplines Doctrine Advocates is another group
within the traditionalists. They see the curriculum as
knowledge which comes from the established isolated
disciplines that do not relate to the nature and interest of the
learners. Rather, the curriculum according to them consists
of independent areas of studies. They see knowledge as a
product of disciplined inquiry which is neither fixed nor
permanent but is confined to the already established
disciplines. Phenix (1962:63) is a strong advocate of this
school of thought and observed that “the curriculum should
consist entirely of knowledge which comes from the
disciplines. Education should be conceived as a guided
recapitulation of the process of inquiry which gave rise to
the fruitful bodies of organized knowledge comprising the
established disciplines’.
The conceptualization of curriculum by the
traditionalists was not only narrow but was educationally
dangerous as “it divorced school studies from the realities
and demands of life in the society” (Onwuka, 1996: 16).
Another danger was the barrier it created among different
subjects matter and the learners. Thus, the learners were not
allowed to see the relationship among the different subjects
and how they affected their life in society because of
compartmentalization and atomization of curriculum.
Other scholars in this group are all those who defined
curriculum as a ‘course of study’, ‘subject matter’,
‘educational plan’, a product and an avenue (Smith and
Shores 1957, Tanner and Tanner 1971, Tyler 1975 and
Beauchamp1986) respectively. The traditionalists’
definition of curriculum may have been influenced by the
26
very origin of its name which meant race course or a course
of study. Their conceptualizations cover some aspect of the
curriculum and so do not describe the whole perspective of
curriculum.
The Conceptualization of the Curriculum by the
Progressives
By early 20th century, a group of educators frowned at the
narrow conception of the curriculum by the traditionalists.
This group is known as the progressives. They based their
argument on the fact that what learners learn is not
restricted to the formal courses offered by the school but
that the total school environment play important parts. This
led them to redefine curriculum in a way to capture this new
view. A number of factors led to the dissatisfaction with the
traditionalists’ conception of the curriculum.
With the increasing knowledge explosion made available
through new technological developments like the radio,
television, it became difficult to identify what constituted
‘essential knowledge. Also ‘knowing’ was no longer being
held in book/document form alone. Coupled with this was
the increase in population enrolment in schools such that
schooling was no longer the preserve of the elite class but a
universal experience. Most of these new entrants to the
school preferred the acquisition of citizenship skills over
classical knowledge. New courses like social studies and
vocational education were then developed and added to the
curriculum. In the midst of all these, it became obvious to
teachers and administrators that the individual learners
before them are with varying abilities which was also an
issue for the curriculum. A few definitions by some of them
are given below:

27
 Bobbitt (1924:10) stated: The curriculum may be defined
in two ways:
1. It is the range of experiences, both indirect and direct,
concerned in unfolding the abilities of the individual, or
2. It is a series of consciously directed training experiences that
the schools use for completing and perfecting the
individual.
Bobbitt’s definition addressed both the planned and the
unplanned curriculum. In the same vein, Caswell and
Campbell (1935:66) wrote that “curriculum is composed of
all the experiences children have under the guidance of the
school”.
Their definition focused on the socializing function of the
schooling experience where the curriculum is seen as a
process rather than a product.
Tyler (1957:79) also defined curriculum as “all of the
experiences that individual learners have in a program of
education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and
related specific objectives, which are planned in terms of a
framework of theory and research or past or present
professional practices”.
The progressives’ conception of the curriculum was
criticized for being broad by (Tanner & Tanner 1975: 6).
The authors argued that the definition failed to show the
experiences offered by the school and those of other
agencies. According to Onwuka (1996), such criticisms
were uncalled for when one considers that schools are a
creation of the society for the education of her young ones.
However, the broad conception of the curriculum by the
progressives gave rise to different kinds of curriculum such

28
as planned and unplanned, intended and actual, formal and
informal, (hidden) total curriculum and implemented
curriculum (Duru, 2011, Ughamadu, 2006). We shall revisit
some of these terms later.
A major thrust of the progressives’ conception of the
curriculum is their concern for the all round development of
the learners (cognitive, affective and psychomotor). Their
view is that the child is made up of the head, the heart and
the hands and so the curriculum which is a major tool in the
education of the child should make provisions for the
education of the whole child or the total man. Again, the
interest, nature and needs of the child must necessarily be
considered in the process of his education. Thus, the
curriculum must expose the child to the life as it is lived in
the society so his education would prepare him to fit well
into it. All these gave rise to the broad conception of the
curriculum by the progressives.
Scholars have criticized this broad conception by saying
that there are certain learning experiences children have but
which the school cannot accept responsibility. For instance,
some children in school, steal, join secret cult and engage in
examination malpractice. These were never the intended
learning outcomes since education connotes worthwhile
activities. In an attempt to avoid such negative results being
attributed to the school, Tanner and Tanner (1975) gave
what may be regarded as mid-way definition between the
narrow and the extremely broad definition of the curriculum
thus:
“the planned and guided learning experiences and
intended learning outcomes formulated through the
systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experience

29
under the auspices of the school for the learners’ continuous
and willful growth in personal-social competence” (p. 45).
This definition, apart from bridging the gap between the
narrow and the broad poles, also shows that curriculum
should be dynamic enough to accommodate new changes in
the society as a result of ‘knowledge explosion’. In such a
case, the curriculum needs to be reviewed by “systematic
reconstruction of knowledge and experience” to make it
relevant to the users.
Still pushing the conception of curriculum further was
the demand for accountability in education. During the mid
20th century, many stakeholders in the education industry
were concerned with the performance of the educational
programmes being implemented in schools. Terms like
“accountability, outcome- based education or standards-
based learning started appearing in the literature. Thus,
definition of curriculum was further pushed “towards
emphasis on ends or results” (Wiles & Bondi 2011:5).
Scholars started to revise their conception of the curriculum
to reflect this new demand. For example, Tanner and
Tanner (1995:67) wrote: “Curriculum is concerned not with
what students will do in the learning situation, but with
what they will learn as a consequence of what they do.
Curriculum is concerned with results”.
This definition emphasizes the function aspect of the
curriculum. Often, the hues and cries about educational
failure are based on the products of the schools. When
learners are not acquiring life-coping skills relevant to the
real world then the society would frown at the school
curriculum. This often calls for curriculum review which is
the concern of the present Nigerian education system.
Again it has to be emphasized, that just reviewing the
30
curriculum is not enough, but how it is implemented which
will result in what learners ‘will learn as a consequence of
what they do’. It is what learners learn that is the yardstick
for evaluation or accountability. And so the present new
entrepreneurial curriculum needs to be implemented in a
way to afford learners opportunity and practical exposure so
they can learn from what they do.
The Curriculum in the 21st Century
Apart from basing definition of curriculum on the
elements, social forces also are criteria for defining
curriculum. For example, in the 21st century, where
knowledge is becoming universally accessible, and no
longer restricted to one place or through one medium, and
most delivery systems are electronic not through print or
live presentation, education hitherto equated with school
houses have to change. People in the 21 st century will use
knowledge on a need-to-know basis. The rate and power of
technology, when applied to information, will increase
exponentially (Wiles and Bondi 2011:283). Learning will
not be linear and sequential as in the past, but convergent.
All this put together has further stretched the conception of
the curriculum. The definition of Her Majesty’s
Inspectorate (HMI) through the Department of Education
and Science (DES) (1985: 11) is illustrative thus:
A school curriculum consists of all those
activities designed or encouraged within its
organizational framework to promote the
intellectual, personal, social and physical
development of its pupils. It includes not only the
formal programme of lessons, but also the
“informal” programme of so-called extra-
curricular activities as well as those features
31
 which produce the school’s ethos’ such as the
quality of relationships, the concern for equality
of opportunity, the values exemplified in the way
the school sets about its tasks and the way it is
organized and managed. Teaching and learning
styles strongly influence the curriculum and in
practice they cannot be separated from it.
A cursory look at this definition would reveal that the
curriculum embodies both the planned and hidden
curriculum including the mode of delivery in a digitized
age. In analyzing the description of the curriculum by DES,
Etuk, Udosen, Emah, Edem and Afangideh (2015) observed
that the definition suggest that the school curriculum is
essentially everything that goes on in the school ranging
from the activities in the school through the intentions of
the activities to even the relationships within the school, the
core values of the school and the way the tasks are arranged
and organized including teaching and learning styles. Thus,
the dominative styles of teaching where the teacher is seen
as all knowing are no longer fashionable. Learners are
rather encouraged to explore knowledge using the modern
technological media such that we now have learner
autonomy in education.
The definition of the curriculum can go on and on but no
matter the variations in its description, there are certain
features that are common to all of them. And these are that:
The school curriculum is a programme;
It is consciously planned for the school system;
It is meant to be systematically implemented in schools;
It is guided/directed by the teachers;

32
It is intended that people should after proper interactions or
activities, gain experiences or learn certain knowledge,
acquire certain skills and develop certain attitudes that are
desired by the society which own the schools, and
It is designed with the hope that through its use the society
would realize its aspirations, solve its economic, political
and social problems (Etuk, Udosen, Emah, Edem &
Afangideh).
In reflecting the rapid changes in the society and relating
it to how it would affect the school which is established by
the society to serve its goals, (Doll, 1993:3) wrote, “A new
sense of educational order will emerge, as well as new
relations between teachers and students, culminating in a
new concept of curriculum. The linear, sequential, easily
quantifiable ordering system dominating education today
could give way to a more complex, pluralistic unpredictable
system or network. Such a complex network will, like life
itself, always be in transition in process.
Doll’s observation in the mid 1990’s which sounded
prophetic has already taken place. Distributive learning
across space, time and media is here on children’s
computers. Children are learning outside the school with
unknown partners around the world while in their homes.
Digitized equipment and messages using digital line (DSL),
digital cameras characterize how people send emails and
photos to friends. This is the characteristics of the new
information age and this also affects the definition of the
curriculum.
In the same vein, Aronowitz and Giroux (1991) wrote
about the envisaged changes in the system which will
eventually affect one’s view of the curriculum. They wrote:

33
 As we move into the 21 st century, we find ourselves no
longer constrained by modernists’ images of purpose and
history. Elements of discontinuity, rapture, and difference
(chaos) provide alternatives sets of referents by which to
understand modernity as well as to challenge and modify it.
The term post-modern is a rejection of grand narratives and
any form of totalizing thought. It embraces diversity and
locality. It creates a world where individuals must make
their way, where knowledge is consistently changing, and
where meaning is no longer anchored in history.
(Aronowitz & Giroux, 1991,: ii)
The 21st century curriculum planners have to come to
grip with what is happening in the society and so reflect
these in their planning. Today, teachers are no more seen as
reservoirs of knowledge, but guides who prepare the
environment and facilitate learning for learners who need to
make their way and acquire relevant knowledge through
various channels made available by the new system.
Putting all these together, the present author agrees with
Etuk, Udosen, Emah and Afangideh (2015:23) who defined
curriculum as:
A planned programme of education for a
society, systematically implemented in
institutions of learning, under the
guidance of the teachers to enable pupils
attain, through learning, the desired
outcomes, in order that the society may
ultimately realize its pre-determined
goals. The curriculum therefore reflects
the philosophy, the core values,
aspirations, problems and the present

34
 and futuristic needs of the society it is
meant to serve.

The programme of education in this definition is

supposed to give the learners a comprehensive education as
it contains programme of studies, programme of activities
and programme of guidance. This corroborates Oliver’s
(1968) definition of curriculum as the school educational
programme.
(1) Programme of studies-covering all subjects that are taught
in schools e.g. History, Geography, Mathematics,
Languages, etc.
(2) Programme of activities-planned and organized out of
classroom teaching activities. For example, debating
societies, dramatic societies, sports, road safety societies etc.
Students learn the process of socialization through these
clubs because they are less formal and structured.
(3) Programme of guidance- a programme of care for the well
being of the learners. In this programme, professionally
trained experts are employed to help learners achieve self
understanding, self direction necessary for adjustment to
school, home and the larger environment. The assistance
from counselors are mainly in three areas-educational,
vocational and personal-social issues relating to emotional
and psychological which may adversely affect learners’
learning in schools if not properly handled.
Therefore curriculum can be viewed as a total package of
what schools do to make learners become what society
expects of them, becoming good citizens, who are not only
able to understand or learn certain school subjects, but fully
integrated individuals that are able to fit into society and
contribute their own quote as well as to the progress of that
35
society. In the process of describing the curriculum scholars
have brought in various terms to substantiate their claims.
These terms we briefly examine viz

Formal and Informal curriculum

The formal curriculum can be regarded as the curriculum
which has received formal recognition such that all its
activities are accommodated in the school time- table. It is
formal in the sense that everything in the curriculum is
specified by the ministry of education based on the basic
rules and regulations guiding the school operation. There is
provision for formal testing and evaluation programme build
in to ascertain whether intended learning has taken place.
Informal curriculum refers to those activities which
students engage in voluntarily outside the normal scheduled
school period. As observed by Ughamadu (2006:23), such
activities normally take place at break periods, meal times, at
the end of school hours, weekends or even on school
holidays. Such activities that constitute the informal
curriculum and afford the students the opportunity to learn
include clubs ranging from literary and debating clubs where
students learn to speak good English by organizing ideas and
participating in such activities; to dramatic societies, Road
safety clubs, young farmers club, field trips and sports.
There is no specific and structured procedure to follow in
this type of curriculum. Students pick up and learn
social/inter personal relations skills, values and norms of the
society as well as correct attitudes and behaviours expected
of learners in the course of their interaction with teachers
and one another. Although this curriculum does not have
official time in the school timetable, they are informally
organized to complete the education of the learners. Some
36
scholars term it hidden curriculum, but the present author
prefer to call it informal or co-curricular because it facilitates
the proper implementation of the formal curriculum thereby
completing the education of the learners.

Official / Planned/ Intended Curriculum

The official curriculum is the planned curriculum for the
education of learners by the ministry of education and
handed down to schools for implementation in order to
realize the educational goals and aspirations of the society. It
is official because it is planned and embodies the educational
policies and goals of the nation as well as that of the
individual learners. It is handed down and is recognized as
an educational programme which has been systematically
planned with choices indicating what to be taught, who to be
taught, and how to teach what is to be taught. At this level, it
is at best, the educational wishes of the nation on paper. That
is why it is also referred to as intended curriculum. The level
of exposure of the learners to knowledge and how to
determine how much they have learned are all indicated in
this curriculum.

Actual/achieved/ implemented curriculum

Actual curriculum is the extent to which the intended
curriculum has been implemented. Often times, what is
planned and handed down to teachers are different from
what is done in practice. It is what teachers do with
curriculum that determines what learners learn. The
curriculum is implemented through the instrumentality of
instructional practices. Teachers are expected to follow
suggested approaches, use resources and expose learners to
fruitful interactions that would facilitate acquisition of skills,
37
knowledge, values, attitudes and values. A number of factors
inhibit the implementation of the curriculum – incompetency
on the part of the teachers, lack of resources,
misunderstanding of the objectives by the implementers,
lack of commitment by implementers, school administrators
and learners, poor funding among others. In such situations,
what learners get out of the curriculum, fall short of the
intended learning outcomes. This raises the issue of gap
between theory and practice. What is official curriculum is
the theory, while the implemented curriculum is the actual
curriculum in practice.
Achieved curriculum is also the actual curriculum
because it has to do with what has been achieved against
what was intended. It is evaluation that often sheds light on
this aspect. Achieved curriculum answers the question, How
much of the intended skills, attitudes and knowledge have
been learned? Nigeria is still battling with how to reduce the
gap between what was intended and what is achieved.

Hidden Curriculum
Among the functions of formal education is the
preservation and transmission of the best cultural practices
for the perpetuation of the society. As a miniature society,
the school reflects the life as it is lived in the larger society.
Thus societal norms, values, aspirations and ways of life of
the people are reflected through the activities and
interactions that go on in the school. It is on the basis of this
that Saylor and Alexander (1994) describe the hidden
curriculum as ‘an instructional programme’ because of the
socialization function it plays in the lives of the pupils. The
hidden curriculum, therefore, helps to shape students’ adult
lives as the experiences they unofficially imbibe make a
38
lasting impression on their adult lives (Igbokwe 2009).
Therefore, some of the unplanned and unintended learning
experiences which students acquire in the course of their
interaction with planned curriculum are referred to as hidden
curriculum. The hidden curriculum contributes to the total
education of children because through it they are prepared to
take their rightful place in the adult world and also fit well
into it.
Children in school learn such virtues that are highly
cherished by all societies as hard work, respect for
constituted authorities, patriotism, honesty, team work,
cooperation and patience to mention but a few. They also
learn how to tolerate, and accommodate the views of others
even when they are different from their own views; how to
be patient, accepting responsibility for personal actions, and
engaging in fair competitions (Igbokwe, 2009). Although
these highly valued norms and ethics of the society are not
specified as objectives in the planned curriculum, they are
however learned and internalized by the children, and they
contribute to the overall growth and development of the
children. They, therefore, constitute the hidden curriculum.
Children are, thus, mostly unconsciously influenced by the
hidden curriculum through their engagement with the official
routines, rituals, ceremonies, and culture of the school (Etuk,
Udosen, Emah, Edem, & Afangideh, 2015).
Distinction between curriculum and syllabus, scheme of
work, lesson notes and course of study.

Curriculum and Syllabus

From the definition of curriculum, it can be seen that
curriculum is broader in scope than the syllabus. A syllabus
is derived from the curriculum and is the content of subjects
39
offered in the schools. We thus have Mathematics, English
and chemistry syllabus, etc. A syllabus contains what the
students will learn in various school subjects in a year or for
a longer period of schooling for their certification. The West
African Examinations Council (WAEC) Syllabus in
literature 2010-2015 is an example. Syllabi are usually
prepared by bodies like National Examination Council,
WAEC, and National Universities Commission in the case of
universities.

Curriculum and scheme of work

Curriculum is not a scheme of work. A scheme of work is a
breakdown of the content of what students are expected to
learn from the curriculum and syllabus in a systematic order
for a term or a semester. It is an orderly arrangement of
instructional units/activities and is normally prepared by
teachers from the syllabus. It is a guide in planning what is
to be covered for weeks over a term or semester and for the
three terms or two semesters in an academic year as the case
may be.

Curriculum and lesson note

A lesson note is a guide for teachers for an orderly
presentation of lesson to the learners to facilitate learning.
Teachers draw the plan for teaching a particular subject from
the scheme of work which is also derived from the syllabus.
Lesson plans are prepared by the teachers and indicate a step
by step procedure to be followed in teaching a particular
lesson. It usually contains activities expected of the learners
as well as the teachers during the lesson period. The
classroom is the implementation point of the programme of
the learning which is just one of the three major components
40
of the curriculum. Thus, lesson note is not a curriculum but
an aspect of it.

Conclusion:
In this chapter we have attempted to explicate the concept
of curriculum right from its original Latin word, where we
have shown that the narrow definition of the curriculum as
subject matter, course of study is unlikely influenced by the
very origin and nature of the word which was used to denote
courses students pursue for grades and certificates and other
academic rewards on graduation.
The traditionalists have this narrow view of the
curriculum. Even within them, there are varied shades of
opinion on what should constitute the curriculum. The
different schools of thought here include the perennialists
who think the curriculum should consist of only “permanent
studies” considered to be valid then and for all times.
Another group, the Essentialists on their own says the
curriculum must consist essentially of disciplined study in
five great areas that must be acquired and stored for future
use. In essence, other subjects were not regarded as
important. The Disciplines Doctrine Advocates although
acknowledge that knowledge is neither fixed nor permanent
but they say that knowledge must be limited to the
boundaries of established disciplines. Thus, curriculum in
their view should be developed according to the structures of
the disciplines. All of these groups never thought about the
interest and nature of the learners in their conceptualization.
All that was important to them was the cultivation of the
intellect to the neglect of the affective and psychomotor
domains which complete the education of the child.

41
 During the 20th century, a group of scholars known as the
progressives frowned at what could be termed subject-
centered and rigid curriculum propagated by the
traditionalists. They argued that the curriculum should be
child-centered and that the child’s learning is influenced
directly or indirectly by the total school environment and not
only through the formal courses of study and so should be
integral part of curriculum. Their conception of curriculum
as “guided learning experience” is typical of Caswell and
Campbell (1935) conception. They also affirm that
curriculum should be dynamic as knowledge is not static so
as to relate societal problems, issues, values and concerns in
the curriculum for the development of such a society. They
also believe that all school subjects have the potential of
developing the whole child and so teachers to them are only
guides and facilitators of learning and not task masters. In
order to accommodate these concerns they defined the
curriculum in a way that some scholars criticized as being
too broad. The broad description of the curriculum has given
room to what is referred to as hidden curriculum. This is
because most of the things children learn in school is a fall
out of the school routine and rituals which although were not
actually planned are useful and completes the growth and
education of the learners.
Even as we were battling with how to streamline the
definition of the curriculum, and finding how to harmonize
the narrow and broad conceptualizations, we got confounded
with the realities of the 21 st century and its demands. This
again stretched further the definitions of the curriculum.
Thus, curriculum is not only concerned with the main four
elements and total school environments but also with quality
of relationships, concern for equality of opportunity, values
42
cherished by the school and of course the teaching and
learning styles. The implication here is that curriculum is
now essentially everything that goes on in the school. Not
only all the activities but even intentions of those activities
and the way that school tasks are arranged and organized.
In the process of leafing through the various descriptions
of the curriculum, we came across certain terms like
intended, actual, received and achieved curriculum, formal
and informal curriculum. We also tried to show the
difference between curriculum and syllabus, scheme of
work, and lesson notes. While these are aspects of the
curriculum, certainly they are not the complete conception of
the term curriculum. The readers are at liberty to x-ray the
conceptions of the curriculum as given by various groups
and link them to new developments in the society and make
efforts to define curriculum in line with present day realities.

Review Questions
1. Critically analyze the conception of curriculum as
given by the traditionalists.
2. What are the main concerns of the progressives in
defining the curriculum?
3. What is the difference between the formal and the
informal curriculum?
4. In your view, what is the importance of the hidden
curriculum in the development of the Nigerian child?
5. Differentiate between the intended curriculum and the
achieved -curriculum.
6. The curriculum is said to be the school educational
program. Discuss.

43
 References:
Aronowitz, S. & Giroux, H. (1991). Postmodern Education.
Westport, CT:
Greenwood.

Beauchamp, G. A. (1968). Curriculum Theory (2nd edition).

Wilmette U: The Kagg
Press.

Bestor, A. (1956). The Restoration of Learning. New York:

Knopf.

Bobbitt, F. (1918). The Curriculum. New York: Houghton

Mifflin.

Bobbitt, F. (1924). How to Make a Curriculum. New York:

Houghton Mifflin.

Caswell, H. L. & Campbell, D. S. (1935). Curriculum

Development. New York:
American Book.

Department of Education and Science (DES) 1985. The

curriculum from 5 to 16,
Curriculum Matters 2. London: HMSO

Doll, W. (1993). A post-modern perspective on curriculum.

New York:
Teachers College Press.

Duru, V. N. (2011). Curriculum Studies: Concepts,

Development and
44
 Implementation. Owerri: Avan Global Publications.

Etuk, N. E., Udosen, A. E., Emah, I. E., Edem, E. &

Afangideh, M. E.
(2015). Curriculum: The basics of Planning and
Implementation,
Nigeria: Abaam Publishing Co.

Hutchins, R. M. (1936). The Higher Learning in America.

New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press.

Igbokwe, U. L. (2009). Overview of Curriculum. In Igbokwe,

U.L. & Eze, U.N. (eds).
Classroom management for curriculum
implementation: Applying psychological
principles, Enugu: TIMEX pp. 1-30.

Oliver, A. I. (1968). What is the Meaning of Curriculum? In

A. I. Oliver (Ed.)
Curriculum Improvements (PP. 3-9). London: Short
and Marconnit.

Onwuka, U. (1996). Curriculum-concept of. In Onwuka, U

(ed.) Curriculum
Development for Africa. Africana- FEP Publishers
Limited, pp 10-27.

Phenix, P. H. (1962). The Disciplines as Curriculum

Content. In A. Harry Passow
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 (Ed). Curriculum Crossroads. New York: Teachers
College Press.

Saylor, J. G. & Alexander, W. M. (1974). Planning

curriculum for Schools. New
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Smith, B. O., Stanley, W. O. & Shores, J. H. (1957).

Fundamentals of Curriculum
Development. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. N. (1975). Curriculum

Development: Theory into Practice.
New York: Macmillan Publishers Limited.

Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. (1995). Curriculum Development:

Theory into Practice
(3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Tyler, R. W. (1957). The Curriculum then and now. In

Proceedings of the 1956
Conference on Testing Problems (P.79). Princeton,
NJ: Educational
Testing Service.

Ughamadu, K. A. (2006). Curriculum Concept,

Development and Implementation,
Onitsha: Lincel Publishers.

Wiles, J. W. & Bondi, J. C. (2011). Curriculum

Development: A guide to practice,
Boston: Pearsons
46
 Chapter 3
Types of Curriculum
By
Dr. (Mrs) Obi Patricia N.
Introduction
Curriculum as a field of study is conceived by
different educators in different ways. Since curriculum
reflects the models of instructional delivery chosen and used,
some educators might indicate that curriculum be
categorized according to the common psychological
classifications of the four families of learning theories of
social, information processing, personalist and behavioral.
Humans are born learning, thus the learned curriculum
actually encompasses a combination of all the different types
of curriculum such as the hidden, null, written, political and
social etc. Since students learn all the time through exposure
and modeled behaviours, this means they learn important
social and emotional lessons from everyone who inhabits a
school.
Categories of Curriculum
Curriculum has been categorized into different forms
but the five basic types of curriculum are classified as (i)
Traditional, (ii) Thematic (iii) Programmed (iv) Classical
and technological curriculum. The most used curriculum can
be found within these broader categories:

47
1. Traditional Curriculum: Traditional curriculum
typically involves a teacher conveying facts to
students. The curriculum focuses on a specific body
of knowledge to be transmitted to students and relies
heavily on memorization and drilling of facts and
formulas. Traditional curriculum may include:
transmission of moral standards, social conducts and
skills which educators consider important for students
to learn. Students are typically expected to learn what
they are taught without questioning. In traditional
curriculum, all students are taught the same content at
the same time frame with no adjustments made for
students who have difficulty with the material or with
those who find the material easy.
2. Thematic Unit Study Curriculum: This type of
curriculum is known as ‘thematic learning”. It
involves teaching across the curriculum or integrated
various concepts curriculum. Basic school subjects
are studied in light of a particular topic, theme, or
historical period instead of isolated subjects. It
involves integrating various concepts in curriculum
by daily life examples and experience.
3. Programmed Curriculum: This type of curriculum
is often based on self paste and sequential workbook.
It requires no preparation and usually little direct
teaching by the parents or the teacher. Programmed
curriculum encourages independent learner based or
self-paced especially for great content areas, example
is teaching of computer programming.

48
4. Classical/Trivium Curriculum: The “trivium” are
stages or ways of learning that coincide with a child’s
cognitive development. This stage is used in unit
study approach to content, systematic and
chronological method to content and progression of
knowledge. Example is the logic of writing such as
paragraph construction. It is a process of behaviour
modification that is achieved by repeated pairings of
the neutral stimulus as in the potent as in pavlovian
classical conditioning.
5. Technological Learning Curriculum: Technological
curriculum involves internet and software based
programs. The internet provides multi-sensory,
interactive learning via multi-media learning.
Software provides the same in a more controlled
environment. Technological learning can be more
interactive and engaging. It provides structured
learning such that the child can learn more
independently and be great prepared for future
learning.
Types of Curriculum Presently Used in Schools
The following represent the many different types of
curricula used in schools today. These most used curriculum
are found within the broader categories described above.
They include overt/explicit or written curriculum, societal
curriculum (social curricula); Hidden or covert curriculum,
the null curriculum, phantom curriculum; concomitant
curriculum; rhetorical curriculum and implemented or
curriculum in use.

49
(i) Overt, explicit or written curriculum: This is simply
that curriculum which is written as part of formal
instruction of schooling experience. Overt, explicit or
written curriculum is all the intended experiences
planned for the learner which is confined to those
written understandings and directives formally
designated and reviewed by administrators of
education hence its name as official, intended or
planned curriculum. It may refer to as curriculum
documents, texts, films and supportive teaching
materials that are overtly chosen to support the
intentional instructional agenda of a school.
(ii) Societal Curriculum (Social curriculum) Social
curriculum according to Cortes in Akuma and Oteh
(2010) is the massive, ongoing, informal curriculum
of family, peer groups, neighborhoods, churches,
organizations, mass media and their socializing forces
that “educate” everyone throughout life. This is a type
of curriculum experience that is acquired through life
activities whether planned or unplanned but in one
way or the other influences the persons’ life, this type
of curricula can be expanded to include the powerful
effects of social media (YouTube, Face book, Twitter,
Pinterest etc) and how it actively helps create new
prospective, and can help shape both individual and
public opinion. Also in this category are the extra-
curricular activities of the school.
(iii) Hidden or Covert Curriculum: Hidden curriculum
can also be referred to as unplanned or incidental
learning that occur in schools. Hidden curriculum
refers to the life lessons students learn at school that
are not part of traditional study subjects and lesson
50
 plans. A hidden curriculum is a side effect of an
education (lesson) which are learned but not openly
intended, such as the transmission of norms, values,
and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and the social
environment. Hidden curriculum often refers to
knowledge gained in school settings usually with a
negative connotation where the school strives for
equal intellectual development as a positive aim.
Hidden curriculum reinforces existing social
inequalities by educating students according to their
class and social status. Hidden curriculum consists of
those things students learn through the experience of
attending school rather than stated educational
objectives of such institutions (Haralambos 1991).
Hidden curriculum is taught by school, not by any
teacher. It is something that comes across to the
pupils/students which may never by spoken in the
class. They are pick-up approach to living and an
attitude to learning. Examples of hidden curriculum
may include the positive and negative messages and
lessons derived from the mere organizations of
schools, students quietly raising their hands to be
called on, the endless competition of grades, taking
turns in a cue and waiting silently or quietly at
gatherings. Part of a hidden curriculum includes
learning how to pick-up on social clues, interact with
peers and establish values. One aspect of the hidden
curriculum is the students learning to respect the
authority of teachers, learning from school culture
and norms, being inquisitive about vital issues etc.
(iv) Null Curriculum: Null curriculum is that type of
curriculum which is not taught in the school thus
51
 giving the students the message that the elements are
not important in their educational experience or in the
society. Null curriculum is the intentionally or
unintentionally curriculum elements that are excluded
either due to lack of interest, time, or resources by the
educators and insufficient knowledge on certain
contents and subjects. The reasons for the non-
inclusion of these elements could be due to religious,
political or socio-cultural factors which not only the
school has the consequences of teaching it but
students also have the consequences for the kinds of
lives they lead. To this effect, Eisner (1994) opined
that teachers should consider not only the explicit and
implicit curricula of schools but also what schools do
not teach which mainly constitute the explicit
documents.
(v) Phantom Curriculum: This is a type of curriculum
which is acquired through the prevalent messages and
exposure to different types of media. The messages
that are transmitted through these media network play
a major part in the enculturation and acculturation of
students’ behaviour into a narrow or generational
subcultures (Wilson, 2006). With the technological
advancement and knowledge explosion, different
kinds of materials which are intended for information,
entertainment and education are broadcast through the
mass media which exposes students into adopting
behavioural patterns of the culture in which they
inhibit and to know when the culture changes.
Example is display of people’s mode of dressing,
music, greeting and different aspects of culture.

52
(vi) Concomitant Curriculum: Concomitant curriculum
according to Wilson (2006) is the curriculum that is
taught and emphasized at home. It is those
experiences that are part of family experiences and
are related to experiences sanctioned by family.
According to him, this curriculum could be acquired
at the church for religions expressions, lessons on
morals, values, ethics, molded behaviours or social
experiences based on family preferences.
(vii) Rhetorical Curriculum: Rhetorical curriculum is a
curriculum that is comprised of ideas and decisions
from policymakers, school officials, administrators or
politicians. This type of curriculum may also come
from professionals in education initiatives who are
involve in concept formation and content changes.
They make decisions based on national, state reports,
public speeches or from texts critiquing, outdated or
obsolete educational practices. The curriculum also
offer updates in current pedagogical knowledge and
skills.
(viii) Curriculum-in-use or Formal/Actual Curriculum:
Curriculum-in-use which can be referred to as the
implemented, actual, formal, written or overt
curriculum connotes what is covered in practice. This
curriculum relates to reality and thus can be viewed as
implemented curriculum (Ughamadu 2006:22). It
includes all the activities for which the school time-
table allocates specific periods of teaching or
activities in the school programme in the work.
Curriculum-in-use comprises of those concepts in the
textbooks, content and concepts in the district
curriculum guides. This curriculum is the actual
53
 teaching learning materials that are presented to the
learners by each teacher during the course of
teaching.
(ix) Received Curriculum: Received curriculum
according to Wilson (2006) are those things (learned
facts) that students actually take out of classrooms.
They are those concepts, contents, ideas and skills
that are truly learned and remembered by students
after teaching.
(x) Internal Curriculum: This is a curriculum that
emphasizes how a learner creates new knowledge by
combining processes, content, knowledge with his/her
experiences and realities. It involves the internal
processing of information or the creative processes of
a learner as a lesson is being presented. Educators
should be aware of this internal curriculum though
they have no control over it since it is unique and
innate to each student. Educators should strive to
explore this curricula from learners by using
discussions, reflective exercises or debriefing to know
what students know or think about a particular
concept.
(xi) Electronic Curriculum: This curriculum deals with
lessons learned through searching the internet or
using forms of information communication
technology (ICT) gadgets. Information derived from
this type of curriculum may be formal or informal,
overt or covert, good or bad, correct or incorrect,
factually correct, informative, entertaining, perverse,
biased, manipulative depending on ones’ views or
level of knowledge power. Educators of electronic
curriculum needs to include lessons on how to be
54
 wise consumers of information, how to critically
appraise the accuracy and correctness of information,
as well as how to determine the reliability of
electronic sources. Students need to know how to
discern the usefulness of certain information.
(xii) Achieved/attained Curriculum: This curriculum
refers to the aspect and extent the mapped out
curriculum has been achieved. When a curriculum has
been implemented through any of the above
mentioned curriculum types, the next question that
comes to mind is whether the said planned and
implemented curriculum based on the stated
objectives has been achieved or not. The achieved
curriculum represents the degree to which the planned
and implemented curriculum has achieved the stated
objective. A result-oriented evaluation determines the
extent to which the planned and implemented
curriculum has achieved what is purports to achieve
(Mbakwem 2005:4).
(xiii) Supported Curriculum: This type of curriculum
makes use of other available curriculum materials
from various sources. It include materials from
textbooks, software, hardware and other multimedia
resources that will facilitate efficient and effective
delivery (Akuma and Oteh (2010:24)
Summary
Curriculum has broadly been categorized into five basic
types comprising of traditional, thematic, programmed,
classical and technological curriculum. Presently other
categories which represent the many types of curricula used

55
in schools today have been identified as: overt/explicit or
written curriculum, societal or social curriculum,
hidden/covert curriculum, null curriculum, phantom,
concomitant, rhetorical, curriculum-in-use, received,
internal, electronic, achieved and supported curriculum.

Review Questions
(1) Outline the five basic types of curriculum and
explain any two.
(2) Differentiate between written curriculum and
hidden curriculum.
(3) State three positive and negative forms of hidden
curriculum.
(4) Explain the term concomitant curriculum. State
five concomitant curriculum observed in your
family.
(5) When is a curriculum said to be achieved or
attained?

56
 References
Akuma, N. & Oteh, J.E. (2010). Curriculum Development
and Innovation. Aba: Eagle and Joy Educational
publishers.

Cortes, C.E. (1981). The societal curriculum: Implications

for multiethnic education. In Banks, J.A (ed).
Education in the 80’s: Multiethnic education.
National Education Association.

Eisner, E.W. (1994). The educational imagination: On

design and evaluation of school programs (3 rd) New
York: Macmillan.

HaraLambos, M. (1991) Sociology themes and perspectives

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki>Hiddencurriculum.

Mbakwem, J.N. (2005). Curriculum Implementation and

Instructional Plan. Owerri: Upthrust publishers.
Onyemerekeya, C.C. (2003). Curriculum Implementation
Owerri: Versatile publishers.

Ughamadu, K.A. (2006). Curriculum: concepts,

development and implementation. Onitsha: Lincel
publishers.
Wilson, L.O. (2006) Curriculum course packets Ed 721 and
726 unpublished.

57
 Chapter 4
Meaning and Scope of Curriculum
By
Eyisi Daniel

At the end of this chapter, readers will be able to:

i. Define curriculum.
ii. Differentiate between traditional and progressive
views about curriculum.
iii. State objectives/functions of curriculum
iv. Explain the scope of curriculum.
v. Explain the importance of curriculum studies to
potential teachers.
Introduction
This chapter is aimed at introducing the readers to the
concept of curriculum. Students are always skeptical about
the meaning, nature, content and scope of curriculum. This
beginning chapter of the book will use simple and
understandable language, simple definitions and explanation
to clear the impressions held by students that curriculum is
an abstract course. Though curriculum has definition
problem, but definitions and views put forward by various
authors and curriculum experts will be accessed for the
purpose of comparison. The views of various curriculum
schools of thoughts will be examined and their weaknesses
pointed out where necessary. Objectives as well as the
58
characteristics of curriculum will also be highlighted. The
chapter will also discuss the scope of curriculum and its
importance to the potential teachers.
Meaning of Curriculum
Curriculum is as old as educational institution (Flinders and
Thornton, 2009). The term “curriculum” has been generating
mixed reactions and feelings among students at all levels of
education. This introductory chapter is going to present
curriculum in a very simple and clear language so that at the
end of this chapter, readers will have clear understanding of
curriculum before proceeding to subsequent chapters. Just
think about this preamble and stimulating questions.
Objectives of a Good Curriculum
In line with objective of education as stated in the National
Policy on Education (FME 2004 P1-3), a good curriculum
should satisfy the needs of the society, in pursuance of these
goals, the curriculum should be geared towards development
of;
1. Cognitive and conceptual knowledge of the learners.
The learners are in the school to develop their
intellectual abilities such as reading, writing and
speaking skills. So curriculum is developed to help
them achieve those goals.
2. Skill and creative thinking in the learners so that they
will be able to solve problems within and around them.
3. Individuals with sound moral, mental and physical
mind. Every society aspires to live in peace with each
other and also with their neighbors. So curriculum

59
 should be concerned with inculcating in the learners the
right values that will enable them to live good spiritual
and moral lives in the society.
4. Individual’s urge for further education. The sequence of
curriculum is planned in such a way that learning
experiences or content is not above learner’s ability at
any stage. Curriculum presentation is step-by-step
according to learner’s age and abilities.
5. Individuals who will appreciate the cultural and
aesthetic nature of his environment. Education is a
means of transmitting culture from one generation to
another. Learning experiences give the learners proper
orientation for appreciating, preserving and promoting
the culture of the society in which he lives.
Characteristics of a Good Curriculum
In other for a curriculum to be regarded as being good, the
curriculum must possess the following qualities, such as;
(a) Meaningfulness: The curriculum should be
meaningful to both the learners and teachers. It must
not be overcrowded. It should be presented in a simple
and clear language.
(b) Goals oriented: Goals are statements of intention, it
state intended learning outcomes of any educational
endeavor. The process, sequence, methodology as
well as scope will be ascertained from the goals. So it
is very important that curriculum goals be well stated
or makes its intention known to the society.
(c) Dynamic: It is a well-known fact that human being
and the society are dynamic. A good curriculum
should be dynamic and flexible in nature so that
60
 interest of the learners and that of the society at any
changing time can be adequately addressed.
(d) Leaner’s oriented: A good curriculum must consider
the learners’ interest, need, age, talent and other
characteristics inherent in learners. It should not be
subject or content oriented, interest of the learner
should be paramount.
(e) Comprehensiveness: As both the society and Childs’
needs varies, it is necessary that curriculum be broad
enough to accommodate as many goals, aims and
objectives as possible. Curriculum should not be
narrow and scanty
(f) Integrated and interrelated: A good curriculum should
not be viewed as permanent learning. It should be
seeing as boundaries and interrelated disciplines.
There is always connectivity between subjects or
disciplines so that learning could be meaningful to the
learners. This was explained under discipline doctrine
advocates.
(g) Problem solving: Curriculum is meant to take care of
all the issues raised in the country’s philosophy and
national goals in conjunction to that of education. In
furtherance to this, curriculum should set all
machinery in motion to make sure that the country’s
needs are met at the required time.
Scope of Curriculum
Scope refers to the depth and breadth of coverage of a
programmme, as a field of study, Obih (2008), argues that
curriculum occupies a central position in education as a
result cannot stand on its own without borrowing or drawing

61
principles, methods, values and value systems from other
educational courses. Simply put, curriculum is heavily
associated with other educational courses such as history of
education, educational administration, sociology,
psychology, philosophy, measurement and evaluation as
well as educational technology. Effort will be made to
discuss some of the basic principles borrowed from other
fields and its relevance to curriculum as a field of study.
Curriculum and History of Education
History of education as a foundation course in teacher
education programme is basically meant to equip the would-
be teachers with the understanding of where we have come
from, where we are, and where we are heading. Specifically,
its importance is outlined in Njoku, (2015:15) viz:
1. History of education acquaints with the knowledge of
the relationship that exist between education and
politics, school and the society and between the
teacher and the learners.
2. History of education gives the opportunity of
knowing the past mistakes in Nigerian educational
system with the aim of making necessary
amendments and forestalling its reoccurrence.
3. It helps to formulate and implement better
philosophies of education.
4. The study of history of education helps learners to
appreciate various aspects of our past educational
process so as to link them to the current practices.
5. The history of education principles will enable the
student-teachers ask questions about the purpose our

62
 education seeks to attain and the roles expected of any
stakeholder.

Curriculum and Educational Administration

Educational administration plays significant role in the area
of curriculum planning and implementation. Curriculum
issues are determined by the teachers and the school
management. Managers and administrators in education
oversee the compliance to curriculum implementation. This
relationship points to the influence of educational
administration to curriculum. Obih, (2008) noted that record
keeping remains a very crucial aspect of educational
administration in curriculum.
1. Record Keeping: Curriculum experts with the aid of
educational administration can record what is taught
and how it is taught. That is, an effective recording of
topics, results and attendance register are drawn from
educational administration.
2. Educational administration helps the curriculum
planners to know the total enrolment of students each
academic year which serves as data for effective
planning.
3. It helps the curriculum planners to know the
importance of communication and community
relationship in the selection of content and learning
experiences.
4. The functions of the headmaster/principals and
teachers as school administrators can help to promote

63
 effective teaching and learning. This is drawn from
educational administration.
Curriculum and Sociology of Education
Sociology of education has impact on curriculum planning,
development, and implementation. Schools do not exist in a
vacuum. It is established in the society for the benefit of the
society. Curriculum planning, development, and
implementation must take into considerations the societal
needs, values, culture and aspiration if it must succeed.
Evaluating the learner in his society is bound to conform to
the societal interest. So curriculum cannot exist without the
society. Obih (2008) asserts that there are three major
contributions of educational sociology to the field of
curriculum viz: It x-rays
1. The societal needs of the school, the roles expected of
any member of the society for the survival of the
individual and the society at large.
2. The culture of the people/society. Curriculum is
functional and relevant when it is rooted in the culture
of the people while sociology is the study of the
culture of the people.
3. Sociology helps in producing students with national
identity, when selecting the content, and learning
experiences so as to meet the appropriate desirable
culture of the society.
Curriculum and Education Psychology
Educational psychology cannot be separated from
curriculum issues. Before planning and developing any

64
giving curriculum, educational aims and objectives must be
set first. These objectives however take into consideration
learner’s interest and need from the psychological point of
view. In selecting the curriculum content/learning
experiences as well as teaching methods, the level of
learners in terms of age and ability are studied. These
account to the involvement of educational psychology to
field of curriculum studies. Educational psychology is a
branch of psychology that specialized in teaching and
learning through a systematic application of the basic
principles and methods of psychology so as to make teaching
and learning more effective. Obih, 2008 summarized the role
of educational psychology in the following way:
1. Educational psychology helps curriculum planners to
understand the child and how he/she develops the
sequence of growth and development as well as
varied heredity and environmental influences acting
on the child.
2. It helps in providing measurement and evaluation
instrument so as to give the curriculum planners the
insight into evaluating the learner in summative and
formative ways.
3. It helps to understand the various theories of learning
so as to guide the curriculum experts to select
objectives and learning experiences that are feasible
and realistic.
4. Educational psychology helps to identify the
uniqueness or individual differences of the learners as
it relates to problems like drug abuse and addiction,
sexual problems, poor memory, restlessness and fear,

65
 while planning so as to help the learner benefit
maximally from the school programme.
5. Educational psychology helps to identify the
emotions, aspirations, interest and weakness of the
child and to use it for guidance and counseling
purposes.

Curriculum and Educational Philosophy

Philosophy of education has its influence on curriculum
planning and development. Philosophy of the society at any
given time determines the educational aims and objectives.
In fact it is the philosophy of the society that shape the
content and nature of curriculum. Obih (2008:28) cited five
ways educational philosophy affects curriculum of any
educational institution as follows:
1. The philosophy of the Nigerian educational system
guides the planners to the desired objectives in terms
of determining the educational goals and objectives
and the kind of education, the types of values and
aspirations to promote.
2. The answer to what to teach, when, where, how and
to whom to teach are drawn from the knowledge of
philosophy of education. These queries are not
simple, for many ways to select ideas, translate them
into instructions and package them into curriculum
programmes exist.
3. Philosophy of education defines the values and value
system of education and directs the curriculum

66
 planners to know what constitutes worthwhile or
desirable knowledge and conception of a good life for
the citizens.
4. It helps to clarify what values, attitudes, knowledge,
skills and abilities that need to be emphasized in the
school.
5. The knowledge of philosophy helps the curriculum
planners to gain insight in terms of quality education,
gender equality, egalitarian society, equity and
equality of educational opportunities.
Curriculum and Measurement and Evaluation
In determining whether educational aims and
objectives are being achieved, curriculum has to be
evaluated. Curriculum evaluation process which involves
test construction, data selection and interpretation are all the
technicalities associated with educational measurement and
evaluation. Akuezuilo and Agu (2002), mentioned that
through research in education, new instruments and methods
have been developed for teaching, measurement and
evaluation in education.
Curriculum and Educational Technology
Moreover, the influence of educational technology to
curriculum studies cannot be neglected. Instructional
resources are very necessary in the implementation of
curriculum. Presently, classroom instructional activities and
practices are being enhanced by instructional technology.
Elekwa and Eze (2012) highlighted the contributions of
educational technology in the field of curriculum as follows:

67
 1. The use of system or problem solving approach
makes curriculum process efficient and productive.
Educational technology sees curriculum development
as a problem to be systematically analyzed and
solved. Each stage is meticulously identified and
critically analyzed with all ripples smoothened off
and the entire process so arranged and streamlined
that the resulting curriculum package is at least 80%
fail-safe.
2. Educational technology provides curriculum materials
which help to make learning concrete, meaningful
and effective.
3. Educational technology introduces several self-
adjustment mechanisms in the curriculum package.
These include criterion-referenced test for assessing
ones performance at various stages and try-out or
formative evaluation, which helps to dictate faults and
correct them before actual curriculum
implementation.
Curriculum and Potential Teachers
Learning is a life-long experience, which can be provided at
home, mosque, social centers, or even at neighborhood.
These institutions provide learning which are not under
government approved plan. In view of this, the kind of
training which they provide is grouped under “hidden
curriculum”. But in this discussion, we are looking at formal
education and formal curriculum that have stated target
(aims and objectives). Education is a veritable tool for
national development. It is therefore necessary that those
involved in the curriculum planning, implementation and

68
evaluation need to be versatile in curriculum issues. This is
the reason for making curriculum as a field of study
sacrosanct to potential teachers. Curriculum studies help the
prospective teachers in so many ways. Momoh in (Adole et
al, 2013) enumerated such ways as;
(1) Equipping teachers with the ability to describe and
analyse teaching in line with societal needs.
(2) Helping teachers to integrate different knowledge and
use them in solving their line problems.
(3) It helps teachers to understand and transmit cultural
heritage of any society.
(4) Helping teachers to be aware of the changing societal
problems, needs, aspiration and demand.
(5) Helping teachers to understand and use appropriate
method to achieve desired objective.
(6) Helping teachers to determine the success or failure of
any teaching and learning process through evaluation.
Summary
It should be noted that various definitions, questions,
answers and theories about curriculum determine the content
of functional education. According to Goodson (1994),
curriculum is a multifaceted concept, construed, negotiated
and renegotiated at a variety of levels and in a variety of
arenas. In view of its inherent definition crises, this chapter
has been able to access definitions made by various
curriculum experts and authors. The chapter also put forward
a working definition of curriculum for the beginners. The
views of various schools of thoughts were also discussed and
their predicaments also indicated. The chapter did not fail to
avail the readers the opportunity of learning the functions
69
and characteristics of a good curriculum. However,
curriculum studies being a compulsory course for the
intending teachers, its scope were fully discussed so that
readers will understand its relationship and connectivity with
other disciplines of educational endeavor. Finally,
importance of curriculum studies to potential teachers was
discussed. It is therefore believed that curriculum as a field
of study is very wide. It covers all aspect of educational
pursuit. In other words, the scope of curriculum studies is as
wide as education itself.
Revision Question
1. (a) Define curriculum (b) Traditional school of thought
view of curriculum is generally criticized. Discuss.
2. (a) Discuss Tyler’s view about curriculum? (b) state
two objectives of curriculum
3. Discuss any three qualities of a good curriculum
4. What are the benefits of curriculum studies to
prospective teachers?

70
 References
Adole, I. A., Udom, G. I., Ajileye, A. M., Eyisi, D.,
Olugbemi, O. and Momoh, I. (2013).Introduction to
Curriculum Studies 1 AND 2. Abuja: Joson Sam Modern
Printers.
Blenkin, M.G., Edwards,G. and Kelly, A.V., (1992). Change
and the Curriculum. London: Paul Chapman
Publishing Ltd.
Elekwa, I & Eze, R. O. (2012). Foundations of Educational
Technology. Lagos: Logicgate Media Limited
Fed Min of Edu (2004). National Policy on Education
(4thed). Federal Republic of Nigeria; Abuja:
Federal Ministry of Education.
Flinders, D. J., and Thornton, S. J., (2009). The
CurriculumStudies Reader (3rded). New York:
Routledge.
Goodson,I. F., (1994). Studying Curriculum. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Gordon, P. (1981). The Study of the Curriculum. London:
Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd
Hewith, T. W. (2006). Understanding and Shaping
Curriculum; What We Teach and Why. California: SAGE
Publication; Thousand Oarks.
Hugh Sockett (1976). Designing the Curriculum. London:
Open Books Publishing Ltd.

71
Lawton, D., (1975). Class, Culture and the Curriculum.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Levit, M. (1971). Curriculum. London: University of Illinois
Press.
Njoku, M. U. (2015). Issues and Historic Development of
Education in Nigeria. Owerri: Kemitch Business
Services

Obih, S. O. A (2008). The 21st Century Curriculum Text: An

Introductory Approach. Owerri: Divine Mercy
Publishers

Okai, A. U., Odiachi, E., Taidi,j. l., Garba, U.K.and Yusuf,

B. (2005). Curriculum and Instruction Made Easy.
Minna: A Publication of Curriculum Department. Niger
State College of Education.

Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development; Theory and

Practice. New York: Harcourt Brace and
World.
Tanner, D. and Tanner, L. N., (1975). Curriculum
Development; Theory and Practice. New York:
Macmillan
Taylor, P. H. and Tye, K.A. (1975). Curriculum, School and
Society; An Introduction to Curriculum Studies.
Great Britain: NFER Publishing Company Ltd.
Tyler,R.W. (1926). Prospect for Research and Development
in Education (National Society for the Study of

72
Education Series in Contemporary Educational Issues).
McCutchan: Berkeley CA.
Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction. ChicagoIII: University of Chicago
Press
Whitfield, R. C. (1971). Discipline of the Curriculum.
England: McGraw-Hill Book Company(UK) LTD.
Wheeler, D. K. (1976).Curriculum Process. London:
University of London Press.

73
 Chapter 5
Curriculum Programmes
By
Obih, Solomon Onyinyechi .A
Introduction
Every individual prepares his/her curriculum vitae (CV)
based on the present status one has attained in life and it
must incorporate basic ingredients like age, marital status,
educational qualifications (obtained), number of children,
address, and so on. As one is advancing in age, he/she will
get married, have more children, change surname as the case
may be, obtain more qualifications and even relocate from
where he/she is living to a better place, so is the curriculum
vitae changing to reflect his/her new status and attainment in
life. Therefore, the curriculum as the curriculum vitae of the
school changes just as an individual’s curriculum vitae
changes; in order to reflect new ideas, techniques, strategies
accused by social dynamism and influx. Curriculum is not
static and will never be static; Therefore, the curriculum is
equated to that curriculum vitae of an individual. The review
of the different conceptions of curriculum points to the need
for a compromise definition. That is, for a good definition
that will enhance good communication among curriculum
practioners such a definition should be very comprehensive
enough to incorporate all the basic elements/components of a
standard curriculum. After reading this chapter therefore, it
is expected that the students should be able to meet these
objectives:
74
 1. Define curriculum in their own words
2. Briefly describe the basic components that constitute
a desirable curriculum in a broader sense using a
diagram.
3. Discuss why modern curriculum experts feel that it is
better to broaden the view of curriculum.
4. Define the term social-personal guidance
5. List three major categories of programme of
guidance.
6. Analyze the programme of studies
Curriculum and Curriculum Programmes
Curriculum is an agglomerate of all the school experiences
(planned and unplanned) which are provided for the purpose
of helping the youth to develop the finest character and live
as disciplined and useful citizens. However, it should be
noted that these qualities are relative to societies. Therefore,
in a more sophisticated form, curriculum can be seen as a
medley of various school programmes (of instruction,
guidance and activities) which help to promote the ideals of
the society, the function of which lies in the school as a
social unit.
Krug in Akuma (2005) notes that in addition to
“organized Instruction” a desirable curriculum should (also)
include extra-class activities and counseling services”. There
is close interrelationship among the three components of
curriculum; Oliver in Obih (2008) refers to components of
curriculum as the educational programme, which is another
named term for curriculum. Offorma (2009) noted that the
simplest but very comprehensive concept of curriculum is a
programme or component. She also equates curriculum to a
75
programme or component because a programme has three
components; programme of studies, activities and guidance.
Oliver in Obih (2008) is of the view that a worthwhile
curriculum must incorporate three distinct but inter-related
concepts, namely programme of studies, activities and
guidance.The memory as noted by Obih (2008) could be
referred to “GAS OR SAG” meaning:
G = Programme of Guidance
A = Programme of Activities
S = Programme of Studies

Fig 1
1. Programme of Studies: This refers to the content or
body of knowledge to be presented to the learners.
Programme of studies deals with all the subject
discipline or the organized body of knowledge which
the learners are taught in school in order to help them
76
 develop the right competence, abilities and skills so as
to battle with personal and societal problems as the
need arise. It is the list of school subjects to study.
Some of these subjects include; English Language,
Mathematics, Economics, Civic Education,
Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Geography Ed 221, Ed
321, Ed 222, Edu 321 etc.
Each discipline be it in pre-primary, primary,
secondary and tertiary is a compilation of past human
experience which has been carefully and
appropriately selected, organized, sequenced and
package into specialized areas that commonly
referred to as “subjects”. Mbakwem (2005) argues
that knowledge in these subjects is made up of
human’s past experiences which have stood for the
test of time and have become facts of life.
It is not only important for learners to learn the
concepts, subject topics or themes but equally
important that the learner experiences a method of
facing life in the contemporary society. The aphorism
all work and no play makes jack a dull boy becomes
indubitably here. The analysis to this adage is handy
when one considers the inseparability of programme
of studies and activities.
2. Programme of Activities: This involves all the
activities presented to the learners to facilitate
understanding. It is the means while the programme
of studies is the end. Programme of activities,
therefore, refers to all those activities provided by the
school which enhances and supports the concepts,
77
 skills and abilities contained in the programme of
studies. It embraced all learners’ activities that are
capable of enhancing the academic experiences of
learners.
Programmes of activities are the means by which
theories, principles, concepts, facts, values, skills and
ideas are translated and made practically real to the
learner. Offorma (2009) noted that programme of
activities can be mental or physical, overt or covert,
which is always learner centered and goal oriented.
Finally, programme of activities cut across both
organized and unorganized activities like Physical
Educational (PE) for primary and secondary schools and
students’ Union Government (SUG) for tertiary
institutions plus various clubs, associations and
gatherings, meetings and other co-curricular activities
which are mutually supportive.
3. Programme of Guidance: This entails directing,
guidance and helping the learner to solve his/her
educational, vocational and socio-personal problems,
so as to facilitate the total, wholesome and fullest
development of the learner, individually and
collectively. The needs, problems, aspirations, values
and performance of learners differ, that is why the
guidance focuses attention on the individual needs of
learners, and the whole ideas is to facilitate learning
and to resolve any problems that may impede learning
be they social, educational, psychological, economic
or political. Programme of guidance has an
integrative function which affects both the learner and
78
 the entire educational system. Ughammadu (2006)
opines that guidance is a programme of service with
the ultimate purpose of helping students acquire
capacity for self-direction or a process of helping
students to understand themselves and their world.
Programme of guidance and counseling as part of the school
curriculum helps the learner, to identify goals, and potential
solutions to problems which cause emotional turmoil, seek to
improve communication and coping skills, strengthen self-
esteem and promote behaviour change and optimal mental
health. It is through this programme of guidance that one can
examine the behaviours, thoughts and feelings that are
causing difficulties or set back to the learning in teaching
process. With these services, the leaner is helped to learn
effective ways to deal with life and learning
problems/constraints by guiding upon their personal
strengths and working towards reducing weaknesses and to
improve.
Types of Guidance
Beyond the primary school, three distinct aspects of
guidance exist, although these three aspects of guidance are
interrelated but certain distinguishing attributes/features can
be x-rayed. Simply put those three major categories of
guidance are made available to students under the auspices
of the school namely: Educational, vocational and personal-
social guidance that is VEP
V = vocational
E = Educational

79
P = Personal-social
Vocational Guidance: In the school setting, many students
have difficulties deciding on what type of career they will
settle for. The learner is expected to be assisted to move
from their level of aspiration, preference and choice. It is the
assistance given to learners through provision of desirable
alternatives that meet vocational needs of students. The
learners can then strike a balance between his/her ability,
capability, potentials and eventually choice. The learner is
assisted to arrive at the compromise between choice and
ability. Therefore, realistic decision is based on the student’s
interest, values, skill aptitude and personality characteristic.
Students are enlightened about the requirements for entering
each vocation, the duration of training, the emoluments,
prospects and hazards of the world of work.
Educational Guidance: This type of guidance focuses on
issues pertaining to educational furtherance and success
generally. The aim of educational guidance is to help the
learner/students to realize his//her educational goals.
Educational guidance will include ensuring that high
educational achievement is crucial for educational
advancement. Students at all levels experience educational
problems which must be brought to the fore and handed
properly for the students to make any appreciable progress
educationally. In the school setting, students may be
experiencing challenges in the area of study habit, subject
selection and combination, academic performance,
achievement and under achievement, pressure from peer
group, fear of schooling, fear of teachers and subjects among

80
others. Thus, the different educational problems in the
school setting make educational guidance inevitable.
Personal-social Guidance - personal social guidance in
both school and non-school setting is focused on personal,
social and psychological problems and challenges which
affect the full functioning of the individual. Whether in
school or outside the school, students experience some
personal and/or social problems which have a way of
affecting them. When a student is experiencing some
problems at home, with other students, with some teachers or
school authority such a student will not be focused enough
as to concentrate on school work/activities. When he/she
lacks concentration, it will lead to poor performance. With
poor performance, comes failure which may lead to
repetition. When students are repeating any class, they
usually find it difficult to adjust and this may lead to
absenteeism and eventual drop out. So such problems are
ameliorated, when the learner is assisted through personal-
social guidance. Therefore, personal-social guidance helps
the learner to understand himself/herself in relation to his
potentials and limitations so as to be fully responsible for his
actions as regards his/her life in future.

Fig 2
81
Summary
The component of curriculum has been analyzed. The need
to redefine curriculum using the three distinct but
interrelated components like programme of studies, activities
and guidance was given impetus. The pros and cons of
programme of studies, activities and guidance were
identified and highlighted using various diagrams.
Review Questions
1. Define curriculum
2. Briefly describe the basic components that constitute
a desirable curriculum in a broader sense using a
diagram.
3. Discuss why modern curriculum experts feel that it is
better to broaden the view of curriculum.
4. Define the term personal-social guidance
5. List three major categories of programme of
guidance.
6. Analyze the programme of studies.

82
References
Obih, S.O.A (2008) The 21st Century Curriculum Test (An
Introductory Approach) Owerri: Divine Mercy
Publishers.
Offorma, G, C (2002) (Revised) Curriculum Theory and
Planning .Enugu; Gouze press.
Offorma, G.C (2006) Curriculum issues in the 21st century.
Nigerian Journal of curriculum studies 2(1) 26-39.
Offorma, G.C.(2009) Curriculum Across language . An
Inaugural lecture of the University of Nigerial
Nsukka, University of Nigeria press ltd.
Oteh, J.E.and Akuma N. (2011) Curriculum Development
and Innovation. Aba, Onyii graphic press.
Mbakwem, J.N. (2005). Curriculum Implementation and
Instructional Plan. Owerri: Divine Mercy Publishers.
Ughammadu, K.A. (2006). Curriculum, Concept,
Development and Implementation. Onitsha: Emba
Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd.

83
 Chapter 6
Curriculum Planning
By
Obih, Solomon O. A. & Oleribe Violet Ifeoma
Introduction
Curriculum is the analysis and study of how schools are
created, organized and made to function. The concept and
field of the curriculum therefore should not be limited to the
purpose, content and methods in the educational process.
Rather, it should be extended to examine those critical
factors in the socio-cultural, social –political, socio-
economic and socio-ecological environment in which
schooling takes place. This chapter will therefore look into
the meaning and factors that affect/ influence curriculum
planning. Upon reading this chapter, the students should be
able to do the following:
1. Define the concept curriculum planning
2. Importance of curriculum planning
3. Identify who plans the curriculum
4. List the factors that affects curriculum planning
5. Discuss learner’s factors that influence curriculum
planning.
6. Differentiate between political factor and economic
life of the society
7. Explain the link between curriculum and National
objectives
8. Explain the sources of curriculum planning in Nigeria
84
Concept of Curriculum Planning
Planning suggests as a systematized pattern or way of doing
things that has some degree of order and harmony.
Curriculum planning is a decision-making and selection
process. Planners gather or select relevant information from
many sources in order to design those experiences that will
assist learners in attaining the goals of education. They have
to consider and assess the needs of those for whom the
curriculum is planned. Based on the needs analysis, they
formulate objectives, select content and learning
experiences, organize content and learning experiences and
evaluate these processes.
Curriculum planning is a process of identifying the needs of
the people, selecting the objectives, content, learning
experiences, and evaluating these processes. The resultant
document of this process is the curriculum which is defined
as the totality of planned school experiences organized by
the school for the learner’s personal professional growth and
development.
Curriculum planning is based on making decisions and
choices, while the curriculum consists of guidelines and
strategies emanating from these choices that will enable
teachers channel learners towards the accomplishment of
predetermined goals. In other words, the designing of the
guidelines and strategies is curriculum planning. The
curriculum document is the finished product.

85
Importance of Curriculum Planning
Curriculum planning helps the planners to achieve continuity
and at the same time avoid interruption of activities.
1. Curriculum planning helps to meet the changing
needs of the society.
2. Curriculum planning considers the needs, interests,
aspirations, problems and background of the learners.
3. Planning of curriculum increases the probability of
success to be achieved.
4. Through planning of curriculum, useful records, data
and relevant information of what has been done and
what needs to be done are taking into consideration.
5. Worthwhile goals can only be achieved through
planning into consideration.
Who plans the Curriculum?
It must be stated categorically that not a single group of
people should plan the curriculum if such curriculum is to be
meaningful, comprehensive and reflective of the needs and
aspirations of the citizens and the nation. Rather, the
planning, including the selection and organization of the
relevant learning or educational experiences should be a
joint or corporative activity involving different groups
representing various views, interests, orientations and
ideologies. These include
a. Layman: In deciding the role of the layman in the
curriculum process, it should be born in mind that
curriculum development involves four major aspects.

86
i. A definition of the kind of purpose which education or
the schooling process should serve, that is the
objectives and
ii. The selection of learning experiences or materials or
subject matter for achieving the objectives.
iii. The needed methods of guiding and directing the
students so that the selected experiences will make the
desired impact in their lives in terms of the attainment
of the set objectives
iv. The evaluation of the behaviours or experiences which
the students acquire in relation to the objectives stated for
them.
b. Parents and Citizens: These groups, of people can
contribute to the curriculum process with respect to
items one and four above.
c. The Students/Pupils: Students and pupils who work]
under the guidance of the teacher can contribute
immensely toward the development of a good
curriculum as well as its evaluation. Students could
point out certain inconsistencies (if any) in the selected
learning experiences. They could also suggest
additional information, examples and illustrations to
enrich the programme of instruction.
d. The Teachers: Certainly, the teachers are the key
persons who should plan the curriculum. They are
largely responsible for determining the actual learning
experiences particularly for the purpose of making them
relevant to the peculiarities of the students and
environment.
e. The Specialists/Professional: Those who are
specialized in specific areas or fields cannot be left out
in the curriculum process as their expert contributions
87
 help to produce good programmes. For proper planning,
we need a combination of the specialist-teachers, and
experts in different profess* such as medicine, law,
engineering, clergy, politics, economics and so on are
needed to participate in curriculum process as they
represent the various sc segments of the society.
However, the curriculum specialists are needed to
provide the general framework of the curriculum.
On the other hand, experts in this context, the
subject specialists are necessary for consultation in
their various fields of specialization both in
planning and assessment stages.
Factors Affecting Curriculum Planning
Curriculum Planning is an important and complex task that
requires serious consideration of several factors. These
factors have direct bearing on the curriculum planning and
operation. Obih (2008) summarized these factors using a
memory tip called PLENCATE for easy understanding.
P= Politics/Government
L= Learner
E= Economic life of the society
N= Nature of knowledge or Philosophy
C= Culture
A= Aims and Objectives
T= Teacher
E= Examination bodies
Political Organization/ Government
The political organization with its bureaucratic machinery
(the three arms of government – Executive, Judiciary and
Legislature) is a strong factor influencing curriculum
88
planning and implementation. This is so because the people
in government and other political positions about the
functions of the school in society, their degree of
commitment towards education will determine the type of
curriculum planned and its functionality (Amadi, 1990).
The Learner
The learner is the central focus of the entire educational
enterprise. If the entire process is to be viewed as an
industry, the learner is the raw material that is transformed
into the finished product. Learning as a process involves
bringing about changes in the behavior of the learner.
Through the process of education the learner acquires
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and competences necessary for
him to develop his potentials as well as become a useful
member of the society. The end result of education is thus
the condition of the learner. It is argued by educationists that
curriculum planning will, be meaningless if the learner is not
given primary consideration.
In view of the above, a study of the learner helps in
identifying the needed changes in his behaviour patterns that
the educational institution seeks to bring about. The term
“need” is used to describe the differences between the
present condition of the learner and the accepted norm. It is
“the gap between what is and what should be” (Tyler,
1949:8). It is perhaps this sense of needs that informs
Nigeria’s philosophy of education which is “based on the
integration of the individual into a sound and effective
citizen…..” (FRN, 2004:7). And, according to Chimah
(1990:62), “if a curriculum has to work, it must be founded
on the physical, psychological, social and transcendental
89
needs of the learner, and directed towards the realization of a
mature socially well-integrated human adult.” Chimah
stresses that a well-planned curriculum should bridge the gap
between the underdeveloped learner and the mature human
being socially integrated and ready for his unique, specific
task of reconstructing society. Curriculum planning must
take into consideration the needs of the learner. It also entails
that the age in terms of chronological and mental age of the
learner needs to be considered. The learner is motivated and
conditioned to learn when his needs, interest, aspirations,
problems, values and background are considered. It implies
that curriculum planning can entice the learner when all
these variables are considered.
The interest of the learner, according to the progressives’
conception of child-centered education, occupy a very
prominent position. This is in line with the progressives’
view of education as an active process involving the active
efforts of the learner himself. In other words, he learns by
doing and he will be actively engaged in doing things that he
is sufficiently interested in.
The physical, intellectual, social and emotional aspects of
the learner’s development deserve consideration. The
curriculum worker should have understanding of the
sequence of development of the learner during the years of
schooling. This provides valuable data on the motor skills
and habits that are developed at various stages, and enables
the curriculum worker to make appropriate selection of tasks
that the learner will be exposed to. Knowledge of
developmental tasks as well as the various stages of

90
personality and intellectual development is relevant in this
regard.
The curriculum is designed for individuals within a given
social setting. So, the nature and extent of an individual
learner’s interaction with others within a social group needs
to be understood. Learning experiences should be such that
create full opportunities for the learner to socially interact
with others, and work cooperatively, contributing to ensure
the survival and development of the social group. It is
equally important to consider the learner’s emotional
adjustment and control, which are crucial to personality
development.
It is imperative to note that the learner is the consumer of the
curriculum. For the learner to consume it, the curriculum
must be planned in such a way that it will attract and
motivate the learner.
Economic Life of the Society
TheEconomy of any nation reflects on the educational
system which in turn is reflected in the country’s school
curriculum. The financial standing of any country has a great
influence in curriculum planning and its implementation. It
implies that goals/ objectives that can be pursued, the
resource available, the scope of curriculum of a nation can
engage, depends on the level of the nation’s economy. It also
determines the quality and quantity of teaching and
supervision, facilities and as well as basic teaching materials.
Amadi (1990:15) averred that, “the issue of economic life of
the society calls for a look at the occupational and economic
undertaking by the members of the society.” It implies that
91
the role of education is to perpetuate the desirable economic
activities of people and to direct their future progress.
Nature of Knowledge or Philosophy of Education
It is worthy to note that all the curriculum decisions are
philosophical decisions. Philosophy of education is
concerned with the basic values. Value systems and ideas of
a societywhich serve as a source for developing aims, values
and practices in education and curriculum planning process.
It is pertinent to posit that the major role philosophy plays is
the selection and organization of the most important values,
value systems and ideas which education will transmit from
one generation to another. Educational objectives as
generally defined refer to intended change in behaviour to be
brought about in a learner. As listed above, any curriculum
plan in Nigeria must guarantee that the learner must, through
such a curriculum acquire or develop along the lines outlined
in the national objectives. The child’s education should be
planned and directed toward participation in a free
democratic society. The education should be capable of
making the child contribute to the advancement of his
society. Thus, the planned curriculum should be a means of
promoting desirable democratic and economic values. These
values therefore should be considered by the curriculum
planner.
Culture
The functionality of any curriculum is based on the culture
of the society. A functional curriculum is any curriculum
that is rooted or embedded in the culture of the society. It
should be noted that curriculum planners must have a clear
92
cultural consciousness in order to plan the curriculum
effectively without prejudice. The curriculum planners
must take into cognizance that the school is the custodian of
moral values, ideas, norms, customs, as well as the
instrument used to transmit knowledge, academic skills,
values and other significant cultural elements which will
prepare the learner for a useful life in the society.
Curriculum is better understood when conceptualized in a
socio-cultural context. In this way, one attempts to analyze
and evaluate the schooling process against the influence of
the numerous forces or factors in the social environment
bearing in mind that the knowledge which the school
transmits derives from some sorts of ideologies, values,
philosophies, beliefs, and norms all of which are peculiar to
various socio- cultural groups. Bedside their instability,
culture therefore, is the nucleus of curriculum in any society.
As a totality of the ways of life of the people, culture
provides the ingredients which constitute the school
knowledge. Hence Dennis Lawton defines curriculum as a
selection from the culture of the society. The cultural
elements which the school draws from include the society’s
values, norms, religion, beliefs, taboos, tradition, language,
music, customs, occupations, skills, arts, aesthetics and other
social attributes which are socially transmitted and socially
acquired including modes of problem-solving. To this extent,
there is nothing that the school teaches that does not have a
base in the culture of that society. What is perhaps different
is the level of reinforcement and sophistication.
Culture differences among societies may account from some
observed differences in educational policies and practices in

93
these systems. Since the curriculum cannot exist outside the
socio-cultural environment, the curriculum worker should be
fully guided by a good knowledge of the culture of the
society for whom the curriculum is intended. Care must be
taken to isolate the priorities of the society in terms of
values, norms, ideologies and the like which need to be
selected as part of the school knowledge. While this is done,
it should be noted that changes do occur in these cultural
variables. Once they occur, the need may arise to assess such
changes and the urgency to reflect them in the schooling
process.
Aims and Objectives of Education
There are road maps that guide the planner to the desired
destination. Educational objectives are statement of
expectations for the school programme and expected
changes at the level of knowledge, skills, technique and
attitude, as a result of the planned educative process. The
directives are given by the national body and such directions
are called National Policy on Education. This document
stipulates the map that leads to the achievement of all
educational objectives in Nigeria. It summarizes the
objectives of all the educational systems and philosophy in
Nigeria.
The National policy on education (2013), outlined Nigeria’s
five cardinal national objectives as the building of:
1. A free and democratic society;
2. A just and egalitarian society;
3. A united, strong and self-reliant nation;
4. A great and dynamic economy;
94
5. A land full bright opportunity for all citizens.
The aims and objectives derived from the philosophy of
education give direction to curriculum planners as to the
kind of curriculum they must plan and promote to attain
them. Philosophy indicates the values, attitudes and ideas
that are essential for a people and should be transmitted by
the school. It suggests the kind of behaviour patterns values,
ideas, habits, attitudes and practices the curriculum should
aim at. Indeed educational philosophy is a vital source for
determining objectives by curriculum planners will plan.
Tyler (1949) suggested the use of philosophy in screening
objectives selected to ensure that a few highly important and
consistent objectives are chosen.
The Teacher
The place of the teacher is of paramount importance in
curriculum development and implementation. As Onwuka
(1985) points out, he/she is the active agent whose
contribution is crucial for effective learning. As the catalyst
that plans instruction an d executes it in the classroom,
he/she should play a significant role in the determination of
educational objectives, the selection of content and
appropriate learning experiences as well as evaluation
procedures. As one in the field he/she is in terms with the
reality on ground. He/she is the one in closest contact with
the learners for who the programme is designed. He/she
knows the characteristics of the learners, and is in position to
carry out, on a continuous basis, the diagnosis of the
strengths and weaknesses of the programme. Mkpa (1987)
points out that no meaningful decision concerning the
curriculum can be taken in isolation of the teacher.
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In the words of Nicholls and Nicholls (1978:24), “the
teacher is not only part of the whole situation but to some
extent, he is the controller of it.” They assert that every
teacher has something to offer in curriculum development,
that being part of his professional responsibility. The
involvement of the teacher in curriculum development is not
limited to the implementation stage. He/she is often a
participant in the activities of subject associations. The
science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN), for
instance, draws its membership from teacher educators and
teachers at all levels of the educational system.
Obih (2008) opined that the teachers are the in the best
position to point out inconsistencies and unrealities as well
as areas that need to be re-addressed. Besides, the curriculum
planners cannot afford to lose sight of the quality and
quantity of available teachers. If he does, he/she tends to
plan for what the teacher may be ill-prepared to implement.
Examining Bodies
These bodies are set up by governments and private
organizations to set, assess and publish examination results.
They determine performance of students in a given
curriculum .examinations are used to determine the
performance of the products of education to find out if the
desired changes in behaviour have occurred (Izuwah, 1986),
several of these bodies exist in Nigeria. Examples include
the WAEC, the JAMB, the NABTEB etc. The examinations
by these bodies make definite demands on the curriculum
by prescribing what content and examined. Both teachers
and students concentrate on the syllabus. These
examinations are based on the curriculum. Based on results
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obtained, the examination bodies review aspects of the
syllabus. Furthermore, they need to be involved in the
planning and development of the curriculum as they need to
understand the philosophy and objectives of the curriculum
in order to evaluate the content effectively (Omiebi- Davids,
1996).
In Nigeria, the WAEC has stimulated and encouraged
curriculum development using feedback from the
examination to improve the syllabus and the classroom. The
body has introduced new syllabuses for its examinations
since after independence in scope and format. For instance,
the WAEC abolished the alternative to practical tests.
Consequently, the schools were constrained to give their
students needed experience in performing practical scientific
work themselves in the laboratory. This equipment, as well
as adopt the inquiry methods advocated for teaching science.
Having ex-rayed the key factors that influence the planning
of curriculum, it is necessary therefore to also examine the
sources of data for curriculum planning.
When we talk about sources of data in curriculum planning,
we are referring to the prime movers (The society, the
Learner and the Subject specialist/Teacher)

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Sources of Data for Curriculum Planning

The Society
The curriculum should reflect the needs, goals, values, cult
aspirations and values of a given society. Nigeria as a nation
has recognized and adopted education as an instrument
excellence for effecting national development. The
National Policy on Education which articulates all
national aspirations was formulated with these social
obligations in view. The national goals that are to be
achieved through the instrumentality of education as
stipulated by the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2013)
National Policy on Education are:
a. a free and democratic society;
b. a just and egalitarian society;
c. a united, strong and self-reliant nation;
d. a great and dynamic economy; and
e. a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens

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The 1969 Curriculum Conference, which brought
together people from all walks of life in Nigeria to
deliberate on Nigerian school curriculum, was
organized in a bid to make education relevant to the
needs of the nation. The formulation of the National
Policy on Education and the concomitant
introduction of the present system of education were
pursuance of that objective. The emphasis has been on
having a functional educational system, to replace the
former which was considered defective. Cookey-Gam
(1980:83) identifies such defects of the former curriculum in
terms of:
 Suffering from the old colonial mentality;
 Lacking in cultural and philosophical concepts;
 Lagging behind in modern thinking of the
objectives goals of education; and
 Inconsistencies and deficiencies.
The implication of these is that education is expected to serve
as vehicle for finding solution to the ills and missing links
in the society. These include the whole gamut of problem
areas that a nation has to grapple with. In Nigeria such
problem area include: insecurity, ethnic and religious
intolerance, indiscipline, corruption, urban-related
crimes; unemployment among youths; inadequate
supply of food; malnutrition; low productivity in
agriculture; over-dependence on imports for industrial
products; outbreak and spread of such killer
diseases as acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS), malaria, tuberculosis; natural and man-
made disasters; environmental pollution; problems
associated with such ecological disasters as
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flooding, erosion and desert encroachment. The list is
seemingly endless.
The satire of Saber-tooth Curriculum (Peddiwell, 1939)
provides an illustration of how social needs and
aspirations constitute sources of data for curriculum
planning. The satire describes a pre-historic tribe
designed a curriculum to meet particular needs of
food, shelter, clothing and security. The objects
included the techniques of catching fish with bare
hands, clubbing horses, and scaring tigers with fire. These
were treated as the heart of real education as those who
mastered the subjects were advantaged in good and safe
living. A climatic change however affected life in the
community. A at glacier gradually moved from a
neighboring mountain range until it reached the streams
and melted in the water. The water became muddy with
dirt and gravel collected by the glacier. The once
crystal clear water became milky, and Itching fish
with bare hands became impossible, as the fish Is no
longer be seen in the muddy water. The melting ice made
the country wet, and the wooly horses migrated to dry,
open plains far from the Paleolithic hunting is. In their
place were antelopes that came down with the sheet, and
were so elusive that the horse clubbing techn iques
became useless, as there were no more horses to As a
result of the dampness in the air, the saber-tooth
succumbed to an outbreak of pneumonia, while the
remnant moved to desert areas. The technique of tiger
scaring with fire then became useless, as there were no
more tigers. In the place of tigers came glacial bears, which
moved by day and by night, and could not be driven away
100
by the tiger-scaring techniques. The survival of the
community was threatened; there was no fish or meat for
food, no hides for clothing and security from the bears. In
order to cope with the challenges there was need to develop
new techniques to replace the old ones. These consisted
of fishing nets, snares for trapping antelopes, and digging
of pits to catch and kill bears. These new techniques would
need to be included in the curriculum.
A study of life in the contemporary society will furnish
curriculum planner with data on what to include in the
curriculum. This is so because the school is always a
reflection of the totality of the thinking, feelings, beliefs,
philosophy and activities of members of the society. Despite
the enormous roles played by the society as a source of data for
curriculum planning, the role of the learner still stand tall in the
minds of psychologist. Let find out how the learner can be a
source of data for curriculum planning.
The Learners
The curriculum is designed for individuals within a
given social setting. So, the nature and extent of an
individual learner's interaction with others within a
social group needs to be understood. Learning
experiences should be such that create full opportunities
for the learner to socially interact with others, and work
cooperatively, contributing to ensure the survival and
development of the social group. It is equally important to
consider the learner's emotional adjustment and control,
which are crucial to personality development.

101
As Saylor, Alexander and Lewis (1981:123) point out,
"Acknowledge of the central problems humans face at each
stage of development is valuable to those who plan and
provide educational experiences." On Jean Piaget's
stages of intellectual development, they also state that
Piaget's theory alerts the curriculum
worker to the need to recognize the
developmental nature of learning and the
importance of the old adage that
"teaching must start where the learner
is". Readiness thus becomes an important
consideration in building a curriculum (p.
125).
From the foregoing, knowledge of the learner's growth
needs,sequence of development, interests, family
background, career aspirations and even problems, will
enable the curriculum planner to determine what
objectives, subject matter and activities to select, and
also determine the stages where thesewill be most
appropriate. Efforts are made not only to ensure thelearner's
willful growth, but also to enable him contribute
maximally to the development of his society as an effective
and competent member.
a. Since the child's education is the central concern of
curriculum planning it becomes necessary that the
child should be involved in curriculum planning and
development.
b. The involvement of learners in curriculum planning
will give them the opportunity to suggest areas of
needs and interests to them.
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c. If learners are involved in planning they will be highly
motivated to learn. With high motivation, more learning
will take place.
d. When learners are involved in curriculum planning
they will develop much interest in being exposed to the
curriculum content and learning experiences. Besides,
they would want to see to the effective implementation
of the curriculum they helped to design. It is important
to note that learners though may not be involved in the
broad aspects of the curriculum; they can contribute to
effective planning and implementation of the
curriculum.
With the teachers as guide they can select and acquire
appropriate kinds of experiences. It is these experiences
that represent the real curriculum-actualized curriculum.
Also with classroom teachers, learners can contribute in
determining relevant instructional or performance
objectives and corresponding experiences, procedures and
materials that will enhance attainment of pre-specified
objectives. In the classroom setting, learners besides assisting
in selecting relevant instructional materials can assist in the
design and production of these materials. Learners can
also participate in evaluating the effectiveness of the entire
teaching and learning or instructional process. But still the
role of subject specialists/teachers is still eminent in sourcing
for data in curriculum planning.
Subject Specialists/ the Teacher
We live in a dynamic world that is witnessing a
phenomenal expansion of knowledge. New ideas and
information continue to emerge from research carried out

103
by subject specialist. Specialists in the various disciplines
proffer professional opinions and suggestions on every
aspect of the curriculum. Their contributions are usually
in form of research reports which are documented in
journals, textbooks and other publications. The textbooks
used in educational institution are usually written by
subject specialists, and their content always reflects the
varied experiences of the authors. Specialist in each field
indicates the ways in which the particular field study can
contribute to general education.
Most subject specialists are in institutions of higher learning
where they carry out a wide range of functions, which
include teaching, research and the dissemination of existing
and knowledge and information on a wide range of disciplines.
They also participate in the activities of various subject
associations. Some of these associations that has made
tremendous impact in the Nigerian school curriculum
include; the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria (STAN),
Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council
(NERDC), the National Universities Commission (NUC), the
National Council for Colleges of Education (NCCE),
Mathematical Association of Nigeria (MAN), Historical
Association of Nigeria (HAN), Social Studies Association of
Nigeria (SOSAN), Society for the Promotion of Igbo Language
and-Culture-(SPILC), and Nigerian Association of French
Teachers (NAFT) and the National Board for Technical
Education (NBTE).
These Subject specialists work in conjunction with external
examination bodies such as the West African Examination
Council (WAEC), and the National Examinations Council

104
(NECO) to revise the existing syllabuses in the various subjects.
The syllabuses prescribe what content or subject matter should
be taught the students preparing for the various
examinations. The inputs of subject specialists constitute a
very important source of data for curriculum planning, in that
these educational agencies, at different occasions,
commission research in various disciplines. They also
organize conferences, workshops and seminars, which
bring about inputs that are vital to curriculum development.
These provide a forum for teachers and administrators to
learn and discuss new ideas and practices that will promote
teaching and learning (Ughamadu, 2006).
Subject associations are made up of subject specialists,
authors and researchers in various disciplines.
In the field of education there are such organizations as the
Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (CON), Counseling
Association of Nigeria (CASSON), Nigerian Association of
Educational Administrators and Planners (NAEP), Nigerian
Association of Educational Media and Technology (NAEMT)
among others. These associations through their various
activities help to generate new knowledge and may also be
involved in curriculum implementation. From the foregoing,
educational agencies and subject associations play a vital
role in curriculum planning and development. New
knowledge generated through their research efforts
constitutes major inputs at every stage of curriculum
development.
The place of the teacher is of paramount importance in
curriculum development and implementation. As
Onwuka(1985) points out, he is the active agent whose
105
contribution is crucial for effective learning. As the
catalyst that plans instruction and executes it in the
classroom, he should play a significant role in the
determination of educational objectives, the selection of
content and learning experiences as well as evaluation
procedures. As one in the field he is in terms with the reality
on ground. He is the one in closest contact with the learners
for who the programme is designed. He knows the
characteristics of the learners, and is in a position to carry out,
on a continuous basis, the diagnosis of the strengths and
weaknesses of the programme. Mkpa (1987) points out that no
meaningful decision concerning the curriculum can be taken
in| isolation of the teacher. The learner is the central focus
of the entire educational enterprise. If the entire process is to
be viewed as an industry, the learner is the raw material that
is transformed into the finished product. Learning as a
process involves bringing about changes in the behaviour of
the learner. Through the process of education the learner
acquires knowledge, skills, attitudes, and competences
necessary for him to develop his potentials as well as become a
useful member of the society. The end result of education
is thus the condition of the learner. It is argued by
educationists that curriculum planning will be
meaningless if the learner is not given primary
consideration.
In view of the above, a study of the learner helps in
identifying the needed changes in his behavior patterns
that the educational institution seeks to bring about. The
term "need" is used to describe the differences between
the present condition of the learner and the accepted

106
norm. It is "the gap between what is and what should be"
(Tyler, 1949:8).
As a key agent for curriculum implementation, the teacher
is a source of data for curriculum planning. Drawing from
his experience of the classroom situation, he can give
valuable suggestions on the content and learning
experiences as well as methods of organization of
materials and evaluation techniques.
SUMMARY
Since education is a key tool for national development,
planning the school curriculum is relative to planning the
national development, therefore, curriculum planning
deserve a careful process and should consider all factors and
sources of data that influences the planning of school
curriculum. When adequate attention is given, the
goals/aims/objectives of the society, teacher and learner are
achieved.
Review Questions
1. What are the factors that affect curriculum planning?
2. Discuss learner’s factors that influence curriculum
planning.
3. Differentiate between political factor and economic
life of the society
4. Explain the link between curriculum and National
objectives
5. What are the sources of curriculum planning in
Nigeria?

107
References
Amadi, R. N. (1990). Content in Curriculum Planning, in M.
O. E. Akuma and R. N. Amadi (Eds.) Fundamentals of
Curriculum Studies. Owerri:Joe Mamkpa Publishers.
Chima, M. J. (1990). The Learner as a Factor in Curriculum
Planning” in Akuma, M. E. O. and Amadi, R. N.
(Eds.) Fundamentals of Curriculum Design. Onitsha:
Summer Educational Publishers (Nig) Ltd.
Cookey-Gam, G. O. (1980).Curriculum process. London:
Hodder and Stoughton.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004). National Policy on

Education. Fourth Edition. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2013). National Policy on
Education. Fourth Edition. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Izuwa, A. C. (1986). Instructional designer's observations
about identity, communities of practice and change
agency. Australasian Journal of Educational
Technology, 20(4), 69-100.

Mkpa, M. A. (1987). Curriculum Development and

Implementation. Owerri: Totan Publishers Ltd.
Nicholls, A. and Nicholls, H. S (1978). Developing a
Curriculum: A Practical Guide, New Ed. London:
George Allen and Unwin.

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Obih, S. O. A. (2008). The 21st Century Curriculum Text:
An Introductory Approach. Owerri: Divine
Mercy Publishers.
Omiebi-Davids, G. (1996). Culture, cognition, and
communication in global education. Distance
Education: An International Journal, 22(1), 30-51.

Onwuka, U. (1985). Some Suggested Methods in Onwuka,

U. (Ed). Curriculum Development for Africa.
Onitsha: Africana FEP Publishers Ltd.
Peddinwell, A. E. (1939).Curriculum process. London:
Hodder and Stoughton.

Saylor, J. C; Alexander, W. M. and Lewis, A. J. (1981).

Curriculum Planning for Better Teaching and Learning.
New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston
Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction. London: Chicago University Press.
Ughamadu, K. A. (2006). Curriculum: Concept,
Development and Implementation. Onitsha: Lincel
Publishers Co. Ltd

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 Chapter 7
Curriculum Development
by
Abdullahi Dada Aliyu Ph D

Introduction
In a broad sense, the curriculum development includes
making the curriculum available or what may be termed
‘actualising the curriculum processes. The process
essentially includes design, development, implementation
and evaluation of the curriculum. As one examines the
process more closely it becomes evident that each
constituent may itself comprise several varied but inter-
related activities. The Curriculum Development is charged
with the responsibility of documenting and operationalising
the Curriculum. Accordingly, the process here may be more
adequately described as designing, developing,
implementing, monitoring, evaluating and reviewing
curricula that are appropriate and relevant to the needs and
interests of human societies.
In trying to grapple with the complexities of curriculum,
Rogers and Taylor (1998) suggested that curriculum
development is central to the teaching and learning process,
saying that curriculum development.

110
 “describes all the ways in which a
training or teaching organisation plans and guides
learning. This learning can take place in groups or
with individual learners. It can take place inside or
outside a classroom. It can take places in an
institutional setting like a school, college or training
centre, or in a village or a field”

Such a description may help to unlock the power of the

curriculum as a vital force within the struggle to strengthen
and enhance the quality of teaching and training at all levels
of the education system.

The following is a brief description of these various

activities involved in the development of curriculum
materials:
111
Design: This involves all the preliminary work that is carried
out to ensure that the curriculum is relevant, appropriate and
workable. At this stage, the curriculum is conceptualized and
attention is paid to arrangement of the varied components.
Considerations include the focus on the
philosophical underpinnings, goals, objectives, subject
matter, learning experiences and evaluation; all established
in consultation with stakeholders. At present, emphasis is
being placed on the learner in curriculum development
activities.
Develop: In this stage, curriculum development involves
planning, construction and the logical step-by-step
procedures used to produce written documents, as well as
print and non-print resource materials.
These documents may include vision
statements, goals, standards, performance benchmarks,
learning activities and instructional strategies,
interdisciplinary connections, and other integration activities
that guide curriculum implementation.
Implement: This is the stage in which all stakeholders
become part of the process by making their contribution to
operationalise the curriculum as designed and developed.
The process is managed by the officers of the Curriculum
Development Division. It requires
interaction between officers of the division,
principals, teachers, parents, students and the general public,
all key in the education of the child. Since implementation is
a change activity, the Curriculum Development Division
also engages in in-service teacher education through

112
seminars and workshops to facilitate the required alteration
of individuals' knowledge, skills and attitude
Monitor: This can be seen as part of the implementation
process. It is at this stage that officers visit schools to verify
that classroom practice is consistent with the established
goals and objectives of the national curriculum. Data is
gathered to inform policy and decision
making relative to the curriculum. The
monitoring activities also capture best practices for
generalization and develop the working relationship between
officers of the Curriculum Division and school personnel,
allowing for technical support at the school level to be
provided where needed.
Evaluate: At this stage, officers engage in analyzing data
collected on the field to determine the effectiveness of the
curriculum design and its implementation as they relate to
the child. The process entails
comprehensive study of the data with the
view of identifying possible deficiencies and root causes that
can lead to corrective action. It is the findings from this
exercise that directly influence the final stage of review.
Review: The information gained from data analysis is used
to guide appropriate adjustments to the curriculum
documents. Such adjustments incorporate the strengths and
address any apparent weakness of the implemented
curriculum. Because of technological
developments and the resulting ease with which new
information can be shared, continuously evolving curriculum
is now possible. Updates, links to resource material and
successful teaching and learning experiences can be easily
113
incorporated in curricula. These considerations are all geared
towards curriculum improvement and improved student
performance in meeting national, developmental and
educational goals.

Rationale for Curriculum Development

The uniqueness of a curriculum raises critical questions,
which leads to the question like “What is the basic direction
that curriculum development should take?” History tells us
that, traditionally, curriculum have been developed in a
somewhat haphazard manner with little consideration given
to the impact of the development process. Another point is
that a curriculum soon becomes outdated when steps are not
taken to keep it from remaining static. Finally, it must be
recognized that the curriculum thrives on relevance. The
extent to which a curriculum assists students to enter and
succeed in life spells out its’ success.
As a curriculum is being developed, the educator is obligated
to deal with these concerns in such a way that quality is built
into the "finished product" or graduate. According to Finch
and Crunkilton (1999) any curriculum that is not developed
systematically, or that becomes static or irrelevant, will soon
have an adverse effect on all who come in contact with it. In
order to avoid this difficulty, curriculum developers must
give consideration to the basic character of the curriculum
and build in those factors that contribute to its quality.
Whereas some of these factors might apply equally well to
any sort of curriculum development, they are especially
relevant to career and technical education. As the
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development process is going on, outcomes of this process
must be made clear. This outcomes should lead to a
curriculum that is data-based, dynamic, explicit in its
outcomes, fully articulated, realistic, student-oriented,
evaluation-conscious, future-oriented, and world class-
focused. Each of these is important to the success of the
contemporary curriculum, and, as will be seen, each is
congruent with the character of education described as
follow:
Data-Based
The contemporary curriculum cannot function properly
unless it is data-based. Decisions about whether or not to
offer a curriculum need to be founded upon appropriate
school and community related data. Curriculum content
decisions should be made after a variety of data, such as
student characteristics and the nature of the occupation being
prepared for, have been gathered and examined. The quality
of curriculum materials is determined after data have been
obtained from instructors and students who use them. In
fact, the use of data as a basis for curriculum decisions
cannot be overemphasized. The reason for this is that
developers of traditional curricula have often neglected to
place emphasis on the relationships that should exist
between data and curriculum decisions.
Dynamic
It might be said that a static curriculum is a dying
curriculum. Just as career and technical education is in a
dynamic state, its curricula must, likewise, be dynamic.
Administrators, curriculum developers, and instructors must
115
constantly examine the curriculum in terms of what it is
doing and how well it meets student needs. Provision must
be made for curricular revisions, particularly those
modifications that are tangible improvements and not just
change for the sake of change. This does not mean that once
each year or so the curriculum is checked over by a panel of
"experts." Provision must be made to redirect, modify, or
even eliminate an existing curriculum any time this action
can be fully justified. The responsiveness of a curriculum to
changes in the work world has much bearing on the ultimate
quality of that curriculum and its contribution to student
growth.
Explicit Outcomes
Not only must the contemporary curriculum be responsive to
the world of work, it must also be able to communicate this
responsiveness to administrators, teachers, students, parents,
and employers. Broadly stated goals are an important part of
any curriculum; however, these goals are only valid to the
extent that they can be communicated in a more explicit
manner. Although it is recognized that we cannot state all
curricular outcomes in specific measurable terms, many of
these outcomes may be written down in such a manner that
the broad curricular goals are made more quantifiable. To
the extent that outcomes are explicit, we will be able to tell
whether students achieve them and how the outcomes relate
to a particular occupation or field. This is perhaps the most
commanding reason for ensuring that curriculum outcomes
are clear and precise.
Fully Articulated

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Although courses and other educational activities contribute
to the quality of a curriculum, the way that they are arranged
in relation to each other makes the difference between
experiences that are merely satisfactory and experiences that
are superior. Curriculum articulation may involve the
resolution of content conflicts across different areas or
development of a logical instructional flow from one year to
the next. Articulation might extend to determining the ways
co curricular activities, such as student career and technical
organizations, lend support to the rest of the curriculum or
deciding which mathematics concepts should be taught as a
prerequisite and/or within a particular technical course. It
may include the articulation of curriculum content between
career and technical and technical and general education
courses.
Curriculum articulation also takes place throughout levels of
schooling. Reduction or elimination of instructional
duplication at the secondary and postsecondary levels might
be a major concern of the curriculum developer as well as
those who are funding the offerings. Articulation across
levels also enables both the secondary and the postsecondary
instructor to teach what is best for his or her particular group
of students and to do this in a more efficient manner. In this
regard, articulation may extend to formal Tech Prep and 2 +
2 agreements that establish sound curriculum linkages.
Realistic
The curriculum cannot operate in a vacuum. If students are
to be prepared properly for employment, the curricular focus
must be one that is relevant. Content is not developed
merely on the basis of what a person should know but also
117
includes what a person should be able to do. Content is
typically based upon the actual role expectations with
relevant tasks, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values
serving as a foundation for what is to be taught. Great
emphasis must be placed upon practicality. Since the bulk of
a worker's time is spent in applied areas, many student
experiences must, likewise, be of a contextual nature.
Hands-on experiences in laboratory and work-based
educational settings provide the student with a relevant
means of transferring knowledge, skills, and attitudes to the
world of work.
Student-Oriented
Most curricula are, to some extent, student-oriented, and
curricula are certainly no exception. Currently there is a
great deal of concern about how a curriculum can best meet
students' needs. Various approaches such as team teaching
and individualized instruction have been used by instructors
to help meet these needs. But, regardless of the approach an
instructor uses, a basic question has to be answered: To what
extent will the approach actually assist students in preparing
for employment and/or further studies?
Another aspect of student orientation deals with the
teaching-learning process. Not only must the curriculum
meet group needs, but there is an obligation to meet the
individual student's needs. In order for these needs to be met
in an expeditious manner, arrangements could, for example,
be made to provide instruction that accommodates various
students' learning styles, to develop individual work-based
learning plans, or to make available alternate paths for the
achievement of course objectives. Whatever the means used
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to assist students, a basic concern should be with the
individual and how he or she may be helped in the best
possible ways.
Evaluation-Conscious
Evaluation is perceived by many to be an activity that comes
periodically in conjunction with accreditation
procedures. Realistically, administrators and instructors
cannot wait that long to find out how successful they have
been. Curriculum evaluation has to be an on ongoing
activity-one that is planned and conducted in a systematic
manner. Anyone who is involved with the career and
technical and technical curriculum should be aware that
evaluation is a continuous effort. As a curriculum is being
designed, plans must be made to assess its effects on
students. Then, after the curriculum has been implemented
and data have been gathered, school personnel may actually
see what strengths and weaknesses exist. Although most
educators recognize that evaluation is not a simple activity, it
is one that should be carried out concurrently with any
curriculum effort.
Future-oriented
Educators, particularly career and technical and technical
educators, are very much concerned about the future. What
technological changes might affect the need for graduates?
What types of school laboratories win be needed twenty
years from now? What sorts of continuing education will be
needed by students who are in school right now? These and
other questions are often raised by educators who think in
futuristic terms. Persons responsible for the contemporary
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career and technical and technical curriculum need to ensure
that ongoing curricula are considered in relation to what will
or may occur in the future. As decisions are being made
about curriculum content and structure, thought should be
given to the future results that might come from those
decisions. Any curriculum that hopes to be relevant
tomorrow must be responsive to tomorrow’s as well as
today's needs. The extent to which a curriculum is
successful twenty, thirty, or even forty years from now will
be largely dependent on its future-oriented perspective.
World Class-focused
In recent years, much discussion has centered on the world-
class workplace. This is a place where employees are world-
class performers and their collective performance results in
products and services that rank among the best and most
competitive in the world. Why does one international hotel
chain continue to expand while another continues to lose
customers? Why is the service provided worldwide by car
dealerships for a certain brand of automobile consistently
better than the service given -by other dealers?
Benchmarking against world-class standards, focusing on
total quality, and empowering self-directed work teams are
several of the ways that businesses and industries can
become world class. Likewise, curricula that prepare
students to work in these businesses and industries must be
sure what is taught includes world class-focused learning
experiences. Before graduating, each student should know
what makes the difference between world class and less than
world class performance and be prepared to perform in an
occupation or field at a world-class level. As more and more

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companies are faced with worldwide competition, persons
who work for these companies must be ready to produce and
provide service at this level.
Principles of Curriculum Development
Principles of curriculum development has to do with
considerations that needs to be made in the course of
constructing a curriculum. Curriculum Corporation (2006)
suggested the following as principles as underpinning
curriculum development:

1. Interdependence
Humans are inseparable part of a system that connects
individuals, their culture and their natural
surroundings.
2. Resource management
The natural world contains a range of renewable and
finite resources that humans can develop to satisfy
their needs and wants according to the lifestyle
choices they make and with regard to long-term
sustainability of these choices.
3. Diversity
Variation and variety can take several forms—
biological, cultural, social and economic. We need to
understand the importance and value of each of these
forms of diversity to the quality of human life.
4. Natural environment
The natural environment comprises ecosystems which
include the plants and animals of an ecological
community and their physical surrounds, forming an

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 interacting system of activities and functions regarded
as a unit within learning environment.
5. Cultural environment
The cultural environment comprises all the tangible
and intangible evidence of human activity, including
buildings, traditions and beliefs. Signifi cant elements
of the environment have cultural and historic values
that may require protection from unplanned or unwise
human activity.
6. Values and lifestyle choices
The balance of natural ecosystems and cultural
heritage can be affected by unplanned or unwise
human use of resources. Sometimes the resulting
problems are so severe that changes in management
practices and human lifestyles are necessary to protect
the cultural environment or to allow ecosystems to, if
possible, rebuild their ecological balance. Poor
choices may affect the wellbeing and lifestyle of
future generations.
7. Social participation
Attitudes of concern for the quality of the
environment are required to motivate people to
develop the skills necessary for fi nding out about the
environment and to take the necessary actions for
environmental problem-solving.
Curriculum Development Models
A model consists of interacting parts that serves as a guide or
procedures for action. Some models are simple while others
are very complex. In many instances, models are more
similar that different and are often refinements or revisions

122
of earlier models. According to Page and Thomas (1977) a
model is a means of transferring a relationship or process
from its actual setting to one in which it can be more
conveniently studied and utilized.
Curriculum models are action plans in relation to the
curriculum that have educational implications. Curriculum
models help designers to systematically and transparently
map out the rationale for the use of particular teaching,
learning and assessment approaches. Ornstein and Hunkins
(2009) suggest that although curriculum development
models are technically useful, they often overlook the human
aspect such as the personal attitudes, feelings, values
involved in curriculum making. Therefore they are not a
recipe and should not be a substitute for using your
professional and personal judgement on what is a good
approach to enhancing student learning.
Curriculum planning and development has to do with putting
in place those components or
elements that makes up the curriculum (such as goals and
objectives; contents; learning
experiences; procedures - materials and methods; and
evaluation). In like manner, curriculum
models revolve round the components. Aligning and
Building Curriculum (2014) argued that
curriculum development models abound. Generally they
suggest an iterative and cyclical pattern.

123
Curriculum does not happen sequentially. Decisions made at
one point often need to be revisited and revised in light of
later decisions. What is important is that the curriculum be
coherent-- that there is congruence and a “match” among all
the components.
Some find it helpful to have a visual image of the process in
mind when you work with curriculum. The curriculum road
map on the home page of this web site may provide such an
image. When we create a curriculum, we need to be sure that
decisions made in each area “fit” with all the others.
A dynamic curriculum is constantly changing and growing--
responding to feedback, assimilating new ideas, adapting to
learner needs and learning contexts. These decisions are
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guided and informed by our belief systems, our
understanding of how students learn and curriculum
principles and practices. Collectively, they form the
“decision screens” for the curriculum decisions that we make
Curriculum Development Process
The development of an effective curriculum guide is a multi-
step, ongoing and cyclical process. The process progresses
from evaluating the existing programme, to designing an
improved programme, to implementing a new program and
back to evaluating the revised programme.
Many institutions carry out this process in a planned and
systematic manner that includes the eleven components
listed in Figure 1-1. Each of these components is addressed
in the sections that follow.

Figure 1-1

Components of an Effective Curriculum Development

Process
A. Planning:
Convening a Curriculum Development Committee
Identifying Key Issues and Trends in the Specific Content
Area
Assessing Needs and Issues

125
 B. Articulating and Developing:
Articulating Programme Philosophy
Defining Programme, Grade-Level and Course Goals
Developing and Sequencing of Grade-Level and Course
Objectives
Identifying Resource Materials to Assist with Programme
Implementation
Developing and/or Identifying Assessment Items and
Instruments to Measure Student Progress
C. Implementing:
Putting the New Programme into Practice
D. Evaluating:
Updating the Programme
Determining the Success of the Programme

A. Planning
1. Convening a Curriculum Development Committee.
Such a committee, consisting primarily of teachers who
represent the various schools and grade levels in a district,
administrators, members of the public and perhaps students,
becomes the driving force for curriculum change and the
long-term process of implementing the curriculum. It is
critical that an effective, knowledgeable and respected
chairperson lead such a committee and it includes
126
knowledgeable and committed members who gradually
become the district's de facto "experts" during the
development phases of the process as well as the
implementation phases.
2. Identifying Key Issues and Trends in the Specific
Content Area.
The first step in any curriculum development process
involves research that reviews recent issues and trends of the
discipline, both within the district and across the nation.
This research allows a curriculum committee to identify key
issues and trends that will support the needs assessment that
should be conducted and the philosophy that should be
developed.
Research often begins with a committee's reading and
discussing timely, seminal and content specific reports from
curriculum associations. Committee members should
examine what is currently being taught in the curriculum.
They should examine state and national standards in the
discipline. Committee members should also be provided
with recent district CMT and CAPT results and be familiar
with the instructional materials and assessments in use
throughout the program. In addition, the committee should
become familiar with newly available instructional materials
-- particularly those that may eventually be adopted to help
implement the new curriculum. Committee members should
also broaden their perspective and gather information by
visiting other school systems that are recognized leaders in
education.

127
As a result of this process, committee members are likely to
identify many of the following issues and trends that will
need to be addressed as the curriculum development process
moves forward:
i. meeting the needs of all students;
ii. learning theory and other cognitive psychology
findings on how students learn;
iii. what determines developmental readiness or
developmental appropriateness;
iv. the current expectations of the field;
v. the knowledge of and readiness for change on the part
of teachers;
vi. the availability of resources;
vii. the role and availability of information and
technology resources;
viii. scheduling issues;
ix. methods and purposes of assessments; and
x. professional development.
3. Assessing Need and Issues.
Curriculum development should be viewed as a process by
which meeting student needs leads to improvement of
student learning. Regardless of the theory or model
followed, curriculum developers should gather as much
information as possible. This information should include the
desired outcomes or expectations of a high quality program,
the role of assessment, the current status of student
achievement and actual program content. The information
should also consider the concerns and attitudes of teachers,
administrators, parents and students. The data should
include samples of assessments, lessons from teachers,

128
assignments, scores on state standardized tests, textbooks
currently used, student perception and feedback from
parents.
Armed with a common set of understandings that arise from
the identification of issues and trends, a curriculum
development committee is wise to conduct a needs
assessment to best ascertain the perceptions, concerns and
desires of each of the stakeholders in the process. By
examining this data carefully, it may reveal key issues that
should influence the curriculum design. For example:
i. teachers may be dissatisfied with older content and
techniques in light of recent research;
ii. test scores may be declining or lower than expected in
some or all areas;
iii. teachers may not have materials or may not know
how to use materials to enhance understandings;
iv. teachers may want to make far greater use of
technology to enhance learning;
v. teachers and others may wish to relate the content of
the program more closely to contemporary problems
and issues;
vi. teachers may be looking for ways to increase the
amount of interdisciplinary work in which students
are engaged;
vii. students may express a need for different and
enriched curricular opportunities;
viii. parents and others may have concerns about
implementation.
Whatever the particular circumstances, an effective
curriculum development process usually entails a structured

129
needs assessment to gather information and guide the
curriculum development process.
The information, commonly gathered through surveys,
structured discussions and test data, most frequently
includes:
i. teacher analysis of the present curriculum to identify
strengths, weaknesses, omissions and/or problems;
ii. sample lessons that illustrate curriculum
implementation;
iii. sample assessments that illustrate the implementation
of the curriculum;
iv. identification of what teachers at each grade level
perceive to be the most serious issues within the
curriculum;
v. a detailed analysis of state and local test data,
including CMT and CAPT scores, grade-level
criterion-referenced test data and course final
examination results;
vi. suggestions for change and improvement generated
by meetings with teachers, guidance counselors and
administrators; and
vii. parent and other community members concerns and
expectations for the program obtained through
surveys and invitational meetings.
The data collected from the needs assessment in conjunction
with information obtained from research and various
resources become the basis upon which the entire written
curriculum - from philosophy to goals to assessment - is then
built.
B. Articulating and Developing
130
1. Articulating Programme Philosophy.
These fundamental questions guide the overarching
philosophy of the program.
"Why learn (specific discipline)?"
"Upon what guiding principles is our program built?"
"What are our core beliefs about teaching and learning in
(specific discipline)?"
"What are the essential questions?"
"How will we use assessment to improve the program and
student learning?"
As such, the program philosophy provides a unifying
framework that justifies and gives direction to discipline
based instruction.
After having studied curriculum trends and assessed the
current program, curriculum developers should be ready to
construct a draft philosophy guiding the programme. Such a
philosophy or set of beliefs should be more than just "what
we think should be happening," but rather "what our
curriculum is actually striving to reflect."

An effective philosophy statement has the following

characteristics:
A. Accuracy:
- The philosophy represents claims that are supportable.

131
- The philosophy states an educationally appropriate case for
the role of (specific discipline) in the curriculum and its
importance in the education for all students.
B. Linkages
- The programme philosophy is consistent with the district's
philosophy of education.
- The philosophy provides a sound foundation for program
goals and objectives.
- The district's teachers are sincerely committed to each
belief outlined in the philosophy.
C. Breadth and Depth
- The philosophy is aligned with sound pedagogical
practices.
- The philosophy provides a clear and compelling
justification for the programme.
D. Usefulness
- The philosophy is written in language that is clear and can
be understood by parents and other non-educators.

Figure 2: Provides a checklist for evaluating programme

philosophy statements.
2. Defining Programme, Grade-Level and Course Goals.
The purpose of the programme philosophy is to describe the
fundamental beliefs and inform the process of instruction.
The curriculum guide delineates program goals as well as

132
grade-level and course goals that address the key cognitive
and affective content expectations for the programme.
An effective set of programme goals has the following
characteristics:
1. Each goal is broadly conceived, to provide for
continuous growth and into adult life.
2. Each goal grows logically out of the philosophy of
the specific discipline and the linkage is clear.
3. Each goal grows out of a district goal and the
linkage is clear.
4. The goals are comprehensive enough to provide the
basis for a quality programme for all learners at all
places on the learning continuum.
5. The goals include each of the outcomes suggested
by the philosophy.
6. Each goal is realistic.
7. There is a manageable number of goals (usually
between 4-8).
8. Each goal lends itself to developing one or more
objectives.
3. Developing and Sequencing of Grade-Level and Course
Objectives. If the philosophy and goals of a curriculum
represent the guiding principles of the curriculum, then the
grade-level and course objectives represent the core of the
curriculum. The specific grade-level and course objectives
include clear expectations for what each learner is expected
to know and be able to do and how it will be measured.
The committee should consider several key questions to
identify, select, write and sequence objectives:

133
 i. Is the objective measurable and how will it be
measured?
ii. Is the objective sufficiently specific to give the reader
a clear understanding of what the student should be
able to do, without being so detailed as to make the
statement labored or the objective trivial?
iii. Is the objective compatible with the goals and
philosophy of the program and the real and emerging
needs of students?
iv. Is the objective realistic and attainable by students?
v. Are appropriate materials and other resources
available to make the objective achievable?
As objectives are selected and written, they should be
organized in an orderly fashion. This order can be achieved
in numerous ways: by grade, by strands, in units, in
sequential levels of instruction, through essential questions
or through some combination of these. Decisions about the
organization of a curriculum guide should be made carefully
and reflect the overarching philosophy of the program and
the preferences of the teachers who are to use the guide.
A graded structure organizes objectives by the grade in
which a student is enrolled and is the most commonly used
structure.
An organization by units groups objectives by main topics.
Units may or may not be of differing difficulty and may be
large or small, sequential or non sequential. A unit
organization is most commonly used for middle or high
school courses.
A strand organization places all of the objectives for a
specific topic or strand together in a sequential order,
134
without regard to specific grade. Such an organization lends
itself to individual instruction and continuous progress
within a strand.
A sequential organization outlines objectives in a continuous
chain without regard for grade level or strand, and allows for
individual student progress along a continuum of skills and
experiences.
An organization by big ideas or essential questions centers
the curriculum on enduring understandings. This method
develops assessments and determines criteria of acceptable
performance related to the essential questions.
Often, an effective guide will incorporate more than one
format. For example, a common arrangement lists
objectives grouped by strand within each grade level. In this
manner the third grade teacher is provided with a complete
listing of the third grade objectives organized by strand or
major topic. However, it is important for this teacher to have
access to the second grade objectives containing skills that
may have been introduced, but not taught for mastery, as
well as forthcoming fourth grade objectives. This
information is often provided in a scope and sequence listing
by strand that would place a specific third grade objective,
for example, in the context of the entire strand. Thus, one of
the most important roles of grade-level and course objectives
is assuring smooth transitions and curricular coordination
among levels, particularly between elementary schools and
middle schools, and between middle schools and high
schools.

135
In addition to the delineation and sequencing of content
through objectives, many curriculum guides provide
additional information to help teachers more effectively
implement the curriculum. For example, some curriculum
guides:
i. provide an example of what is meant by each
objective;
ii. suggest instructional techniques and strategies for
teaching specific objectives;
iii. suggest appropriate instructional materials that
support instruction of specific objectives;
iv. provide examples of how to differentiate instruction
and modify curriculum materials to meet the needs of
high performing and/or highly interested students;
v. provide information on how the objectives can be
evaluated; and
vi. suggest interdisciplinary links, such as literature
connections.
Accordingly, curriculum developers have a range of options
for formatting and designing an effective curriculum guide.
4. Identifying Resource Materials to Assist with
Program Implementation. An effective curriculum guide
goes beyond a listing of objectives and identifies suggested
instructional resources to help answer the question, "What
instructional materials are available to help me meet a
particular objective or set of objectives?" As teachers and
programs move away from a single textbook approach and
employ a broad range of supplementary materials,
instructional modules for particular units, computer software
and the like, it is increasingly important that the curriculum

136
guide suggests and links available resources to curriculum
objectives.
5. Developing and/or Identifying Assessment Items and
Instruments to Measure Student Progress. In many cases, a
set of grade-level criterion-referenced tests, performance
based tasks and course final examinations that answer
concretely the question, "How will I know that my students
know and are able to do what is expected of them?" holds an
entire curriculum together. This piece of the curriculum
development process helps to focus instruction and ensures
the often elusive, but critical, alignment of curriculum,
instruction and assessment. Essentially the assessment piece
of a curriculum is what drives curriculum. The assessments
measure not only student progress, but also the effectiveness
of the goals and objectives of the curriculum in meeting
student needs.
Common grade-level, course criterion-referenced
assessments and performance-based assessments should be
created along with the curriculum and become part of the
curriculum guide itself. The assessments should include
clear performance expectations and a rubric that clearly
defines the expectations for students and teachers alike.
They help to clarify exactly what the grade or course
objectives mean and provide a common standard for
evaluating how successfully they are achieved.
C. Implementing
1. Putting the New Programme into Practice. Too
often, traditional practice entails sending a committee away
for several after-school meetings and two weeks of summer
137
writing as prelude to a back-to-school unveiling and
distribution of the updated or revised curriculum. The
process envisioned here entails a much more in-depth and
systematic approach to both development and
implementation. Instead of assuming that the process ends
with the publication of a new guide, an effective curriculum
committee continues to oversee the implementation,
updating and evaluation of the curriculum.
It is important to remember that any innovation introduced
into a system - including a new curriculum -requires time
and support to be fully implemented. First, teachers need
time and opportunities to become aware of the new
curriculum and its overall design, particularly how it differs
from the past. Then teachers need time and opportunities to
become familiar with the new curriculum - often school or
grade level sessions that focus on those specific parts of the
curriculum for which individuals are responsible. Next,
teachers need at least two years to pilot the new curriculum
and new materials in their classrooms. It is not unusual for
this period to take up to two years before the new curriculum
is fully implemented and comfortably integrated into day-to-
day practice. It is critical that the curriculum development
committee, resource teachers and principals are aware of this
process and are available to nurture it.
D. Evaluating
1. Updating the New Program. In this age of word
processing and loose-leaf bound curriculum guides, it is
easier than ever to update the guides and keep them as
living, changing documents. One of the most common
methods of periodically updating a curriculum guide is
138
through grade-level meetings designed to share materials,
activities, units, assessments and even student work that
support the achievement of the curriculum goals that were
unknown or unavailable when the guide was first
developed. These approaches are invaluable professional
development opportunities wherein teachers assume
ownership of the curriculum they are responsible for
implementing. In this way, the guide becomes a growing
resource for more effective programme implementation.
Resource teachers are particularly effective vehicles for the
preparation and distribution of these updates.
2. Determining the Success of the New Programme. The
curriculum development cycle ends and then begins again
with a careful evaluation of the effectiveness and impact of
the programme. Using surveys, focused discussions and
meetings like those described in section 3, a curriculum
development committee needs to periodically gather data on
perceptions of programme strengths, weaknesses, needs,
preferences for textbooks and other materials, and topics or
objectives that do not seem to be working effectively. This
information should be gathered from data that represents
overall student performance that is linked closely to daily
instruction. Teams of teachers responsible for the specific
discipline could accomplish this by sharing samples of
assessments, performance tasks, student work, lessons and
instructional practices related to the curriculum.
The data from these surveys and meetings must then be
combined with a careful analysis of more numerical data on
the programme such as:

139
 i. ongoing grade-level and course criterion-referenced
exam data;
ii. teacher developed assessments, performance
assessments, student portfolios;
iii. CMT results (overall, over time and by objective);
iv. CAPT results (overall, over time and by objective);
v. course enrollments (particularly by level in middle
and high schools); and
vi. SAT and AP results.
This detailed review and analysis of quantitative and
qualitative information on the programme's impact and on
people's perceptions of its strengths and weaknesses forms
the foundation for the next round of curriculum development
and improvement.
Revision Questions
1. Visit a school of your choice. Observe and interview
the appropriate persons (teachers, students, principals)
and identify the existence of the different curriculum.
Explain clearly the meaning of curriculum planning
and development;
2. Identify the underlying principles of curriculum
planning and development;
3. Discuss the steps involved in curriculum planning and
development;
4. Distinguish between the three main models of
curriculum development;
5. What are the challenges that could be confronted in
planning and development of curriculum; and
6. Explain how challenges confronted in the course of
curriculum planning and development can be resolved

140
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on 25/12/2015

Chapter 8
Models of Curriculum Planning
By
Chinyere Nwagbara, Ph D
Introduction
The school has the mission of preparing children for life.
This mission becomes increasingly more complex as the
years roll by and the society becomes more and more
dynamic. The school must therefore be focused and
organized to achieve a reasonable level of success.
The curriculum provides the focus and the required
organization for this achievement. Thus proper curriculum
planning is of utmost importance in the task of developing
children for the challenges ahead. The curriculum therefore,
should be carefully planned to enable the school fulfill its
responsibilities to the children in particular and the society in
general. In this connection, the concept of curriculum,
curriculum planning and the different models of curriculum
planning will be identified and explained with the suggestion
of a preferred model of curriculum planning.
The Concept of Curriculum
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Curriculum is simply the plan which enables the school
fulfill its responsibilities towards the children and the society
at large. However, the concept of curriculum has been
defined variously by people depending on their individual
perspectives on the school and the dynamics of the society.
Through curriculum, the society translates its aspirations into
concrete realities. Curriculum, according to Gowin (1981) is
a logically connected set of conceptually and pedagogically
analyzed knowledge and value claims. Curriculum can also
be seen as a plan, blue print or roadmap applied to teaching
and learning in order to bring about positive behaviour in the
learner (Offorma, 2014). Curriculum is further summarized
as the sum-total of learning of experiences acquired through
a planned programme of activities whether in a formal or
non-formal situation. The important questions to consider
are the what, why, when, how, to whom and by whom, of
activities outlined, (Nwagbara, 2003).
Ihebuzor (1993) conceptualizes curriculum as a total set of
learning experiences which are designed for a specific set of
learners operating usually within a formal school system
with a view to imparting some skills, competencies and
attitudes to learners. Further still, curriculum is the total
learning, planned or unplanned, overt or covert, intended or
intended, that learners gain from exposure to instruction
(Beauchamp, 1981 and white, 1985). However, Ivowi (1993)
affirms that depending on the perspective of the individuals,
curriculum can be defined in terms of teaching, learning and
governance. Odusina (1997) defines it to mean the content of
learning experiences as well as the process through which
these experiences are acquired.

150
Curriculum experts while having their different perspectives
all point to some of these terms “planned experiences”,
“learning and learner”, “skills”, “programme of instruction”
“why and where fore of activities” and “conducive
environment” the curriculum can be said to be characterized
by the following: definite and dynamic objectives, selection
of learning experiences or content, organizing learning
experiences or methods, evaluation and outcomes.
What is Curriculum Planning?
The Oxford Advanced Learners dictionary defines the word
plan as an arrangement of a set of things to do in order to
something, esp. one that has been considered in detail in
advance (Horn by, 2000). The term curriculum planning is
often used interchangeably with curriculum development.
However, curriculum planning is more embracing as
curriculum development is a fall-out of the planning process.
According to Onwuka (1996), curriculum planning is the
process of building a programme of learning experiences
calculated to result in the attainment of set goals for a
particular people. Kpepe (1990) also conceives curriculum
planning as the process of putting together a programme of
learning experiences in order to attain set goals. Analyzing
it further, curriculum planning refers to a process whereby
the content, materials, learning activities etc are selected and
organized in such a way as to ensure the attainment of the
purposes of education in a society. (Apologun, 2005).
Curriculum planning which is continuous derives from the
dynamic nature of the society as there is the need to fulfill
some prerequisite condition. Such conditions include a
broad knowledge of the society the curriculum is to serve the
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social and cultural underpinnings of the society for which the
education is expected to provide; an understanding of the
general and particular nature of the process of learning; and
the understanding of society’s values and philosophy. The
above concerns have a bearing on the kind of activities to be
planned for the learners in order to achieve set objectives.
Thus, the learners’ activities, goals and
objectives, Content and evaluation
procedures that make up the Curriculum
of the school are results of choices
reflecting the society’s preferences for the
realization of certain cultural values and
developmental apparatus of the modern
world. (Udosen, 2009:76)

In a nutshell, curriculum planning refers to the process of

planning learning experiences for learners to enable them
achieve set educational goals.
Why Plan the curriculum
The society’s educational needs may not be achieved
without a proper and adequate curriculum planning which is
required to meet the educational needs of children, through
providing an education roadmap and guiding them to acquire
its culture and traditions.
Thus, Apologun (2005: 33) notes that curriculum planning in
a globalized system will have to contend with the dilemma
of fashioning out the expectations of society and the kind of
experiences required by the demands of globalization while
leaving the ultimate goal of education intact he goes further
152
to note that Nigerian’s overwhelming educational needs are
not likely to be addressed effectively and timely without
applying new strategies to globalized issues. Curriculum
planning however follows some kind of laid down criteria,
sequence and order. It helps in the design of educational
programmes for the society in a manner that fosters societal
ideals and values for the attainment of development.

According to Udosen (2009:76) the reason for

curriculum planning in any society is to ensure that the
programme of education is designed to meet the educational
needs of its children in terms of assisting and guiding them
to acquire its culture and general way of life. The society
intends that its children should progressively grow, develop
and become its responsible and productive adult members.

Thus curriculum planning becomes a sine qua non for the

realization of educational goals as it has to grapple with the
dilemma of meeting societal expectations and the demands
of a globalized world.

Some demands of globalization includes to knowledge of

Informative and Communications Technology (ICT).
Having ICT in the curricula at ll levels of our education
poses major challenges to curriculum planning in Nigeria,
albeit an imperative task. This is because of the knowledge
revolution that requires the acquisition of ICT which has
become important tool in the use and management of
knowledge and information. This corroborates (Okebukola,
2004) which opens that Information and Communications
Technology is the principal agent and infrastructure of
globalization and often the cause of significant differences in
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wealth and welfare, not just between rich and poor but also
among cultures, gender and age groups Vanguard
Newspapers p.21.

However, the planner must take some important decisions in

relation to the following (Izuagba, 2009) as summarized
below:
- How realistic and feasible the curriculum goals will
be
- The aspiration, needs, problems and interests of the
target audience
- Selection of relevant content and learning experiences
for the achievement of set goals
- Organization of teachable, learnable and realizable
learning experiences within a specified time frame.
- Conducive learning environment for optimum result.
- Evaluation to determine achievement of set goals.

Stages in Curriculum Planning:

Curriculum planning is a well thought out process that
follows some kind of order. According to Dada (1999) there
are several stages to follow which start with perceived need
and end with the design of the desired curriculum model.
Those stages are summarized as follows:

Stage One: Perceived Needs:

Curriculum planning usually starts with the
expression of a perceived need for a change of the status
quo, to something better for instance, the curriculum may be
seen to be inadequate for the contemporary situation and

154
then the need arises to update/review or totally produce a
new one that is relevant to the current situation in our
dynamic society. For instance, the curriculum that existed
during the colonial period and early years after independence
became in relevant to the attainment of the aspirations and
goals of the Nigeria people. Thus perceived need gave rise
to development of the National Policy on Education (FRN
1977) and its constant review of contents at when due, as
according to felt national needs. And this perceived need
reflects in our national curriculum which gets reviewed from
time to time to reflect the changing needs of our society.

Stage Two: Situation Analysis

Curriculum planning takes into consideration a
number of issues like: the society and culture, value systems
and priorities of learning their background, their learning
styles and languages spoken at home. This provides
justification for a new curriculum as well as the
consideration for the characteristics and population the
curriculum would serve. School data on the type of
curriculum in use, age of learners, class size, qualifications
and educational backgrounds of teachers all help curriculum
planners to justify the need for a new curriculum.

State three: Formulation of Objectives

The situation analysis helps planners identify the aims and
objectives of the curriculum for the target audience. These
aims and objectives serve as a roadmap for the rest of the
curriculum. The aims are formulated based on Nigeria’s
philosophy of education five main goals which include:
- the inculcation of national consciousness and national
unity
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 - the inculcation of the right type of values and
attitudes for the survival of the individual and the
Nigerian society
- the training of the mind in the understanding of the
world around; and
- the acquisition of appropriate skills and the
development of mental, physical and social abilities
and competencies as equipment for the individual to
live in and contribute to the development of his
society. (FRN, 2004:8).

Stage Four: Selection and Organization of Content

Content in any curriculum refer to what learners are taught
in order to realize the aims, objectives and goals of education
as stated in the curriculum. They include content of the
different subjects like English, history, geography,
mathematics, science, arts and religion. These subjects are
selected and organized based on certain criteria which
include relevance, philosophical, psychological, validity,
socio-cultural, utility, interest, learnability and teachability.
After the contents are selected, they are organized using the
criteria, of balance, completeness, sequence,
comprehensiveness, continuity and scope. The content
selected should reflect the curriculum objectives.

Stage Six: Evaluation

This concept is central to every curriculum design. It is a
continuous process that is interrelated with other parts of the
curriculum. It is brought to the fore at every important stage
of curriculum planning and development. Lawton (1979),
notes that evaluation involves measurement and also
includes value judgment. It is also about gathering data on
156
the dynamics, effectiveness acceptability and efficiency of
the curriculum for decision making. Baiyelo (1993:63) sees
curriculum evaluation as “the processes, strategies and
techniques variously employed to estimate, adjust and
control the fit between the planned activities and the actual
outcomes of instruction”.

According to Johnson (1989) evaluation performs various

functions which help to determine the worth of a programme
– curriculum, assess its strength and weakness and help us to
make changes where necessary. Thus, Kolawole (2006)
believes it is not practically possibly to determine the
success or otherwise on any curriculum, the “good”
intentions of the designers and implementers not
withstanding without evaluation.

Curriculum evaluation is very essential in education because

it is used to transform quantitative data into qualitative
interpretations as an educational programme is assessed and
judgment made on its effectiveness and efficiency (Azikiwe,
2009). So, evaluation is sine qua non for a well planned
curriculum as it helps determine its success or otherwise.
Planners will also determine the type of evaluation (whether
oral or written (formative or summative) they require in any
given programme.

Stage Seven: Designing the Preferred Curriculum

Model:
The above six stages are requisites for the design of the
preferred model. The popular curriculum models in Nigeria
are the:Objectives, Process and Situational Models. These
157
seven stages in curriculum planning are not often carried out
in a linear order as presented. The exercise normally
involves back and forth or up and down movements among
the different stages. For instance, there may be need to link
evaluation with Objectives in the final analysis or look at the
objectives while selecting content.
Designing the
Preferred
Curriculum

Evaluation
Model
Perciev
ed need
Selection and
Organization of Siguation
Learning
Opportunities
Analysis
Selection and Formulatio
Organization n of
of Content Objectives

Stages in Curriculum Planning

(Dada, 1999)

Models of Curriculum Planning:

For the success of any activity, planning is a requisite, as it
helps give direction for the attainment of set objectives. We
have identified the different stages in curriculum planning in
this chapter. However, not all models have these seven

158
stages. Some have four stages, others five and further still,
there are those that have eight stages. Some of the models
are learner-centered. The experiences of learners thus
become the starting point of the curriculum plan. This model
is anchored on the needs and interests of the learner who is
not passive but engages with his or her environment. Some
other models are subject-centered. This type focuses on the
content of the curriculum, aligning mostly to the textbook
developed for the specific subject. The model hinges so
much on the content that very little attention may be paid to
learners’ interests and experiences. There is also the
correlation design which links separate subject designs and
reduces fragmentation. Subjects are linked but each
maintains its identity. There is also the interdisciplinary
curriculum planning model. It is made to prevent
compartmentalization of subjects and bring related subjects
together. These models are put into three distinct groups –
Objectives, Process and Interaction Models of Curriculum.

The Objective Model

This model can be described as rational curriculum planning
model. It is linear in structure and attempts to impose a
hierarchical structure on the planning process. The stated
objectives are geared towards achieving behaviour
modification in the learner, and evaluated by relevant
assessment of the behavioural changes the curriculum is
expected to bring about when compared with its stated
intention.

159
Fig 1 – Tyler’s Linear model

Tyler’s Model
This planning model seeks to ensure that the following four
questions are well covered in developing the curriculum.
They are:
1. What Educational Purpose does a school want to
achieve?
2. What Learning Experiences are likely to achieve
these purposes?
3. How can these Learning Experiences be effectively
organized?
4. How can we determine the attainment of these
purposes?
As illustrated in fig 1, features of Tyler’s Objective model
start with the selection of aims, goals and objectives. Then
educational experiences are selected to achieve the first
stage. These experiences which are mostly the content
provide the materials to be learned. The organization of

160
learning experiences discusses appropriate instructional
materials and effective methods that will help to achieve the
stated objectives. The whether learning of both content and
objective will determine whether learning has taken place
and behaviour modification occurred.
Taba’s Model
This is another proponent of the linear curriculum planning
model. However, Taba’s is modified to have seven stages,
unlike Tyler's that has four stages. Taba thinks there is the
need to diagnose people's needs before formulating
objectives and educational experiences should be broken
down into content and learning experiences. Thus, Taba’s
educational experiences are broken down to selection of
content and learning experiences. Evaluation went a step
further to consider ways and means of evaluation. Both
Tyler’s and Taba’s models are examples of the objective
models of curriculum planning process.

161
Fig. 2 Taba’s Model
Advantages of the Objective model of Curriculum
Planning
1. The objective model is simple and uncomplicated.
2. The objectives set the scope for planning the
curriculum thus, the content and learning experiences
and evaluation are determined by the stated
objectives.
3. This model lends itself to further planning and review
and a more comprehensive view of curriculum
evaluation.
162
Disadvantages of the Objective Model
According to Obiefuna (2009) critics like Wheeler (1980),
Tanner and Tanner (1975) observed that:
1. The model was more of teacher-centered than child-
centered.
2. Too much emphasis was laid on evaluation, thereby
making the learner examination conscious.
3. No inter-dependence and inter-relatedness of the
different aspects. The evaluation for instance, did not
indicate how it can modify the planning.
4. No distinction between content and learning
experiences.
5. Tyler’s model did not provide or suggest answers to
specific questions asked on how objectives can be
selected, or even offer proper criteria for selection of
educational experiences. Moreover the linear model
seems to suggest that the different stages be treated
separately one after the other.

These criticisms gave rise to alternative models – the Cyclic

Model.

The Cyclic Model

Wheeler (1980), Nicholls and Nicholls (1978) and Tanner
and Tanner (1975) are proponents of this model. Tanner and
Tanner (1975) observed that the Objective Model was not
inter-related and inter-dependent with other aspects of the
curriculum, hence wheeler suggested the Cyclic Model as a
modification to the objective model. The Cyclic Model
indicates inter-relatedness, just like evaluation has direct
163
relevance to objectives, as results from the evaluation will
show if the objectives have been achieved or otherwise. This
model as the name implies goes in a cyclic manner. The
arrows show a sequence and cyclic progression starting from
the selection of objectives to the evaluation of the
effectiveness of the different stages showing a logical
progression from one to another.

1. Selection
of Aim s,
Goals and
objectives 2. Selection
5. Evaluation of learning
experiences
4.
O rganization
and
3. Selection
integration
of content
of learning
experiences
and content

Fig. 3 Wheeler (1980) Cyclic Model

Wheeler
This model has five stages, starting with the selection of
aims, goals and objectives to Evaluation of the effectiveness
of all aspects of the phases 2, 3 and 4, in attaining the goals
indicated in stage one.

164
Nicholls and Nicholls
Nicholls and Nicholls' (1972) Cyclic Model is made up of
five stages starting with Situation Analysis; Selection of
Objective; Selection and Organization of Content; Selection
and Organization of Methods and finally, Evaluation.
This model considers situation analysis crucial to identifying
the objectives. This dimension is quite realistic as the
objectives help in determining and selecting appropriate
contents and methods that will be evaluated. Evaluation will
show whether the objectives are realized. The cyclic nature
of the curriculum helps the curriculum planner return to the
drawing board for modification if the objectives were not
met.

Objectives

Selection of
Situation Analysis
ontents

Methods Evaluation

Fig. 4 Nicholls and Nicholls cyclic Model

The Process Model
Features of the Process Model
Their main features are as follows (Ivowi, 2014)
- They have no initial statement of objectives;

165
 - They have a smaller emphasis on content than
method;
- They support the view that some content and method
are of intrinsic value;
- They do not endorse that evaluation is of pre-
specified objectives (43).
The School-Based/Skillbeck or Situational Model
This model also referred to as Situational Model was
developed by Skillbeck (1969). This model is anchored in
the school since it is the meeting point for teacher and
learner. So, it is considered the most appropriate place to
design the curriculum. The teacher and learner collaborate to
develop a curriculum without external influences. This
model has five stages. They are:
Situational Analysis; Goal Formation; Programme Building,
Interpretation and Implementation; and Monitoring,
Feedback, Assessment and Reconstruction.
The first stage, suggests analysis of the situation of any
problem related to an environment which can be identified.
When this is detected, there will be goals formation from
where objectives will be teased out. The detected problem
will be included in the programme of content. This will be
followed by interpretation and implementation which can be
linked to the organization of methods and materials. And
with constant monitoring, will lead to feedback or outcome
from the learner. Assessment of learning outcomes may
result to going back to the drawing board, if they do not meet
the objectives of the programme.

166
Fig. 5 The School-Based / Skillbeck Model
The School-based/Skillbeck Model has its merits and
demerits. One of its merits is that the model provides scope
for the continuous adaptation of learner’s needs as a result of
its flexible nature. One of its demerits is that the model
confers excessive power on the teacher, ignoring other
participatory agents like parents, community groups, learners
etc.
The NERDC Model
This is the discernible practice of Curriculum Planning and
Development in Nigeria. Like all models, it has its merits
and demerits. It has great semblance with the Skillbeck
Model.
167
Fig. 6. NERDC Process Model
Some of the merits of the process models according to
Ivowi, (2014) include:
- Encouragement of group work on different
aspects of curriculum development process, viewing the
process as an organic whole and working in a moderately
systematic way;
- Identifying the learning situation as a major
problematic area of curriculum development, thus
stimulating educational discourse of the situation to be
changed;
- Curriculum development process starting at
any stage.
Though the model is planned in a systematic way, there is no
intention of insisting on a logical order in the different
168
stages. These different stages can be developed
concurrently.
The Interaction Model
This model is not a linear process. Any of the stages can be
the starting point. It is free and flexible. Its
characteristic features are well outlined in
Brady 1983. However, it is important to note one demerit
which stands it out, that is, not specifying objectives as the
starting point in curriculum development. This is not the best
as the objectives may not be identified properly or merged to
content. There is the possibility of the objectives being
completely lost.

Fig. 7 The Interaction Model

169
Comprehensive Curriculum Planning: the Evangelisto
Model
Many curriculum models are available as a basis for
identifying curriculum components and for developing
curriculum. The existing models share some common
limitations. According to Evangelisto (2016),
1. Some models include several important components
involved in designing comprehensive school
programs, but omit others that can of considerable
importance.
2. Some models are too simplistic in their basic design.
1. Others are somewhat cumbersome, proving to be
rather difficult to employ in the curriculum
development process.
The Evangelisto Model for curriculum development
provides a comprehensive, yet manageable model for
designing curricula that help schools fulfill their missions in
preparing children for life. This model progresses from
bottom to top.

170
Fig. 8 The Evangelisto Model.
The Evangelisto Curriculum Model is also linear in structure
but unique, in that, it has the bottom-to-top approach. It
starts with a clear and concise mission statement that
expresses the purpose and focus of the school. It identifies
the foundation of the curriculum as Society, Learner,
Learning and Knowledge. The task of Curriculum Planners
at the basic stage is to identify the major realities of society
today and indicate the knowledge, skills and attitudes that
children will need to succeed in it. It is evident that
curriculum planning must include an overview of the major
realities/characteristics of the very global society that
students are being prepared to encounter. (Evangelisto,
2016). The nature of the learner will certainly have a
profound influence on learning. Curriculum planning must
consider the nature of the learner to plan appropriate
instructional approaches. Notable contributors to our
understanding of human development include Abraham
Maslow, Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget. The significance of
this development is that planners must incorporate relevant
concepts and understandings as basis for accommodating the
different human needs that learners bring into the classroom.
This model is also concerned with the nature of learning
itself. The task here is to decide what learning is and then
explain how it occurs in individuals, noting the variables that
affect learning. It will then explain what teaching approaches
teachers should use to make learning take place.
The nature of knowledge will also be explained. The task
here is to determine how knowledge will be organized for
classroom teaching and how decisions are to be made
171
regarding what to include in scope and sequence planning.
Also the planner decides what the focus of instruction should
be in classroom – whether facts, concepts or skills. This
model/comprehensive curriculum planning starts with
perceptions of the nature of Society, Learner, Learning and
Knowledge as discussed above. These will now form the
philosophy from which Broad Educational Goals will be
derived. These broad educational goals will form the basis
for the programs of studies, activities and services. These
will be implemented by administrative decisions which
include: designing school facilities, developing policies and
procedures related to programs, teachers, learners and school
requirements. These would now be validated or corrected
through evaluation. (See Fig. 8)

Inter-disciplinary Curriculum Planning Model

This model cuts across subject disciplines and brings them
together for meaningful association. According to Everett
(1992:57), it is “one that combines several school subjects
into one active project since that is how children encounter
subjects in the real world – combined in one activity.”
Udosen (2009:75) affirms that “Inter-disciplinary
Curriculum is an educational approach that focuses attention
on preparing children for life-long learning.” She further
notes that it concurs with the philosophies of integrative
movement which affirm that schools must view education as
a process for developing abilities required by life in the
twenty-first century rather than discrete, departmentalized
subject matter. According to Lake (1994) features of Inter-
disciplinary Curriculum include:

172
  a combination of subjects,
 an emphasis on projects,
 going beyond class texts,
 concepts relationships,
 thematic approaches,
 flexible schedules and student groupings.
One of the merits Inter-disciplinary Curriculum Planning is
that it broadens the learner’s horizon through problem-
solving that incorporates information from various fields of
learning. The Inter-disciplinary Curriculum is cyclic in
orientation as the seven stages involve back-and-forth
movements among the different stages.

2. Designing the 1. Conceptualization

Preferred Model of ideas

3. Evaluation 4. Situation Analysis

Procedures and needs
identification

6. Organization of
Learning 5. Objectives
Opportunities

7. Selection and
Organization of
Content

173
As in other planning models, the following are also
considered while planning Inter-disciplinary Curriculum: the
Society, the Learner, the Teacher, the Curriculum
Specialists, Professional Educators, Guidance Counselors,
Subject Specialists and School Administrators.
Conclusion
This chapter focused on some identified Models of
Curriculum Planning. Some are improvements on others,
like the Process Model which attempts to take the best of the
Objectives and Interaction Models. This group of models lies
between the Objective Models which are not flexible and
form a continuum. Curriculum Planning is dynamic like the
society and culture in which learners live. It takes into
consideration the National Philosophy of Education (FRN,
2004), which affirms the “integration of the individual into a
sound and effective citizen,” as well as provide for “equal
education opportunities,” for her citizenry from Primary,
through Secondary to the Tertiary levels. The National
Philosophy, as well as the National Objectives thus give
direction as to the nature of Curriculum Planning.
Curriculum Planning further galvanizes the society’s needs
desires, aspirations, ideas, values and indeed all aspects of
life expected to be transmitted to young learners and
effectively too.

The Evangelisto Model of Curriculum Planning is unique

and quite comprehensive, involving all relevant stakeholders
in the school and in the society (Administrators, Teachers,
Curriculum Developers, Learners, etc). Moreover, the
approach is from bottom-to-top, which has often not been
the case as curriculum has been planned using the top-to-
174
bottom approach in some cases and in others, no particular
starting point. This bottom-to-top approach allows
curriculum planners more scope on their perceptions of the
nature of society, learner, learning and knowledge as the
bases for planning, and thereby having a holistic view of the
issue at hand.

References
Apologun, S.S. (2005). Challenge of Globalization to
Curriculum Planning in Nigeria. S.O. Oriaifo, G.C.
Edozie and D.N. Eze (eds). Curriculum Issues in
ContemporaryEducation: Book in Honour of Prof.
(Mrs.) Ebele J. Maduewesi. BeninCity: Da-Sylva
Influence

Azikiwe, Uche (2009). Models of Curriculum Evaluation in

UMO Ivowi, K. Nwufo, C. Nwagbara, J. Ukwungwu,
I. Emah and G. Uya (ed.) Curriculum Theory and
Practice. Abuja: Curriculum Organization of
Nigeria.

Baiyelo, T.D (1993). Curriculum Evaluation in UMO Ivowi

(ed.) Curriculum Development in Nigeria. Ibadan:
Sam Bookman Educational and Communication Services.

Beauchamp, G.A. (1981) Curriculum theory: Illinois: F.E.

Peacock Publishers. Inc.

Dada, A. (1999). The Teacher and the Curriculum. Ibadan:

Tejema General Enterprises.

175
Evangelisto, Tony (2016). Comprehensive Curriculum
Planning: The Evangelisto Model. (retrieved from
http://www.tcnj.edu/-evangi/curricplan.html-)

Evertt, M. (1992). Developmental Inter-disciplinary Schools

for the 21st Century. Education Digest. 57 (7). 57-59.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on

Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.

Gowin, D.B. (1981). Educating. Ithaca: Cornell University

Press.

Hornby, A.A. (2000). Oxford Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Ihebuzor, Noel (1993). Research in Curriculum Studies, in

U.M.O. Ivowi, Curriculum Development in Nigeria. Ibadan:
Sam Bookman Educational and Communication
Services.

Ivowi, U.M.O. (1993). Models of Curriculum Development

in U.M.O. Ivowi, (ed.) Curriculum Development in
Nigeria. Ibadan: Sam Bookman Educational and
Communication Services.

Ivowi, U.M.O. (2014). The Process Model of Curriculum

Development in UMO Ivowi (ed.) Curriculum and
Teaching in Nigeria. A Book of Readings in Honour of
Prof. Mrs. Akon E.O. Lagos: Foremost Educational
Services Ltd.
176
Izuagba, Angela C. (2009). Curriculum and Learning
Theories, in UMO Ivowi, K. Nwufo, C. Nwagbara,
J. Ukwungwu, I. Emah and G. Uya (eds.) Curriculum
Theory and Practice. Abuja: Curriculum
Organization of Nigeria.

Johnson, R.K. (1989). The Second Language Curriculum.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kolawole, C.O.C. (2006) Curriculum Design,

Implementation and Innovation. Ibadan: Ibadan Cultural
Studies Group.

Lawton, D. (1979). Social Change, Educational theory and

Curriculum Planning. London: Hodder
and Stoughton.

Nwagbara, Chinyere (2003). Education in Nigeria: Early

Learning and Related Critical Issues. Owerri: TAIT
Publications.

Odusina, M.O. (1997). Trend in Curriculum Development in

Nigeria: The Road Ahead in the 21st Century. M.O.
Odusina, (ed.) Educational Challenges in Africa for the 21 st
Century: The Road Ahead. Lagos: Jas Publishers.

Okebukola, P. (2004). Wealth Creation: Imperatives for a

Blueprint on Technology and Knowledge-Based
st
Education in the 21 Century. Vanguard Newspapers, P.21.

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Onwuka, U. (ed.) (1996). Curriculum Development for
Africa. Onitsha: Africana Publishers.

Udosen, Alice E. (2009). Inter-disciplinary Curriculum

Planning in UMO Ivowi, K. Nwufo, C. Nwagbara, J.
Ukwungwu, I. Emah and G. Uya (eds.) Curriculum
Theory and Practice. Abuja: Curriculum Organization
of Nigeria.

White, R.V. (1985). The EUT Curriculum Oxford: Basil

Blackwell.

178
 Chapter 9
Curriculum Development Process and Models
By
Grace Kayang
Introduction
Curriculum process is a continuous circle of activities
in which all elements of curriculum are considered and inter-
related. According to Eneoge in Ogwu (1996:32) “the term
‘process’ calls attention to the important fact that planning a
curriculum is a continuous rather than a one-time affair” in
trying to describe curriculum as a process, Eneoge in Ogwu
(1996:41), states that it is “the way and manner whereby
arrangements of learning opportunities are made and
curriculum plans are created so as to ensure the achievement
of stated educational goals in a society”.
Model can be defined as interacting parts that serve to
guide actions (Lunenburg, 2001) in the case of curriculum
development, there are several models that exist. Actually
these models are more similar than different and often only
differ in the elements that made up the models. Most models
have a cyclical process, characterized as analysis, design,
development, implementation and evaluation. Where these
models do differ is in the process of development which, to
some extent, will reflect the curriculum orientation. This
chapter discusses some models of curriculum development
and various phases that are involved.

179
Models of Curriculum Development
The term “model” as discussed by Oliva (1982) rates
with scenario as one of the most abused words in current
English usage. While a scenario may turn out to be any plan
or series of events, a model may be tried or untried scheme.
It may be a programmed solution to specific problems or it
may be a microscopic pattern proposed for replication or a
grander scale.
Some of the models are simple, others are very
complex. Within a given area of specialization
(administration, instruction, supervision, or curriculum
development), models may differ but bear great similarities.
The individual models are often refinements or revisions,
frequently major, often minor, of already existing models.
The educational consumer, i.e., the practitioners to
whom the model is directed has the heavy responsibility of
selecting one model in their particular field. If the
practitioners are not disposed to apply models they
discovered, they may as well design their own or, as the case
may be, to put all together and come out with a working
model as guide in curriculum planning.
By examining models for curriculum development,
we can analyze the phases the originators or authors
conceived as essential to the process of curriculum
development. A model must show phases or components,
not people. The specification of curriculum goals must chart
a progression of steps from departmental committee to
school faculty curriculum committee or extended school
committee, to principal, to district curriculum committee, to
superintendent and to school board (Oliva, 1982)
180
The Tyler Model
One of the best known models for curriculum
development with special attention to the planning phases is
shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1. Tyler’s Model

181
 Figure 2. Tyler’s model (expanded from Figure 1)
It proposed a comprehensive model for curriculum
development. The first part of this model: the selection of
objectives receives the greatest attention from other
educators. Tyler recommended that curriculum planners
identify general objectives by gathering data from the
sources: the learners, contemporary life outside the school,
and the subject matter. The numerous general objectives are
refined by filtering them through two screens: (1)
educational and social philosophy of the school and (2) the
psychology of learning and become specific instructional
objectives.
In describing general objectives Tyler referred them
as “goals”, “educational objectives”, and “educational
purposes”. He further stated that the curriculum worker must
begin analyzing data relevant to student needs and interest.
These are educational, social, occupational, physical,
psychological and recreational. He recommended
observations by teachers, interviews with students,
interviews with parents, questionnaires and tests as
techniques for collecting data about students. By examining
these needs, the curriculum developer identifies a set of
potential objectives.
The next step in the process of general objectives is
the analysis of contemporary life in both the local
community and the society. From the needs of society flow
many potential educational objectives.
For the source the curriculum planner turns to the
subject matter, the disciplines themselves. From the three
aforementioned sources, curriculum planners derived a
182
multiplicity of general or broad objectives. Once this array
of possible objectives is determined, a screening process is
necessary to eliminate unnecessary and unimportant and
contradictory objectives. Tyler advises the use of the schools
educational and social philosophy as the first screen of these
goals.
In Philosophical screen Tyler advise teachers of a
particular schools to formulate educational and social
philosophy and to outline values by emphasizing four
democratic goals:
 The recognition of every individual as a human
being regardless of his race, national, social and
economic status;

 Opportunity for wide participation in all phases of

activities in the social groups in the society;

 Encouragement of variability rather than

demanding a single type of personality;

 Faith and intelligence as a method of dealing with

important problems rather than depending upon
the authority of an autocratic or aristocratic group.

In the Psychological screen, the teachers must clarify

the principles of learning that they believed to be sound. “A
psychology of learning as emphasized by Tyler not only
includes specific and definite findings but it unified
formulation of theory of learning which helps to outline the
nature of the learning process, how it takes place, under what
183
conditions, what sort of mechanism operate and the like.”
Tyler explains the significance of the psychological screen in
the following statements:
 Knowledge in the psychology of learning enables
us to distinguish changes in human beings that can
be expected to result from a learning process from
those that cannot.

 Knowledge in the psychology of learning enables

us to distinguish goals that are feasible from those
that are likely to take a very long time or are
almost impossible of attainment at the age level
contemplated.

 Psychology of learning gives us some idea of the

length of time required to attain an objective and
the age levels at which the effort is most
efficiently employed.

In Fig. 2 Tyler’s model describes three more steps in

curriculum planning: selection, organization, and
evaluation of learning experiences. He defined
learning experiences as “the interaction between the
learner and the external conditions in the environment
to which he can react”. And teachers must give
attention to learning experiences in order to:
a) develop skill in thinking
b) helpful in acquiring information
c) helpful in developing social attitude
d) helpful in developing interest

184
The Leyton Soto Model
Leyton Soto observed the linear nature of the Tyler
model and the separation of the three sources of objectives.
He eliminated some of the objectives to the Tyler model and
added some of his refinements and clarifications as seen in
Fig. 3. He charted three basic elements: philosophy,
psychology and sources; three basic processes: selection,
organization, and evaluation; and three fundamental
concepts: objectives, activities, and experiences.
Significantly he showed clearly the interrelationship among
the various components of the model. He distinguished
between learning experiences and learning activities. He
defined objectives as the combination of experiences that the
learner tries to achieve. Furthermore these experiences are
the behaviors that are written into the objectives and
activities are selected and organized, but only experiences,
i.e. the terminal behaviors, are evaluated. Thus, the Leyton
model presented an integrated or comprehensive model for
curriculum development from the point of selecting
objectives to the point of evaluating experiences.

185
Figure 3. Leyton Soto’s integrated model

II. Basic processes

186
III. Fundamental concepts
The Saylor and Alexander Model
Figure 4 shows the curriculum process in the model
of Saylor and Alexander. Their definition of curriculum is “a
plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve
broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an
identifiable population served by a single school center. “Yet
it is not to be conceived as a single document but rather as
many smaller plans for particular portions of the
curriculum”.
Figure 4: Saylor and Alexander model

187
Goals, Objectives and Domain
The model indicates that the curriculum planners
begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific
objectives they wished to accomplish. Each major goal
represents a curriculum domain.
The goals and objectives are selected after
consideration of external variables, among which are legal
requirements, educational research, regional accreditation
standards, views of community groups and others.

Instructional Modes

188
 At this point of the model, the teachers would then
specify the instructional objectives before selecting the
strategies or modes of the presentation.
Evaluation
Finally, the curriculum planners and teachers engage
in evaluation must choose from a wide variety of evaluation
techniques. Alexander and Saylor urge a comprehensive
approach to evaluation that would permit assessment of the
total educational program of the school and must include the
curriculum plan, The effectiveness of instruction, and the
achievement of the learners. Through evaluation processes,
curriculum planner can determine whether or not, the goals
of the school and the objectives of the school have been met.

THE OLIVA MODEL

The model shown in Figure 5 represents the most
essential components that can be readily expanded into
extended model that provides additional detail and simplified
process.
Oliva’s model is shown in Figure 6. It is a
comprehensive; step by step process that takes the
curriculum planner from the sources of curriculum to
evaluation. It has twelve components. The square represents
planning phases and the circles, operational phases.
Figure 5. A model for curriculum development (Oliva,
1976)

189
 In Component I, it states the aim of education and
their philosophical and psychological principles. These aims
are beliefs that are derived from the needs of the individual
and society, which incorporate concept similar to Tyler’s
“screen”.
Components II requires an analysis of the needs of the
community in which the schools are located as well as the
needs of the students and the exigencies of the subject matter
that will be taught in school.
Components III & IV call for specifying curricular
objectives based on Components I & II. The tasks of
Component V are to organize and implement the curriculum,
to formulate and establish the structure by which the
curriculum will be organized.
In Components VI & VII an increasing level of
specification is sought. Instructional goals and objectives are
stated for each level of the subject. At this point it
distinguishes how the goals and objectives differ.
Component VIII shows how the curriculum worker
chooses instructional strategies for use with students in the
classroom. Simultaneously, the curriculum worker initiates
Phase A of Component IX, Preliminary selection of
evaluation technique. At this stage, the planner thinks ahead
and begins to consider ways she will asses students’

190
achievement. The implementation of instructional strategies
follows component X.
Component XI is the stage when evaluation of
instruction is carried out. Component XII completes the
cycle with evaluation not of the student or of the teacher but
rather of the curricular program.
The important features of the model are the feedback
lines that cycle back from the evaluation of the curriculum to
the curriculum goals and from the evaluation of instruction
to the instructional goals. These lines indicate the necessity
of continuous revision of the components of the respective
sub-cycles.

Nicholls and Nicholls’ Model

Nicholls and Nicholls in Oteh & Akuma (2010)
model is a cyclic model made up of five steps.
1. Situation analysis
2. Selection of objective
3. Selection and organization of content
4. Selection and organization of methods
5. Evaluation.

191
Nicholls and Nicholls Curriculum Model

Nicholls and Nicholls models suggest that there should be

need for a diagnostic analysis of a situation and these will
help to identify and determine the objectives. These are more
important because objective cannot be determined in
vacuum, rather the problem of the environment or society
should be identified which will help in determining what the
objective should be, such that appropriate contents and
pedagogy will be selected and evaluated. It is the evaluation
that will show if the objective relating to the situation was
obtained or not. It cyclic nature shows that if the objective is
not achieved at the end of the process the planner can go
back to the drawing board for modification.

Zais Models
Zais (1976) model of curriculum development is
conceptualized in terms of its foundations and its structure.

192
 I. Curriculum foundation
1. Knowledge
2. Society
3. Individual
4. Learning theory
II. Curriculum structure
1. Aims
2. Goals
3. Objective
4. Content
5. Learning activities
6. Evaluation.
The curriculum foundations are the philosophical
bases, which influence and control the content and
organization of curricula. They are based on the values that
had been developed concerning the knowledge, the society,
the individual learners as well as learning. The curriculum
foundations tend to influence the philosophies of the
curriculum developers, which are reflected in the curriculum.
The structure of curriculum refers to the various components
of curriculum. These are aims, goals and objectives, content,
learning experience and evaluation.

Eisner’s Models
Based on Eisner’s (1979) concept of connoisseurship
that emphasizes the developer’s creativity. This holistic
systemic aesthetic approach assumes that the developer is an
artist, who creatively anticipates from his or her own vision,
intuition, taste and experience the identification of what is
educationally relevant. There are no objective criteria or
fixed processes to follow. This approach has been described
as nontechnical – nonscientific (Ornstien & Hunkins 2009)
193
and also shares some characteristics with post –
positivist/post-modern methods, where curriculum
continuously renews itself through human experience and a
social and not through a specific model.
This approach considers the following dimensions of
curriculum:
Intent: A review and identification of what really matters in
school, either, learning objectives.
Structure of School: A review of how schools and learning
environments are and can be structured, how roles are
defined and how time is allocated to facilitate learning
opportunities.
Curriculum: The design must include ideas that matters
skills that count and strategies that engage students in
learning process.
Pedagogy: Quality of teaching is of primary concern, and
requires support, scrutiny and assistance schools must serve
teachers, if teachers are to serve students.

School-Based Evaluation: based on defining what really

matters for students. Teachers and school administrators
approach evaluation as continuous improvement.

Advantage of School-Based Evaluation

Revision of curriculum is made meaningful and
possible, as emphasis is on creative interaction with
curriculum in practice, especially at school and student
levels.
Disadvantage of School-Based Evaluation
The particular view of the developer and focus on a
specific context (e.g, classroom, school or subject) can result
in curriculum products with a narrow scope.
194
Pragmatic approach model: According to (Thijs & Van
dan Akker (2009). This model focuses on the practical use of
curriculum products. In this model curriculum development
requires close interaction with local practice and those who
actually use the product. At the core of this orientation is
formative evaluation where the development and evaluation
process occur in an interactive manner.
This model has three phases
Phase I Preliminary study: Here experts and literature
are consulted and a rough draft of possible products is
developed fairly quickly.
Phase II Prototyping: Specifications of the prototype
are generated and a prototype is developed to undergo
rounds of design, evaluation and revision. During these
phase there is close interaction with the schools and school
community to gear the products and possibilities to end
users.
Phase III Deployment and evaluation: Moves from
prototyping to deployment of curriculum products. The
evaluation process means that a curriculum product is never
really finished, as it will be periodically revisited, assessed
and revised.

Advantage of Pragmatic approach model

Increased ownership and practical usability of the
curriculum product(s).

Disadvantage of Pragmatic approach model

The close interaction with end user can be
challenging at times, for example, if the users’ wishes vary
greatly (e.g, beliefs on the use of worksheets in mathematics)
or are difficult to combine with the insights of experts and
195
what has been identified in research example problem –
based learning.

Summary
The models of curriculum presented in this chapter
are those of Nicholls and Nicholls, Zais, Situational or
School- based model, Walker, Eisner’s models, and
Pragmatic approach model. Nicholls and Nicholls’ model is,
like wheeler’s, made up of five phases that include situation
analysis. Zais model conceptualizes curriculum in terms of
curriculum foundations (philosophical bases) and curriculum
structure (the various components of a curriculum).
Skillbeck’s situational model focuses on the external and
internal factors that affect the curriculum process. walker
model is based on three phases, definition of need or
problems, of the learner should be identified, they should be
possible solution for the problems identified, deliberation as
the second phase and design being the result of the
deliberations carried out in the two phases are used to draft
the final product(s). Eisner’s model has five dimensions of
curriculum: with the intent either learning objectives as the
1st, structure of schools 2nd, curriculum either strategies that
engage students in the learning process, 3rd, pedagogy, 4th
and school-based evaluation as the final dimension.
Pragmatic approach model, at the core of this orientation is
formative evaluation where the development and evaluation
process occur in an interactive manner. It has the preliminary
study, Prototying and Deployment and evaluation as the final
stage. Batch of the models mention above contain valuable
elements that can be considered for curriculum development.
196
REVIEW QUESTIONS (EASY)
1. Compare Walker’s model with that of Eisner’s
curriculum development model.
2. What are the differences between Zais curriculum
development model and that of Nicholls and
Nicholls?
3. Explain the pragmatic approach model, its stages and
what are the strength and challenges.
4. According to Skillbeck in Obiefuna (2009) state two
advantages and two disadvantages of situational
model.
5. With the aids of a diagram, differentiate between
Nicholls and Nicholls’ model and that of school based
model.

References
Eisner’s, E. W (1979) The Educational imagination. On the
design and evaluation
Of school programs. New York, Ny Macmilian.
Eneogwe U.N. (1996). The Curriculum Process in Ogwu B,
A. Curriculum
Development and Educational Technology, Markurdi,
Onawa printing and publishing, co Ltd.
Lunenburg, F.C (2001) Curriculum Development: Inductive
models. Schooling,
2(1), 1-8.
Thijs, A; & Van de Akker, J. (Eds) (2009). Curriculum in
Development. Ensched,
Netherlands: SLO-Netherlands Institute for
curriculum development. Retrieved from

197
http://www.slo.nl/downlowds/2009/curriculum-in
development.pdf
Nicholl, A and Nicholls, H. (1978). Developing a
Curriculum, A Practical Guide:
London, Genpe Allen and Unwire.
Oliva, H. N. (1986). The Educational imagination. On the
design and evaluation
Of school programs. New York, Ny Macmilian.
Onyemerekeya, C.C. (2001). Curriculum Concepts and
Process. Barloz publishers,
Owerri, Imo State.
Oteh J. E & Akuma N (2010). Curriculum Development and
Innovation Umushia
Abia and Joy Educational publishers.
Obiefuna C, A (2009), Model of Curriculum Development,
in curriculum
Theorization Curriculum Organization of Nigeria.
Stenhouse, L. (1970). Some Limitations of the Use
Objectives in Curriculum
Research and Planning, pedagogue European 6.73-83.
Zais, R.S (1976). Curriculum principles and foundations.
New York: Harper and Row

Chapter 10
198
 Selection of Aims, Goals and Objectives
By
Olofu, Martin Afen Ph.D.

Introduction
Every purposeful action of a person is guided by
intention(s). The intentions are the expectations of the person
who carried out the action. In education, the activities of the
school are guided by the purpose the school seeks to attain.
It is these purposes that guide and regulate all the actors in
the school. Technically, the intentions or purposes the school
seeks to achieve are considered as goals, aims or objectives.
Although, these terms are collectively used to refer to
the intended outcomes, their application vary in meaning.
According to Wilson (2014:1) “within the educational
lexicon of curriculum development, for the past three
decades scores of curriculum scholars, planners and
administrators have been trying to standardize terms so that
they refer to very specific curricular component”. It is on this
basis that it is imperative to clarify the differences in
application of the terms curriculum aims, goals and
objectives. It is important to note here that while some
authors have used goals and aims interchangeably, others
have attempted to give them distinct meaning and
application.
Educational aims as applied in curriculum
development refer to long term statements of intents usually
199
in ambiguous terms. Such intents cover the entire curriculum
programme. For example, one can talk of the aims of
primary education. This takes into consideration holistic
expectations over a long period of time. Wilson (2014:1)
defines aims as “general statements that provide direction or
intent to educational action”. Aims according to the author
are usually written in an amorphous terms using words like
learn, know, understand, appreciate and these are not directly
measurable. Broody in Urevbu (1990:26) defines curriculum
aims as “statements that describe expected life outcomes
based on some values either consciously or unconsciously
borrowed from philosophy”.
The application of goals is mid way between aims and
objectives. As noted by Wilson (2014), “goals are statements
of education intentions which are more specific than aims.
Goals too, may encompass entire program, subject area or
multiple grade levels. They may be in either amorphous
language or in more specific behavioural terms”.
Curriculum objectives on the other hand refer to short
term specific statement of intents to be achieved in the
course of instruction or teaching. A teacher who comes to
the classroom or is interacting with students in the field
comes to achieve specific objectives. Stenhouse (1975:54)
sees educational objectives as aims specified in terms of
student’s behavior. Quoting Tyler, he states “one can define
an objective with sufficient clarity if one can describe or
illustrate the kind of behavior the student is expected to
acquire so that one could recognize such behavior if he/she
saw it”. Such objectives are described as behavioral
objectives. Thus, unlike aims, behavioral objectives are

200
specific, unambiguous and are stated in measurable terms.
Behavioral objectives therefore, are statements of intent
specific enough to depict whatever behavior the learner is
expected to exhibit after interacting with his learning
environment. It is precise and action oriented. One of the
basic steps in curriculum development is the formulation of
aims or objectives. Since the issues that will be discussed
here affect the selection of aims, goals and objectives, these
terms will be used interchangeably in the discussion that
follow.
Sources of educational aims/objectives
The selection of curriculum aims, goals and
objectives describes the process of choosing educational
purposes any school seeks to attain (Obiefuna, 2009). Proper
selection of aims, goals or objectives begins with analysis of
basic factors or sources from which these objectives are
derived. Olofu in Tanner and Tanner (1980), traced the early
attempt to identify the sources of educational objectives to
Dewey who identified the learner, the society (with its
values and meaning of life based on experiences of its
adults), the organized subject matter (consisting of the body
of knowledge) and subject specialist. Ivowi (2009), listed the
sources of educational objectives to include the learner,
society, nature of the subject and psychology. Esu, Enukoha
and Umoren (2009) identified the following sources of
educational objectives-studies of contemporary life outside
the school and philosophy of education.
Learner: The progressivists consider the learner as being
central in the teaching learning situation. So, education is a
means by which the learner can shape his destiny. From this
201
point of view, the learner is a factor in considering the
educational goals/objectives to be formulated. The interest
and needs of the learners must be taken into consideration.
Also important are the gap between what he/she is and what
he/she ought to be, individual differences among learners,
their socio-economic differences especially as they affect
learning and development.
The society: Education is a means of processing the society
and at the same time, a product of the society. By this, it
implies that the society and its educational system are
closely knitted. It is imperative then, that the society
constitutes a major source from which educational
aims/objectives should be derived. The society is complex
and dynamic with its knowledge, skills and values changing
regularly with time. Educational objectives have to reflect
the society’s ideals. The educational system is an industry
through which members of the society are processed into
refined products. The objectives must be such that members
after transformation will either conform to or participate
actively and meaningfully in the society. There should be
strong relationship between the expectations
(aims/objectives) of the school and real life outside the
school. For this to occur, the school must derive its
aims/objectives from the society. The curriculum planner
must be conversant with the demands and way of life of the
society for which the curriculum is planned if appropriate
aims/objectives are to be formulated.
(c) Subject specialist: Every subject or discipline has
something to contribute to the development of the learner.
The subject specialists are considered as knowledgeable in

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their subject area. They therefore, become reference point in
identifying aims/objectives that are relevant in such area.
This could be achieved through direct consultation with the
subject specialist when planning the curriculum or reading
recommendations or data prepared by him/her. Another way
the subject specialist can be used to enrich educational
aims/objectives is to be directly involved in the planning
process.
(d) Philosophy of education: Another major source of
educational aims/goals is philosophy of education. Nigeria
as a nation is guided by two principal philosophies as
contained in the National Policy on Education (2014). These
include:
a. live in unity and harmony as one individual
indissoluble democratic and sovereign nation
founded on the principles of freedom, equality
and justice.
b. promote inter-African solidarity and world
peace though understanding. (FRN, 2004:4).
From this broad philosophy, five national goals are derived
to form the basis from which educational goals are drawn.
These national goals include;
(a) a free and democratic society
(b) a just and egalitarian society
(c) a united, strong and self-reliance nation
(d) a great and dynamic economic
(e) a land full of bright opportunities for all
citizens

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 Education is a process/means by which a national
philosophy can be actualized. Without education, such
philosophy exists as mere dreams. It is on this basis that the
Federal Government of Nigeria through identified education
as an instrument par excellence for the accomplishment of
the nation’s dreams. Therefore, national educational
goals/aims are formulated in line with the above
philosophies. They include:
(a) The inculcation of national consciousness and
national unity.
(b) The inculcation of the right type of values and
attitudes for the survival of the individual and the
Nigerian society.
(c) The training of the mind in the understanding of the
world around; and
(d) The acquisition of appropriate skills and the
development of mental, physical and social abilities
and competencies as equipment for the individual to
live in and contribute to the development of his
society (FRN, 2004:7).
Criteria to be considered in selection of aims/objectives
There are basic conditions that need to be met in
selecting aims/ goals/objectives in the process of curriculum
development. Formulation of any educational objectives
should be based on systematic and rational decisions. Some
of the criteria include:
(i) Objectives should be realistic and attainable: Aims
formulated must be those that are achievable within a
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 given context. Good curriculum aims should not just
be mental work. Olofu (2003) observed that one of
the causes of the discrepancy between theory and
practice in education is the inability of the
implementers of the curriculum to operationalize
what the planners have intended. It is possible to
formulate fanciful objectives that are difficult if not
impossible to translate into practical terms.
Excessive high standard, ambiguities are some factors
that make some aims unrealistic.
(ii) The aims should be in line with the philosophy of
education: Philosophy of education simply put,
involves the application of philosophical methods or
thinking to solve the problems of education. Some
philosophical issues that guide formulation of aims
are what knowledge, values and skills are considered
worthy to be transmitted by the adult to the youths.
Thus, the aims of education cannot be derived outside
the philosophy of the society its curriculum sought to
serve. From the philosophies of education, the goals
of education should be generated.
(iii) They should be consistent with the needs and
interest of the learner: In formulating aims, the
needs and interest of the learner for whom the
curriculum is planned has to be considered. Such aims
should help the learner actualize his dreams.
(iv) They should be in line with the aspirations of the
society: The school is established to serve the society.
The quality of a curriculum will be to the extent the
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 aims meet the needs of the society. Every educational
programme is directed at meeting the need of the
society or part of the society. Therefore, the aims of
education cannot be devoid of the aspirations of the
society it is meant for. This brings to the fore the need
for proper diagnosis of needs so as to guide
curriculum planners or developers towards the aims
that will be pursued to meet such needs.
(v) The objectives should vary enough to cater for the
manifold aspects of human development as well as
individual differences: in selecting aims, the various
domains (affective, cognitive and psychomotor)
should be taken into consideration.
Functions of educational aims/objectives
The importance of aims in education cannot be over
emphasized. Some are examine here.
(1) Guide in decision-making: The aims or objectives of
a programme reveal clearly the focus of the
programme. In planning curriculum, the aims selected
will determine the decisions made on other steps such
as the selection of content, learning experience,
resources, methodology and evaluation. They serve as
pointers to the areas that require emphasis both at the
stage of planning and implementation.
(2) It removes the problems and confusions of selecting
from the mass of available knowledge: There are so
many things contending for space in the curriculum in
the world of knowledge explosion. Curriculum

206
 developers are therefore, faced with the challenge of
what to select. Since the formulation of
aims/objectives precedes other processes, whatever is
selected will be only those that are relevant to the
aims/objectives.
(3) It provides a common platform for unity of purpose:
Many stakeholders are involved in the educational
process of the child with divergent expectations. The
parents, the school administrators, the teachers, the
government, politicians, the learners, may have
divergent opinions on what should constitute the
curriculum programme. It is with the formulation of
aims and objectives that these divergent views can
easily be organized into more comprehensive pattern.
(4) Educational aims/objectives provide concise picture
of the educational system: if one is interested in
knowing the nature and purpose of education of a
given society, it is to look at the aims of education. It,
at a glance, depicts what the entire educational system
sought to attain without necessarily studying the
entire content and learning experience selected.
(5) It provides the basis for evaluation: This is one of the
major functions of educational aims. Evaluation
involves determining the extent to which expected
outcomes have been achieved. With the help of
clearly stated aims and objectives, the evaluators
could easily identify the areas to be evaluated.
Despite the relevance, the use of objectives has come
under serious criticism. Some of such criticisms are that its
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use does not allow for creativity and flexibility on the part of
the teacher and learner.
Behavioral objectives
The works of Bloom and his associates, Krathwohl and
Masia tagged Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives,
have provided important guide in stating behavioural
objectives. Bloom, (1964) identified three basic domains of
human development. To produce a total man or for a
balanced development of the learner, these three domains
must be provided for in the planning and implementation of
the curriculum. They include the cognitive the affective, and
the psychomotor domains.
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives guides
in stating behavioural objectives in two ways. First,
objectives should cover the three domains and secondly, the
levels of each the domains should be considered.
Cognitive domain
Cognitive domain is concerned with acquisition of
information and knowledge, the development of the mental
processes or intellectual abilities. Bloom and his colleagues
categorized cognitive domain into six hierarchical levels
namely; knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation.
Knowledge is the lowest level of the cognitive
domain. Objectives at this level require the recall or
remembering of facts, terms and principles as they were
learnt. Verbs used in stating behavioural objectives at this
level include mention, name, list, state, etc.
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 Comprehension deals with the ability to make
meaning out of the knowledge gained. At this level the
learner is expected to among others interpret meaningfully
the knowledge gained. Interpret, describe, and restate are
some verbs used in stating objectives at this level.
At the level of application the learner is expected to
apply the fact, or knowledge achieved to solve problems.
Terms such as apply, correct, arrange, relate, design,
reorganize, etc are used.
Analysis level deals with the ability to critically examine
information or knowledge obtained or breaks it into
components. Some verbs applied here include examine,
criticize, categorize, distinguish, deduce, compare and
contrast, analyze.
Synthesis level deals with expectations to use the
different or component ideas or knowledge acquired and
build new ideas. Formulate, device, suggest, develop,
construct, modify are some likely words that can be used to
state objective at this level.
Evaluation is the highest level of cognitive domain. It
is concerned with value judgment. Verbs that may used
include appraise, asses, compare, standardize, critically
examine, validate, etc.
It is important to note here that in line with the needs
of the 21st century the cognitive levels of Bloom’s taxonomy
of educational objectives have been modified as follows:
remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing evaluating
and creating (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2011)

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Affective domain
Affective domain is concerned with the development of
attitudes, values, feelings and emotion. Krathwohl who led
the work on affective domain categorized the domain into
five levels namely; receiving, responding, valuing,
organization and characterization.
At the level of receiving, the learner encounters stimuli
(actions) in the course of interacting with the environment.
Some action words include listen, notice. This is followed by
the response to the information received which may be
passive or active. Verbs used are participating, play,
volunteer, etc.
The level of valuing is about choice. The learner
chooses to participate voluntarily in the activity or not,
having found what the learning is worth. Some verbs used to
state objectives at this level are express, prefer, act, debate.
At the level of organization, the learner is expected to
examine different values, identify the differences or conflicts
that may be inherent in them, resolve them and decide to
build a consistent value system. Action words may include
compare, decide, select. Characterization is the highest level
of development of value system. At this level, the individual
could develop his own philosophy of life or life pattern.
Verbs that can be applied at this level are exhibit, manage,
resolve.
Psychomotor domain
This domain deals with the development of skills
(muscular and motor) for the manipulations of the body or

210
objects. The psychomotor domain is classified into four
hierarchical levels namely imitation, manipulation,
precision, articulation and naturalization.
At imitation level, the learner observes keenly a more
experience person perform skill and imitates. Some verbs
applied here include follow, repeat, etc. Manipulation
involves practicing or repeating the skill to be acquired.
Related action words include grasp, hold, balance, etc. When
a learner attains the level of precision, he becomes more
skilful with fewer errors and sometimes independent of
instruction. Words such as independent, proficient can be
used to state objectives. The level of articulation deals with
proper coordination and accuracy in demonstration of learnt
skills. Words such as demonstrate with confidence, speed or
stability can be used to state expected objectives.
Naturalization is a level of demonstration of expertise or
proficiency. Skills at this level are expected to be carried out
effortlessly.
Summary
Aims, goals and objectives are expressions of intents or
purposes education seeks to attain. One of the steps in
curriculum development is the selection of aims, goals and
objectives. Aims play essential roles in education. It
determines other processes like content, materials and
methods to be selected. Evaluation questions are regulated
by the nature of aims. Curriculum aims are derived from
careful examination of the needs and aspirations of the
society, the learners, the philosophy of education, subject
specialists. For proper selection of aims, it must meet certain
criteria, some of which include being achievable, meeting
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the needs of the learners and the society. In selecting aims,
goals or objectives certain terms peculiar to each is
necessary.
Revision questions
1. Explain the differences in application of aims, goals
and objectives in curriculum development.
2. Discuss three sources of educational objectives.
3. Justify with four reasons the need for selection of
aims.
4. Discuss three criteria for selection of aims
5. In stating behavioral objectives explain with two
examples each the three domains identified by Bloom
and his Associates.

REFERENCES
Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D.R. (2011).A taxonomy for
learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of
Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New
York: Longman.

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Bloom, S. B. , Krathwohl, D. R. & Masia, E. (1964).
Taxanomy of educational objectives. Handbook iii:
affective domain. New York: David Mckay co
Esu, A. E. O. Enukoha, O. I. & Umoren G. U.
(2014).Curriculum development in Nigeria for
colleges and universities.Calabar: Stiffaith Prints.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2012).National policy on
education. Lagos: NERDC
Ivowi U. M. O. (2009). The struggle for Nigerian
curriculum. In UMO Ivowi, K. Nwaufo, C.
Nwagbara, J. Ukwungwu, I. E. Emah & G Uya (Eds)
Curriculum theory and practice.Curriculum
organization of Nigeria.
Obiefuna, C. A. (2009). Models of curriculum development.
In UMO Ivowi, K. Nwaufo, C. Nwaagbara, J.
Ukwungwu, I. E. Emah & G. Uya (Eds) Curriculum
theory and practice.Curriculum organization of
Nigeria.
Olofu M. A. (2003).Introduction to the fundamentals of
curriculum development.Calabar: Ushie Printing &
Publishing.co
Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum
research and development. London: Heinemann.
Tanner, D. and Tanner, L. N. (1980).Curriculum
development theory into practice. New York:
Macmillan.

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Urevbu, O. A. (1985). Curriculum studies. Lagos: Longman
Wilson, L. O. (2014). Writing curriculum aims, goals and
objectives. Theseandprinciple.com/instructional-
design/writingcurriculum/.

Chapter 11
The Selection of Curriculum Content

By
214
 Obih, Solomon Onyinyechi .A
Introduction
The objectives of curriculum revolve within the wheel of
curriculum content and learning experiences. Suffice it to
say that curriculum objectives cannot be effectively
accomplished when the selected content is useless or
inappropriate. Therefore, to ensure that the objectives
selected are effectively accomplished, appropriate and useful
content must be selected in order to achieve the specified
educational objectives. One is poised to ask some pertinent
questions like, what is the curriculum content? Are there
some problems militating against effective content selection?
These questions form the bases for this chapter. Upon
reading this chapter, it is expected that the students should be
able to do the following:
1. Explain the meaning of curriculum content
2. Discuss the two basic questions that are crucial in
developing curriculum content.
3. Identify the basic guidelines/criteria for the selection
of content.
4. Analyze the problems facing content selection.
What is Curriculum Content: Curriculum content refers to
set of interrelated topics, themes, theories, subject matter,
skills, concepts, facts, principles, attitudes as well as values
to be acquired and which curriculum seeks to achieve in
learners. According to the Flinders University (2004)
(w.w.w. Flinders edu.au/topics desigh/selection.cfm).
Curriculum content is referred to the “knowledge, concepts,
ideas, interpretation, and application that could enable
215
learners to achieve the intended outcomes, the generic
process knowledge and skills, the students could acquire: the
balance of content, depth/breath, knowledge/skills and
process/values.
Curriculum content could also be referred to as all the
organized knowledge and subject matter, expected to bring
about desired changes in the behavior of the learners.
Examples of subjects include, English language,
Mathematics, Social studies, and Economics. Content in
economics includes principles of Economics, Economics
systems, population, Labour market and human capital
development while content in social studies includes man
and his environments, culture, Physical Environment and
Transportation, conflict resolution, peace education,
inclusive education, special needs education and so on etc.
Thus, every subject must have a subject matter. This subject-
matter is the assemblage of facts, ideas and values of society.
It is these values, facts, skills, information, concepts,
principles, generalization that is called content. Thus,
curriculum content is often organized into subjects, and it is
found in textbooks and other documents.
Obih (2008) opined that curriculum content is the
knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and materials that
provide the operations of which the learners engage in to
gain learning experiences. It also entails a vast store of
human knowledge which may be in form of subject matter.
Saylor and Alexander in Offoma (2002) defined curriculum
content
as those facts, observations,
data, perceptions, discernments,
216
 sensibilities, designs, and
solutions drawn from what the
mind of human has
comprehended from experiences
and those constructs of the mind,
that reorganizes and rearranges
those products of experiences
into love, ideas, concepts,
generalizations, principles, plan
and solution.
Selecting content, therefore, is a question of deciding what
knowledge, content, principles, generalization, theories,
techniques, and procedure in a particular subject shall be
used.
Types of Curriculum Content.
Curriculum content can be divided into three domains of
learning. These three domains can be represented with an
acronym CAP, Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor
domains of curriculum contents.
1. Cognitive Domain of curriculum Content: This
deals with the knowledge, ideas, facts, concepts and
principles the curriculum seek the learner to acquire
which is intended to bring about desired changes in
the behavior of the learners.
2. Affective Domain of Curriculum Content: refers to
values, attitudes sensibilities, values system and
ethics to which learners are exposed to in order to
gain learning experiences.

217
 3. Psychomotor Domain of Curriculum Content: This
deals with the skills and motor processes to which
learners are exposed to for meaningful learning.

Fig 1
It is also important to note that curriculum content is closely
linked or related to the three behavior domains, which must
be acquired by the learner so as to be an all-round educated
person. The three behaviours must be incorporated into the
curriculum content for a functional/relevant or meaningful
education.
Basic Questions
In the development of such functional or meaningful
curriculum contents, two basic questions are crucial. These
questions are (1) what will the learners be taught? (2) How
218
will what the learners are taught be organized? The ability of
the planners to give answers to these two basic/fundamental
questions calls for a guiding principle or criteria.
In addressing these questions, the curriculum content
planners should think of what to teach or what learners
should learn. One way to achieve this is to make a survey of
the subjects or courses of study to be undertaken based on
the view of the objective set by the relevant education
stakeholders. The curriculum content planners will from the
array of knowledge domain available, choose the knowledge,
values and skills needed by learners in order to attain the set
objectives. The curriculum content planners/developers
should be guided by giving heed to the following basic
questions with a mind of given answers to them.
 Is the content important in contributing to the
attainment of cognitive, affective and psychomotor
objectives as applicable?
 Is it accurate, authentic and relevant to the intended
learning outcomes?
 Is the content important in improving an adequate
understanding and mastery of the subject of study?
 Is the content relevant to prevailing
circumstances/conditions/situations in the society?
 Is the content useful for students in solving their
problems in real life situation?
 Is the content of special interest to the learners?
 Is the content appropriate to learners’ level of
attainment?
 Is the content within their capabilities and abilities?

219
To address these crucial questions posed, the curriculum
developers have already identified basic key criteria that will
guide the selection of curriculum content.
Criteria/Principles/Guidelines for the Selection of
Curriculum Content
Change is inevitable and as such, appropriate selection of
curriculum content is imperative so as to withstand the new
research findings, facts, ideas, skills and attitudes which
make education to be functional. There is need, therefore, for
a careful selection of curriculum content. Obih (2008)
presents VALUS as an acronym that represents the five
basic criteria/principles/guidelines for selecting worthwhile
curriculum content.
V = Validity
A = Appropriateness to the needs of the learner
L = Learner-ability
U = Usefulness/utility
S = Significance to life

1. Validity- The criterion of content validity has two

connotations. The first content validity refers to
content being authentic and true i.e. selecting up to
date curriculum content that is not obsolete.
Curriculum content is said to be valid, when all facts,
information, values, theories, principles, skills,
subject matter/area selected is in line with social

220
 changes and current research findings in their
respective subject areas. Curriculum planners should
ensure that current textbooks, topics, facts, theories,
principles, skills are recommended.
Another aspect of content validity is concerned with
the extent to which the selected facts, skills, concepts,
theories, knowledge, ideas, topics, subject matter/area
and themes will lead to the achievement of the
educational objectives or intending learning outcome
(that is meeting the aims and objective as specified in
the first step/phase in the curriculum planning
process model. This valid content or subject must be
closely related to the stated objectives and should be
able to change/modify learner’s behavior.

2. Appropriateness to the Needs of the Learner -

Appropriateness of curriculum content can only be
achieved by making sure that the curriculum content
satisfies the three basic needs of the learner. The
formular for the three basic needs of the learner is
called “PES”.

P – Physical needs like shelter, food and sex and so

on.
E – Ego and integrative needs include; the funding of
oneself and having sense of direction.
S – Social needs like affection, belongingness, status
and respect.
So any content that satisfies all these basic needs
(PES)of the learner is deemed appropriate.

221
3. Learnerability – Obih (2008) averred that content is
learnable, when the materials selected are arranged
from simple to complex, known to unknown, from
concrete to abstract i.e. when the selected content is
made appropriate to the learners’ level of
understanding and/or abilities. Also efforts should be
made to consider the learners’ age (both mental and
chronological) learners’ abilities (which could vary),
educational status/level, individual differences and so
on. it is expedient also to relate the new content to
what the learners already know (i.e. content selected
must be anchored on learners’ schema). Learners’
ability can be ascertained/determined by making
references to learners’ entry behaviour so as to
determine what the learners already know. Content
selected should be made appropriate to the
developmental level of the learners for whom it is
meant. Simply put, that what is to be learnt in terms
of ideas, principles, facts, values and concepts should
be connected with what has already been learnt.
Content selected or to be learnt should not be too
complex for learners to understand. The content
selected should be made available in forms that are
appropriate to the learners and in varied forms taking
cognizance of diverse ways in which learners can
learn.
4. Usefulness/Utility – Curriculum content selected
should contain those desirable activities that are most
widely and frequently used in daily life. When
thecontent of a curriculum helps the learner to
participate meaningfully and actively in political,
economical and sociallife and fulfillment of other
222
expectations of the learner, it is deemed useful.
Content selected should be made useful to learners’
so that after studying through the content, learners’
should be able to use it in the performance of their
daily tasks confronting them, whether in the school or
out of school. The content selected should enable
learners’ to perform activities, either personal or
societal. Bobbitt in Aguokogbuo (2000:66) lists those
life activities expected of the learner to participate to
include:

- Language activities such as social

intercommunication.
- Health activities which involve keeping oneself
mentally and physically fit.
- Citizenship activities.
- General social activities which involve meeting
and mingling with others.
- Spare time activities such as recreational
activities.
- Religious activities.
- Parental activities such as the upbringing of
children as well as the maintenance of a proper
home life.
- Unspecialized or non-vocational practical
activities.
These activities determine the usefulness of
the content or subject matter as it is needed in
developing learners’ abilities to perform them.
Therefore, curriculum content can be useful only
when it prepares and equips learners with
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 appropriate skills, knowledge and competencies to
perform life “activities like” citizenship, health
and language activities so as to tackle life
problems. For example, with the current emphasis
on entrepreneurship, peace education, science and
technology in Nigeria and the existence of 9, 3, 4
system of education which provides learning
opportunities in both academic, skill/vocational
and pre-vocational, content selected should be
geared towards satisfying these current
educational objectives.

5. Significance to Life – simply put, that significance of

content refers to meaningfulness of the aspects of
school subjects and the scope of coverage of the
content, that is to say that content selected must
contribute to the depth of understanding of the basic
concepts, principles and theories so as to avoid
irrelevances or facts that are not important. This
criterion demands that the content of curriculum must
be arranged so as to achieve mastery by the learner. It
also demands that the curriculum content must reflect
the social and cultural realities of the times. It is
worthy to note that is geared towards a vocation or
any opportunity leading to a gainful occupation in the
21st century where entrepreneurship is emphasized is
deemed significant. The content is significant to the
extent that it can lead to the mastery of the field to
which it belongs. Also, it has to contribute to the
understanding of the necessary knowledge, principles,
skills, values, concepts and ideas in the field of
knowledge. Thus, facts in the field of study become
224
 important to the extent that it helps in the
understanding of these concepts. Therefore, teachers
should concern themselves more with the
development of ideas, concepts and principles
involved in the field for the students to be able to
apply them in new situations or for transfer of
learning. Aguokogbuo (2000).
Problems of Content Selection
A lot of things needs to be selected and infused in the
curriculum content, in spite of the fact that the content
selected is already overloaded with facts, ideas, principles
and theories, people are still clamoring for more topics
which constitute a problem to curriculum content selection,
these problems include:
1. Culture
2. Changing National Needs
3. Knowledge Explosion
4. New/Emerging challenges

1. Culture- culture is the totality of the ways of life of the

people which provides the basic ingredients which
constitutes the school knowledge. It is asserted that culture is
the nucleus of curriculum in any society. Therefore, in the
selection of content, some cultural elements are drawn such
as the society’s values, norms, religion, beliefs, taboos,
tradition, language, music, custom, occupation, skills, arts,
aesthetics, and other social attributes. To this extent, there is
nothing that the school teachers taught, that does not have a
base in the culture of that society. What is perhaps different
is the level of refinement and sophistication. So while
225
 appreciating the role of culture in curriculum and content
selection as the source of school knowledge, it is important
to recognize the fact that these cultural elements are not the
same in all cultures neither are they static with a culture.
Cultural differences among societies may account for some
observed differences in educational policies and practices in
these systems which constitute a challenge to curriculum
content developers/planners.
Since the curriculum cannot exist outside the socio-
cultural environment, the selection of content is, thus
constrained. To surmount this problem, the curriculum
content developers should be fully guided by knowledge of
the culture of the society for which the selected content is
intended. Care should be taken to isolate the priorities of the
society in terms of values, norms, ideologies and the like
which need to be selected as part of the school knowledge.
While this is done, it should be noted that changes do occur
in these cultural variables; once, they occur, the need may
arise to assess such changes and the urgency to reflect them
in curriculum content selection constitutes a problem.

2. Changing National Needs – Nations of the world are beset

by a lot of problems some of which are peculiar to them. For
example, the problems of national unity, national integration
and tolerance have become almost insurmountable in Nigeria
and some other African nations considering the spate of
religious crisis/bigotry, communal clashes, ethnic clashes,
insurgency and the like. Yet other problems emerge as a
result of the relationships which a country has with other
countries of the world. For instance, the need to develop
international and racial understanding and tolerance among
nations in times of regional crisis and hostilities. Often, one
226
finds one’s country or the other providing protection, succor
and rehabilitation for refugees fleeing from war-torn regions
of the continent. The need to develop the spirit of
understanding and compassion in the youths of a country
providing refuge for the displaced people becomes
necessary. To a large extent, building such understanding,
attitudes and values into relevant aspects of the school
curriculum content such as the social studies content,
English language and civic education, thus, becomes an
effective means of solving such content resolution problems.
This, indeed, constitutes a problem of content selection.
Similarly, a country that is engaged in a prolonged
war or under constant threat is likely to develop in the youth
and citizens through the schooling process the need for
resistant nationalism. Aspects of the school curriculum
content will be expected to focus on the students’ sense of
national identity and solidarity as a way of building in them
the needed emotional and psychological stability and
preparedness for defending the course of their nation. Again,
as soon as the circumstances which necessitate these
curricular approaches are no more, the need may arise that
such curriculum content be reviewed to reflect other
emerging needs of the society.

3. Knowledge Explosion – Knowledge is never static

but very dynamic to the extent that a domain of knowledge
in every field keeps expanding. This is the case when there
are breakthroughs in researches resulting in new concepts,
principles and theories as well as entirely new modes or
ways of solving problems. As we know, the world has been
turned into a global village and there are so many things
happening today which need to be highlighted in the school
227
curriculum and content selection. For instance, computer
science and technology content have today become the hub
around which all fields of knowledge revolve. This has had
the implication of having its study included in the school
curriculum. It is not surprising to find the teaching and
learning of computer studies in schools, particularly primary
and secondary schools in Nigeria believing that no one is
actually considered as literate today if he or she does not
have a rudimentary knowledge of the computer. Thus, the
school curriculum content selected, be it at the stage of
development, review or change, will continue to be
influenced by developments in the fields of knowledge.

4. New /Emerging Challenges – Education is a tool for

solving personal and societal problems which are diverse
and complex. These problems take the form of resolution of
conflicts or crisis in prioritizing values and allocation of
scarce resources. It is noteworthy to know that these
problems are numerous and complex. The relevance of
education is better judged in relation to its potency as
equipment for the solution of problems. As it was noted a
while ago, humanity is living in a jet age, so to say. In other
words, many things appear to be moving at a very fast pace
to the extent that man has no choice than to be in a hurry too
in order to cope with changing times. If he/she must cope
with or adapt to new situations, he/she has to be equipped
with the appropriate knowledge, values, skills, and attitudes
which are consistent with the changing socio-economic and
technological milieu. Admittedly, these evolving conditions
impose new challenges for man and the society as well as the
curriculum theories. For instance, ecological problems in the
form of indiscriminate waste disposal, erosion, water and air
228
pollution, deforestation, oil spillages, climate change and the
like are new challenges for Nigeria. As a result, the school
curriculum content is being made to address these problems
by providing students’ with relevant knowledge,
understanding, values and skills for coping with such
problems. It is, perhaps, in realization of the need to make
curriculum reflect the new changes/challenges of the society
that the Nigerian Educational Research and Development
Council embarked on the review of curricula for the nation’s
primary and secondary schools and developed a new
curriculum in 2008 which of course is due for another
review.
Summary
This chapter dwelt exhaustively on curriculum content, viz:
Meaning, types, criteria etc. curriculum content refers to
skills, facts, ideas, principles, theories, knowledge, themes,
subject matter/area curriculum seek to achieve in learners.
Three types of curriculum content are identified namely
Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor contents. The
guidelines for the selection of the content were also x-rayed
to include VALUS. Although the already discussed criteria
are interrelated and should not be applied in isolation nor
carried to extreme because in some circumstances, some
criteria may carry more weight than others but still all
criteria/guideline need to be satisfied before curriculum
content is selected.
Revision Questions
1. Explain fully what you understand by curriculum
content.

229
2. Distinguish between cognitive, affective and
psychomotor content.
3. Discuss five criteria that will guide your choice of
content selection for a group of students.
4. List three basic factors that militate against effective
content selection
5. Proffer solution to the problems of Culture, Changing
National Needs, Knowledge Explosion and
New/Emerging challenges facing curriculum content.

References
Obih, S.O.A (2008).The 21st Century Curriculum Test (An
Introductory Approach) Owerri, Divine Mercy
Publishers.

230
Obih, S.O.A(2009).The 21st Century Curriculum
Implementation (What Principles? What
Methods?)
Offorma, G,C. (2002) (Revised) Curriculum Theory and
Planning . Enugu; Gouze press.
Aguokogbuo, C.N. (2000). Curriculum Development and
Implementation for Africa Enugu, Mike Social
Press.
Flinders University (2004) (w.w.w. Flinders
edu.au/topicsdesigh/selection.cfm).

Chapter 12

Selection of Learning Experience

231
 By
Mariam A. Zakari, Ph.D
Introduction
Intellectuals are considered mere theorist by the society
especially those in the Universities and Colleges of
Education. One can imagine those in the leadership positions
in Nigeria, have all went through the hands they are mocking
as reservoir of knowledge Moronkola, Akinsola and Abe
(2004) asserted that theory is the end of the most practical of
all things.
Theory can be said to be an established knowledge that
is real and factual. Theory can practically be valuable but not
hear say or fact-less statement. Theory cannot be something
one uses the common sense but must be proved beyond
speculations. Beauchamp (1975) believed that we can get
from three specific broad groups of knowledge, which are
humanities, natural and the social sciences.
Moronkola, Akinsola and Abe in Beauchamp (1975)
postulated that it was not these disciplines and theories that
applied area of knowledge and their own theories evolved.
This argument is not resolved. Scientific theory has more
advantages over any other theory because of its influence in
tangible societal development effort.
A scientific theory is developed from tested facts
through observations manipulations and analysis, and
capable of being about the formation and development.
Theories in education are got from the humanities,
philosophy, natural sciences, sociology, political science,
economics and psychology. If one looks at the influences of
232
these basic disciplines to education as a field of study, the
assertions that educational theories are attestable, vague,
unaccountable, and less rigorous when compared to
scientific theories. Educational theories are of the view that
in any given situation there must be means to an end. These
could be achieved through adequate recommendations and
facts in order to attain a worthwhile goal through the use of
available and affordable resources. The recommendations
and facts should not be looked at as scientific but may
therefore, be criticized or rejected.
Curriculum theory is used by curriculum planners or
engineers to construct and implement curriculum in the
schools. Theory performs the functions of description,
predictions and explanation. That entails moral undertaking.
Generally it is a set of logically inter related definitions,
concepts, proposition, prediction and other constructive
views that represent a systematic idea of curriculum
phenomena. In fact, curriculum planning becomes difficult;
trial and error becomes the order of the day when
educational theories do not serve as a guide.
Experts in curriculum development believed that there are
four elements or major steps in the process of curriculum
development which includes:
1. Situational Analysis
2. Selection of appropriate learning experience
3. Selection of aims, goals and objectives.
4. Evaluation of the extent to which the objectives
selected has been achieved.
233
 This chapter is deemed to discuss the selection of
learning experiences as a stage in curriculum development.
The variables or things in the curriculum content need to be
built well. In the era of knowledge explosion, content areas
that are relevant to the cultural and socio-economic need of
the society must be taken into consideration in building
curriculum. The objectives selected or stated are always the
determinants of what should be presented to the learner as
well as the psychological make-up of the learner. The nature
of the society and the necessary teaching materials are of
outmost importance e.t.c (Moronkola, Akinsola & Abe
2004)
Onwuka (1984) opined that it is the definition of
objectives that makes clearer the area of curriculum design
which enables both educational planners and researchers to
bring their practical knowledge to bear on the matter.
Moronkola, Akinsola & Abe (2004) corroborated that it is
necessary to look at the curriculum as a sequence of content
units that may be accomplished as single act, provided the
capabilities described the specified learner.
A curriculum may be of any length that may contain any
number of units. A curriculum is specified, when the
terminal objectives are stated. The sequences of the
prerequisites are described and the initial capabilities
assumed to be possessed by the learners are identified.
“Learning experience in a curriculum is the aspect of the
package which deals with the body of knowledge that will be
absorbed by the learner”. (World Confederation of
Organization of Teaching Profession 1987). Curriculum

234
content (Learning experience) can be viewed in different
perspective as:
A Concept: a particular principle to be learnt, for example
the concept of heat,
Wind direction number, heart rate e.t.c
A Topic: a body of knowledge made up of a related
concepts and the link
between them. For example how rain is formed,
how an internal
Combustion engine work e.t.c
A Survival Kit: a body of knowledge drawing on the
orthodox disciplines but designed to take specific problem.
For example Family life education, Population education,
drug education, road traffic education, peace education and
conflict resolution.
A Discipline: a traditional distinct area of scientific enquiry.
For example
History, Mathematics, Home Economics,
Basic Science e.t.c
A Set of Skills: activities to be carried out using a set of
scientific principles.
For, example Swimming, Typewriting,
Cookery e.t.c

235
 The curriculum content must maintain an appropriate
balance between depth of the learning experience i.e
(sequence) and should create a wide range of objectives
which lead to scope of the learning experiences. Scope
delimits the learning experience to be taught and also
involves the extent and the breath of the subject matter to be
taught at a given class, age groups (maturation) e.t.c. These
involve needs of the society, interest and concern of the
learner.
Learning experience should be continuous: here means
repetition of concepts and generalization of principles as
they are continuously revised throughout the curriculum.
This simply means that a given concept permeates the
learning of students as they move higher to next class, but
what is important is that each higher level must have
something new to be learnt. The composition of a specific
curriculum must have order as well as progress with
increasing complexity or depth. This plan makes provision
for vertical organization.
Learning experiences must be sequential: sequence is more
than ordering the subject matter to be taught and also beyond
continuity to which is very closely related. The later centers
on repetitions of the concepts while the former pays attention
to higher level or complexity. At each level (class) concepts
and behaviors sought are considered in greater depth and
breadth.
There must be integration between subject matter:
Integration is the relationships which exist between concepts
or subject matters. This also represents a subject in a unified
view as against segmented ones. For example, it relates
236
learning in nutrition to learning in disease prevention and
learning in health education to learning in related subject
fields such as Science, Physical Education, Social Studies,
Home Economic and even Mathematics.
Lassa (1984) advised that selection of learning experience
(content) must only be limited by essential criteria which are
utility, validity, interest and scope. The learning experience
selection must be useful to the learner both in and out of the
subject area. Utility has generally been viewed as the
usefulness of the concept and skills in solving real world
problems by psychologists.
Nevertheless, one must ensure that the content is
organized with sequenced behavioral outcomes specified for
each element of the content. Translation of learning
experience into behavioral objectives is very important as it
gives direction to the development of measuring instrument
that is needed to evaluate students’ progress.
Criteria for Selecting Learning Experiences.
The curriculum expert is always bothered with the
problem of selecting from the wide range of experiences on
which is to be included in the curriculum content and which
is to be excluded. The problem is greatly reduced if the
selection is done based on a number of criteria, which
include:
1 Validity of the learning experience: These
determine the appropriateness of the learning
experiences to the attainment of the selected (stated)
objectives.

237
2 Relevance of the learning experiences (content):
How relevant is the selected learning experience
(content) to the real life situation of the learner? The
experiences should be functional such that the
learner could apply it to solve problems.
3 Variety of the learning experiences: Researchers has
showed that learning takes place only in different
ways and at different rates. These differences
indicated the need for variety in learning situations.
This means that individual differences have to be
taken in to consideration in curriculum
development.
4 Suitability of the learning experience: Suitability is
the appropriateness of the learning experience to the
current status of the learner. This means that
learning experiences should take into consideration
the background of the learner, in which new
experiences should build upon the previous ones.
5 The learning experiences should be cumulative:
This criterion refers to progressive learning,
curriculum experiences that are different in content
at different level and year of schooling. They are,
nevertheless, directed towards the same end, the
reason for cumulation is to provide for
progressively more demanding and complex
performance. The experiences are selected and
organized in such a way that what is learnt at one
point is used to develop a foundation for the
experiences that will later follow the former.

238
6 Learning experiences must be in multiple learning:
The learner as an organizer reacts and responds in
diverse ways. Many learning occur simultaneously.
Thus one learning experience usually brings about
several outcomes, some of which are not only being
selected in terms of their appropriateness to the
attainment of the desired objectives but also on what
other learning’s are likely to produce. As such,
experiences that are likely to produce more negative
outcomes, than positive ones in learning, should be
excluded from the curriculum.
Summary
Learning experiences means the interaction that occur
between a learner and his external environment, these
interactions could be mental, social, emotional or physical.
When such interactions occur learning usually takes place
as behavior is changed, the curriculum experts is interested
in only those interactions that could change behavior of the
learner in desirable ways.
The learner interacts with his environment in diverse
ways; the selection of the experience is better done if the
principles of learning are put into consideration. This
indicates that learning is an active process which the
learner must be involved and immediate reinforcement that
promotes learning. Other principles of learning are
influenced by individual goals, values and motive.
Individual differences also affect learning such difference
could be biological and socio- cultural, so they should be
considered in selecting learning experiences.

239
 Learning experience must be related to stated
objectives of the curriculum. It should reflect on the
knowledge of the past, and must deal essentially with the
curriculum knowledge and discipline. It must also
stimulate thinking in teachable forms for utilization and
advancement of the learner and his society.
Most experts believed that there are four major stages
in curriculum development process which included
selection of objectives, selection of learning experiences,
organization of the learning experiences and evaluation of
learning experiences. It is worth noting that selection of
learning experiences is the thing in the curriculum to be
built upon.
Learning experience should be continuous, sequential
and integrated. In selecting learning experiences, level,
age, and interest of the learner must be considered.
Revision Questions
1. Theories of education are got from the humanities.
Discuss
2. Explain in detail the elements of the curriculum
development.
3. What must the curriculum experts consider in selecting
learning experiences?
4. Curriculum content can be viewed in different
perspectives. Elucidate briefly.

240
 5. Curriculum development experts need to consider some
criteria in order to develop a better and acceptable
curriculum. Identify these criteria for selecting learning
experiences.

References
Beauchamp, G. A. (1975). Curriculum theory and ed Illinois.
Kagg press.
James, N.A (2006). Curriculum development Lagos, T.
Richard Nig. LTD
Lassa P.N (1984). Components of curriculum design and
Instruction system,
Nigerian Journal of curriculum studies (2) 151-159
Morokola O. A, Akinsola, M. K. & Abe, C.V (2004) The
nature of curriculum,
Ibadan: University press Nig. L.T.D
Onwuka, U. (1981) Curriculum development for Africa:
Onitsha. Africana Feb
Publishers.

Chapter 13

241
 Curriculum Organization of Content and
Learning Experiences
By
Mang, Obasi Onwuka
Introduction
In life a time comes when one has to put oneself in
proper perspective. This deals with organizing properly. So
it is in the education sector, especially when it has to do with
how education should be carried out to achieve what it is
expected to achieve. The societies, generally, have a dossier
of needs and aspirations. These needs and aspirations need to
be arranged in such a way that they lead to efficiency of
instruction necessary and for achieving behavioural changes
implied in the general and stated objectives. The procedure
by which identified needs are arranges to form a coherent
body of knowledge are known as organization.
Organization
By the word organization we simply mean
assembling, putting together issues, ideals and opinions that
are related but are scattered. Organization is simply a
process of putting together or arranging a structure to make
it easy understand.

What is meant by curriculum organization?

Curriculum deals with all the planned learning
experience that is organized and carried out un der the
242
supervision of the school. All these experiences are
thoughtful changes, which the learners are expected to be
exposed to in a school setting. The arrangement of these
learning experiences and contents involve a process known
as curriculum organization.
According (Onyeremerekeya, 2006) in order for educational
experiences to produce a cumulative effect, they must be so
organized as to reinforce each other. This involves careful
consideration different types of relationships between
learning experiences and/or contents. The kinds of
relationship referred to here are the vertical and the
horizontal relationship or organizations. These types of
relationship conceived, will be discussed later. Every
selection and arrangement of materials or learning
experiences is made so that one experience strengthens
previous task. Organization, according to (Ughamadu, 2006)
allows a more natural relationship of ideas, facts and
concepts drawn from different areas of knowledge.
Curriculum organization of learning experiences and content
means the process of selecting curriculum elements from the
subject, the current social life and the students’ experience,
then designing the selected curriculum elements
appropriately so that they can form the curriculum structure
and type (Olivier, 2011). In a narrow and more technical
sense, curriculum organization is the process of transforming
content into students’ learning experiences intentionally, and
making learning experiences sequential, integral, successive
after curriculum ideology has been determined, curriculum
content been selected.
Learning experience has wonderful and awfully
insightful influence on the learners and so must be taken
243
serious at the organizational stage. This is because changes
in behaviour of judgment and elemental practices build up
gradually (Mkpa and izuagba 2012; Onyemerekeya, 2006).
This is the more reason why organizing the learning
experience and contents, and all that is involved seem an
odious endeavour. In organizing the learning experiences
and content, for example, attitudes, interests and concepts,
skills and a lot more, are all involved.
Criteria or Curriculum Organization
Having known that curriculum organization deals
with proper arrangement of the learning experiences and
content for easy harnessing, it is important to recall that
curriculum organization is a process of selecting curriculum
elements from the subjects, current social lie and student
experiences, then design the selected curriculum elements
appropriately so that they can form the curriculum structure
and type (Olivier, 2011). In order to do this perfectly there
are criteria which if applied with vigor and vigor will ensure
effective organization of the curriculum elements.
For an effective curriculum organization to be assured
the following criteria must be strictly adhered to, at all leves.
a. Continuity
b. Sequence
c. Integration
d. Scope
Continuity
Continuity here means flowing together. That is
unbroken and consistent existence or operation of ideas,
244
opinions or something over a time. Continuity as criteria for
effective organization of curriculum deals with the
maintenance of continuous action and self consistent detail
in the various levels of selecting the learning experience and
content so that they strengthens the other (Joshuat, 2011). At
each level of the organization, it is necessary to ensure that
skills, knowledge, ideas and other activities which students
are to acquire occur in an uninterrupted manner but on
steady and on given basis. Mkpa and Izuagba (2003) refer to
continuity as the reiteration of concepts across several grades
at different levels of difficulty and complexity. This simple
means repeating certain concepts of different levels of
classes with differing difficulty. For example, if one looks at
the mathematics curriculum in Nigerian schools, algebra is
taught at all levels of the secondary education with varying
levels of difficulty. In the real sense of it continuity
recognized teaching and learning and/or acquisition of
knowledge and skills in a continuous process as it provides
for the continual reinforcement major curriculum
experiences, which are acquired through practice in reading,
calculating and so on.
Sequences
This is another important criteria for an effective
curriculum organization. Sequence, means the order in
which all the learning experiences and content are to be
presented to learners. It is concerned with building each
learning experiences or curriculum activities on one another
in such a manner that assures coverage within a domain of a
given subject (Mkpa, and Izuagba 2012). It is important to
note that the inherent nature of school subject matter

245
determines how the sequence of the learning experiences
should follow.
The process of determining what should be taught
first and what follows next is known as sequence. This
means that, if concerns with structuring of knowledge, skills,
and other activities so that one reinforces the previous ones.
There are certain procedures that must be adopted when
sequencing. Tyler (1949) suggested that sequence does not
emphasize duplication but rather higher level of treatment
with each sucessive experince. Using the example of
algebra, the level of development of algebra in mathematics,
involves the provision of increasingly more complex
algebraic operations both in breadth and depth so that the
knowledge and skills of operation increases as the steps of
the ladder goes up (Farrant, 2002). The major need of
sequence is to ensure there is a synergy of one experience in
a given level of education and the preceding ones.
Principles of sequencing
For the criteria of sequences to be effectively carried
out, certain rules are adopted. Curriculum elements and
materials in each subject or domain of knowledge is always
organized from the stand point of psychological and logical
considerations. These rules, here, called principles are given
necessary attention. They include
a. Principle of simple to complex: This allows learning
experience to be arranged in such a way that the easy
ones are exposed to the learners before presenting
them with more difficult ones. This helps learners to
understand the new concept since the simple ones
246
 forms the base and foundation for understanding the
future complex concepts or ideas (Onyemerekeya
2006). In mathematics for example learners are taught
the four basic arithmetic operations before they are
presented with the other advance mathematical
operations.
b. Principle of prerequisite and basic learning: These
principles of prerequisite and basic learning demand
that what is presented to the learners must be the
preliminary knowledge to the learners. That is,
knowledge that could form the bases for further
learning. The prerequisite or basic learning must be
useful to the learners in terms of their new learning. A
learner for example, may find it difficult to
understand and apply principle of BODMAS, if
he/she has not been presented with the basic
knowledge of the basic principles or mathematics
which has to do with the operations of additions (+),
subtraction (-), of, bracket ( ), division (-:),
multiplication (x). by implication, it is important to
note that when organizing the curriculum, ensure that
all basic learning comes first in the line of learning.
c. Principle of part to whole: In this principle,
organizing the curriculum starts from the different
and minute aspects of the curriculum elements and
thus bringing them from a whole idea. For example,
the idea of triangles, angles, plain figures etc are
brought together to form a whole idea called
geometry. This is also applicable to other subjects

247
 studied in Nigerian school system Mkpa and izuagba,
2012; Onyemerekeya, 2006).
d. The principle of demonological order of events: In
this principle, items, events or ideas are arranged in
the order in which they occur. According to Mkpa,
and Izuagba (2012) chronological organization,
allows content and learning experience to be
organized based on their sequence of occurrence i.e
from present to past. Chronological order applies to a
process in the same way, because when one describes
or explains how something happens or works, one
simple follows the order in which the events occur.
This principle is perfectly adopted when organizing
learning experiences and content is such subjects as
history, religion and some specific contents in other
subjects like science, social science, arts and general
education (Bilboo, Lucido, Iringam and Javier (2008).
When organizing curriculum elements, there is need
to present the historical framework of the learning
experiences, which will make for perfect
understanding.
e. Principle of concrete experience to concept:
Abstract ideas are difficult to understand or
comprehend expect there is a foundation which must
proceed from concrete experience to the abstract
concept. Here in presentation, start with concrete
things, and then move to abstract concepts since the
former is expected to form a basis.
Integration

248
 Integration simple means making connections. Life is
full of connections of skill based or knowledge based. This
concerns with the fusion of learning experience is such a
way that interrelationship is maintained. Simply put
integration as criteria in organizing the curriculum is a
perfect unification of related contents and learning
experiences. The criteria of integration are based on the
horizontal type of curriculum organization. Ensuring that
learning in one subject is practically applicable in other
subjects, so that students will have unified view of the
knowledge (Onyemerekeya 2010). It is this integration that
grantees the relationship between mathematics and physics,
biology and agricultural science etc.
Approaches to integration
There are three approaches that are applied during
integration. These considerations, here called approaches
are:
1. Multidisciplinary approach
2. Intermediate or interdisciplinary approach
3. Transdisciplinary approach
Multidisciplinary approach: This primarily focuses on
disciplines., this simple makes connections between a
subject-matter in one discipline and other disciplines. The
approach shows the relationship between themes or topic
with two or more disciplines. The diagram shows the
multidisciplinary approach of integrating of theme with other

249
disciplines.

The diagram gives outline of the different approaches

to the multidisciplinary perspective.
Interdisciplinary approach: This approach is concerned
with organizing curriculum around some common learning
across certain disciplines. Interdisciplinary emphasizes that
some common learning be embedded in disciplines to ensure
interdisciplinary relationship of skills and concept in some
identifiable disciplines or subjects. Here the interdisciplinary
nature assures less importance, unlike in the
multidisciplinary approach. But the purpose is to ensure that
the basic idea of the concept or skills cuts across one or two
or disciplines (Olivier, 2011).
The figure illustrates the application

250
Simply put any learning, skills and concepts beyond the
immediate lesson explains that interdisciplinary approach s
applied. For instance, students can learn geography while
they are studying English language. Students can learn the
skill numeracy while learning something in the subjects in
the partial open Venn diagram.
Transdisciplinary approach: In this approach curriculum
is organized based on the questions students raised or on
their interest. This is project based learning, since the
students develop life skills as they work on or apply the
interrelated learning experience. This integration ensures that
what students know helps to generate new questions and
ideas that could be explored. It concerns with allowing
students ideas to form a basis for consideration.

251
 Subject area
Theme
Concept
Life skills
Field world content
Student questions

Actually this approach focuses on a common concept or

process thereby focusing on authentic learning, new
perspective, and current issues within the context of multiple
disciplines as it involves more than one subject area.
According to Basards Nicoles and (2012) there are four
pillars to this approach. These pillars are:
a. Learning to know: This is concerned with students
capability of making connection adopting to changes
and knowing how to learn.
b. Learning to do: This integration deals with the idea
of project based learning or performance task that can
help students demonstrate the ability to apply what
they know in creative manner.
c. Learning to live together: As the world has become
a global village, the curriculum needs to be integrated
in such a way that it makes room for collaboration on
a local and global level.
d. Learning to be: The learning experience should be
integrated in such a manner that makes way for
learners life long journey of self discovery and

252
 determination that forms part of the process of
learning.
A consideration of all these pillars during integration at
all these stages of the transdisciplinary helps to ensure and
assure effective integration of the learning experience.
Scope: Scope simply means coverage of content and
learning experiences based on what is found in the
curriculum of a given subject. It answers the question of how
much content or learning experience is covered at a given
class level and time, in order to assure that a meaning
learning has taken place. Mkpa and Izuagba (2012)
emphasized that scope is concerned the range of important
ideas, concepts and principles to be learnt or the level of
mental and other competences to be cultivated by the learner
who is exposed to the learning experience and content. By
implication scope deals with amount of material the learners
are to be exposed to it certain level of schooling
(Onyemerekeya, 2006; Ughamadu, 2006).
Specifically, scope can mean breadth and depth of the
learning experiences that constitute the skills and concepts
that need to be exposed to the learners. As can be observed
the amount of material covered by pupils in the kindergarten
level is much smaller than the same content and learning
experiences exposed to pupils to say primary level.
Levels of Curriculum Organization
It is important to know that as life is in stages or
levels so is curriculum organization. The levels of organizing
the curriculum differ from country to country. In some

253
developed countries like United States of America,
Australia, Britain, the power to organize the curriculum is
rested in local authorities or individual states and Zimbabwe
it is nationally organized (Joshuat, 2011). The manner in
which the curriculum is organized depends on the national
goals of a country.
In Nigeria, there are levels of curriculum
organization. These are:
1. The national or highest level
2. The intermediate level
3. The lowest level
The highest level: This level is where knowledge is
organized and grouped in subjects or discipline. What
knowledge, content or learning experience should belong to
a given subject or area of study is determined at this level. It
is at level that a decision is taken on what pattern its
curriculum organization will to tow its line.
This is in effect the national level of curriculum organization
as decisions taken here are for the national interest in
general. At this national level experts decide either to
organize the curriculum on the pattern of either subject or
discipline centered; activity or experience or learn or
centered, braodfield control or the core curriculum centered.
The experts and authority or commission entrusted with this
responsibility may decide for a combination of two or more
of the above mentioned patterns (Onyeremerekeya 2006).
These patterns will be discussed in detail in the subsequent
chapter. Looking at the curriculum pattern or organization in
Nigeria, one can see a combination of nearly all the patterns.
254
These are in the core subjects, especially in the basic
education level, where the broadfield pattern, etc, manifest
most.
In Nigeria, the body responsible for deciding the
organizational pattern and how it will be classified is the
Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council
(NERDC).
Some characteristics of the highest/national level of
curriculum organization
- National syllabuses are produced with national goals
and general learning objectives.
- Subjects to be offered by schools are determined and
schools choose their subjects from a list.
- All learners taking the same subject write the same
examination for certificate as in WASSCE or NECO.
- Certificate indicates what has been learned by
students and how well he/she has performed.
- Possible textbooks to be used are approved by
ministry of education or its agents.
- It takes a long time to write and the review is for a
period of five or more years (Joshuat, Gatawa; 2011).
Intermediate level:
After the content and subject matter had been groped
into subjects, and the pattern of the organization decided, the
next is to decide on how the learning experience can be put
together so that any possible gap in learning could be closed.
The intermediate level is where the decision on how to
structure the content and learning experiences so that
255
students can learn effectively is taken care of
(Onyemerekeya 2006). The task of experts at the second
level is on how to arrange these subject-matter and learning
experiences so as ensure and assure that all the criteria for
effective organization of the curriculum are taken into
consideration, i.e. the criteria of continuity, sequencing and
integration. This task is carried out by experts and subject
specialists pulled together by NERDC.
The lowest level:
This could be seen as school level. It deals with
teachers’ primary duty of teaching in terms of content,
methodology and materials in use. This level is where the
school puts every effort to interpret the curriculum,
implement the curriculum and evaluate the curriculum as is
found in each subject. Every effort(s) of teachers to go
through the curriculum content, think of what and how best
to present the learning experiences to the learners for
effective and active learning to take place falls under the
lowest level of curriculum organization.
Types of Curriculum Organization
There are main types of curriculum organization:
These are
a. Vertical organization
b. Horizontal organization

256
The vertical organization
Vertical is a kind of ladder formation. It is in form of
a line running from down to up or vie verse. If one arranges
the levels of education or school in the ladder form, it means
to start climbing the ladder; one starts from the level of
climb till one gets to the last level. By implication vertical
organization demands an arrangement of the learning
experiences and contents in such a way that given a
particular subject, what is learned in one level is also studied
in the next higher class which will ensure a consolidation of
the knowledge acquired in a previous class (Mkpa and
Izuagba, 2011; Onyeremerekeya, 2006).
For instance, if mathematics, geometry, algebra is
studied in JSS1, JSS2, JSS3, upto SS3. Although studied at
different level of difficulty, but each level of learning
consolidates any new learning.
SS 1
JSS 3
JSS 2
JSS1
The arrangement is a vertical organization, so that a
strong relationship of learning experience exists between one
level and the next, as can be seen in illustrative diagram.
Horizontal organization
By horizontal one means parallel connection. It is a
direct opposite of vertical connection. This implies being at
257
or involving the same level in hierarchy. Horizontal
organization of the curriculum emphasizes arranging the
learning experiences and content in such a way that there
will be some kind of link between two or more subjects at
the same level of study. It means that content and learning
experiences area arranged so that what is studied in one
particular subject in a given class is related to what is studied
at the same level but in another subject (Bilboo, Lucido,
Iringam and Javier, 2008; Olivier 2006).
Horizontal organization is related to integration which
recognizes that a basic concept in one subject or course
linked with similar concept in another course or subjects.
The figure shows a structure of the horizontal
organization of the curriculum. Modifying Mkpa and
Izuagba (2012), one has a horizontal illustration of
organization as
JSS 3 Maths JSS3 primary science
SS 3 Biology SS Agric Sc.
SS 1 Physics SS 1 Chemistry
SS 2 Maths (equation) SS 2 Physics
SS 2 Biology (habitat) SS 2 Agric Science
Once a learning experience in year 2 biology for
example is related to a learning experience in year 2
agricultural science, then one can say that horizontal
organization exists.
Conclusion
258
 Organization of the curriculum is a very crucial and
onerous task in education. For education to produce and
achieve the national goals and objectives, the content and
learning experiences must be organized putting the learners
at the apex of the organization. For the learners to meet
national and international standards the curriculum should be
arranged at all levels in such a way that basic knowledge and
consolidation of learning experiences of one on another
should be a witch word.
At all levels, experts, experienced and subject
specialists are involved in all the activities relating to
curriculum organization. It is worthy to note the which ever
line the organization of the subject-matter and the learning
experiences wants to tow all the criteria need to be put into
consideration.
Revision Question
1. What do you understand by curriculum organization?
2. Discuss three main criteria you may consider when
organizing content and learning experience.
3. Explain any four characteristics observable at the
highest level of organizations.
4. Identify the two types of curriculum organization.
5. Who in your opinion, are those involved in organizing
curriculum at lowest level.
6. Using five points why does one need to organize the
learning experiences and content.

259
Reference
Bilboo, P.P; Lucido, P.I. Iringam, T.C. and Javier, B.C
(2008) curriculum
development. Quezon City Philippines Longman
Publishing Inc.
Farrant, J.S. (2002). Principles and Practice of education.
Harare: Longman.
Joshuat, B. S.C. (2011). The fundamentals of curriculum
development and
practices Harare: Josgwe Press.
Mkpa, M.A; & Izuagba, A.C. (2012). Curriculum Studies
and Innovation.
Owerri: Mercy Divine Publishers.
Onyeremerekeya, C.C. (2006). Curriculum Theory and
Planning, Owerri:
Chinas hop-publishers.
Oliver. P. (2011). The Curriculum: Theoretical dimension.
New York:
Longman.
Ughamadu, K. A. (2006) Curriculum: Concepts,
Development and
Implementation. Onitsha: Lincel Publishers.

260
 Chapter 14
Patterns of Curriculum Organization
By
Dr. Jane A. E. Onyeachu

Introduction
Patterns of curriculum organization are very
important aspect of curriculum that must be studied.
Ughamadu (2006:139) defined patterns of curriculum
organization as a way of presenting opportunities in order to
emphasize a chosen set of educational goals. Patterns of
curriculum organization can also be referred to as a written
document or master plan for curriculum implementation.
Curriculum experts have identified many patterns of
curriculum organization. The patterns to be treated in this
chapter are: Subject centered curriculum, Activity centered
curriculum, Core curriculum and Broad field curriculum.
Other types of curriculum design to be discussed are: On-
line curriculum design and Modular approach curriculum.
The identified patterns of curriculum will be discussed under
the following subheadings: meaning, characteristics, merits
and demerits as well.
The Subject Curriculum
The subject curriculum is the oldest and most
accepted form of organization of curriculum. The subject
261
curriculum structured the curriculum into compartmentalized
bodies of knowledge. The organization resulted to different
subjects that are taught. Subjects are taught in isolation. The
arrangement of what to be taught is organized in the most
logical, coherent and sequential manner. The subjects
centered curriculum is concerned with the collection and
arrangement of school subjects which are generally studied
separately or sometimes in relation to each other. For
example, secondary school subject in the curriculum include:
English language, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, Government, Economics, Geography, Home
Economics, Agricultural Science, and so on.
In subject curriculum, mastery of the subject matter is
usually the basis through which educational outcomes are
achieved. Its scope is determined by the quantity of subject
matter existing within each subject as well as the range of
subjects to be included in the school time table.
Characteristics of Subject Curriculum
Subject curriculum has its peculiar characteristics.
Ughamadu (2006:146) identified the characteristics thus:
1. The subject is classified and organized in accordance
with the divisions of labour in research.
2. The subject curriculum emphasize expository
discourse and techniques of explanation
3. Subject curriculum has sequential arrangement of
bodies of subject matter which helps the learners to
learn materials easily.

262
Merits of Subject Matter Curriculum
Subject matter curriculum has numerous merits.
These include:
a. Subject curriculum is systematically organized.
b. Textbooks in use for teaching are organized in line
with school subjects.
c. Teachers are comfortable with subject curriculum
because that is what they (teachers) are trained.
d. The inherent nature and organization of the subject
curriculum makes it easy to be administered. Class
time – tabling can be conveniently compartmentalized
to correspond to subject requirements..
e. Subject curriculum is better understood by the
teachers, parents and general public because all the
stakeholders in education are familiar with it.
f. Learners’ performance and academic achievement
can easily be determined using subject curriculum.
Teachers can conveniently use their assessment
instrument such as test, to evaluate learners’
performance.
g. Subject curriculum makes research desire easy.
People can easily specialize in different subjects.
h. Subject curriculum puts the subject first and considers
its fundamental nature or characteristics. (Morrison-
Saunders and Hobsen, 2013).
Demerits of Subject Centered Curriculum
a. The major demerit of subject curriculum is that, it is
too compartmentalized and fragmentary in nature.
b. The subject curriculum does not consider the nature,
needs and interest of the learners.
263
 c. It does not give the learners opportunity for effective
thinking.
d. The subject curriculum was criticized for the limited
scope of its goals.

Activity Based Curriculum

Activity based curriculum is the type of design where
the needs and interests of the learners are paramount. This
curriculum is designed bearing the learner’s need in mind.
Teachers working in this design equally have to perform
certain task such as the discovery of learner’s interests and
assist those (learners) in the selection of the most significant
things to study.
Characteristics of Activity Curriculum
1. In activity curriculum, the learners’ needs, interests,
ability and objectives become the determinant.
2. Activity curriculum is not planned in advance.
3. In activity curriculum, activities are planned by both
the teacher and the learner.
4. There exist common learning by both the students and
the teacher.
5. Activity curriculum focuses its attention on problem
solving.
6. Learners’ interests are met within the programme of
activity curriculum.
7. Many subjects are provided for the learners. This
helps in meeting learner’s interest.

264
Merits of Activity Curriculum
a. One of the major merits of activity curriculum is that
it focuses on the learners’ felt needs, interests and
purposes. Learners are highly encouraged to learn
because what they are learning is extracted from what
they want.
b. In activity curriculum, individual differences of the
learners are considered.
c. For the fact that, problem solving approach is applied,
students learn skills easily.
Demerits of Activity Curriculum
a. It lacks principles of organizing curriculum
b. It requires an extraordinary efficient teacher, since the
major work of planning and implementation is done
by the teacher.
c. It is very difficult to adopt activity curriculum in
higher levels of education.
Core Curriculum
Core curriculum is used to describe a portion of the
curriculum, usually those courses which are prescribed by
all. Whatever learning experience that is included in the
curriculum is for all students irrespective of their
background. Core curriculum is meant to develop unified
studies based upon common needs of the learners organized
without restriction. This curriculum was designed as a
synthesis of all other apparatus and to specifically integrate
all subject areas, serve the needs of the students, promote
actual learning and enhance the relationship between life and
learning.
265
Characteristics of Core Curriculum
Core curriculum has several important characteristics.
These include:
1. Core curriculum is for all learners irrespective
of the area of specialization and class.
2. Teachers and students cooperatively plan the
activities.
3. Core curriculum makes provision for interests’
needs of special needs.
4. Teachers teach skills when the need arises.

Kinds of Core Curriculum Organization

Mkpa (1987:250) identified kinds of core curriculum as:
a. The separate subject core
b. The correlated core
c. The fused core
d. The activity/experience core
e. The areas of living core
f. The social problem core
The Separate Subjects’ Core
These types of curriculum are composed of individual
subjects which are not integrated in any way, but these
subjects are considered so vital that they are largely
compulsory for all students to learn. Their importance is
derived from their societal relevance and utility. For
example, in Nigeria, the West African Examinations Council
considers English and mathematics important, so better

266
results in these subjects connote a good pass. As a result,
these subjects are core or compulsory subjects in Nigerian
secondary schools.
The Correlated Core
In correlated core, two or more separate core subjects
are integrated, for instance, in essay writing, a secondary
school teacher could ask the students to write an essay on the
topic that is related to biology. By so doing the two subjects,
English language and Biology are correlated.
In correlated core, broad themes from the two
different subjects could be correlated, for instance, factors of
production in Economics and factors of production in
Agricultural science could be correlated.
The Fused Core
In the fused core, a number of subjects are unified
into a core subject. For example, a core subject like
integrated science is a fusion of some subjects like Physics,
Chemistry, Mathematics and Biology. Equally, a core
subject like social studies is a fusion of subjects like History,
Economics, Sociology, Anthropology, and Geography.
The Activity/Experience Core
The activity/experience core is that programme of
general education which is child centered in the sense that it
emphasizes learning associated with the felt needs and
interests of the learners. (Mkpa 1987).

267
In activity/Experience core, preplanning, formal structuring
of the programme, prepared content as well as organization
is reduced to a minimum. Most of the decisions about the
planning are cooperatively taken by the teachers and
learners.
The Areas of Living Core
In the areas of living core activities are preplanned, it
provides general education which is based on social
problems. It is problem centered and it provides for the
teacher-learner cooperative planning.
Areas of living core employ separate subjects in achieving
its purposes, and its purpose centers on social problems and
conditions. In discussing problems of community, ideas,
may be borrowed from Economics, Biology, Geography and
Agricultural Science.
The Social Problems Core
The social problems core focuses on society. The
social problem focuses its attention on controversial issues
such as: Woman education, advantages of rule compliance.
The social problem core is preplanned, it is problem centered
and it utilizes block-timing.
Merits of the Core Curriculum
a. The core curriculum focuses on societal problems.
This makes learning easy for the students. This is
because learners associate what they learnt in the
school to real life experience outside the school.

268
 b. The core curriculum employs the problem solving
methods of studying. This makes learning more
understandable to the students.
c. The core curriculum prepares the learner better for
life in the wider society than does the subject
curriculum.
d. Objectives of core curriculum are broader in scope
and more comprehensive than those of the subject
curriculum.
e. In core curriculum, subjects are integrated; this brings
about unity for easy understanding of the subjects by
the learners.
f. Core curriculum equally provides opportunities for
proper guidance and counseling for the learner since
both teachers and students cooperate both in planning
and implementation of the curriculum.
Demerits of Core Curriculum
a. The core curriculum deviates from objectives of the
subject curriculum. This makes the core not to meet
the examination needs of the national examinations
such as WAEC and NECO.
b. Core curriculum is society oriented, since different
communities differ, what the students are learning
will equally differ because there is no uniformity in
planning and implementation.
c. There are no uniform textbooks for the core
curriculum.
d. In the case of subject curriculum, most teachers are
trained in it, whereas, most teachers are not trained in
core curriculum; hence, implementation is very
difficult.
269
 e. Materials needed for implementation of core
curriculum are scarce in most of the schools in
Nigeria.

The Broad Field Pattern of Curriculum

Broad field curriculum is another pattern of curriculum
design. Broad field curriculum aims at integrating rather than
atomizing the curriculum. (Mkpa 1987) brings together
broad fields of content areas, synthesizing same into an
integrated whole for the learners to see relationship between
or among subject areas.
In the broad fields curriculum, many subjects are
combined together to yield one subject. Example is: in
subject like integrated science (basic science) taught in
primary and Junior Secondary Schools in Nigeria. This basic
science is made up biology, physics and chemistry. Social
studies as a subject is made up of subject such as:
Economics, History, Government, Civil and even
Geography.
Characteristics of Broad Field Curriculum
The major characteristics of broad field curriculum is
bringing together different subjects into an integrated whole.
Merits of Broad Field Curriculum Design
1. The broad field curriculum design introduces the
cultural heritages.
2. It brings together subjects into a unified whole,
thereby enabling the learners see relationships among
different subject areas.
270
3. It offers to the learners’ opportunity to have broad
knowledge of other subjects, for instance, a lesson in
social studies will cover aspects of history,
government, geography and economics.
4. The comprehensive knowledge offered by this design
serves as a good foundation for the study of other
major areas of specialization. For instance, the study
of biology, physics or chemistry which are the major
study discipline in senior secondary school.
5. It helps both teacher and learners to cover wide
grounds. This is because in broad field curriculum,
excessive factual details are eliminated. The practice
encourages greater flexibility in the choice of content.

Demerit of Broad Field Curriculum

1. Broad field sacrifices depth on the alter of breath
2. Broad field curriculum lay more emphasis on
coverage of broad areas of knowledge across different
subjects and pay little attention in a detailed and
comprehensive study of each of the associated
subjects.
3. In subject curriculum for instance, experts teach
subjects in their area of specialization but broad field
neglects the good disciplinary autonomy.
4. It is difficult and costly to implement broad field
curriculum.
5. Many teachers are trained using subject curriculum,
hence, it is difficult for them to implement broad field
curriculum which they are not trained for.
6. The implementation of broad field curriculum will
entail a reorganization of the programmme of studies
271
 in Nigerian teacher training institutions; re-orientate
the potential teachers towards new design. (Mkpa,
1987).
7. Broad field curriculum calls for new textbooks. This
will create problem since new change is always hard
to implement by the government and the general
public.
8. Broad field fails to integrate subject areas. For
instance, there is no integration between the social
studies and the physical sciences or between the
biological sciences and the humanities. Thus, with
these major weaknesses, this curriculum organization
is to a greater or less extent isolated or divorced from
the real world of interrelated circumstances.
9. No specific knowledge receives a comprehensive
treat which will result to meaningful learning. The
student is deficient in intellectual demands.
10. There is little time for gainful classroom interaction
between the students and the teacher as the teacher is
always in a hurry to cover the vast subject matter.

On-line Curriculum Design

On-line curriculum design came as a result of
innovation in curriculum. It is technological advancement.
Mbakwem (2009) described this on-line design as a design
which enables curriculum planners and teachers to present
instructions, tasks, discussions and even examinations to the
learners through a system which consists of a number of
students input devices, networked to a central computer and
controlled by teachers and instructors. The systems and
instructor consists of the non-material components, and the
272
material components which are the system software and
other networks. To Mbakwem (2009), the working of this
design demands that the teacher delivers the topics of
instruction on any subject in form of tasks, questions,
discussion, analysis, response and audition to his or her
audience – the learners, by displaying them on a monitor or
projecting onto a computer screen. The students usually
participate in discussing the topic later, the students will do
the material using the network smart connecting system.
Student responses current thinking about the topics and their
ideas about the topic provide the assessment of the
usefulness of the different types of topic.

Characteristics of On-line Curriculum

In the on-line types of curriculum design, the teaching
is done after defining the tasks.
Merits of On-Line Curriculum Design
1. It is an innovation design that facilities
communication and makes provision for creating a
lively and rich learning environment without loosing
control of the class.
2. It carries every member of the class along.
3. It inculcates spirit of co-operation, to learners and
team work amongst class members.

Demerits
1. On-line curriculum is time consuming.
2. It is a very expensive design
273
 3. It reduces course coverage in terms of content and
materials
4. Many students and teachers do not make use of this
design because of shyness, timidity, and lack of
confidence.

Modular Approach Curriculum Design

This is a form of teaching given to learners who may or may
not see the teacher but they may see other learners and
interact with them.
Characteristics
In this design, what is taught is broken down into small
units. It may be electronic calling down or in print.
Merits
1. It helps many people to make their living.
2. It helps to reduce the number of dropout.
3. As people realize the importance of education, hence,
they train themselves.
4. It is useful in designing curriculum for people in
polytechnics and colleges of agriculture/ education.
Demerits
Modular approach curriculum design “makes
professional teachers to be less relevant because learners no
longer see them face to face for regular classroom
interactions.
Summary
274
From the foregoing, one can most vividly see that there are
many kinds of patterns of organization of curriculum.
Starting from the subject curriculum which most teachers are
familiar with, where subjects are tested separately. In subject
curriculum, the curriculum is structured into
compartmentalized body of knowledge. In the activity, the
curriculum is designed bearing the needs and interest of the
learners in mind. In core curriculum design, the learning
experiences included in the curriculum are for all students.
Broad field curriculum is a design that emphasized
integration of difference subjects so that learners in the
process of studying one subject will have idea of other
subjects. Other curriculum designs are technologically
innovative designs namely, on-line curriculum design where
the teachers and learners do not need to see face to face but
instruction usually take place using computer networking
system and finally the modular approach which can be
electronically or print where, the learners may see little or
nothing about the teacher. Most important thing to note
about these designs is that all the stakeholders in education
notably, the curriculum planners, teachers, parents and
government, school administrators, and ex-students should
put the heads, hand, and heart together to ensure effective
implementation of well design curriculum.

275
Reference
Mbakwem, J. N. (2009). Diversification Through The Use of
Multiple Approaches in Ivowi, U. M. O., Nwufo,
K., Nwagbara, C. Nzewi, U. M. and Offorma, G. C.
(Eds). Curriculum Diversification in Nigeria.
Nigeria: Curriculum Organization of Nigeria. 46-68.
Mkpa, M. A. (1987). Curriculum Development and
Implementation. Owerri: Totan Publishers Ltd.
Morrison- Saunders, A. and Hobson J. (2013). Teaching and
learning forum retrieved. Principles of Curriculum
and Development (PDE) 104. Retrieved onlie 0n
31st October, 2015.
Ughamadu, K.A. (2006). Curriculum: Concept, Development
and Implementation. Onitsha: Lincel publishers.
Texas higher education. Coordinating board (2014). Core
Curriculum: Assumptions and Defining
Characteristics.

276
 Chapter 15

Curriculum Evaluation
By
Moemeke, Clara D. Ph D

Introduction
Human beings by nature often desire to cast a
hindsight on previous activities to determine how far they
have been successful, how much of intentions have been
achieved, the extent to which expectations have been met,
the relationship between the past and the present, how much
of the present is explained by the past and vice versa, and the
possibility of drawing from the experiences of the past to
solve present problems. In the field of education, there in a
growing desire of the public for accountability (in terms of
worth of money spent), experts also demand for educational
reviews that will usher in solutions to new challenges in
societal demands, and the search for evidence of results in
teaching and learning have made evaluation every important.
Evaluation is an important stage in the curriculum process
which checks the appropriateness of all the other stages and
even itself. In the progressive’s conception, evaluation is a
stage which is intricately built and intertwined with all other
stages in the curriculum process and also shapes them.

Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation:

Guba and Lincoln (1981) delineated two concepts that
highly are associated with curriculum evaluation. They are
Merit and worth. In their explanation, while merit refers to
277
intrinsic value of an entity which is implicit, independent of
any application and without reference to context. The second
concept which is worth is seen in their explanation, as the
value of the entity in reference to a particular situation,
application and context. Curriculum evaluation may
therefore be seen as the assessment of the value of a
curriculum, a course of study or a field of study. It relates to
determining the extent to which a particular curriculum or
programme is achieving the goals for which it was designed
and the extent to which public expectation about the
curriculum is being fulfilled as well as determining the
extent to which learners have achieved the objectives of
instruction. Evaluation, thus, uncovers lapses in quality of
the programme, in teacher and his teaching methods, in
materials utilization and effectiveness, in teaching/learning
environment, in objectives set, in achievement as well as
strength(s) in these areas of focus.
Programme or curriculum in the context of education
refers to educational enterprise which aims at solving
particular societal problems or improving particular aspects
of it. Evaluation in the view of Worthen (1991) is the
determination of the worth of anything while curriculum
evaluation refers to those activities undertaken to judge the
worth or utility of a programme (or alternative programmes)
in improving some specified aspect of an educational
system. Anwukah (2000) defines evaluation as a process of
gathering information to be used in making educational
decisions. Such decisions may include determining of
instruction and determining the effectiveness of instructional
process and method, guiding learners towards academic
progress, selection and utilization of materials for teaching
and learning and determining effective methods and
278
techniques for assessing learning outcomes. Evaluation,
from the programme point of view is defined by Davis,
Alexander and Yelon (1974) as a “continuous process of
collecting and interpreting information in order to assess
decisions made in designing a learning system”. This
definition suggests that curriculum evaluation is a
continuous exercise, the purpose of which is to assess
objectives of a programme and often results in redesigning
improving and reviewing existing programmes in line with
new societal objectives and desires.
Alkin (1970:33) also defined evaluation as “a process
of ascertaining the decision to be made, selecting related
information, collecting and analyzing information in order to
report summary data useful to decision makers in selecting
among alternatives”. Alkin’s definition portrays the
elaborate nature of curriculum evaluation as well as fortifies
the link between evaluation and research. Another dimension
in the Alkin definition is that evaluation, from the
educational point of view, includes evaluation of curricular
programmes and evaluation of students learning outcomes or
achievement. In both cases, evaluation is to supply
information on the basis of which decisions can be taken by
decision makers.
Cooper (1976) in the same vain defined curriculum
evaluation as the collection and provision of evidence, on the
basis of which, decisions can be taken about feasibility,
effectiveness and educational value of curricula”.
In order to further explain the elaborate nature of
curriculum evaluation, Ughamadu (2006:66) defines it as
“the systematic process of examining all the components of
the curriculum – the goals and objectives, content and
learning experiences, and evaluation − and knowing how far
279
the learners have achieved the planned goals and objectives
of the curriculum, in addition to determining the
effectiveness of the curriculum itself and all the instrument
(teacher, materials, methods, etc) used for the curriculum
implementation”. Dada (1999) Sums up curriculum
evaluation as all process of systematically gathering data or
information (facts, the figures, opinions etc) for the purpose
of assessing the worth of a programme, project, activity, or
situation as well as for taking further decisions on it. An
effective evaluation therefore checks the effectiveness of
curricula, materials, personnel, school environment,
objectives and other related educational issues that might
have implications for decision making in the education
sector.
Evaluation generally includes measurement,
assessment and testing while measurement is the means of
determining the degree of achievement of a particular
competency; assessment and evaluation are methods of its
appraisal. Testing on the other hand is a type of instrument
for collecting data for evaluation.

Types of Curriculum Evaluation

Evaluation may be formal or informal depending on
the procedure taken to achieve it. Informal evaluation is the
type of evaluation done without reference to data and
information but based on individual or group conception that
are not verifiable or substantiated empirically. Such
evaluation is subject to biases, misconception and unguided
criticisms. The results are often misleading and at variance
with educational goals. Formal evaluation involve
judgements and decisions reached as a result of
systematically collected data and information about school
280
and educational events. Formal evaluation is useful in
determining the strength and weaknesses of programmes and
in planning for curricular improvements.
On the basis of timing and purposes evaluation may
be divided into two major types.
ii. Formative evaluation
iii. Summative evaluation
Formative Evaluation
Formative evaluation as coined and conceived by
Scriven (1967) is that evaluation conducted during the
development or improvement of a programme or product or
person. It is conducted for the purpose of identifying areas of
strength and weakness of a curriculum or programme while
it is still in the making or it is yet to be disseminated. It
involves the use of a variety of instruments to collect
information at intervals during the development of a
curriculum or programme that will enable the understanding
of the direction towards which the curriculum is tending in
relation to the objectives earlier set by the developers.
Information from formative evaluation could lead to
suggestion of alternative plans of action, trying of new
materials and instruments, using new guidelines and
procedures as well as identifying variables that are likely to
influence the achievement of set curriculum goals and
objectives. It is also important as a basis for innovation in
term of contents, strategies, methods, materials and attitudes.
In terms of a programme or curriculum, formative
evaluation refers to any evaluation carried out at intervals
when a programme is still being developed or tried out
before final dissemination. Results from such evaluation are
used to make changes in the whole or part of the curriculum
as well as identify and amend aspects of it.
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 In the classroom and during instruction, formative
evaluation which the teacher carries out when a lesson or
course of study is on – going to ascertain the level of
achievement of objectives, extent of learning being
undertaken, identify difficulties weakness and strength of
students in learning as well as measuring progress.
Information from instructional formative evaluation is
usually very useful in guidance and counseling of learning
and in helping teachers improve their teaching by making
appropriate decision about methods, materials strategies etc
in the classroom. Examples of formative evaluation are tests,
assignment, projects etc given when a course or teaching is
in progress. It includes examination undertaken before the
final certification examination in a programme.
Roles of formative evaluation
Formative evaluation is important for the following
purposes
1. To diagnose students learning strengths and
weaknesses while the programme or teaching is on-
going so that feedback information can be given to
enable improvement and remediation in achievement.
2. It provides information on the basis of which learners
can be counseled on areas of urgent importance. For
example, if a learner’s weakness in Mathematics is
traced to poor knowledge of multiplication, guidance
and remediation can be undertaken on how the child
could improve his/her performance/achievement in
Mathematics by addressing multiplication.
3. It establishes specific strength and weaknesses of a
curriculum and its implementation strategies
4. It provides critical information for strategic changes
and policy decisions
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 5. It furnishes teachers and implementers of
programmes with information needed to improve
teaching and learning.
6. It provides indicators for monitoring of programme
implementation
7. Provides parents and guardians regular feedback on
the progress of their children/wards
Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation is that type of evaluation
conducted when a programme is considered to have come to
an end. It is conducted after completion of a programme or a
course of study. It is useful for decision making about the
worth of a programme in terms of achievement of goals and
objectives of a programme. In terms of a programme,
summative curriculum evaluation is defined by Ughamadu
(2006) as that type of evaluation undertaken when a
programme or curriculum under development has in some
sense come to an end. Example of such evaluation at the end
of curricular programme are the Junior schools certificate
examination (JSSE) which marks the end of Junior
secondary school education in Nigeria. Others are the West
African School Certificate Examination (WASCE), National
Examinations Council (NECO) which summarizes
performance in senior secondary school, (NABTEB) which
summarizes the performance in technical education. These
assessments summarize the extent to which the goals of the
programmes have been achieved hence summative
evaluation is also referred to as ex-post evaluation (that is
evaluation after the event has occurred).
In terms of instruction, summative instructional
evaluation refers to the evaluation carried out to assess the
outcome of instruction. It determines the extent to which
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learners have achieved the objectives of a particular lesson,
unit or course after a period of instruction. Summative
evaluation is outcome – focused while formative evaluation
is process – focused. The major objective of summative
evaluation is accountability and is often used for the
assignment of grades, promotion from one level to another,
certification as well as job selection decisions.

Functions of Summative Evaluation

Summative evaluation is undertaken for the following
reasons
1) Ascertaining whether a project or curriculum or
programme has achieved its goals or objectives or
intended outcomes
2) It enables one to describe the impact of a curriculum
or programme in line with our investment (time,
money, efforts, personnel etc).
3) Enables one to determine the extent to which
particular decisions have worked or failed to work
and to make decisions about future improvements and
designs.
Summative evaluation may take the form of any of the
following
i. Goal – based summative evaluation which determines
if the goal intents of a curriculum or programme have
been achieved.
ii. Outcome summative evaluation which focuses on
determining if the programme caused demonstrable
effects on specifically defined target outcomes
iii. Impact evaluation which assesses overall effect,
whether intended or unintended.

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 iv. Cost effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis which
focuses on weighing outcomes in terms of amount of
money spent on the programme.
Other types of Evaluation
Evaluation can also be classified based on its use in
the classroom or educational setting. Thus evaluation can be
classified as placement or diagnostic:
4. Placement Evaluation: This is the type of evaluation
undertaken for the sole purpose of determining the
ability of a learner so as to appropriately place
him/her in a class, group or level best suited to his/her
ability. Placement evaluation, thus, determines a
learner’s entry behavior or prior knowledge. Its
importance lies in the fact that prior or background
knowledge which a learner brings into the classroom
or learning environment affects the extent to which
he/she can learn. It relates to readiness to learn.
Placement tests are also referred to as reassessment
which consists of entry behaviour tests and pretests.
The entry behaviour test is a criterion – referenced test
which measures skills adjudged as critical for learning a
particular package or unit of instruction. It determines if a
learner has the prerequisite knowledge that will enable
him/her advance to a new level of learning (Pick and Carey
1985).
Pretest on the other hand is a criterion referenced test
which measures the extent to which the objectives set by the
designers to the new lesson is achieved.
In both situations, the major objective of placement
evaluation is to determine if the learner possesses the
requisite knowledge to enter into a new course, class, unit,
lesson or level. It also determines the extent to which
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intended objectives of a teacher in a new lesson have already
been achieved.

5. Diagnostic Evaluation:
This type of evaluation is conducted for the purpose of
identifying learning disabilities among learners. It is carried
out to find out areas of difficulties in learning among
learners so that remediation can be applied to resolve them.
Diagnostic Evaluation is also used for the identification of
students whose learning or classroom behaviours are
adversely affected by factors not directly related to
instructional practice. For example, a learner may perform
poorly in mathematics due to many factors. A diagnostic
evaluation conducted may show that the learners did not
master the principles of multiplication and division and as
such find calculations that involve these principles difficult.
Such identification will enable teachers to address the areas
of difficulty which if properly done will improve
achievement in mathematics.

Functions or Roles of Curriculum Evaluation

The basic function of curriculum evaluation is to
identify the extent to which a programme is achieving the
objectives for which it was designed and possibly provide
basis on which it could be revised, expanded or abandoned.
In addition to this basic function, curriculum evaluation is
important for the following reasons;
a. To provide evidence that a programme or curriculum
is producing the anticipated results. It thus tests the
basic hypothesis upon which the curriculum is
hinged.

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b. Evaluation is important for diagnostic purposes in
determining the adequacy of contents and learning
experiences, the materials used in implementation,
characteristics of learner experiencing the curriculum
and even the timing of the curriculum and the
difficulties which the students face as they learn
under these circumstances.
c. It provides avenue for feedback to the learner on
his/her performance and areas of improvement
d. Evaluation results serve as motivation for learners to
learn and to improve on their previous performances
e. Teachers are able to understand the effectiveness of
their decisions in terms of methods, materials etc on
students achievement.
f. Provides information that establishes specific
strengths and weaknesses of a programme as well as
the implementation strategies adopted
g. Gives parents and guardians feedback on the progress
of their children/wards
h. Information from evaluation are useful for guidance
and counseling of learners in the areas of profession,
personality development, social behaviour, carrier
choice, and personal social problems which obstruct
maximum potential fulfillment
i. It enables one to place students in the area, discipline,
level or class which is best suited for their ability, age
and other characteristics which are considered critical
to their maximum attainment.
j. Evaluation result justifies the need for innovations
and changes in line with societal needs
k. To provide basis for employers to make decisions
about who to employ.
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l. It provides information on the relevancy of
curriculum to the society.
m. Evaluation should as much as possible find out how a
course produces an effect on learners and the factors
that influence its effectiveness
n. Evaluation is a basis for promotion
o. Evaluation accumulates information and data for
research.

Characteristics of an Effective Curriculum evaluation

For an evaluation programme to effectively meet the
purpose for which it was conducted, it must possess the
following characteristics as identified in Ughamadu (2006)
and Anwukah (2000)
7) A good evaluation must be comprehensive.
Comprehensiveness refers to broadness. It means that
an effective evaluation should encompass all the
content and learning experiences which have been
covered as well as the objectives previously set by the
curriculum planners and the implementers. In order
words, evaluation should cover the three domains
(cognitive, affective and psychomotor). It should also
utilize a wide range of instruments and tools so as to
produce a wide range of data on the students.
8) An effective curriculum evaluation should be
objective/goal based: The objectives of a programme
or an instructional process direct implementation
process. In order to effectively evaluate the
programme, all the objectives set and behaviors
intended should be assessed to find out the extent to
which they have been achieved. Also, all objectives
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 of schooling should be evaluated to find out if the
school is meeting the relevant needs of the school.
Higher other objectives such as thinking, social
attitudes and aesthetics and moral values should be
evaluated.
9) An effective curriculum evaluation should have
diagnostic potentials. This means that it should be
able to find out areas of difficulty in terms of
contents, unattainable objectives and behaviours so as
to enable review, improvement, remediation and
solution.
10) An effective programme of evaluation should be
continuous: This means that every stage of the
curriculum should be evaluated on a regular and
frequent basis. This enables the evaluator to
consistently track students’ progress and also identify
points and gaps where they exist.
11) An effective curriculum evaluation should be valid
and reliable. This means that the instrument to be
used should measure what it is meant to measure
(validity). It is reliable when the evaluation tool
consistently measures what it is targeted at when
conducted at different occasions and repeatedly.
12) An effective evaluation programme should be
integrative. This means that evaluation should not
stop at generating data. Until these data are collected,
analyzed and interpreted, it is meaningless.

Models of Curriculum Evaluation

For the purpose of brevity, there are numerous
approaches to curriculum evaluation which grew out of the
desire to fashion out a framework that will gain general
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acceptability. These frameworks have been summarized by
Worthen (1998) as follows:
(a) Performance-objective congruent approaches
(b) Decision- management approaches
(c) Judgment – oriented approaches
(d) Adversarial approaches
(e) Pluralistic- intuitionist approaches
1. Performance – objective congruent approaches
This group of approaches is credited to Ralph Tyler
who espoused this view in his Tyler rationale. He sees
evaluation as a process of determining the extent to which
educational objectives of a school or curriculum has been
attained. Tyler’s model recommends that evaluation is an
integral part of educational process and that objectives of a
program expressd in operational or behavioural terms should
be the essential standard for judging the success of a
programme. It is the discrepancies between measured
outcomes and intended outcomes (objectives) that will
determine the worth of the curriculum and even influence
decision to review, change or modify it. The Tyler
evaluation model conforms to the pre-test- post – test design.
As logical as the model is, it has been criticized for the
following reasons.
3. Its narrowness to evaluation (Kliebard (1970)
4. Restricting evaluation to achievement of programme
objectives thus preventing judgment of the extent to
which curriculum is serving society (Kliebard, 1970)
5. It focuses on objectives and as such pays no attention
to other outcomes which may be very essential but
not captured in the objectives (Scriven, 1967)

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 6. Process variables that may interfere with the
achievement of objectives are not considered (stake,
1969 in Ughamadu, 2006).
7. It is difficult and time consuming to derive objectives
that are acceptable to the three sources of objectives
as recommended by Tyler (Fundi, 2014)
8. It is too restrictive and covers a small range of
students skills and knowledge (Fundi, 2014)
9. Too dependent on objectives and does not cover non-
specific skills such as critical thinking, problem-
solving and values (Prideaux, 2003).
Despite the high level of criticisms, Tyler’s objective-
dependent model is the oldest model and the forerunner of
all other evaluation models. Other models that are
modification of the Tyler’s model but are also objective –
dependent are
i. Provus discrepancy model
ii. Hammond’s EPIC evaluation model
iii. Popham’s objective approach.
1. Decision-management approaches
In this approach to evaluation the focus is shifted from
objective to the decision to be made. Early work in this
approach is credited to Alkin. Central to this approach is the
fact that evaluation is a shared responsibility between the
evaluator and the decision maker. While the evaluator
identifies the decisions to be made, collects information
about the relative advantages and disadvantages of such
decisions, the decision maker judges the worth of the
programme in line with already set criteria. Fundamental in
this approach is the decision making model by Alkin
(1969:23). Alkin defines evaluation as “the process of
ascertaining the decision to be made, selecting related
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information, collecting and analyzing information in order to
report summary data useful to decision makers in selecting
among alternatives”.

CIPP: Most prominent in the decision making approaches to

evaluation is the CIPP model by stufflebeam (1971) which is
based on four distinct stages (context, input, process and
product). Each of these stages is to be evaluated. Content
refers to the environment, needs and setting to the
programme. It also diagnoses problems underlying the needs
and opportunities for satistying such needs. Information
from content evaluation helps to decide on what setting is
preferable and could result in change in plan. Input
evaluation looks at procedural designs, strategies and
resources (human and materials) for use. Process evaluation
monitors procedures and implementation as well as methods
and strategies for implementation. Product evaluation relates
to attainments and outcomes in both quality and significance.
The CIPP evaluation thus recommends

iv. multiple observers and informants

v. mining existing information
vi. multiple procedures for gathering data, cross –check
qualitatively and quantitatively
vii.review of stake holders information
viii. feedback from stakeholders
(b) ATO Model: This is another model in the group of
decision management models, ATO was credited to Stake
(1967) and stands for Antecedents, Transaction and
Outcomes (Ughamadu, 2006). Antecedents refer to existing
conditions before the introduction of the programme or
curriculum such as political and social circumstances, human
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and materials resources available, existing programme and
administrative patterns.
Transaction refers to all communicative and interactive
pathways utilized during the planning and implementation
phases of the curriculum programme such as negotiations of
human resource and management for implementation.
Out comes refer to effects of the rpogramme on all
facts of society such as learning outcomes of students,
societal change occasioned by the programme and even
managerial changes due to the programme.
The ATO utilizes a variety of instrument and is therefore
comprehensive enough for the total evaluation of educational
programmes
The decision –making models have been criticized by
Cronbach (1980) and Guba and Lincoln (1981) on the
premise that the decision making model rely on a mistaken
belief that there is an identifiable decision maker whose duty
it is to make decisions from information provided by the
evaluator. They argue that decisions are only made
interactively when a large confluence of data are available
over a long period of time by a large number of persons such
as policy makers, bureaucrats, programme monitors, project
personnel and individuals with vested interest who constitute
the Policy- Shaping Committee (Borich, 1998)

Goals – free Evaluation Model

Michael Scriven (1967) produced a model of
evaluation in which the focus is on the product or result of
evaluation rather than the goals or objective. In goal free
evaluation all outcomes or results are investigated
irrespective of whether they are anticipated or not thus
reducing evaluator biases that may arise from focusing on
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intentions. In furtherance to this, goal free evaluation is
concerned with determining the worth and value of a
programme in terms of its success instead of adhering to
goals which are either overstated or understated thereby
limiting the scope and meaningfulness of an evaluation
(Stecher, 1998). Anwukah (2000) also expressed the view
that goal – free evaluation eliminates the misleading
distinction between intended and unintended outcomes and
the error in paying attention to an outcome because it was
anticipated in advance as a goal. Such unnecessary focus
diverts attention from what might be the critical achievement
of the programme. Scriven’s goal-free evaluation is also
known as need – based evaluation or consumer-based
evaluation since the needs of the population should be a
basis for judging programme effects.
Goal-free evaluation has been criticized by analysts as
merely substituting goals of the evaluator with those of the
programmes since the evaluator must base judgment on the
success or failure of a programme on certain criteria.
Goal- free evaluation has failed to gain wide
acceptability for the following reasons:
5. The cumbersome nature of evaluating all outcomes
and actions, a responsibility most evaluators are
reluctant to accept.
6. Inability of the model to clarify the role of the
evaluator.
7. The preference of evaluation to provide information
to decision – makers instead of pursuing abstract
judgment of merit.
In spite of these drawbacks, goals free evaluation has
contributed to evaluation in the following ways.

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i. Proposing evaluator independence in the process of
evaluation instead of being limited by programme
operator’s goals
ii. All programme effects are to be taken seriously
iii. The need to subject even goals to scrutiny when
evaluation is goal- based because goals can be
misleading and limiting.

Formative and Summative Evaluation Model.

As already stated in this chapter, the terms formative
and summative evaluation are traced to Scriven (1967). The
Idea is that evaluation does not necessarily need to wait for
the end of a programme to judge its worth but that a variety
of entities such as processes, personnel, actions and
materials can be evaluated progressively as the programme
is on course. This will help early identification of problems
and issues or challenges that could hamper the achievement
of goals at the end of programme and possibly search and
implement remedies. It is, therefore, the desire of evaluators
to contribute to the improvement of educational programmes
at various stages in their development that gave rise to
formative evaluation. On the other hand evaluating
programme that are aimed at drawing conclusions about the
performance of a programme in order to take decisions about
its continuity or stoppage or redefinition become known as
summative evaluation. Scriven (the proponent) in (Lewy,
1998) explains that there is no logical or methodological
dichotomy between formative and summative evaluation as
both are intended to examine the worth of a particular entity
as an evaluation may be regarded as formative in one sense
and also summative in another circumstance. The only basis
for differentiation may be in timing (that is when in the
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programme it was conducted), the users (ie the audience that
need it), and what the result is used for.

Instrument/Tools for Evaluation

These are specially designed devices or elicitors for
collecting information needed for determining the worth or
performance of a curriculum or an instructional process.
Their function is to elicit responses from which evidence can
be derived about the merit, value or status of a programme
by an implementer/teacher or an evaluator.
There are a variety of instruments for evaluating
outcomes in the three domains of learning (cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor). Some instrument can, however,
be used to evaluate multiple domains. A good instrument for
evaluation must be appropriately designed to elicit the
information intended (validity) and at all times (rehability)
as well as be capable of evaluating all aspects of the area
effectively and comprehensively. Some evaluation
instruments will be discussed.
1) Test: These are sets of questions or tasks administered
to learners to respond to from which inference can be
drawn about their level of knowledge and skills and
for comparative purposes. Williams (1990) in
Kolawole (2009) expressed the view that tests are
samples of behaviour.
Tests are the most widely used instruments for eliciting
information in the cognitive domain though it can also be
used in the affective and psychomotor domains. Test can be
standardized or teacher – made. A standardized test
according to edglossary.com “is a form of test that (1)
requires all test takers to answer the same questions or a
selection from common bank of questions in the some way
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(2) is scored in a standard or consistent manner, which
makes it possible to compare the relative performance of
individual students or groups of students”. The processes of
administration, scoring and reporting of the scores are made
similar for purpose of comparison. On the other hand,
teacher – made tests are those test constructed by the teacher
to serve specific situation without consideration for other
similar test takers. A standardized test may be described as
norm – referenced when the students’ performance scores
are compared to a defined reference group called the
“norming group”. It is criterion – referenced when a test
taker’s performance is described by an absolute performance
standard determined by the test – maker.
Tests can be classified according to the purpose of
testing. Hence there are.
ix. Aptitude test: attempts to predict a person’s
performance in an activity by performance in a set of
defined areas like English language, Mathematics and
Current affairs. They are forward – looking tests for
forecasting future educational or career success.
x. Achievement test: This is a test to ascertain a test
taker’s performance in an area after instruction or to
determine the level of knowledge and skills acquired
after a period of instruction. It also evaluates teachers,
learners and programme successes.
xi. Placement tests: administered for the purpose of
determining ability in order to take decision about an
appropriate course, class, level, or teacher for the
learner eg. JAMB or UMTE.
xii.International comparison test: administered
internationally to monitor achievement trends and to
compare them among countries eg PISA (programme
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 for international students assessment) and TIMSS
(Trends in international mathematics and science
study).
xiii. Psychological tests: These are intelligence tests
(IQ) that measure cognitive abilities, mental,
development and social characteristics. They are
administered and interpreted by professional
psychologists. The results are used for diagnostic
purposes and for guidance in the area of career
choice, personal social adjustment and for
remediation in learning disabilities.

Types of tests:
7. Essay Tests: These are items that require the test
taker to display knowledge about the question by
presenting an organized, articulate and coherent
written response in a logical manner using his own
vocabulary. Essay item can be in form of extended
response or short answer (restricted) forms. In
both cases essay tests items are:
i. Easy to construct
ii. Test deep understanding and ability to organize
thought logically.
iii. Measures higher order cognitive domains
Essay tests are however
xiv. Too difficult to score
xv. Prone to biases (evaluator biases): very low
objectivity
xvi. Usually have low reliability because of
fewness of items
xvii. Time consuming in grading

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The quality of essay items can be enhanced if the constructor
applies the following rules.
d. Avoids ambiguity in framing and phasing of items. i.e
it must be clear on the behaviour or responses
required or expected.
e. Indicate a point value or weight and an estimated time
limit for answering the questions. This will help the
test taker to ration time adequately.
f. Ask questions that the answers can be easily ranked in
the order of accuracy.
8. Objective test: This is a range of test items in
which the responses are highly structured. The test
taker is not allowed the freedom to respond
according to his free will. It comes in different
variants.
xviii. Multiple choice items consist of a parent
question (stem) and a range of alternative or options
from which the test taker is compulsorily restricted to
select from. Out of these alternatives, one is the
correct answer (key) while the others are wrong
(distracters).
xix. True – false item: Here a statement is made
which the test taker is expected to ascertain to be true
or reject as false. It can also be in the form of ‘Yes’ or
‘no’, or ‘agree’ or ‘disagree’. The respondent has a
50% chance of getting it right or wrong.
xx. Assertion /reason items: In which an assertion
statement in made and a host of reasons are given.
The test taker is required to match the assertion to the
reason or explanation and to state if the reason is
correct or not. It tests higher cognitive functioning in
learners.
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 xxi. Matching items: In this case two sets of words,
statements, symbols, drawings or drawing and words
are given. The test taker is expected to match the
correct pair by joining them with arrows, lines or by
pulling them into a box (in computer assisted or
programmed learning /individualized instruction) or
by painting in same colour. One list may be made
longer so that the excess entry can serve as detractor.
Objective tests are
xxii. Easy to mark/score with complete reliability
since answer is specific
xxiii. Covers a large content since large number of
questions can be asked eg 50, 100, 200 etc.
xxiv. It is easy to determine the difficulty level of
the test by trial testing
xxv. A question bank can be kept and items reused
from time to time
xxvi. All test takers answer the same questions
giving room for basing comparison on the same items
xxvii. Very easy to administer.
They are however difficult to construct, time consuming and
a test taker’s reason for marking or selecting an option and
judging another as wrong cannot be understood no matter
how cogent it is.

Questionnaire
This is an instrument for data collection consisting of
statements to which the respondent is expected to respond to
and from the information; the information seeker will

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understand the type and level of knowledge, understanding
and even skill possessed by the respondents.
It is used to seek the opinion of the respondent.
Questionnaire may either be the structured or unstructured.
In structured questionnaire statements or opinions are
already given to which the respondent degree is expected to
give his/her level or of agreement or rejection (e.g a likert
such as strongly agree, agree disagree and strongly disagree)
or a simple “yes” or “No” this type of questionnaires are
easy to score. In unstructured questionnaires, questions or
statements are made and spaces are provided for the
respondent to provide their own opinions by themselves.
Though unstructured questionnaire grant more freedom of
expression to the respondent, it is prone to some level of
ambiguity and is often more difficult to score and with less
level of reliability.

Projects
This is a segment or unit of work which a student or
group is assigned to or chooses to explore, study or work on
for an extended period of time such as one month, one term
or for a whole session. It gives learners opportunity to
explore real-world problems and to acquire cross –
curriculum skills while working either as individuals or
groups. It also inspires learners to actively obtain deep
knowledge of what is being learnt and knowledge gained in
this manner is more permanent. It also provides learners with
opportunity to connect academic work with community and
society as well as provide relevance to curriculum issues.
Projects can be evaluated intermittently or at the end when
students or groups make presentations about their work.
Projects help student develop team spirit, while working
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with peers. Projects can be used to evaluate the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains.

Observation:
This is an on – the – spot assessment of a programme
or activity so as to collect data about its merit strength or
weakness. In observation the observer who is the data
collector has the opportunity to see the action as it is being
performed. Observation can be direct, in which case the
observed is aware that he/she is being observed. The
implication of direct observation as a technique or
instrument of evaluation is that behaviour may be faked and
as such true evaluation may not be got. In indirect
observation, the observed is not aware of the presence of the
observer and as such real actions and behaviours could be
manifested. Observation instruments may be structured, in
which case the observer is guided and restricted to observe
only required actions or behaviours. In unstructured or
unrestricted observation, the observer is free to observe and
rate all behaviours he/she deems necessary. Observation is a
suitable instrument for evaluating the affective and
psychomotor domains of learning. An example of an
observation instrument is the classroom interaction model
(CMI) and the science laboratory observation checklist.

Checklist
It consists of a list of items behaviours, actions,
events, statements or traits’ relating to what is being
evaluated. The respondent or the evaluator ticks or checks or
marks the ones that are available or present in that situation.
It does not however show the extent to which that behavour,

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thing or action is available. It is also possible to tick all what
is listed if they all apply. e.g
Tick in the list materials needed in building a house
1. Sand 2. Water
3. Wood 4. Cement
5. Nails 6. Zinc
7. Rods 8. Gravel/granite
9. Paper 10. Thermometer
11. Wires 12. Pipes
A checklist is often important in an observation
technique since it draws the observer’s attention to critical
behaviours/items or issues to lookout for. A checklist can
serve as a training aid to clarify desired steps to follow, or
for performance testing, in observing behaviour in natural
setting or in self-evaluation by testee (FME, 1985).
Checklists are useful in assessing in all domains.

Rating scale
This instrument contains questions that require the
respondent to rate how much he agrees with a statement or
how often something happens, the degree of occurrence, the
status or the quality of something being investigated. It is
like a checklist but enables the investigator to collect more
precise data about something. e.g reading often improves
intelligence.
Agree sometimes not agree
Mathematics is the simplest subject to be learnt.
Agree not sure disagree
Rating scales are often used to measure altitudes and in
personality assessment. Other descriptors that can be used in
a rating scale are good, fair, and excellent.

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Journals: In this instrument, students are required to carry
out some activities and to make entries in the journal which
serves as record of how the activity was carried out, how
often it was done and with what precision it was done. The
journal is submitted when the evaluator calls for it. It is used
to assess procedures, programmes, methods and processes of
events. It also helps assess methodical approach adopted by
learners.
Anecdotal Rewords
This is a record or account of a child’s behaviour or
actions or events in a daily life as observed by the
investigator or evaluator. It is usually in writing. The record
(also called anecdote) describes in precise but factual way
the incident, its context all that was said or done by the child.
It could be interaction at play, noticeable group behaviour, or
some leadership trait exhibitions. Anecdotal records are
made as the behavour is being exhibited or immediately after
provided the teacher or evaluator is able to keep notable
reminders of the event. Overtime anecdotal records enhance
teachers understanding of the individual child’s pattern or
profile. It can also help in tracking behaviour changes which
can be used for guidance, academic and socio personal
counseling and as report to parents. Anecdotal notes also
provide information about a child’s individuals instructional
needs as well capture significant behaviours that might
otherwise be lost.
Portfolio:
This is a collection of samples of works, creations,
self-assessment, goals statements and expressed objectives
as significant landmarks to describe a students’ progress.
The choice of what put in the portfolio can be made by the
students himself or with the aid of the teacher. Collections in
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the portfolio can be arranged either chronologically, by
subject area, by style or by goal area. Portfolios if updated
regularly help in the following ways:
xxviii. Help students examine their progress
xxix. Help students develop positive self-concept
xxx. Can be shared with parents /guidance
xxxi. Presented as organized collections of students
works and creations
xxxii. Tells detailed stories about a variety of
outcomes too difficult to document.
xxxiii. Self-assessment by learner
xxxiv. Serves as guide for future learning as it
illustrates student currents level of achievement.
xxxv. Criteria for evaluating students
xxxvi. Document learning in form of product,
process, growth and as achievement.
xxxvii. Can include works of all types eg audio
recordings, photographs, graphic organizers,
paintings, drawings, drafts, assignment, written works
short stories etc that depict intelligence.
Rubrics: These are set of criteria to evaluate a student’s
performance. They are made up of a selected fixed
measurement scale and detailed description of the
characteristics of each performance level. Its focus is on
quality of performance and not quantity of presentation or
product. For example in an essay, the focus may not be on
the length but on number of spelling errors committed.
Results from rubrics can be used for grading and reporting
progress and for increasing reliability of scoring. It can be
used to assess individuals or groups and like rating scale,
present a basis for comparing progress over time. In
developing rubric for assessment, teacher should describe
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what quality work means by providing students with
exemplars which they will use as reference point. Good
rubrics may have about three to five descriptors to allow for
discrimination of performance level. For example,
Level 4 (Excellent standard): This could be described as
“Wow”
Level 3 (Approaching excellence): This should be described
as “Yes” but must indicate aspect of work that exceeds
grade level expectation, performance and understanding.
Level 2 (Meets acceptable standard): This could be
described as “on the right track but - - - “. It should
indicate the competencies for acceptable grade expected, the
performance and understanding that have emerged as well as
state errors committed that hinder mastery.
Level 1 (Does not meet acceptable standard): This can be
described as “does not -------” The serious errors,
omissions or misconceptions that need to be addressed
should be indicated to allow for appropriate intervention
plan.
Other term used in a rubrics are super, going beyond, meets
the mark, needs more work or working on skills.

Conversation: This is an effective and modern technological

way of assessing classroom conversations and interaction.
This can be done by
1) Recording the learning conversation using digital
recording devices which can be down loaded with
audio editing software to identity the most salient
parts of the conversation.
2) Recording the learning conversation by video which
can be created by the teacher or the students. Video
editing software can also be used to analyze vital
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 parts of conversation. This can be included in the
learner’s Portfolio.
3) Using classroom websites such as chatroom, blogs,
wiki etc to record student’s understandings,
reflections and works even while they are outside the
school. Students can build on their previous ideas
outside the school through open conversation in these
plat forms. Teacher or the assessor can track and
analyze the students’ level and degree of
understanding through conversation
(www.learnalterta.calcontu/mewa/hmt/assessment/co
nversations hmt/

Interview:
This technique is used in eliciting information from a
person by asking well -structured oral questions. The
questions may be probing, leading, or directional. Structured
interviews contain specific question in the order in which
they are to be asked (interview schedule). The interviewer is
not free to depart from that order. Unstructured or open –
ended interviews are unlimited in terms of how many
questions are to be asked and in what order. The interviewer
is free to ask more questions to further probe into an issue
for additional information which the interviewee may not
want to volunteer except through probing. Interviews are
useful in understanding how much an individual or group
has benefited from a programme and what directions are
expected. Interviews can be face – to- face or electronic. In
all cases, feedback is immediate and automatic. However,
analyzing interview required some specialized and
sophisticated tools if it must be reliable.

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Assignment: This is a task or topic or concept given to
students to complete or work on for a specific period. In
completing the assignment, the student is expected to source
for materials and information from diverse sources thereby
making learning commuting- based and individualistic. An
assignment could be a prelude to a new lesson or an
extension of a classroom lesson or activity. They are mini-
projects but differ in length of time. Assignments are used to
assess all domains of learning.

Sociometric techniques
This technique measures social acceptance among
pupils. It is used in non-cognitive development assessment.
It assesses the pattern of social relationship in a group or
among colleagues. Members of a group are often asked to
nominate people or persons in their group with whom they
prefer to work, play and associate with in certain
circumstances. A table like the one below may emerge.
A sociometric table easily reveals students that are
well loved (stars) and these that are rejects or without
friends. When put in a diagrammatic form, a sociogram
results/ emerges.
The basic deficiency of the sociometric technique is
that it is quite relative as it changes with events, occasions
and the reason for the choice.
Name A B C D Frequency
A
B
C
D

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Table 1: A class sociometry
Results from sociometric technique provides a basis
for further investigation by the teacher to determine reasons
why a child could be an isolate or reject and what others do
that make them stars or liked. Information like these are
important in understands reasons for children’s
underachievement and plan for remedy.

Continuous Assessment
Efforts to evolve an acceptable model of evaluation
suitable for the Nigerian situation, brought in the continuous
assessment into the National policy on Education in 1977. In
section 1 paragraph 9(g) of the 2014 edition, the policy states
thus “Educational assessment and evaluation shall be
liberalized by their being based in whole or in part on
continuous assessment of the progress of the individual”.
This statement is also re-emphasized in other sections such
as section 4 No 19h (primary Education) and section 5 No 28
a &b (Junior and senior secondary education. The emphasis
is as a result of the high importance attached to it as a
method of determining learning. According to IPaye (1995)
in Esere and Idowu (nd) in reference to the national steering
committee on continuous assessment saw continuous
assessment is seen as a method of ascertaining what a child
gains from schooling in terms of knowledge industry and
character development taking into account all his/her
performances in tests, assignment, projects and other
education activities during a given period of term, year or
during the entire period of an educational level.
Also Ezewu and Okoye (1986) saw continuous assessment
as a systematic and objective process of determining the
extent of a student’s performance in all the expected changes
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in behaviouir, from the day he registers for upon a course of
study and a judicious accumulation of all pieces of
information derived from this purpose with a view to using
them to guide and shape the student and to serve as a basis
for making important decision about the child.
The Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
(1985) defined continuous assessment as “a mechanizing
whereby the final grading of a student in the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains of behaviour
systematically takes account of all his performance during a
given period of schooling” p8). In order to achieve this, a
variety of assessment tools was recommended to use for
collection of information so as to facilitate the making of
decisions about the progress of the child. Such tools include
tests, assignments, projects, inventories, portfolios,
checklists, questionnaires, observations, interviews,
anecdotal records etc. The implication of this is that no one
technique of assessment will be suitable for collection of
valid information about a learner. It also means that the
assessment of a learner’s performance has to be on going as
long as that learner is in school as well as contribute to the
final decision about certification. Continuous assessment is,
therefore, formative since it is on-going while a learner is in
a programme, and also diagnostic since it is useful in
identifying or finding out areas of weakness and strength, the
knowledge of which can be used for guidance and
counseling purpose. Its value can also be found in its
contribution towards the final grading and certification as
well as in making decision about progress in level,
qualification and promotion.

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Characteristics of continuous assessment
A good continuous assessment programme is
characterized by the following
5. Systematic is nature
6. Comprehensive
7. Cumulative
8. Guidance oriented.
Continuous assessment as systematic:
This relates to planning. Being systematic refers to
adopting an approved and agreed pattern of operation in the
areas of what to assess, how to assess it, what instruments to
use in assessing it, agreed pattern of recording, storing
information as well as the age of the student for whom it will
be used and time for assessment. It follows, therefore, that
continuous assessment programme must be made known and
understood by all involved before its adoption in a school.
All students for whom it will be used for should be made to
understand its implication for their certification otherwise is
quality will be questionable.
Continuous assessment as comprehensive:
It is a robust method of assessment in which all
domains of learning are assessed using a myriad of tools and
techniques. Even in the method of analyzing of resulting
data and reporting of results, continuous assessment take
different formats in order to reflect its numerous objectives.
Outcomes in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
domains are assessed in order to gather information about
the learner in its totality (all-round assessment of learning).

Continuous Assessment as cumulative:

It is cumulative because all the scores, grades and
performances of the learner are put into account whenever
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decision about the learner is to be made, whether for
formative, placement, or summative purposes. Good record
keeping and retrieval are the strength of continuous
assessment. It also implies that all the teachers who have
taught the student along the line have contributed to the final
grading.

Continuous assessment as guidance oriented:

Because of the continuous, comprehensives and
assorted nature of data available through continuous
assessment information derived can be used to guide learners
in academic personal social and vocational decision making.

Benefits of continuous assessment

The following benefits are derivable from continuous
assessment if properly implemented.
i. It serves as a process of appropriately collecting and
accumulating objective data about the level of
achievement of students at different levels of the
education/ system and to determine standard attained
within the system.
ii. For monitoring educational progress of an academic
programme or curriculum. This is because every
stated objective can be measured through continuous
assessment. Only tests and examination are usually
too limited in number, scope and behaviour to be
measured. Continuous assessment will, therefore,
enable the understanding of which objectives/goals
are being achieved at a particular level in the
educational system.

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iii. It is a method of educational research since it
provides valid data for monitoring and decision
making about the educational system.
iv. It provides valid feedback to students and their
parents/ guidance on the academic progress of their
children as well as reveals areas of strength and
weaknesses. This will enable the learner to improve
on his /her efforts and for parents to plan for their
children future direction.
v. Classroom teachers use continuous assessment
records to plan further content, methods and strategies
for improving their teaching effectiveness.
vi. It is a basis for planning academic opportunities and
remedies for students in areas of identified weakness
vii. Provides cumulative performance records which can
be transferred to new schools giving a full picture of
the students’ academic status in the old school.
viii. Very useful in guidance and counseling in areas of
vocation, academic and personal – social
relationships.
ix. It discourages examination malpractice since final
decisions about achievement is not dependent on only
one assessment
x. Reduce overdependence on one-shot examinations.
Students are now made to work hard continuously
since they are aware that every daily, weekly etc
activity such as class work, assignment, etc
contributes to their assessment.

Problems of continuous Assessment

Most of the problems identifiable with continuous
assessment are in its implementation:
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5. It is cumbersome as it requires so much work on the
part of the teacher in continuously evaluating,
recording, and calculating etc. and may encroach on
the time for actual teaching and exposing learners to
learning experiences
6. Most teachers are not properly trained to perform the
task of continuous assessment
7. Most schools are unable to keep the continuous
assessment records for easy retrieval hence they may
not be found when needed.
8. There is a high level of misconception about
continuous assessment. Most schools see continuous
assessment as continuous testing hence there is a
timetable for testing using only cognitive tool with a
total neglect of the affective and psychomotor
domains
9. There is high level of bias and subjectivity in the use
of some of the instruments for assessment hence
rating from different schools and teachers may vary
widely.
10. The difficulty in executing mathematical calculation
associated with weighting. Calculation of continuous
assessment has made some teachers uninterested in it.
Summary:
Evaluation is an important step in curriculum
development process. It is a means of knowing how far a
learner has learnt and, by extension, how much the
curriculum objectives are being attained. Evaluation yield
results for making decisions about the future of the learner,
the curriculum and the society served by the curriculum.
Several model of curriculum evaluation are available in
literature with each focusing on either objective/goals on
314
decision making or on other eclectic issues. A
comprehensive curriculum evaluation requires the use of a
host of instruments and techniques that evaluate outcomes
and behaviours in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
domains. Information from evaluation is useful for planning
educational activities, for decision-making about a
programme and learner, for diagnosis and remediation in
areas of deficiency and in guidance and counseling purposes.
The Nigerian curriculum evaluation programme
incorporates continuous assessment into the school system of
evaluation.

Revision Questions
1. Explain the concept of curriculum evaluation from the
formative and summative dimensions
2. Discuss any three models of curriculum evaluation
3. State five roles of curriculum evaluation to the
educational system

REFERENCES
Anwukah, T.G. (2000) Curriculum Development for
Responsive education in third world countries
(Theoretical foundations) cape publishers
international united, Owerri.

Borich, G.D. (1998) Decision – Oriented evaluation. In

Lewy, A (ed) The International encyclopedia of
curriculum oxford, pergamon press.

Dada, A. (1999) The Teacher and the curriculum. Tejama

General Enterprises Ibadan.

315
Davis, R.H. Alexander, L.T., and Yalon, S.L (1974)
Learning system design: An approach to the
improvement of instruction. Mchraw-Hill companies

Dick, W and Carey, L (1985) The Systematic Design of

instruction (2nd ed.) Glenview, ill; Scott, Foresman.
Education Africa Education Africa com/archwes/74/

Esere, M. O. and Idown, A.I. (e.d) Continuous assessment

practices in Nigerian schools: A review.
www.iaaea.info/.document/paper-2fb222d82.pdf.

Ezewu, E.E and Okoye, N.N. (1986). Principles and practice

of continuous assessment. Ibadan: Evans publishers.

Federal Ministry Education, Science and Technology (1985)

A handbook on continuous Assessment Heinemann
Educational Books (Nig.) Ltd.

Federal Ministry of Education (1985) A handbook on

continuous assessment. Heinemann Educational
books (Nig).

Guba, E and Lincoln, Y (1981) Effective evaluation. San

Francisco Jossay – Bass.

Kliebard, H. M. (1970) Curriculum Evaluation as a Tyler’s

Goal Attainment model or objective.cemtrod model:
www. Kibogoji.com.

Kolawole, C.O.O. (2009). Evaluation instruments. In Ivowi,

U.M.O. Nwufo, K, Nwaabara C, Ukwungwu, J.Emah
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 I.E and Uya, G. (Eds) curriculum theory and practice.
Curriculum organization of Nigeria.

Nalkumi, M (2010) Curriculum Evaluation. Education-Africa .

Com/archive/74/

Prideaux, O (2003) Curriculum Design: ABC of learning and

teaching in medicine British medial journal, 326 (7303):
268-86.

Scriven, M. (1967) Methodology of Evaluation. In perspectives of

Curriculum Evaluation AERA monograph series on
curriculum evaluation, No 1 (Chicago, Rand Mc. Nally,
29-82)

Stake, (1969) “Courteous of Education Evaluation”. Teachers

college Record: 68,7.
Stecher, B. (1998) Goal –free Evaluation. In Lewy, A (Ed) The
international encyclopedia of curriculum. Oxford,
pergamon press.

Ughamadu, K. A. (2006) Curriculum: Concepts Development and

Implementation Lincel Publishers

Williams D. (1990). Modern approaches to English Language

Teaching Ibadan. University of Ibadan press.

Worthen, B. R (1991) Program Evaluation. In Lewy, A (Ed) The

International Encyclopedia of Curriculum, Oxford,
pergamon press.

www.learnaiberta.ca/coutent/mewa/hmtl/assessment/
conversation/hmt/

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 Chapter 16

Curriculum Evaluation Models

By
Nebechi Emesini

Introduction
Curriculum evaluation as a major aspect of
curriculum planning and development focuses on assessing
the value of a programme of study. This programme of study
includes all the planned learning experiences over a given
period of time for a group of learners in a particular field of
study. Wheeler (1979) explains that curriculum evaluation is
the final stage in the curriculum process that measures the
extent of behavioural changes in learners and has been
adjudged by curriculum experts, as the most important phase
in the whole curriculum process.
Explaining further, Onwuka (1984) reiterates that
curriculum evaluation employs systematic scientific
methodology in identifying and providing information which
will help in drawing logical conclusions about a developed
educational programme. Precisely, curriculum evaluation
involves a decision to be taken and a choice to be made. In
the light of these view points, one can appreciate a
presentation of what happens in evaluation process using
model representation.
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 A model according to online dictionary (2012) is a
representation of a physical object usually in a miniature
form; a simplified representation used in explaining the
working of a real world system or event.
Again, Hornby (2010) on his own, sees a model as a
simple description of a system that can be used for
explaining how things work, or for calculating what might
happen. In this sense, a curriculum evaluation model tends to
depict the workability of curriculum evaluation process
using a miniature process as proposed by evaluation
authorities. There are many curriculum evaluation models
propounded by curriculum evaluation experts, but fourteen
of them relevant in one way or the other to Nigerian
education system has been x- rayed, as they have distinct
characteristics that would assist proper curriculum
evaluation process.
Curriculum Evaluation Models Outlined
Lawton (1980) proposed six models that have been
described viz:
8. The Classical or Agricultural- Botanical Research
Model
Features: The classical model compares the measurement of
educational success to that of using fertilizer in agriculture;
hence the name ‘Agricultural –Botanical model”. This is
because it looks at the change in behaviour of learners after a
given programme. According to Baiyelo in Azikiwe (2009),
it is eclectic in nature i.e., it permits a kind of programme
blending of other models for its workability.

319
 Classical model is unique in nature because of its
blending (mixture) of all the features of evaluation methods
and techniques in terms of quality and quantity. As such, the
model makes its reliability, validity and practical application
easy. Baiyelo explains that the model makes it easier to
measure the learners’ progress if only other variables are
held constant.
Applicability of the model: A good example here is the
various dimensions of assessment that Joint Admission and
Matriculation Board has introduced in its evaluation and
selection processes of candidates.
9. The Research, Development and Diffusion model (RD&D).
This model was proposed by Lawton but was
popularized by Havelock in 1985.The model looks at the
whole process of innovation from the perspective of the
originator(s), whose duty it is to formulate a solution in
response to an identified need in the curriculum process.
Contributing to the nature of this model, Anaele (2008:72)
emphasizes that the model is patterned in line with empirical
rational strategy, with sub-stages as: Basic Research;
Applied research, Development and Testing of Prototypes;
Mass Production and Packaging; Planned Mass
Dissemination and Receipt by the user.
Nduanya (1991) sees the RD & D model as a
sequential order of solving an educational problem thus:
Research; Development; Diffusion and Adoption. The model
made five basic assumptions thus: (i) that there should be
research, development and packaging before mass
dissemination (ii) mass planning (iii) clear division and
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coordination of labour (iv) a rational consumer who will
accept and adopt the innovation and (v) detailed estimate of
the cost effectiveness of any curricula change and
evaluation.
Advantages of the RD & D Process model:
i. It is solely based on established research findings
ii. Materials in use are adequately tested.
iii. The model provides an easy opportunity to train
and re-train curriculum implementers and
evaluators and (iv) the model uses an appropriate
method of selecting specialists and experts in the
trial-testing of curriculum materials.
Disadvantages:
1. Teachers are mere end product users without
much of their impact felt in the whole process
2. It is cost/time intensive (iii) Adequate needs and
peculiarities of schools are not taken care of
Applicability in the Nigerian context: Curriculum
Development and Evaluation Centers in Nigeria like Nigeria
Education, Research and Development Council (NERDC)
follow this pattern
10. The Illuminative Model
This model of Lawton is also called the
Anthropological or Response model that had the
intentions of overcoming the weakness in classical
model. The proponent of this model emphasized the
need for employing other kinds of evidence for
evaluation, other than depending on test results alone.
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Main features
iv. The main feature of the illuminative model is that
it uses techniques and methods to derive evidence
from direct participation; observation;
interactions; discussions; debate; personal
testimony; historical and experimental procedure.
v. The model does cost benefit analysis within the
framework of many alternatives. This is done
using mostly, non-test techniques like
questionnaire; opinion pool; interest inventories;
checklists, anecdotal diaries and supervisors’
reports.
vi. It adopts a wide range of audience participation
strategy, in which opinions are pooled to represent
the perception and aspirations of a cross-section of
the society in the education decision making
vii. Applicability of this model: This model pattern
was used in the Integrated Studies projects in
Nigeria like: Social Studies; Integrated Science
Studies and the Curriculum Conference of 1969,
which gave birth to the National Policy on
Education.
11. The Briefing Decision-Makers Model
This is another model propounded by Lawton
(1980).According to Baiyelo (1993). This model
anchors on the basis that evaluation is more than
success or failure of a programme; rather, that it should
cover also decision to be taken. Cronback in Baiyelo
identified 3 types of decision-making patterns thus:
course improvement, decision about individuals and
administrative regulations.
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Main feature
According to Baiyelo (1993), the main feature of the
brief decision maker’s model is its detailed study and
collation of information from teachers, researchers and
administrators, with reference to the three enlisted segments.
Applicability in the Nigerian Education System: The
model sequence is used in the accreditation panel on
programmes and courses in higher institutions in Nigeria. At
the end of the assessment, minimum academic standards are
set for the institutions. This involves total area of evaluation
for high academic standard.
12. The Teacher as Researcher (Professional) Model
Baiyelo (1993) explaining this model initiated by
Lawton stated that it was based on teachers as they engage in
research based-teachings. Here, the emphasis is on self
evaluation than independent one. In this model, experts are
involved in giving the final reports on decision making
process.
Main features:
i. The model involves developing memoranda from
interested groups.
ii. Visitation/inspection of educational institutions
and facilities.
iii. Study of relevant policy, practice, procedures and
documents; interviewing of the school heads;
heads of departments, subject tutors. etc Also,
using unstructured/structured questionnaire,

323
 interviews and checklist to collect information
from teachers, students and their parents.
iv. Expert consultation and using debates on
information gathered so far, to solve educational
problems.
Applicability of the Model:
The teacher as researcher model can be used within a
local school environ; i.e., school-based investigation panels
on exam malpractice; indiscipline; subject teachers’ reports,
among others (Baiyelo, 1993).

13. The Case Study Model

This is the last model of Lawton (1980). It combines
immediate background information and other conventional
data gathered to make inferences about developed curricula.
Main Features
i. It is eclectic in nature; thus blending together all
the aspects of aforementioned models. This
involves a combination of all features of most
quantitative and qualitative evaluation methods
and techniques represented in the other models
above.
ii. The model encourages the combination of test and
non-test techniques in data collection and analysis
and gives a confirmation of the evidence present
(Baiyelo, 1993).

324
Applicability of the Model: The case study model was
adopted and applied by the Federal Ministry of Education
(vocational division), to accredit corresponding colleges in
Nigeria, for maximum performance and safe ground for
participants according to Baiyelo, (1993).
14. The Context, Input, Process Product (CIPP)Model
This model was developed by Stufflebean in 1971, who
chaired the Phi KappaDelta National Study Committee on
evaluation and is one of the most widely used in curriculum
evaluation. It became very popular because of its sequential
approach.
Main features/stages
xi. Content evaluation: That continuous assessment
needs and problems to help decision makers to
determine goals and objectives are to be properly
stated. This is the definition of the environmental
factors relating to the curriculum, by describing
the actual intended conditions of the programme.
This can be done by identifying un-met needs and
diagnosing barriers that prevent needs from being
met.
xii. Input evaluation stage: At this stage, to what
extent available resources were used to achieve
the curriculum objectives are determined. This is
done by assessing alternative means for achieving
those goals to help decision makers choose
optimal means.
xiii. Process evaluation stage: This stage of the model
monitors the process to ensure that the means are
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 actually implemented and to make the necessary
modifications. It also involves identifying
deficiencies in designing procedures or in the
implementation of the curriculum. This is based
purely on what actually took place during
instruction. This provides information necessary
to make modifications where necessary.
xiv. Products evaluation stage: Here, it compares the
actual outcomes against a standard of what is
acceptable to make judgments, either to continue,
terminate, modify or refocus curriculum activity.
Put in another way, it compares actual ends with
intended ends and leads to a series of recycling
decisions.
Decision taken: Specific steps are taken in these four stages
like: the kinds of decisions identified; the kinds of data
needed to make those decisions identified; data collected;
criteria for determining quality; analysis of those criteria; the
needed information provided to decision makers (Glathorn,
1987).
Advantages:
9. It lays emphasis on decision-making, which seems
appropriate for administrators concerned with
improving curriculum.
10. Its concern for formative aspects of evaluation
remedies a serious deficiency in Tyler’s model.
11. The detailed guidelines and forms created by the
committee that worked with it provided step by
step guidelines for users

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Weakness /disadvantages:
iv. The model failed to recognize the complexity of
the decision-making process in any organization.
v. It assumes more rationality that exists and ignores
political factors that come to play.
vi. It is difficult to implement and expensive to
maintain according to Lincoln (1981).
15. The Davis’ Process Model (1981).
This model according to Woods (1982) is a simple
overview of the process involved in curriculum evaluation
suitable for individual/ team teachers to use. The Davis’
model according to Woods has four main stages/features
thus:
(i) Stage 1: Delineating sub-process: This is an
investigating stage in the classroom. Evaluators
here begin by asking questions like: for whom is
the evaluation intended and what does the
audience want to find out. This audience
according to the author may include: individual
teachers; group of teachers; administrators like
principals; Ministry of Education Officials.;
Parents; Community groups and commercial
organizations.
Wood explains that the initiator of the model
highlighted that the information needed by
evaluators include: teacher’s attitude; students’
performance; community perceptions;
organizational structures; curriculum performance
and strategy selection (p.5). These processes raise
sub groups working in areas which the evaluators
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 can now select to delineate in order to make value
judgments.

(ii) Stage 2: Expanding the delineation stage: The

stage is concerned with detailed analysis and
expansion of the work done by evaluation in stage
one. This involves making comprehensive study
of the steps identified earlier.
(iii) Stage 3: Utilization stage: This last stage,
according to the initiator involves consideration of
the audience for whom the evaluation is intended.
For an individual teacher according to Davis
(1981), it may involve making wider decisions
about the type and sequence of units which they
are prepared to offer.

16. The Stakes Countenance Model (1967)

This model according to Wood (1982) is a closer
model to Davis’ type in terms of emphasis on eminent
factors that mark a boundary which Davis called
“delineating factors” that relates to whom, what, etc of the
evaluation.
Main features
The model according to Wood has its intents and actions
clearly defined and observed together with standards and
judgments. The model emphasize that the starting point
should be the intents of a particular curriculum in terms of
events, preceding something, transaction and outcomes.
These include the antecedents which is any condition prior to
the commencement of curriculum like students and teachers
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backgrounds and interest. Also emphasized is the transaction
intents which include procedures and events expected as the
curriculum comes into being. These take place in the
classroom or the teaching/learning environment.
ii Another feature of this model is the outcome intents
which involve students’ outcomes in terms of achievements
and its anticipated effects upon teachers, administrators and
other stakeholders. Stakes model according to Wood (1982)
has three steps for possible workability. He emphasized that
for effective data collection, which those individuals in
performance and evaluation must agree on common
framework with reference to the identified 3 intents above.
The initiator of the mode refers to it as logical consistencies
between the three intents.
Step 1 involves the need to discuss the
appropriateness of the curriculum and agreement on
the proper monitoring of the three intents.
Step 2 involves collection of observational data about
the dynamics of a particular curriculum, as well as
informal observations. There is also need for
empirical methods of data collection.
Step3 involves the completion of data. At this stage,
evaluation and interpretation of data are done, which
is a crucial time in any curriculum evaluation. It now
involves the performers and evaluators to discuss the
information gathered before trial testing and
dissemination.

17. The Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model (1979)

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 This model of Eisner according to Wood (1982) is
drawn from his background in Aesthetics and Arts
Education.
Main features
The mode according to Wood emphasizes qualitative
appreciation in evaluation and it is built on two closely
related constructs: Connoisseurship and criticism.
Connoisseurship according to Eisner is the art of
appreciation through perceptual memory; drawing from
experience to appreciate what is significant.
In criticism aspect, Wood posits that the initiator
emphasized that the educational critics is more likely to use
“Non-discursive approach” a language that is metaphorical,
connotative and symbolic. This according to Wood (1982)
involves using linguistic form to present observations rather
than representing conception or feelings.
The 3 stages of the model are outlined below:
Stage 1 involves the description of what took
place; i.e a narration to get all involved to agree on
some issues in order to move forward.
Stage 2 is the singling out of the aspects of the
curriculum for further attention. Based on stage 1,
it is now time to explain and interpret the ‘why’ of
the events. Wood explains that different theories
may be propounded at this stage on the why of the
event(s). A consensus need to be reached here and
may be easier if there was agreement at the 1st
stage.

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 Stage 3 is now the ‘Appraisal time’. Here, value
judgments are made, though some may not be too
comfortable, as they may perceive some opinions
as too rigid. Recommendations made in this stage
must be based on the evaluation exercise arising
from consensus statements from both performers
and evaluators. Formal brief report is now written
that can be a take-off for further investigation.
Contributions of the model: The model breaks sharply
from the traditional scientific models and offers a radically
different view of what evaluation might be. By so doing, it
broadens the evaluators’ perspective and enriches the
investigators’ repertoire, by drawing from a rich tradition of
artistic criticism (Wood, 1982)
Criticism: Authorities stated that Eisner’s model pitfall is
that his interpretations using ideas from the Social Sciences
to explore meanings and to develop alternative explanations,
is not feasible in the modern sophisticated era.
Applicability of the model: Howbeit, the model can suit
Government Policy Makers, Administrators and Commercial
Organizations involved in curriculum changes and
innovations like, the introduction of Entrepreneurship and
ICT education in Nigerian tertiary education system, to
prepare the youths for self-reliance after graduation.
18. The Stakes’ Responsive Model (1975)
Again, Stake (1975) made another contribution to
curriculum evaluation after eight years of propounding his

331
countenance model, by complementing and updating some
areas.
Main features
Stake emphasized that evaluation should be:
4. Sensitive to clients by identifying their concerns,
values and involving them closely throughout the
evaluation and adapt a report that meet their
needs. So the model is of high utility to clients.
5. The model has the virtues of flexibility i.e. the
evaluator is able to choose from a variety of
methodologies once clients’ concerns have been
identified.
Stake’s recommends the use of the model by evaluators as
cited by Glathorn, (1987: 275-276). Stake recommends an
interactive and self-evaluation process that involves these
steps; the evaluator:
 Need to meet with the staff clients and various
audiences to get their view points on intentions of
evaluation.
 Should be able to make inferences on the discussions
and the analysis of documents, to determine the scope
of the evaluation project.
 Should closely observe the programme to get a sense of
its operation and to note any unintended deviations
from the intended ones.
 Need to unravel the main purposes of the project and
people’s concern about it and the evaluation.

332
 Should be able to identify the issues and problems that
the evaluation should be concerned with. Once
identified, the evaluator should be able to develop an
evaluation design and specify the kinds of data needed.
 Need to select and specify how best to acquire the
desired data which mostly may be human observers or
judges.
 Should be able to implement the data-collection
procedures.
 Now organizes the information gathered into feasible
themes and prepares “portrayers” that communicate in
natural ways, the thematic reports. The portrayals may
involve video tapes; artifacts; case studies or other
tangible materials.
 Being sensitive to the concerns of the stake holders,
should decide which audience requires which report in
order to present them in a suitable format.
Contributions of Stakes Responsive Model.
- The model is based explicitly on the assumption-‘the
concerns of stakeholders’; i.e., that those for
whom evaluation is done should be paramount in
determining evaluation issues.
- The model is based on the belief that an educational
evaluation should be a responsive type that
inclines directly to the programme activities than
to programme intents.
- The model emphasizes the need for responding to the
audience requirements and the different value
perspectives should be referred to in reporting the
success and failure of the programme.
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 Weakness of Stakes Responsive model
The mode is being criticized that its susceptibility to
manipulations by clients who in expressing their
concerns, might attempt to draw attention away from
weaknesses they did not want exposed.

19. The Bradley’s Effectiveness Model (1985).

According to Bradley in his handbook, “Curriculum
Leadership and Development, any good curriculum can be
measured with 10 key factors for effectiveness. This is what
he called ‘indicators’ which has to be marked with a‘yes’ or
‘No’ response thus:
8. Horizontal curriculum continuity: This x-rays contents
in the same classroom.
9. Vertical curriculum continuity, which x-rays contents
from one class level to the other.
10. Instruction based on curriculum. This is assessed based
on lesson plan/implementation. Its assessment is based
on content objectives, materials and authentic tasks
developed.
11. Curriculum priority: This involves the ordering of
priorities in terms of: philosophy; financial
commitments; staff needs and welfare; notices and
meetings.
12. Broad involvement: This indicator according to
Bradley is based on: teacher involvements on
committees; administrator representation, school board
members to appraise and approve course of study.

334
13. Long range planning involves inclusion of all years’
programme; philosophy of education and theory of
curriculum utilized in the entire school system.
14. Decision-making clarity: This indicator is concerned
with activity based on the nature of decision and not on
who makes the decision. Also taking decision on
controversies that occur during the development of the
programme.
15. Positive Human relations: This indicator emphasizes
the initial thoughts about curriculum that should come
from teachers, principals and other curriculum leaders.
So participants are willing to take risks of agreeing and
disagreeing among themselves, though their
communication lines are not broken.
16. Theory-into-practice approach: This involves
maintaining and recognizing consistent educational
philosophy and vision, programme philosophy and
vision programme philosophy and goals; exit point
(graduation of students) outcomes and authentic tasks.
17. Planned change: This involves evidence of internal and
external published acceptance of a developed
programme, with emphasis not just on how to do it, but
a determination on how to do it better.
In conclusion, the author states that an effective curriculum
evaluation is based on the positive indicators and that the
indicators rated ‘no’ involves efforts to improve on them to
be rated ‘yes’
20. The Tyler’s Objectives-Centred Model (1950).
This is one of the earliest evaluation models with the
greatest influence on many assessment projects in his
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monograph-Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction:
According to Glatthorn (1987), it moves rationally and
systematically through seven related steps. Thus:
Step 1: The model begins with the behavioural objectives
that have been previously determined, which
should specify both the content of learning and the
expected behavioural objectives.
Step 2: Identification of the situation that will give the
students opportunity to experience the
behaviour embodied in the objectives and that evoke this
behaviour.
Step 3: Selection, modification or construction of suitable
evaluation instruments which have been checked
for objectivity, validity and reliability.
Step 4: Using the instruments to obtain summarized or
appraised results.
Step 5: Comparing the results obtained from several
instruments before and after given periods, in order
to estimate the change nature that have taken place.
Step 6: Analyze the result in order to determine the strengths
and weaknesses of the curriculum and
to identify possible explanations about the outcomes.
Step 7: Use the results obtained to make the necessary
modifications in the curriculum.
Advantages of Tyler’s Objectives- Centered model
iv. It is easy to understand and apply
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 v. It focuses attention on curricular strengths and
weaknesses rather than being concerned solely
with individual student performance
vi. The model emphasizes the importance of a
continuing cycle of assessment, analysis and
improvement.

Weaknesses of Tyler’s Objectives- Centered model

However, Guba and Linco (2001) observed the
following shortfalls of the model:
v. It does not suggest how the objectives themselves
should be evaluated.
vi. The models emphasis on prior statement of
objectives may restrict creativity in curriculum
development, thereby ignoring completely,
formative assessment.
vii. Authorities believe that there are a lot of changes
that have counteracted the ideas of Tyler; so most
of them may not be relevant or applicable to
current trends.
21. The Scriven’s Goal -Free Model (1972).
Scriven was the first to question the assumption that
goals or objectives are crucial in the evaluation process. It
was after his involvements in several evaluation projects that
had significant side effects and over shadowed the original
objective that led to his goal-free model. This made him to
question the distinction between the intended and unintended
effects.
Main features:
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 xxxviii. In the goal-free model, the evaluator functions
as an unbiased observer who begins by generating
a profile of needs for a group served by the
programme.
xxxix. The model uses primarily, qualitative methods that
an evaluator can assess the actual programme; for
if the effect is responsive to one of the identified
needs, it is deemed to be useful. However, he
mentioned that goal-free evaluation should
complement goal-based assessment because if
used alone, cannot provide sufficient information
for decision makers.
Contributions of Scriven’s Goal -Free model
2. The main contribution of the model was how it re-
directs the attention of evaluators and
administrators to the importance of unintended
effects, which is very useful in education. The
initiator of this model explains that a programme
cannot be successful if a specific goal is achieved
and another not specified but important was
ignored or affected.
3. The model made it clear that qualitative methods
of assessment should not be totally abandoned for
quantitative procedures.
Weakness of Scriven’s Goal -Free model
Concerned authorities have made it clear that the
model is not specific on how to derive the profile for a
particular programme and concluded that it is only experts
who do not require explicit guidelines that can use it.
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Applicability of the model: This model can be used for a
pattern in Montessori education practiced by some private
schools in Nigeria. This system of education allows pupils to
set their goals and pursue it. In the process, incidental
learning/setting of new goals can arise. The teacher is only
there to monitor and refine the goals for the learners’ willful
growth. An institution in Nigeria that hasadvanced this
system of education is Igbinedion Education Centre, Benin
City of Nigeria.
Summary
Models of curriculum evaluation are diverse in
nature, but most of them were based on needs or observed
prevailing circumstances at the time of their proposition.
Some of the prevailing conditions may be political,
sociological cultural or spiritual oriented. The enlisted
factors affect the models’ initiation and usage. Fourteen of
these models that are relevant to the Nigerian education
system have been highlighted namely: The Classical;
Illumination; RD & D; Brief Decision Makers; Teacher as
Research Case Study; CIPP; Davis’ Process; Stakes
Countenance; Eisner’s Connoisseurship; Stakes’
Responsive; Bradley’s Effectiveness; Tyler’s Objectives
Centered and Scriven’s Goal-Free models.
Though the models seem to be distinct in some areas,
there are areas of agreement in modern theories of
evaluation. In areas of agreement, it was discovered that
most of them emphasized: the context study; determining
client’s concerns, use of qualitative and quantitative
methods; assessment of opportunity costs; being sensitive to
unintended effects and to develop different reports for
339
different audience. It is best to draw from their strengths and
remedy their weaknesses where necessary, in order to have a
preview of an ideal curriculum evaluation models for
Nigerian education system.
Revision questions
1. Differentiate between Brief Decision-Makers
Model and Illuminative Model of evaluation.
2. Outline briefly, the main features of the Teacher
as Researcher Model.
3. Discuss briefly, the implications of Tyler’s
Model’s significance of formative evaluation
4. Scriven in his model questioned the assumption
that “Goals and Objectives are crucial in
evaluation; discuss the details of this assumption
5. Suggest with authentic reasons and examples,
three of the evaluation models that can be used to
assess tertiary education programme in Nigeria.
References
Anaele, E. (2008). Innovation as a strategy for lifelong
education. A paper in the proceeding of theFirst
International Conference of Faculty of Education,
University of Nigeria Nsukka 17th-21st June.
Azikiwe, U. (2009). Models of curriculum evaluation in
U.M.O. Ivowi, Ukwungwu J. (eds.) Curriculum
Theory and Practice. Abuja: CON Publishers.
Baiyelo, T.D. (1993). Curriculum evaluation. In U.M.O.
Ivowi (ed) Curriculum development in Nigeria.

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 Ibadan: Sam Bookman Educational Communication
services.
Bradley, L.H. (1985). Curriculum leadership and
development handbook. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Curriculum Development Centre. (1982). Curriculum
evaluation: how it can be done. Canberra: CDE Press.
Davis, E. (1980). Teachers as curriculum evaluators.
Sydney: George Allen and Unwin.
Eisner, E.W. (1979). The educational imagination. on the
design and evaluation of school programs. New
York: Macmillan
Glatthorn, A.A. (1987). Curriculum leadership. New York:
Harper-Collins.
Hornby, A.S. (2010). Oxford advanced learners’ dictionary.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lawton, D. (1980). The politics of the school curriculum.
London: Routledge and Kegan.
Nduanya, M.O. (1991). Planning for innovation in
education. In C.N. Uwazurike and A.N. Ndu (eds).
Educational planning and national
development.Awka: Meklink Educational Book
Series.
Onwuka, U. (1984). Curricuum development for Africa.
Onitsha: Africana-Feb Publishers Ltd.

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Scriven, M. (1972). Pros and cons about goal-free
evaluation. Evaluation Comment Journal, 3(4), 1-4.
Stakes, R.E. (1967). The countenance of education
evaluation: Teachers college records. Columbus:
Bobbs Merrill.
Stakes, R.E. (ed) (1975). Evaluating the arts in education: A
responsive approach. Columbus: Bobbs Merrill.
Stufflebean, D.L. (1971). Educational evaluation and
decision making. Itasca, IL: Peacock.
Tyler, R.W. (1950). Basic principles of curriculum and
instruction: Syllabus for education 305. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Wheeler, D.K. (1979). Curriculum Process. London: Hodder
and Stoughton.

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 Chapter 17

Curriculum Innovation

By

Professor Ndudi Jem Mbakwem

&
Dr. Chika Chukwuma-Nosike

Introduction

Education only flourishes when it successfully adapts

to the demands and needs of the time. It has to evolve and
grow to meet the needs of an ever changing society. In
recent years, the pace of societal change has become very
rapid; education system has struggled to accommodate these
changes. Curriculum leaders and teachers have remained
challenged with being relevant and innovative while
teaching skills for students to thrive in the world economy
(Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead &Boschee, 2011).
The curriculum becomes an avenue through which
these changes can be taken care of. Curriculum is the
document that contains all the learning experiences,
contents, activities and evaluation procedures of a particular
subject/course. It is dynamic and must be responsive to
changes existing in the society, economy, and nature of
schooling itself as well as any other national issue that may
arise. It is the vehicle used to transmit the needs, aspirations,
343
knowledge, beliefs and values of the society to the learners
as they emanate.
Thus, the curriculum needs to be revisited constantly
to improve on its existing facts and figures, especially where
unachievable, obsolete and irrelevant knowledge, skill and
value exist in the curriculum. The process by which these
issues can be accommodated is through curriculum
innovation. This chapter discusses:
 Meaning of curriculum innovation, change, renewal
and renovation
 Relationship between curriculum innovation and
change
 Process of Curriculum innovation
 Reasons for Curriculum Innovation
 Importance of Curriculum innovation
 Barriers to Curriculum innovation
 Ways to Successful Curriculum innovation
Meaning of Curriculum Innovation
Curriculum, whether it is apparent or hidden keeps changing
more and more to meet current need and realities. This
change is called curriculum innovation. Curriculum
innovation is a deliberate action of change geared towards
improving an existing curriculum. Mbanefo and Chiaha
(2014) described curriculum innovation as the changes
introduced in the curriculum that affects the subjects being
taught. To Emem (2014) curriculum innovation means a
change in syllabus, a new way to convey learning subjects in
classrooms and or new training for teachers. Nwaka (2011)
defined curriculum innovation as the repositioning of the
learning contents, methods, experiences in order to produce
functional members of the society who will contribute to the
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development of the society and be self-relevant. Oteh and
Akuma (2011) further described curriculum innovation as a
deliberate, novel and specific change in the curriculum so
that it will be more effective in the attainment of the
objectives. Based on the definitions and explanations
given by varied authors, conclusively, Curriculum
innovation is the all-round change, improvement and
modification of the structures that surround the curriculum in
order to make it relevant and current. These structures
include the learning contents, experiences, teaching methods,
skills, activities and programmes. This diagram by Ndawi
and Maravanyika (2011) will help to clarify the concept of
curriculum innovation.

Improvement

Figure 1: An Explanation of Curriculum Innovation

The Subject of Curriculum Innovation and Change

The two subjects curriculum innovation and change are used
interchangeably. Many authors believe the two have close
relationship (Emem 2014; Ndawi&Maravanyika 2011and
Oteh&Akuma2011) but do not mean the same thing. Unruh
and Alexander (1974: 245) described innovation as the
introduction into the curriculum of “a novel factor perceived
345
as new by a given school or community, supported by a
driving force, and implemented as a practical advance that
deviates from established or traditional forms” Miles (1973)
defined changes as those noticeable differences or deviations
occurring between first and second periods of innovation.
Invariably, innovation is more deliberate and fixed than
change. To Ndawi and Maravanyika (2011) opinion
curriculum change is a combination of curriculum
innovation and improvement. Thus, curriculum change
brings in something new (an innovation) or improves the
curriculum (an improvement). Curriculum innovation means
changing some of the fundamental elements of the
curriculum. These fundamental elements are the aims,
contents (what is to be taught) methodology (how it is going
to be taught) and evaluation.
Meaning of Curriculum Renewal
Curriculum renewal is about making sure the courses in a
programme and the programmeor disciplines in school
remain pedagogically sound in their design and delivery. A
curriculum renewal activity involves examining various
programmes and the courses existing in them to identify and
ensure fitness of purpose and value to students and academic
staff who deliver them. For instance: Education programme
has Education English, Social Studies, Religion, Biology,
and Mathematics among others as the courses existing in the
programme. Curriculum renewal examines these courses as
well as the Education programme to ensure that they are
sound and fit to meet the purpose they are to serve to the
learner and society at large. This means curriculum renewal
is involved with programme and course adequacy both in
theory and practice.

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The Role of Stakeholders in Curriculum Renewal
- The stakeholders work with the academic and
professional staff to ensure quality programme and
course design, based on current educational theory,
resulting from effective review and revision
processes. This will enable them continue to
effectively use this assurance of learning approach.
- The stakeholders provide advice, support and
coaching as required;
- They build capability and confidence among faculty
staff, both academic and non-academic, to integrate
curriculum renewal assurance of learning
approach in normal learning and teaching practice.
Process of Curriculum Innovation.
Any curriculum process must involve the following four
major factors:
(1) The change agent or innovator - the person or
the group that initiated and conceived the ideas/
innovation. Example: the Ministry of
Education, curriculum experts, teachers,
administrators.
(2) The Innovation/change itself - what type of
change they want to make.
(3) The user of the innovation - who is going to
benefit from it.
(4) Time factor must be suitable and enough for the
planning and process.
Curriculum innovation process is a deliberate act that starts
with an organized sequence, to meet the objectives for which
the innovation exercise wants to achieve. The way and
manner by which an innovation is carried out is known as
curriculum innovation process. Curriculum innovation
347
process has been identified by many authors (Oteh & Akuma
2011 and Ughamadu 2006).These six stages of curriculum
innovation process include:
Identifying the area of need and impetus for the change,
Identifying the direction of change, Organization of
workshop and training, Pilot and trial testing and assessment
of impact of the change, adoption and dissemination of the
innovated curriculum and evaluation. These six Stages are
discussed viz:
(1) Identifying the Area of Need and Impetus for
Change: Innovation does not take place in the vacuum, it
must emanate from something. It could come in form of
needs, issues and ideas. At this stage of curriculum
innovation, curriculum experts study the existing curriculum
contents, activities, schedule, and any other relevant school
or societal issues with the aim of identifying area of needs.
Thereafter, they set the vision-that is what they want for the
curriculum and the reason for the change. Suggestions on
areas of change can be made as well as the parties reaching
an agreement, based on the identified findings of the experts.
In questioning the areas of change, the innovators should be
able to identify which area requires attention. Is it the
teaching methods, subject areas, system of education, type of
learning contents/experiences or area of evaluation if it is in
education?
(2) Identifying the Direction of Change: This stage
involves making an exact identification of the new objective
of the change. This requires thinking out new practices that
assist in achieving the identified objective in education.
Suggestions on best alternatives are made at this stage to use
to replace the existing ones.

348
(3) Organization of Workshops and Training: The
need to organize conferences, workshops, seminars and
training for the teachers on the present innovated practice
becomes necessary at this stage. The stakeholders that will
be involved in the curriculum innovation are also trained.
Curriculum materials and equipment required for the process
will be produced or procured for the purpose.
(4) Pilot or Trial Testing and Assessment of Impact of
the Change: At this stage the new objectives, ideas and
practices are tried out or tested using selected institutions or
schools considering the class and level of learners. These
schools will be identified as pilot schools and they must be
identical to the levelof schools for which the innovated
curriculum is being prepared for. Any defect or problem at
the pilot testing stage is corrected. Assessment of the impact
of the innovated curriculum is made at the trial stage.
(5) Adoption and Dissemination of the Innovated
Curriculum: Where the trial testing of the curriculum was
successful, the innovated curriculum will be disseminated in
large scale to all schools, for adoption and implementation.
(6) Evaluation: Formative evaluation is carried out on
the innovated curriculum at its initial usage to certain any
area of difficulty. The feedback from the evaluation will be
used to make further correction. After a period of time
summative evaluation will be carried out with the aim of
determining the extent to which the curriculum has achieved
the expected objective.

349
Importance of Curriculum Innovation
Curriculum innovation in education is vital for the following
reasons:
 Innovations lead to clear improvements in educational
achievement and personal development.
 The reforms in curriculum are the key to the
realizations of the nation’s national goals and agenda.
 It leads to increase in government intervention in
funding the institutions, partnership with international
bodies like UNESCO, UNICEF and World Bank.
 It will promote increase access and equity to
education at various levels.
 It promotes recruitment and retention of qualified
teachers.
 It exposes the teachers to new knowledge acquisition
that will make them more effective during teaching
and learning process.

Reasons for Curriculum innovation

Curriculum Innovation does not just occur. There must be
reason(s) for embarking on curriculum innovation. These
reasons include national needs of the society, dissatisfaction
with existing curriculum, accommodating new knowledge
and information, pressure from social change or order,
utilization of research findings, evaluation report and
feedback, technological development,change in the
objectives of education, reports about learners, international
currency and change in the education system.
1. NationalNeeds of the Society
The need to make the curriculum in use relevant, to
individual, societal and national needs can trigger
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 innovation. National needs can either be: a) political
b) social. For instance the need to produce the
country’s skilled man-power could promote
curriculum innovation.
2. Dissatisfaction with Existing Curriculum
When the society is dissatisfied with an existing
curriculum or the current curriculum in use, it can
warrant an innovation. An existing curriculum may
be lacking either in its objectives or in achieving the
stated objectives. The knowledge contents could
have become obsolete and is no longer satisfying the
needs of the society. These situations may require the
innovation of such curriculum to enable it serve the
useful purpose of disseminating meaningful learning
to learners.
3. Accommodating new knowledge and information
It aims at accommodating new volume of knowledge,
as frontiers of knowledge are ever expanding.
Knowledge is a powerful agent for curriculum
innovation. Knowledge is dynamic and not static,
because new knowledge, experiences and discoveries
keep coming up daily. Through curriculum
innovation these knowledge and information are
enshrined into an existing curriculum or used to
change obsolete ones to make the curriculum relevant
to serve its purpose and goals to the learners.
4. Pressure from Social Change or Order
Social change is a constant variable. The society is
dynamic as it moves with current trend. Their ideas,
values, beliefs and aspirations keep changing with
time. The curriculum is the instrument that is used to
identify, organize, interpret and implement these
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 societal views. It is the tool that is used to prepare the
learners for the society. Therefore, the ideas and
views that the society cherishes most should be
recognized, inculcated and accommodated into the
curriculum under the auspices of the school.
Members of the society may be dissatisfied with some
aspects of the curriculum. Their dissatisfaction could
be in the areas of the learning contents, experiences,
activities, programme of study, evaluation, method of
teaching, instructional materials and equipment. Since
the school is made for the society, societal needs and
values must be accommodated and included at all
times into the curriculum. This can be achieved by
constant change and modification of the curriculum in
line with societal needs. Example is the inclusion of
Citizenship Education, Peace Education, Conflict
Resolution, Inclusive Education, Life-long Education
and so on.

5. Utilization of Research Findings

Researchers in various fields of learning embark on
constant studies with the aim of finding solutions to
identified problems. When the reports of these
researches are published and utilized it can bring
about curriculum innovation.
6. Evaluation Reports and Feedback
Evaluation Reports and feedback received during the
implementation of any curriculum and the feedback
established can assist in determining the extent of
success of an innovation. The information acquired
from curriculum evaluation concerning an innovated
or existing curriculum can assist curriculum planners
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 and other stakeholders in education in decision-
making as regards to continuing or discarding a
curriculum. If evaluation report is negative, it can
form the basis for innovation. For instance if
evaluation on an existing curriculum is done in the
area of ideal teaching method for skilled subjects. If
the feedback received indicates that the lecture
method is not the appropriate method to use.
7. Technological Development
Technological discoveries in every facet of life are
continuous and technologists are always busy
researching on new breakthroughs. Where there are
relevant technological development that is believed
can benefit the nation, it can attract innovation.
Technology can bring about improve educational
facilities that can aid learning process. Facilities such
as calculators, computers have been developed to
facilitate learning and problem solving. The need to
innovate the curriculum to accommodate new ideas
into the education system becomes necessary. The
introduction of Computer Education and Keyboarding
in Business Studies are innovations that emanated as
a result of technological advancement in the nation.
8. Change in the Objectives of Education
There is always an objective guiding the drafting of a
particular curriculum. For instance, the curriculum
that existed during the colonial era objective was to
prepare learners for the role of clerks and interpreters.
The major subjects to be studied in the curriculum
then were known as 3Rs –Reading, Writing and
Arithmetic. It later became shallow as it did not
create room for the training of doctors, Engineers and
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 other professional. This warranted an innovation of
the curriculum after Nigeria independence. The
innovation of the colonial curriculum brought
Nigerian indigenous curriculum because the change
in the objectives of education. When new objectives
are identified and stated, experts and stakeholders will
be invited to make contributions then a communiqué
will be given. Example: the inclusion of
Entrepreneurship Education, Civic Education, peace
and Conflict resolution course and so on.
9. Reports about Learners
Reports received about learners from child study
movements, Guidance and Counselors and
Psychologists could form the basis of innovation of a
curriculum.

10. International Currency

The general objective of training a child is not for
him/her to be relevant only in one’s country. The
total development of the learner is usually the major
objective of every nation for their citizens. The
acquisition of all round training and development that
will make them functional citizens who can fit into
any global economy is very imperative. Educators
and stakeholders watch and monitor global activities
and endeavour to key into them. This helps to
promote innovations as the curriculum must continue
to change and improve to be current so as to meet
world class standard. Ideals of developed countries
are inculcated and imputed into the curriculum to
make it functional and relevant for the learners to
withstand global best practices and challenges.
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 Example; the inclusion of climate change and the
adoption of the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs).

11. Change in Education System

If an education system of any nation at any point in
time ceases to satisfy the objectives for which it was
developed, it can warrant innovation. For instance,
the Nigerian education system has severally shifted
from the standard 1-6 Era, 6-5-4 system, 6-3-3-4
system to the current 9-3-4 system of Education.

Requirements for Successful Innovation

Curriculum innovation involves a lot of activities. For any
curriculum innovation to be successful it will require the
following:
- strong leadership
- Rigorous self-evaluation
- Clarity on the rationale for change
- Reforms based on considerable background research
on learning, teaching and approaches to curriculum
- Clear process of evaluation including timescales,
success criteria and involvement of all stakeholders.
- Engaging the governing body with curriculum
change.
- Accommodating the interest, opinion of the learners
(West-Burnham, 2008)
- willingness on the part of teachers and curriculum
implementers to unlearn and learn

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Barriers to Effective Curriculum innovation
Curriculum innovation involves a lot of work and processes.
Most times there are factors that affect and often times,
hinder the process of effective curriculum innovation.Thus,
factors that constitute a barrier to effective curriculum
innovation include Staff development, Conservatism towards
change, Non-Involvement of teachers, official Bureaucracy,
Parental/Societal Attitude towards Innovation,
Sustainability, Funding and Political factors. These factors
are explainedthus:

Staff Development
Curriculum Innovation and change are propelled by several
developments whichprovide momentum that enable
education to make unprecedented strides. Thus, effective
curriculum involves thedevelopment of staff that will be
involved either with the planning, development and
implementation of the curriculum. These staff development
will come in form of training, workshops and seminars so as
to get them acquainted with the objectives for the improved
curriculum. Where no provision is made towards taking care
of this factor, it becomes a barrier.

Conservatism towards Change

Whenever there is an introduction of any change in the
system, it raises a lot of mixed-reaction among the staff.
Stakeholders in education especially teachers, technologist,
technicians exhibit high level of conservatism towards any
innovation in the curriculum. Teachers feel threatened once
there isinnovation. They entertain fear of losing their jobs,
success of the new curriculum as well as their ability to
implement the curriculum. Thissituation is usually
356
experienced when the teachers were not involved during the
innovation process and initial planning. The teacher due, to
inadequate exposure to the objectives and lack of
knowledge, sometimes tend to frustrate the execution and
implementation of the innovated curriculum. Thus, the
teachers and every stakeholder in education should be
carried along during any curriculum innovation process from
the on-set.

Non-Involvement of Teachers
Non-involvement of teachers during curriculum innovation
and decision-making especially as it involves themcould
attract non-cooperation of the teachers towards the success
of the curriculum process. Teachers who are the main actors
(key players) in curriculum implementation should be
involved during curriculum innovation to enable them make
their input based on their field experience during the
planning stage. This is because no curriculum cannot rise
above the quality on the teacher who implement it. The
involvement of teachers during innovation will enable them
to participate, be exposed to new knowledge and hence be
informed, contribute from their wealth of experience and
also understand requirements of the new curriculum as well
as ascertain best way to go about its implementationfor a
realizable objective.

Official Bureaucracy
The merits associated to an innovation may be laudable but
it could be slowed down by official bureaucracy. This could
come in the form of time spent in securing approval to
proceed, release of funds by the authority, release of vital
official information required with regards to deadline usually
357
given. When these official bottle necks and hindrances exist,
innovation is disadvantaged.

Parental/Societal Attitude towards Change

The attitude of parents and other members of the society
towards change is usually cold especially where the
objectives are ambiguous and unclear. They see any initial
innovation as spelling doom to the learners and society at
large. This can become a barrier when the result of an
innovation will cause parentsnot to allow their children to
attend school (low school enrolment). For instance when the
6-3-3-3-4 education system was introduced, some parents
withdrew their girl-child on the basis that school years was
longer and it would affect their (goals) productive years.

Sustainability
Most times, curriculum innovation is carried out on existing
curriculum but sustaining these innovations becomes a
barrier. Government does not often giveadequate attention to
the curriculum through effective monitoring, assessmentand
accountability. Too many innovations are introduced but
most times theyare not sustained to be able to determine
their level of success. This affectscurriculum experts’
morale as their effort and hard work do not make the desired
impact in upliftment of the standard of education.

Funding
Curriculum innovation requires a lot of fund. A lot of
expenditures are made during the different stages – the
planning, trial testing, developmentand evaluation. There is
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need to recruit and co-opt staff, staff training and
development, procurement of materials and equipment
during innovation and after for implementation. In such
situations, adequate finance becomes necessary. Many
laudable innovations done in the past have partly failed due
to inadequate funding. Examples of some of such past
innovations include the Universal Primary Education,
Nomadic Education, Open and Distance Education among
many others.

Political Factors
Political factors existing within any nation can be a barrier to
curriculuminnovation. Political factor such as interest
groups, political instability, frequent changes in government,
lack of understanding of educational issues by political
leaders, lack of interest in curriculum innovation by political
leaders and lack of government support to curriculum
innovation could hinder curriculum innovation. For instance
if there is an innovation that is culturally motivated like
nomadic and fisherman education, the leader who is in
power may not want to cue into the innovation. While
another leader who is culturally inclined to theseareas will
support the innovation. Oteh and Akuma (2011) stated that
objection to an innovation idea by special interest groups
may make it difficult for the new idea to be accepted no
matter the advantages.

Implication of Curriculum Innovation

Innovation involves some planned, deliberate change,
improvement or reforms. Thus, it usually has some
implications either to the teacher, learners or to the

359
stakeholders in education. Some of the implications of
curriculum innovation are:
- The teachers, students and every stakeholder must
learn the new curriculum;
- The teacher and technologist involve in the
implementation of the innovated curriculum will need
to gain knowledge of the new parts of the curriculum.
This means they will need to attend professional
development session or return to school.
- it might involve the introduction of diverse teaching
methods and practices new to the teacher and school
supervisors.

Summary
Curriculum innovation is a deliberate action towards
effecting a change in an existing curriculum. Curriculum
renewal on the other hand is ensuring that the courses in a
programme/programme in a school at all levels remains
sound in their design and delivery. Curriculum innovation
is, to an extent synonymous to change but they are, however,
not the same. There are many barriers to effective
curriculum innovation such as conservatism towards change.

Revision Questions
1. Explain the meaning of the terms Curriculum
innovation and renewal.
2. Explain five reasons why curriculum innovation is
necessary in Education.
3. Explain the process of curriculum innovation.
4. Discuss five barriers to effective curriculum
innovation.

360
5. Curriculum innovation has some implications.
Discuss.

References
Dziwa, D.D.; Chindedza, W. and Mpondi, J.G.
(2013).Curriculum innovation or renovation
feasibility in Zimbabwean Secondary Schools.
Academic Research International Journal 4(1)314-
319

Emem, E.O. (2014) Curriculum innovation: A tool for

quality assurance and sustainability for teacher
education in science education in a globalized world.
In N. Onyegegbu and U. Eze, Teacher education in
Nigeria: Quality, relevance and sustainability.
Nsukka: Timex Publishers. pp 65-68.

Glatthorn, A.A.; Boschee, F.; Whitehead B.M. and Boschee,

B.F. (2011). Curriculum leadership: Strategies for
development and implementation. USA: Sage
Publication.

Mbanefo, M.C. and Chiaha, G.T.U. (2014).Curriculum

innovations in science and technology for quality,
relevance and sustainability in teachers Education in
Nigeria. In N. Onyegegbu and U. Eze, Teacher
education in Nigeria: Quality, relevance and
sustainability. Nsukka: Timex Publishers. pp 71-73.

Miles, M.B. (1973). Educational innovation: the nature of

the problem, in M. Miles (ed.) Innovations in
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 education, New York: Teachers College Press. pp 5-
7.

Nwaka, N.G. (2011). Curriculum changes and educational

administration in Nigeria in the 21st century. In A.O.
Abolade2; C.M. Ogbodo and B.U. Maduewesi
Contemporary issues in Nigerian Education.
Onitsha: West and Solomon Publishing Company. pp
50-52.

Oteh, J.E and Akuma, N. (2011).Curriculum Development

and Innovation.Umuahia: Eagle and Joy Publishers.

Ughamadu, K. A. (2006). Curriculum Development and

Implementation (rev. ed.). Onitsha Lincel Publishers.

Unruh, G.C. and Alexander, W. M. (1974). Innovation in

Secondary Education (2nd Edition). New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston Inc.

West-Burham, J. (2008) NCSL online learning resources .

Retrieved 16/11/2015 from: www.ncsl.or.uk

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 Chapter 18

Models of Curriculum Innovation

By
By Edna. N. Ogwu

Introduction
This chapter highlights the concept of model,
curriculum change and innovations, as well as the various
types of curriculum innovation models.
A model is a graphic representation of ideas which
serves as a guide to reaching the actual goal aimed at
achieving. It provides theoretical or instructional
frameworks, patterns, for a number of educational
components (Wilson, 2014). It is developed with a focus, an
end-game, or specific intention in mind (Joyce, Weil, &
Calhoun, 2008). Models differ from one another in terms of
their primary objective or focal point of their intended
outcomes. Models also describe the structure and include the
sequence of steps involved in any organization as it
progresses. The application or utility of models requires
some change in learners which is influenced by their
thinking, feelings, social interactions, or physical movements
in some way so that those changes can be transferred to other
situations and experiences known as innovation.
Curriculum innovation refers to the ideas or
practices that are new and different from those that exist in
the formal prescribed curriculum (Gatawa, 1990). It is the
creation, selection, organization and utilization of human and
material resources in ways that results in higher achievement
363
of curriculum goals and objectives. Innovation is not a new
term in the sphere of teaching and learning, but an act of
bringing into existence and practice something new. This is
to enhance performance and growth through improvement in
efficiency and effectiveness. Innovation comes with change
in the society. Hence, innovation cannot be discussed
without reference on change.
Change and innovation in the curriculum are
necessitated by factors in a country’s political, society,
economy, cultural and technological environments. Changes
in education often occur when current practices are
challenged and questions being asked about the way new
things are done (Adamu, 2010). The search for a more
efficient way of achieving educational objectives may lead
to either a new way of doing the same thing, or restructuring
the current status. This is because the world is dynamic
which needs change. Changes in the world are bound to
come with challenges that require new knowledge,
technology or skills to address the problems and needs in
form of innovation.
The difference between change and innovation is that
innovation is always planned while change may occur in
response to external events. For any curriculum innovation
to be meaningful and effective, it must be planned and
organized. There are many models of curriculum change and
innovation, but this will be limited to some important ones
guiding every organization including teaching and learning.
This chapter therefore, explores these models based on the
origin or theory of innovation to the early and modern
ideologies about innovation from Schon (1971) and
Havelock (1971) perspectives.

364
Origin of Curriculum Innovation
The theory of curriculum innovation originated from the
linear based model known as the traditional based model of
innovation.
The Linear Model of Innovation suggests how technical
change happens in a linear fashion from Invention to
Innovation and to Diffusion known as the three phase model
(Godin, 2006).

Invention →Innovation → Diffusion

The three phase process of Technological Change indicates

scientific research as the basis of innovation. This is also
known as Traditional Phase Gate Model, under this model,
product or service concept is frozen at early stage so as to
minimize risk. Innovation process in enterprise involves
series of sequential phases/steps arranged in such a manner
that the preceding phase must be cleared before moving to
next phase. Thus a project must pass through a gate with the
permission of gatekeeper before moving to the next
succeeding phase. Criteria for passing through each gate, and
the person at each gate are defined beforehand. The
gatekeeper examines whether the stated objectives for
preceding phase have been properly met or not and whether
desired development has taken place at the preceding phase
or not?
Two versions of the linear model of innovation are often
presented as:

 Technology push model

 Market pull model.

365
From the 1950s to the Mid-1960s, the industrial innovation
process was generally perceived as a linear progression from
scientific discovery, through technological development in
firms, to the marketplace, Rothwell (1994). The stages of the
"Technology Push" model are:

Basic science Design and Engineering→

Manufacturing→ Marketing→ Sales

From the Mid 1960s to the Early 1970s, emerges the second-
generation Innovation model, referred to as the "market pull"
model of innovation. According to this simple sequential
model, the market was the source of new ideas for directing
research and development (R&D), which had a reactive role
in the process. The stages of the "market pull” model are:

Market need → Development → Manufacturing →

Sales.
The linear models of innovation supported numerous
criticisms concerning the linearity of the models. These
models ignore many feedbacks and loops that occur between
the different "stages" of the process. Shortcomings and
failures that occur at various stages may lead to a
reconsideration of earlier steps and this may result in an
innovation.
However, these are peculiar to manufacturing
industries. Since education is an instrument of change in
innovations, it becomes vital to relate early and newer
theories to educational system.

Early Models of Curriculum Innovation by Schon (1971)

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One of the early contributions to the theory of curriculum
innovation was that of Schon (1971). He based his theory on
the observed technological changes in the society and its
institutions that are in a continuing process of
transformation. This is what he describes as pervasive and a
learning system. Three evolving innovation models from
Schon’s work include:
 Centre-Periphery Model (CPM).
 Periphery-Center Model (PCM)
 Proliferation of Center Model (PCM)

Center-Periphery Model (CPM)

According to Schon (1971), this theory is based on the
basic assumptions that:
 Innovation exists and is awaiting diffusion;
 Diffusion is the movement of innovation from center
out to its ultimate user, and
 Diffusion is directed towards centrally managed
process of dissemination, training and provision of
resources and incentives.
The diffusion or implementation, therefore, involves the
circulation of the existing innovation from the center of the
educational planning out to its ultimate consumers or
adopters (Jorana, 2011). Direct dissemination is, therefore, a
centrally coordinated activity involving training,
management, provision and distribution of resources. This
model focuses on the dissemination of curriculum innovation
or improvement from the central point of a curriculum for
implementation activities as directed and guided by the
central development team. The central committee consists of
a hierarchical organizational structure that directs and
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 supervises all the activities that aimed at the implementation
of the innovation at both the central and peripheral
educational zones. This is usually from the government in
charge.
The availability of quality goods and enough quantity
of resources at the center determines the effectiveness and
efficiency of this implementation model. Other factors
affecting the efficiency of this model were pointed out by
(Munro (1977) and Adegoke (1987)] as;
i. The number of zones at the periphery
ii. The availability of the necessary infrastructural
technology
iii. The availability of the efforts required for
dissemination activities to take place.
iv. The availability of the efforts required to achieve a
general awareness to gain a new adoption
v. The capacity to collect and manage the necessary
feed-back from peripheral zones by the center.
The mismanagement of the available resources,
exceeding the motivating forces at the center and
mismanagement of the feedback from the peripheral zones
may mare the entire implementation innovation program.

Periphery- Center Model (P-CM)

 The periphery-center model is just an elaboration of the C-
PM. This model postulates that the need for innovation is
felt at the peripheral zones from where the information or
general awareness is disseminated to the central
development committee, which then seeks and suggests
solutions to the peripheral areas. It is, thus the reverse of the
center periphery model in that the information about the
need for the innovation flows from the periphery to the
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center. For example, the need from teachers, school heads,
local authorities, and other individuals in the society are
periphery-centered. These are agents that initiate the
innovation or curriculum change in general.
Since this model emphasizes a hierarchical structure
characterized by simple and stable lines of authority, it may
not be helpful where decision making is of the dispersed
pattern. It may be helpful where only centralized pattern of
curriculum decisions are in place.

Proliferation of Centers Model (PoCM)

This model has the same basic structure of the center-
periphery model to the extent that they emphasize that
innovation ideas and resources have to move progressively
from the development centers to the administrators and
teachers in the classroom but they differ where the
proliferation of centers model postulates two complementary
centers; the primary and secondary. The secondary center
is involved in the dissemination of the innovation at the
lower cadre such as teachers’ salesmen and women among
others, while the primary centers offer the necessary support
systems and management of the secondary centers usually
from higher cadre, such as government and ministries. It is
the primary center that offers the specialist training, staff
development, development plans, methodology and
directives, capital, systems support, technical know-how,
monitoring or supervision, inspection and management. This
is usually from top government and ministries. Hence Ivowi
(2008) identified it as the shifting centers model.
While this model and the center periphery model are
linearly progressive models, in terms of dissemination of
ideas, plans and resources from the central development
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centers to the implementer or adopters in the field, the
periphery center model has some cyclical elements in which
the role of the innovator is dispersed and shared (Adegoke,
1987).

The Newer Models of Curriculum Innovation by

Havelock (1971)
Ronald Havelock (1971) is the originator of the newer
models of curriculum innovation. This was initiated as a
result of dissatisfaction and outdated procedures of the early
models. This came into being after his empirical review of
over 4000 works. His focus was more specifically on the
process of education change. Four basic innovation models
emanated as a result of the intensive review works of
Havelock which include:
 The Research, Development and Diffusion model
(RDDM)
 The Social Interaction Model (SIM)
 The Problem-Solving Model (PSM)
 The Linkage Model (LM)

Research, Development and Diffusion Model (RDDM)

This is where an idea or practice conceived at the center is
diffused into the system. This model views change as
progression which emanates from the identification of issues
or problems, and proceeds through solution processes then
ends with the diffusion of this solution to the target group.
Thus it emphasizes the translation of the products of action
research into practical utility. This model has sequential
development of activities and represents the centre-periphery
model of change earlier discussed. Ivowi (2008) explains

370
 that the idea or innovation is conceived at the Centre. This
Centre according to him may represent curriculum
development centers like Nigerian Educational Research and
Development Council (NERDC) where it is researched,
developed and then diffused into the education system.

This model proposes five critical steps in innovation;

i. Local actions involving the discovery of necessary
innovation or identification of problems.
ii. Research development
iii. Production and packaging of the research results.
iv. Dissemination and diffusion of results to users.
v. Planning of the adoption strategies.

It therefore, involves a process of innovation with a rational

sequence of stages from identification of the need for
innovation to solving the problem. Some researchers ((Mkpa
& Izuagba, 2004; Ivowi, 2008) have identified the following
as advantages of RDDM:
 It is solely based on established research findings
 Materials are adequately tested before use
 It provides an easy opportunity to train and re-train
curriculum implementers.
 It uses proven curriculum development processes
 It has appropriate method of selecting specialists and
experts in the trial testing of curriculum materials
before installation in schools.

However, Adegoke (1987) pointed to the three

disadvantages of the model as;

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 i. Lack of technical coordinating agency that might
reduce the ineffectiveness of this model.
ii. Tendency to reduce the client group to passive
receptors of innovation. This happens in cases where
policies, rules, orders and directives on innovation are
imposed on school teachers and administrators from
the central administration. They are not given the
opportunity to take part in the formulation of the policies,
rules and regulations that relate to their professional
tasks.
iii. Tendency to under estimate the phases of
diffusion/dissemination and adoption due to an
assumption that the practitioners group, individual interests
and conviction were not enough to bring about the
curriculum innovation. This model does not consider
local realities.

Social Interaction Model (SIM)

This model emphasizes formal and informal contact
between group of persons which serves as the basic means of
diffusion and dissemination of innovation. This view of
innovation implementation considers the originators of
innovation as the main source of the types of patterns of
innovation that is adopted and implemented. The model
assumes that research, development, diffusion and
dissemination are the underlying phases of the innovation
process; more important is the processes of communication
rather than the production and distribution of the new
resources.
This model proposes five phases of innovation
implementation; which include:

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 i. General awareness of the innovation; its objectives,
strategies and procedures must be clear and comprehensible
to those it concerns.
ii. Motivating the practitioners/adopters interest. Their
interests in the problems warranting the change must be
developed.
iii. Evaluation of the appropriateness of the innovation
program.
iv. Pilot trial and
v. Adoption of the innovation for permanent
implementation.
These phases according to McCullen (2013) are often carried
out through interactive network of communications, social
contacts, integration, opinion, leadership and coordination.
Anaele (2008) believes that the SIM is subjected to the
influence, judgments and opinions of people around. He
emphasizes that the model relates to the processes of
diffusion of new ideas, practices or products.

Advantages of the Social Interaction Models enlisted by

Mkpa and Izuagba (2004) states that:
 Teachers are directly involved in some social
network, so they can run with the innovation vision;
 The SIM is flexible because social interaction occurs
in diverse forms, formally or informally; so it gives
room for more diverse ways of disseminating and
adopting an innovation.
 The process is natural as it deals with the formal
communication pattern of mankind.

Problem Solving Model (PSM)

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 This model emphasizes cooperative efforts, where the
individuals are themselves involved in the initiation,
development or modification aspects of a program at the
local level. The implementers or adopters, initiators or
developers work cooperatively towards the achievement of
the goals of the innovation. They direct their efforts towards
the solution of a common problem. In other words, this
model is built around the users of the innovation. Any
external support system does not direct the efforts of the
group.

The phases of innovation, according to this model, include:

i. Identification, definition and clarification of the
common problems
ii. Diagnoses of the problems
iii. Retrieval and review of related information
iv. Adoption and institutionalization of the innovation
v. Pilot trial and evaluation of the pilot trial in terms of
satisfaction of the needs that is, achievement of appropriate
solution to the problems.

The Linkage Model (LM)

This is the fourth innovative model of Havelock in the
change process which tends to integrate the three other
newer models discussed, in order to correct the abnormalities
in other models. Anaele (2008) contends that the linkage
model attempts to unify and integrate the three preceding
newer models by emphasizing the need to link procedures
and agencies in a harmonious way. This he said could be
done by connecting agencies that can offer resources to
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users, and link them up with more remote resource agents.
These resources could consist of curriculum materials from a
central agency, consultancy or information about other users
with related experiences or interests (Anaele 2008). The
linkage process is based on the link between the school and
the various specialized\centralized agencies. These agencies’
work is to help locate useful human and material resources
that will be needed to solve any problem in the school
setting. According to Mkpa and Izuagba, the linkage
Centre’s just like Anaele has suggested, may be in form of
Professional Centers, Resource Centres, and ICT Centre’s,
Examination Centres, among others. The authors now see
these agencies as linkage points between the national
agencies of curriculum development, change and innovating
schools, to provide consultancy services, and to offer in-
service training for teachers as end users.

However, the distinctions amongst these models appear

blurred and are not quite formalized. The models therefore,
do not appear to be independent alternatives. Rather, they
should be considered as being supportive of each other.

Summary
This chapter examines the models of curriculum
innovation based on the origin, the early and newer models
of curriculum innovation. A preview of the origin from
traditional point of view is based on linear technological
changes. This includes intentions, innovation and diffusion
to the adaptors in the society which however, becomes the
base of every other innovation model.
The early curriculum change and innovation models of
Schon (1971) include: Centre-Periphery; Periphery-center
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and Proliferation of Centre models. The first and third have
similarities as diffusion is from the Centre to the periphery,
though proliferation model differentiated between its
primary and secondary centers. The periphery-Centre model
has no fixed diffusion centers, as innovation keeps changing
as various governments introduce their change process at
will.
As the early change models could not meet up with current
global trends in innovation, this then led to the emergent of
newer curriculum innovation models of Havelock (1971).
Havelock (1971) emphasized four principled models which
illustrate how change and innovation take place which
include: The Research, Development and Diffusion, the
Social Interaction, the Problem Solving and Linkage models.
The research, development & diffusion model is conceived
at the head or center & then feed into the system. This views
the processes of change as a rational sequence of phases in
which an innovation is invented or discovered, developed,
produced and disseminated to the user.
Problem-solving models built around the users of the
innovation who determine the problem, search for an
innovation, evaluate the trails and implement the innovation
Social Interaction Model bases its assumption on planned
and unplanned interaction in the social structure as a way of
its dissemination of information between interacting social
groups. This is based on awareness of innovation, interest in
the innovation, trail and adoption for permanent use. The
model stresses the importance of interpersonal networks of
information, opinion, leadership, & personal contact. In this
model, change proceeds or diffuses through formal or
informal contacts between interacting social groups.

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The linkage model tries to bridge the good sides of the first
three models while producing remedies for their pitfalls.

Revision Essay Questions

1. Explain briefly what you understand by model,
change and innovation.
2. Discuss briefly three curricular innovation models
under Schon (1971).
3. Discuss five factors affecting the efficiency of centre-
periphery model
4. Discuss three curricular innovation models under
Havelock (1971).
5. Which of the models would you recommend suitable
for Nigeria schools and why?

REFERENCES
Adamu , A. U. (2010). Educational reforms in Nigeria.
Retrieved from
[http://www.kanoonline.com/publications/
educational_reform_in_nigeria.htm#_Toc5351 66705].
Adegoke, K. (1987). The nature and essence of curriculum
implementation, in J. Aisiku
(ed).Perspectives on Curriculum and Instruction. New
York:CiviletisInternational.

377
Anaele, E. (2008). Innovation as a strategy for lifelong
education.A paper in the
proceedings of First International Conference of the
Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria from 17-
21 June.

Gatawa, B.S.M. (1990). The politics of the school

curriculum: An introduction.
Harare: Jongwe Press.

Godin, B. (2006). The linear model of innovation: The

historical construction
of an analytical framework. Science, Technology and
Human Values, 31,
639-667.

Havelock, R.G. (1971). Planning for innovation through

dissemination and
utilization of knowledge. Michigan: University of
Michigan Institute for Social Research.

Jordana, J. (2011). "The global diffusion of regulatory

agencies: Channels of
transfer and stages of diffusion". Comparative
Political Studies, 44 (10), 1343–1369.

Ivowi, U.M.O. (2008). Curriculum and the total person.A

keynote address
delivered at 21st Annual Conference of the
Curriculum Organization of Nigeria held at the
NERDC, Sheda- Abuja. 19th to 20 September.

378
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2008).Models of
teaching, (8th Ed.).Allyn
and Bacon, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

McCullen, N. J. (2013). "Multiparameter models of

innovation diffusion on
complex networks". SIAM Journal on Applied
Dynamical Systems,12(1),
515–532.

Mkpa, M. A, & Izuagba, A.C. (2004).Curriculum studies

and innovation Enugu:
Book- Konsult.

Munro, R. (1977). Innovation; success or failure. London:

Hodderand Stoughton.

Rothwell, R. (1994). Towards the fifth-generation innovation

process.

International Marketing Review, 11(1), 7-31.

Wilson, L.O. (2014). Principles of essential teaching.

[http://thesecondprinciple.com/teaching-essentials/
models-teaching/].

379
 Chapter 19
Curriculum Agencies in Nigeria
by
Dr. Igwe Udodirim Angela

Introduction

The Curriculum is not static but dynamic in nature aiming

towards a stated goal. The Federal Government of Nigeria
through approved and recognized agencies ensures the
effectiveness of the curriculum. The effectiveness of these
agencies and subject associations to the government cause is
so important to reduce duplication of functions and
improvement of educational standard.
In Nigeria, some of the government agencies and subject
associations include the following:
 Science Teachers Association of Nigeria,
 Social Studies Association of Nigeria (SOSAN)
 Nigerian Educational Research Council (NERDC)
 National Universities commission (NUC)
 West African Examination Council (WAEC)
 National Teachers Institute (NTI)
 National Business and Technical Examinations Board
(NABTEB)
 Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (CON)

West African Examination Council

380
 The West African Examination Council (WAEC) was
established in the year 1952 after the submission and
endorsement of a report by Dr. George Barker Jeffery,
Director of the unit of London Institute of Education as an
examination board that conduct West African Senior
Certificate Examination for five West African Countries
namely Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia and the
Gambia. West African Examination Council is a university
entry examination in West African countries.
Earlier on West African Examination Council organizes
and conducts four different categories of examinations which
include International Examinations, National Examination,
Examinations conducted in collaboration with other
examining bodies and examination conducted on behalf of
other examining bodies. The international examinations are
conducted in five countries based on West African
Examination Council ordinance. While on behalf of some
international examination bodies, West African Examination
Council conducts London GCE, testing services, graduate
record examination in countries outside Nigeria.
Functions of West African Examination Council
The duties performed by WAEC include the following:
1. To conduct examinations for member countries according
to internationally accepted standard.
2. To form and establish an endorsement fund to contribute
to education in West Africa, through awarding students who
perform excellently in their examinations and aid to those
who cannot afford education.

381
3. To help other examination bodies (local and international)
in coordinating examinations.
4. To issue credible and reliable certificate to candidates that
participate in the examinations as empowered by WAEC
ordinance.
5. To keep promoting sustainable human resources
development, mutual understanding and international
cooperation.
6. Preparing marking scheme
7. Establishing the syllabi and reviewing them periodically
8. Initiating changes in the curriculum based on the feedback
got from the results of these examinations.
The structure of West African Examination Council
makes it possible that they work in committees. The
committees are international committee, National Committee
and subcommittees. The subcommittees work on various
aspects of the council’s activities. This various
subcommittees help both the international and National
committees: On March 2002 the council celebrated her 50 th
year anniversary in Abuja with a theme “50 years of
excellence’’
National Business and Technical Examinations Board
The National Business and Technical Examinations
Board was established in 1992. This is to domesticate craft
level examinations which were hitherto conducted by City
and Guilds, Pitman’s and Royal society of Arts all of UK

382
in accordance with the provisions of the National Policy on
Education.
It’s establishment was made possible by the
recommendations of four commissions of Enquiry. These
include:
Justice Sogbetun Commission of Enquiry (1978)
Angulu commission (1981)
Okoro Panel (1989)
Professor Akin Oslyale’s Task force (1991)
This is as a result of an outcry by WAEC in her presentation
to the house of Representative Committee on Education in
1981 in which she advocated the setting up of other
examination bodies to reduce the burden of WAEC.
In January 1992, the Minister of Education Professor. Aliu
Babatunde Fafunwa sent a memorandum to the President
General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida seeking anticipatory
approval for the establishment of the National Business and
Technical Examinations Board (NABTEB) and the National
Board for Educational Measurement (NBEM). The President
obliged and following the President’s anticipating approval,
a take-off committee was set up to prepare a blue print. By
March the committee concluded its deliberation on job
description, organizational structure, office accommodation,
computer facilities and estimates for the Board and this led
to the appointment of Olu Aina , a professor of vocational
Business Education, and former head of Department of
vocational and Technical Education at Ahmadu Bello
383
University Zaria as pioneer acting Registrar and Chief
Executive of the Board, with Benin as the permanent
Headquarters.
The functions of National Business and Technical
Examination Board includes the following:
1. Organizing and conducting Technical and Business
Examinations formally conducted by the Royal society of
Arts of London, City and Guilds of London and West
African Examination Council.
2. Organizing and conducting other examinations which
hitherto have been organized by other agencies such as
London Chamber of Commerce or Chartered Accountants of
Nigeria e.t.c
3. Issuing results certificate and making awards in
examinations conducted by the Board.
4. Conducting common entrance examinations into technical
colleges and allied institutions.
5. Conducting research; publish statistics and other
information, tests and syllabi in technical and business
studies.
6. Collecting and keeping records of continuous assessments
in technical colleges and allied institutions, towards the
award of certificate in National Business and Technical
Examinations.

384
7. Preparing and submitting to the secretary annual reports
on standards of examination and other matters.
8. Carrying out other necessary activities for the full
discharge of all the functions conferred on it under the
Decree.

Nigerian Educational Research and Development

Council (NERDC)

NERDC was established in 1988 by an enabling Decree No.

53 (now ACT No. 53) which merged four Educational
Research and Development bodies into one organisation.
The organisations that were merged are:

 Nigerian Educational Research Council;

 Comparative Education Study and Adaptation Centre;
 Nigerian Book Development Council; and
 Nigerian Language Center

Objective is to become a Regional Centre of Excellence in

Educational Research and Development in Africa and
expand to an International status by 2015 with a vision :

To build and sustain a culture of strategic educational

research and development that will inform the formulation
and effective implementation of policies in education as well
as in other related sectors of the economy.

To create the enabling environment in which educational

research and development activities will thrive and in the

385
process not only encourage collaboration with international
development partners but also foster public private
partnership in our bid to render educational research and
development efforts sustainable and needs driven.

Responsibility of the Council

According to Ughammadu (1992), the Council is responsible
for:

1. Encouragement, promotion and co-ordination of

educational research programmes carried out in
Nigeria:
2. Identification of education problems in Nigeria in
which research is needed, and the establishment of the
order of priority thereof,
3. Encouragement of research into educational problems
and for that purpose to undertake, commission,
incorporate and finance such research projects as the
council thinks fit;
4. Periodical compilation and publication of a list of
research projects :
5. Compilation, publication or sponsorship of the
publication of the results of educational research ,
particularly in relation to Nigerian educational
problems, and the popularization of such results
where their general recognition is in the Council's
opinion of a national importance;
6. Assessment , surveying or investigation of any
educational matter considered necessary, either
independently or in co-operation with individual,
organization or agencies;

386
 7. Identification of language problems for the purpose of
carrying research into such problems and finding
solutions thereto;
8. Establishment and maintenance of a research and
development library to which new educational books
and other related publications may be disposed.

National Universities Commission (NUC) of Nigeria was

established in 1962 as an advisory agency in the Cabinet
Office. However, in 1974, it became a statutory body and the
first Executive Secretary, in the person of Prof. Jibril Aminu
was then appointed.

The NUC is a parastatal under the Federal Ministry of

Education (FME). The Commission has a Governing
Council, currently headed by Professor Shehu Galadanchi
and its Executive Secretary is Prof. Julius A. Okojie, who
assumed office on August 3, 2006.

In its over forty seven years of existence, the Commission

has transformed from a small unit in the cabinet office to an
important arm of government in the area of development and
management of university education in Nigeria.

Functions of National Universities Commissions

 Granting approval for all academic programmes run

in Nigerian Universities:
 Granting approval for the establishment of all higher
educational institutions offering degree programmes
in Nigerian universities

387
  Ensuring quality assurance of all academic
programmes offered in Nigerian universities; and
 Being the channel for all external support to the
Nigerian universities.
 Ranking of Nigerian Universities in terms of
adequacy of facilities, academic programmes and
compliance in policies.

Functions of the National Universities Commissions in

Relation With Academic Planning System
The overview of University development in Nigeria is
incomplete without unveiling the fundamental functions of
the NUC in relation to academic planning system. National
Universities Commission statutory mandated to provide
quality assurance for University Education in Nigeria with
the mission to ensure orderly development of a well
coordinated and productive University system that
guarantees quality and relevant education for national
development, and global competitiveness. Quality is a
paramount issue of University education in contemporary
Nigeria. Quality can be measured through internal and
external quality assurance processes. External quality
assurance process was backed by a legal support by the
Government through Decree 16 of 1985 as contained in
NUC amended Decree 49 of 1988 which empowered the
National Universities Commission to set minimum academic
standards for all academic programmes offered in Nigerian
Universities and accredit them.

388
Academic Planning System
Academic Planning Unit is a system expected to collate,
manage, and interpret data to guide the academic
development of universities and to ensure compliance with
the NUC’s minimum academic standards. It enhances
efficiency in teaching, learning and research in the university
and also ensures dissemination and publication of relevant
information and knowledge. The key functions of academic
planning unit are:

a) Ensuring orderly, balanced and qualitative

development of academic programmes at undergraduates
and postgraduate levels in Nigerian Universities.
b) Drawing-up and periodic review of guidelines for
analyzing academic briefs and application for establishment
of new academic programme and/or units in Nigerian
universities.
c) Collect and collate data on staff, students and
facilities as well as recurrent expenditure in Nigerian
universities to ensure compliance with standards and
submission of same for inclusion into the NUC data bank.
Curriculum Organization of Nigeria (CON)
Established in 1982, CON is a professional
association made up of curriculum experts, teachers,
researchers, administrators etc.
Functions of Curriculum Organization of Nigeria

389
 1. Bringing experts together for sharing ideas on the
problems of the principles and practice of curriculum
in order to achieve the goals of education.
2. Promoting and strengthening curriculum
development
3. Monitoring the implementation of curriculum
4. Organizing workshops and producing guidelines for
all levels of education.
5. Serving as strong agents of innovation in curriculum
planning and implementations.

National Teachers’ Institute

The National Teachers Institute was established in 1976

at Kaduna Northern Nigeria where its headquarters is
currently located. This was done in the wake of the
Universal Primary Education (U.P.E) project.

The NTI offers many courses related to teaching and awards

NCE (National certificate in Education) and TC II (Teacher's
Certificate 2), previously it was TC I which was later
upgraded to two.

Aims of National Teacher's Institute

1. Assist in the upgrading of sub grade II teachers grade II

level.
2. Assist in the upgrading of grade II and West African
School Certificate (WASC) holders to NCE level.
3. Provide post graduate qualifications in education for
graduate teachers who lack this qualification

390
4. Offer diplomas, certificate and testimonials in Language
Arts and Communication skills, Mathematical Science and
skills, Environmental studies and sciences, Social and
Cultural Studies, Religion and Moral Studies for serving
teachers and for those others who wish to grab this
opportunity.

History of National Teachers’ Institute

The NTI started with programmes indicated earlier,

producing high quality texts in Mathematics, English, and
Education through group and conference writing. By 1989,
NTI had successfully trained and upgraded 163, 716 under-
qualified and unqualified primary school teachers all over
Nigeria. More recently, the NTI has embarked on
assignment in number 2, which is assisting in the upgrading
of grade II and West African school Certificate (WASC)
holders to NCE level.

NTI's mode of operation includes Correspondence in which

self-instructional linear programmed texts are used and
weekly face to face meeting with tutors at study centres that
is, places where lectures take place. They are located
nationwide in all states in Nigeria. The NCE Programme was
formally launched in March, I990. It incorporates a one
month residential study period.

Summary
Nigeria is blessed with a lot of curriculum development
bodies and subject association and they have continued to

391
labour to see to the improvement of the national educational
system. Government should continue to support them
adequately to undertake research in diverse aspects of the
curriculum. The subject associations have performed
creditably well especially Science Teachers’ Association.
The Nigerian Educational Research and Development
Council have played a major role and need to be
commended. Recently the National
Universities Commission and the height of accreditation
policies of university programme have ranked Nigerian
universities. It is pertinent that all universities affirm their
status and amend when/where necessary. Curriculum agents
thus, serve as watchdog and guides in the pursuance of
quality as regards academics in Nigerian educational system.
Revision Questions
1. Examine the role of National Universities Commission.
2. How can we improve on WAEC? Give four
recommendations.
3. What roles has NERDC performed as a curriculum
agency?
4. Discuss the history of WAEC.
5. Explain five functions of NABTEB.

REFERENCE
Fafunwa, B. A. (1971) ‘History of Nigerian Higher
Education’, London Macmillan

392
Harvey, L. (ed) (1993) Quality Assessment in Higher
Education: collected papers of the QHE projects:
Birmingham: Quality in Education projects
Miller, J. L. Tr. (1983) Strategic Planning as Pragmatic
Adaptation Planning for Higher Education, Vol. 12, No. 1
(fall1983).
National Universities Commission (1983) A Summary of
minimum Academic standards, Lagos
National Universities Commission (1999), the role of
Academic Planning units in Nigerian Universities.
National Universities commission (2004) service charter,
servicom handbook
Okebukola, P (2006) ‘the State of Nigerian Universities:
Repositioning Higher Education in Nigeria’
Heinman Educational Books (Nigeria) Plc.
Oliver A. I. (1965) Curriculum Improvement; A guide to
Problems, Principles and Procedures. New York:
Dodd Mead and Company.
Okojie, J. A. (2010) Policy Directives at the System Level –
NUC response over the years.
Ramon Yusuf, S (2003) The role of the National
Universities commission in Quality Assurance in
Nigerian Universities
Uvah, I.I (2002) the Functions of the Academic Planning
Units in University Development.

393
 Chapter 20
The Concepts of Education and Curriculum
Development in Nigeria
by
Dr. (Mrs.) Justina C. Ekwuru
&
Nwofor Godpower E.

Meaning of Education
Education is difficult to define as a concept. It has no
universally accepted definition. In attempt to define
education by various experts in different fields; it was rather
realized that such definitions only represent various aspects
of education like schooling, training, and indoctrination and
so on. This situation allows for such a conclusion that there
is no definition of education that is agreed upon by most or
even all educators. The meanings educators attach to the
word are complex beliefs arising from their own values and
experiences. The experiences of students in today’s
classroom can never be the same. The implication is that
teachers should highlight different definitions and examine
them for validity, since the definitions change with people,
place and time. However definition of education can be
better comprehended with regard to its purpose and
functions.
The word “education” is derived from the Latin words
“Educere” which means “to lead out” and “Educare” which
means “to bring up”. From the first word “leading out” could
394
be a joint role played by the family, school and society. It
implies that all the experiences with regards to training
offered to the youth by any of the above to make them useful
to themselves and society constitute education. From the
second word “to bring up” education is seen as a continuous
process of helping each individual to be capable of living
good life and be useful to the society in which he lives.
According to Webster’s Dictionary, education is the bringing
up, as of a child, as of instruction and formation of manners.
Education comprises all the series of instruction and
discipline which is intended to enlighten the understanding,
correct the temper, and form the manners and habits of
youths, and fit them for usefulness in their future stations.
Education describes the total process of human learning by
which learning is imparted, faculties trained and skills
developed. In the actual sense, the society depends on
education for developing and training her citizens. It also
depends on education for achieving its needs, aspirations and
valves. Education is like master key for changing the
behavior patterns of members of the society. Simply put,
education is capable of changing the learner’s overt actions.
A renowned educationalist, Peters (1996) sees education as a
process by which children are initiated into what is worth
while. He believes that it s a process of initiation of the
young into the culture or values of the society. Peters likened
education to some forms of cultural festivals in traditional
African society where every individual is usually initiated.
Education is a life-long process in all ramifications.
Another renowned educationalist O’ Conor (1968) says that
education is regarded as a process by which society
395
deliberately transmits its cultural heritage to generations
through schools, colleges and other tertiary institutions. This
can take place both in and outside classroom.
Farrant (1980) asserts that education is the society’s cultural
reproductive system. It is through education, society
reproduces itself by passing on its main characteristics to the
next generation. Farrant (1980) in his context likened
education to genetic processes which is complicated and is
transferred from one generation to another. Education in this
sense is being influenced by political, economical and social
forces acting on the mechanism, creating people different
from the subsequent ones yet preserves the family likeness
and keeps the society going.
From these definitions of education, it could be summarized
as a process of inducting the young ones into the culture of
their society. Fafunwa (1974) believes that the objectives of
African education is to produce an individual who is honest,
respectful, skilled, co-operative and conforming to the social
order of the day. Education whether through formal way or
informal way broadens one’s mental horizons, develops the
child’s latent physical and intellectual skills, helps to acquire
vocational training, develops healthy attitude and sense of
belonging and to participate actively in family and
community affairs. With education, one learns to relate
positively to the members of his community and helps to
promote the cultural heritage of their community where he
lives.
Education can be summarized as a lifelong learning process
through which an individual born in a society learns the
ways of life as to function effectively and live in harmony
396
with people. The ways of life include knowledge, skills,
competences, values of the society at home, community and
in school.
Purpose of Education
The primary purpose of education is preserving and
transmitting the cultural heritage to the young. This implies
that the good element of the culture must be inherited,
maintained and passed on to the younger generation and also
transform the cultural heritage by assisting the learner to
participate in the cultural heritage that has been preserved. If
the need arises for a change in the culture the learner should
be able to transform the culture or effect meaningful change
where necessary which will fundamentally form new life.
Pollard (2004) supports the view of Farrant (1980). He stated
that one of the functions of education is the production and
reproduction of a national culture. He highlighted an
example of cultural production from that of USA in the 2oth
century where the educational system was required to
assimilate and integrate successive group of new immigrants
with an American culture. The educational system was seen
as a vital part of the “meeting point”. Though there was a
single American culture but the notion of existence of a set
of central values was important in the period of the
development of USA. The implication is that it cost a lot to
use education to develop and assert a national culture but
usually the cost is borne by the minority or less powerful
group. He highlighted another example from British
experience where argument and influence of Arnol (1989)
helped to define the traditional classical curriculum that
remains influential today.
397
However, in many parts of the world e.g. in Nigeria, Hausa,
Ibo, Yoruba, the use of an education system for the
production of a sense of a shared national identity is
common. Senses of shared national identity is maintained
through education irrespective of diverse culture and
multilingual structure of the country. Education is also used
to support the society’s political structure hence there is
different regional identity or political zones in Nigeria.
Education plays a major role in producing and reproducing
culture of any society.
Education could be used to achieve social justice. The
concern of education for social justice is seen in its desire to
ensure that there is an acceptable and legitimate
opportunities and allocating job in democratic societies and
for facilitating social mobility. For instance in Nigeria, quota
system was adopted in education, political and employment
into Federal parastatals.
Another important area of great concern to education is
Wealth Creation. This is achieved through economic
production in the nation. The economics of education is still
a flourish area of policy and research. For instance in Nigeria
the link between education and economic productivity are
constantly being drawn by the government with particular
attention to the standard of basic skills achieved in the
schools. The desire to train individual with basic skills called
for introduction of entrepreneurship education into the
school system. (Duru, 2011)

398
The Definition of Curriculum
The word “Curriculum” is derived from a Latin word
‘Currere’ meaning “ race course” or “race track” through
which one (competitor) runs in order to reach a desired
destination to win a prize. In the usual Latin usage, it is
derived as “currere” which means “to run”. It means “a
running course”, race itself, a race ground or a career, a run
way or a course which one runs to reach a target. It is also
used as a track especially when it is taken to mean course of
study which students pursue and complete for targets which
is inform of high grades, honours, certificates and other
forms of award. Curriculum deals with education issues
which demand knowledge of other fields of endeavour such
as philosophy, psychology, sociology, technology,
measurement and evaluation (Duru, 2011),
Initially, curriculum was literally conceived in
education as course of study comprising well defined ground
to be covered by a given group of learners in other to be
promoted or awarded a certificate. With time, Curriculum
experts and other educators started having divergent view on
what precisely the ground to be covered by learners should
be. This controversy led to catalogue of definitions based on
different philosophical positions of experts in the field and
authors.
The term curriculum is used in a number of different ways
by parents, educators and businesses. Curriculum experts-
over the years have not come to a consensus on the
definition of curriculum. These controversy led to a
catalogue of definitions of curriculum based on different

399
philosophical positions of experts in the field and authors.
Some definitions of curriculum include:
Good (1959) in Obasi & Kanno (2002) defines curriculum in
three ways:
1. A systematic group of courses or subjects required for
graduation or certification in a major field of study, for
example, social studies curriculum, physical education
curriculum.
2. A general overall plan on the content or specific
materials of instruction that the school should offer the
student by way of qualifying him for graduation or
certification or for entrance into a professional or
vocational field.
3. A group of courses and planned experiences which a
student has under the guidance of the school.
Curriculum is the totality of learning experiences provided to
students so that they can attain general skills and knowledge
at a variety of learning sites.
Lawton (1975:6) sees curriculum as a “selection”. He opined
that for the interest of social justice, all people should be
exposed to a selection from a common culture. He stated that
certain aspects of our way of life, knowledge, attitude and
values are regarded as so important that the transmission to
the next generation is not left to chance in our society but is
entrusted to specially trained professionals (teachers) in
elaborate and expensive institutions (school). This definition
also implies that curriculum cannot be viewed in a vacuum

400
or as a value - free enterprise, but must be embedded in
society. Hence the curriculum is a product of society.
Taba (1962) sees curriculum as consisting of all the
experiences offered to the learners under the auspices of the
school whether planned, or not. This implies that those
curriculum elements or components projected by Taba
(1962) are goals and objectives; content or subject matters;
learning experiences and evaluation. An analysis of any
school curriculum will reveal implicitly or explicitly a set of
educational objectives, content, the appropriate learning
experiences and the means of establishing the extent to
which indicated objectives had been achieved.
Tanner and Tanner (1980) see curriculum as the planned and
intended learning outcomes formulated through the
systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experience
under the auspices of the school for the learners willful
growth in personal social competence.
Wheeler (1967) construes curriculum as planned experiences
offered to the learners under the guidance of the school. This
definition restricted curriculum to be only things done under
the guidance of the school.
Doll (1978) construes curriculum as the formal and informal
content and process by which learners gain knowledge and
understanding, develop skills and attitudes, appreciation and
values under the auspices of that school.
Onwuka (1981) supporting this general consensus stated that
curriculum embraces meaningful experiences and purposeful

401
activities provided and directed by educational institutions to
achieve predetermined goals.
Esu (1995) stated that the country uses its school curriculum
content to produce various kinds of manpower needed in all
fields of endeavour in the country. In addition to production
of manpower, school curriculum reflects the culture, real life
experience, needs, interest and aspiration of that society. It
can also be stated that the school curriculum is the means
through which the objectives of education based on the
aspiration and needs of the society are achieved.
Krug (1957) construes curriculum as that which consists of
all the means of instruction used by the school to provide
opportunities for students learning experience leading to the
desired outcome.
Bobbit (1918) defines curriculum “as series of the things
which children and youth must do and experience by way of
developing abilities to do the things well that make up the
affairs of adult life and to be in all respects of what adult
should be”. In this definition, the writer determined
curriculum objectives based on the skills and knowledge
needed by adults.
The school curriculum is defined as all the planned activities
which a school wants its students to have, so that the
students at the end of schooling would have realized the
optimum development to function in their social
environment (Awotua Efebo 1999).

402
Tyler (1949) defines curriculum as “all of the learning of the
students which is planned and directed by the school to
attain its educational goals”.
Cashwell and Campbell (1935) defined curriculum as “all
the experiences children have under the guidance of
teachers”.
It was Hass (1980) who tried a more comprehensive
definition of curriculum than others. According to him, he
defined curriculum as all of the experiences that individual
learners have in a programme of education whose purpose is
to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives which
is planned in terms of framework of theory and research or
past and present professional practice.
Whichever definitions above, all of them insist that
curriculum is directed or planned, which would involve other
things like the school syllabus; scheme of work; notes of
lessons; methods of assessment and evaluation and
promotion of pupils; teachers and other staff to do the job to
achieve the set goals; and the learner around whom the
curriculum revolves.
Curriculum Development in Nigeria
Curriculum development and curriculum planning can be
used interchangeably. Curriculum development can be
explained as the use of best methods and application of new
materials as decided during the planning stage to design
learning experiences (curriculum) to make sure that effective
learning as well as effective ways of evaluating the process
of specific learning has taken place. (Onwuka, 1996). It

403
could be explained as the actual building of curriculum
materials which must be the product of the decision reached
at the planning stage. Basically one cannot develop in a
vacuum but can develop what has been in existence or
planned; so curriculum planning proceeds curriculum
development, followed by curriculum implementation.
The curriculum materials to be used in developing the
curriculum include; textbooks, journals, reference books,
students workbooks, teachers guide, posters etc and non-
printed materials e.g. maps, charts, pictures, models,
projected and electronic materials such as film strips,
microscope, over head projectors, slides, electronic
materials etc. Syllabus and suggestion about teaching
methods, evaluation techniques and strategies are included
as curriculum materials. Curriculum is used as a basis for
curriculum development. This is to ensure that whatever that
is developed can be effectively utilized for the programme.
(Obasi, 2009)
To determine the suitability and reliability of whatever is
developed in achieving the objectives (for which it was
developed); it has to undergo trial testing, after trial testing,
some adjustment can be made based on the performance.
This implies that curriculum development involves the
whole process of designing and redesigning curriculum
materials, trying them out, collating and synthesizing data
emanating from trial test, utilizing human and material
resources to ensure that objectives of the planned curriculum
are achieved. Basically curriculum development is a
continuous process.

404
Curriculum development is viewed differently by different
groups of people. Esu (2004) says that it could be conceived
as subject matter. That is the development of the curriculum
is based on the various subject areas. For instance, in
colleges and higher institutions, there are college preparatory
curriculum and science curriculum etc. They are usually
grouped together to have a named porogramme of studies.
This concept is the oldest and commonest of the concepts of
curriculum development.
Another concept of curriculum development is school
experiences. Here, the curriculum is not only based on the
subject matter but also on experience which learners should
master. Furthermore, it could be looked at as objective
techniques to be employed. Objectives, therefore, act as a
point of reference throughout the process of curriculum
development.
Curriculum development can be conceptualized as plan.
Aims and objective should be planned. It should be noted
that plans are made before anything is done and it is
necessary to know why one actually wants to plan.
Experience is an essential ingredient here because you need
it to do what you want to do.
Curriculum development moves through a number of stages
depending upon the model. Planning learning opportunities
which are intended to bring about changes in the learners in
terms of awareness of their environment and their attitude
towards it and the assessment of the extent to which these
changes occur is what is known as curriculum development
(Obasi, 2009).

405
The Need for Planning Curriculum Development
There are various reasons why curriculum should be
planned.
1 The most important thing is to guide activity teaching
(Esu 2004). What is real today may be unreal tomorrow.
What is viewed crucially important today may become
obscure and insignificant tomorrow. The educational
programmes should be flexible, open and incomplete in the
sense that as long as changes occur, they must be revised,
extended, redesigned or recorded to embrace new ideas, new
knowledge, new norms, new aspirations and new values.
2. Curriculum development helps the teacher to justify
his position in the classroom and to explain the rationale of
the curriculum. For instance in a developing Nation like
Nigeria where people are bent on knowing what is being
taught and why it is taught. Planning the curriculum helps
the teacher in explaining what he is teaching and why he is
teaching it.
3. Curriculum development helps in selecting from the
vast amount of knowledge stored. Knowledge is vast and
infinite but human capacity to know is limited so that there is
need to select and develop knowledge that is essential and
relevant to humans. It is important that curriculum should be
relevant to the lives of learner especially by learning those
things that are in the real world they live (Obasi, 2009).
It is curriculum planning and development that will reveal
the learning experiences that will be organized and offered to
the learner especially in this era of education for all (EFA),

406
because of tremendous increase in enrollment in the school
system. This situation has also resulted in establishment of
many schools as well as population explosion in existing
schools (Duru, 2011).
Curriculum planning and development are also concerned
with providing opportunities for an individual student to
benefit maximally from participating in selected learning
activities.
Teachers are accountable for knowledge in school and are
responsible for bringing up children. They must establish
and state clearly what they conceive to be important to the
learners. (Ekwuru, 2010)
The school is a vulnerable place in terms of scheduled and
unscheduled visits of the government ministries. It is
therefore necessary that the teacher will have the planned
curriculum with which to defend his activities when he is
bound to do so.
Furthermore, it is important that the teacher who is
responsible for implementing the curriculum should have
sound knowledge of the educational system and the
curriculum. With this the teacher should know things to
support his teaching of any particular subject. These are the
“why”, “what” and “how” of curriculum development and
planning.
Revision Questions
1. State different perfectives on education as given by
different educators

407
2. Explain the purpose and functions of education
3. Explain two major things which could be achieved
through education.
4. Define the term “Curriculum” Justify the definition in
terms of not being too narrow or too broad.
5. State five different perspectives on curriculum as
given by five different educators.
6. Briefly explain what you understand by curriculum
development?
7. Explain briefly five needs of planning curriculum and
development.

References
Arnol, M (1968) Report on Elementary Schools Leader
HMSO
Bobbit, F (1981). The Curriculum Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.
Caswell, Hil & Cambell, D.S (1935). Curriculum
Development New York. Harcourt Brace.

Dell, (1978). Curriculum Improvement and Decision Making

process (4th ed) Boston: Alyn and Bacon.
408
Duru, V.N. (2011) Curriculum Studies: Concepts,
Development and Implementation, Owerri, Avan
Global Publications.
Ekwuru, J.C (2010). Curriculum Development, at Instruction
and Implementation. Owerri; Uzopietro Publishers
and Ultimate Binding.
Esu, A.E.O. (1995) Concept of Curriculum in Philosophy
of Education. Lagos: Obinna and Obiorah Publishing
Company
Fafunwa A.B (1974) History of Education in Nigeria
London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd

Farrant, J. S. (1980). Principles and Practice of Education

(New Ed). Hong Kong: Shech Wah Tong Printing
Press Ltd.
Good, C. V. (ed) (1959) Dictionary of Education. New
York: Mc Graw-hill Company Inc.
Hass, G (1983) Curriculum Planning: A new Approach,
USA; Allyn and Becon Inc
Krug, E.A (1957) The Secondary School Curriculum. New
York Horper and Brothers.
Lawton, D. (1975:6) Class, Lecture and Curriculum.
London: Rutledge

409
Obasi, V.A and Kanno, T.N (2002) Curriculum Process and
Planning Owerri: Bazloz Publishers
Obasi, V.A (2009) Curriculum Design and Strategy, Owerri
Bond Computers
O’ Conner, R.S. (1968) An introduction to Philosophy of
Education, London: Reuthedge and Kegan Paul.
Onwuka, U. (Ed) (1996) Curriculum Development for Africa
Onitsha: Africana Feb. Publisher Ltd.
Peters, R.S (1996) Ethics and Education, Great Britain:
George Alllen and Unwin Ltd
Pollard, A. (2004) Reflective Teaching (2nd ed). London
Continuum.
Taba, H (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and
Practice, New York: Harcourt Brace and World

Tanner, D and Tanner L. N (1980) Curriculum Development

Theory and Practice (2nd ed), New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co. Inc
Tyler, R. W (1949) Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Wheeler, D.K. (1967). Curriculum Process, Great Britain:
Harcourt Bruce and World Inc.

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 Chapter 21
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES IN
EDUCATION
BY
DR. IFEYINWA F. OKORO

INTRODUCTION
Curriculum could be termed those experiences learners
undergo in school. It could be planned or unplanned when
we talk of hidden curriculum.
The curriculum that is being developed here is planned and
organized educational experiences that are set out for the
learners under the guidance and supervision of the school.
The development is in relation to the different levels of
education we have in the nation. A lot of preparations are
made before instruction could take place at classroom level.
It is these preparations that see curriculum development to
be used interchangeably with curriculum planning but they
are not the same; though they are interdependent.

If one wants to teach a particular topic, the lesson note will

give detailed description on how one intends to go about the
teaching. A brief look at the lesson note will show at a
glance the objectives for teaching the lesson. Here, the
teacher thinks of many and varied alternatives that will be
used to achieve the objectives. From these alternatives, the
teacher identifies the most suitable one that can make for
effective lesson delivery as well as create room for
meaningful learning. This is subject to how the teacher
breaks down the topics as well as presents them to the
411
learners for easy comprehension. This is quite different
from curriculum planning which tends to show the process
through which learning experiences are designed for the
purpose of achieving the objectives.
Developing curriculum cannot be successfully achieved
without the use of adequate strategies at the different levels
of education. These strategies are worthy of note for
curriculum to be effectively developed at our different levels
of education – Pre-primary, primary, secondary and tertiary
levels. What are the proper strategies and what are the
things that constitute these educational levels? It is on this
premise that this chapter is set to discuss the following:
 Concept of Curriculum Development
 Meaning of Strategies
 Levels of Education; their Objectives, Characteristics
and Curriculum Development Strategies-:
(i) Pre-primary level
(ii) Primary level
(iii) Secondary level
(iv) Tertiary level

Concept of Curriculum Development

Development simply means to structure compose, build and
interpret. In line with this, curriculum development is a
continuous process of identifying, selecting and arranging
learning opportunities as well as creating curriculum
materials with adequate teaching strategy that arrests the
problem conditions of a particular environment for the
purpose of achieving the stated objectives. Curriculum
development refers to actual implementation of the results of
the decisions reached during curriculum planning (Mkpa in

412
Chukwuebuka, 2012:1) Decisions made in respect to nature,
organization and orientation of the curriculum call for
curriculum development for building, interpreting and
structuring the curriculum based on decision. This clearly
shows that curriculum planning precedes curriculum
development though two of them are inseparable.
Curriculum development therefore is the planning of
learning opportunities intended to bring about certain
changes in the learners and the assessment of extent to which
these changes have taken place (Nichols and Nichols in
Cookey – Gram, 1980). Learning experiences are made
available for use after having put them into text and non-text
materials. Putting them into these forms leads to creation,
construction, building and production of the materials. This
is called curriculum development. It is therefore the creation
or production of new curriculum materials for utilization in
the implementation of the curriculum that has been planned
(Mkpa and Izuagba in Obiefuna 2005:89). In addition to
this, Offorms (1994) opined that curriculum development is
the term used to describe the creation of curriculum
materials that are products of curriculum planning. This is to
say that aspects of curriculum development, among others,
includes; developing syllabus for all school subjects at all
educational levels, recommendations and suggestions on
methods of teaching, textbooks, non-text materials, are all
elements of curriculum development. Curriculum
development is a decision-making process that explains;
what to teach and reason for teaching it, with how to
evaluate the learning outcomes. It also identifies strategies to
use at different levels of education. Assess the extent a
strategy is able to help in achieving its purpose.

413
Curriculum development generates a package which directs
and guides the teacher in the acquisition of appropriate skills
and competencies for developing ideas and thoughts. These
skills and competencies will help in proffering solutions
thereby making the curriculum relevant to the environment.
Our country, today, is faced with many and varied problems
which education is supposed to be the instrument for solving
them. Yet, these problems magnify the more, thereby
creating a state of total disappointment. The only solution to
this is education through developing a responsive curriculum
for use in the society; in line with National Policy of
Education. Increase in the awareness of educational
problems by the curriculum experts’ results in broadening
the concept of curriculum development. This will lead to the
use of variety of curriculum development strategies at
different educational levels.

Curriculum development ensures that planned learning

opportunities are presented to the learners for the
achievement of desired change in behaviour. This desired
change in behaviour is made possible by the teacher through
the use of strategies for curriculum development. This is to
say that studying and breaking the curriculum and syllabus
contents for the school subjects at the various levels of
education in addition to decisions made on teaching methods
and strategies; as well as instructional materials are all
subsumed in curriculum development. The strategies will be
those that will conform to circumstances, situations and the
change in the behaviour of the learners. What exactly are
these strategies?

414
Meaning of Strategies:
Strategies are plan of actions intended to accomplish stated
objectives. It is a process of carrying out a plan in a skillful
way. If the method is well planned and the implementation
skillfully handled then the achievement of the set objectives
is almost guaranteed. Take for instance, a teacher may wish
to teach his students using lecture method. This teacher does
not want his class to be a dull one. The teacher will decide
to have a plan of action geared towards accomplishing the
stated objectives. This plan of actions is called strategies.
The teacher, right from the introduction of the lesson, may
decide to use interesting short stories, pictures, charts and
concrete or real objects to derive at the topic of the lesson.
Coming to the main teaching, the teacher uses examples and
illustrations to bring home certain terms. The teacher uses
demonstration and body gestures to clarify issues. He
moderates the pace if the tone of his voice is looking boring.
The teacher uses questions intermittently to assess the extent
of the understanding of the concept by the learners. He
entertains questions from the learners as well as clarifies
issues for the learners understanding. If the above are well
taken care of, learning must take place and the class will not
be dull. All these are strategies to ensure that a dull class or
moment is not entertained throughout the lecture.
Strategy therefore is a complex behaviour used by the
teacher to implement a method’ (Obiefuna, Okoro and
Iwuamadi, 2010:72). Strategies are a plan, or series of
actions designed to effect a specific change. It is the
determination of Long-run objectives and adoption of course
of action and the allocation of resources necessary for
carrying out these goals. (Chander, 1962).

415
Strategy is the pattern of objectives, purposes, or goals and
the major policies and plans for achieving these goals, stated
in such a way as to define what the programme is in or is to
be in and the kind of programme it is or is to be (Andrew,
1971). It is important to identify this complex behaviour as
it relates to the different levels of education. What then are
these levels with their objectives and characteristics?

Levels of Education: Their Objectives, Characteristic

and Curriculum Implementation Strategies:

Levels of Education:
According to Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014), four main
levels of education are recognized and used. Ranging from
the least, they are ;
i. The pre-primary level
ii. The primary level
iii. The secondary level
iv. The tertiary level
They all have different objectives, attributes and
characteristics, as well as different curriculum
implementation strategies. These are discussed below:

1. Pre-Primary Level:
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014) sees Pre-Primary /early
childhood as the education given to children in an
educational institution prior to their entering the Primary
school. It includes the crèche, the nursery and the
kindergarten. Among the government responsibilities to pre-
primary education is contribution to the development of
suitable curriculum.

416
a.) Objectives of Pre-Primary Education
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014:8) advocates Preprimary
Education for the achievement of the following objectives;
 Effect a smooth transition from the home to the school
 Prepare the child for the primary level of education
 Prepare adequate care and supervision to the children
while their parents are at work (on the farms, in the
markets, offices, etc)
 Inculcate social norms
 Inculcate in the child, the spirit of enquiry and creativity
through the exploration of nature, the environment, art,
music and playing with toys, etc.
 Develop a sense of co-operation and team-spirit
 Learn good habits, especially good health habits; and
 Teach the rudiments of numbers, letters, colours, shapes,
forms, etc through play.
The above objectives point at the type of curriculum the
children at this level of education should be exposed to. Take
for instance; one of the objectives is “to prepare the child for
smooth transition to primary level of education”. This shows
that the components of pre-primary school curriculum
should essentially not be more detailed than the component
of the primary school curriculum. Again, considerations
need to be given to the relevant theories of pre-primary
learning and learning – style as well as the intellectual
development of the child at this level. These call for
characteristics of this level of education.

b.) Characteristics of Pre-Primary Education Children

Here, the child’s muscles are soft and bones are flexible.
The child needs knowledge of independent elimination of
417
urine and feaces. Has simple and spontaneous emotional life
and is born blank but the environment fills his brain. The
child enjoys play activities using objects, he is creative and
dramatic and has short concentration span. He does not
benefit from prolonged teaching. ‘He enjoys fairy-tales,
makes beliefs and fantasies, very skillful in activities
involving movements rather than fine co-ordination. The
child can run, jump, walk orderly climb chairs, dwarf walls,
tables, likes drawing and painting, is very egocentric, and
likes playing with peers. He/she is closer to those who pet
him’ (Unachukwu, 1989, 35-37). The two stages of
development concerned in the above are the preoperational
and intuitive periods, (Chukwuebuka, 2012).

c.) Strategies for Curriculum Development at the Pre-

primary Level:
The focus in developing curriculum at this level should be
what the child loves and admires. Curriculum developer’s
creative initiative becomes necessary but must base whatever
he does on the child’s developmental characteristics. The
child likes play activities with objects, is creative and
dramatic hence, curriculum developer’s imaginative ability
should depict these for the curriculum materials to be
adequate for the instruction. Federal Republic of Nigeria
(2004:9) identifies that “the main method of teaching at this
level shall be through play and that curriculum of teacher
education must be oriented to achieve this with teacher pupil
ratio as 1:25” This shows that theories of pre-primary school
learning, sub-theory of learning and sub-theory of learning
by doing, by demand that the child be granted every
opportunity to do things him/herself. Teachers’
reinforcement to the children through rewards and praises is
418
necessary whenever they perform well. Thus the need for
enough play grounds, toys made with community and local
materials such as dolls, balls, counters, motorcars, etc should
be provided to facilitate their motor and manipulative skill
developments as well as the child’s spirit of enquiry and
curiosity.
For the production of textbooks, FRN (2014) advocates
production of textbooks in Nigeria languages. It is important
to point out that the textbooks should be related to the
language used as well as made to correspond with the
children’s level. The text should have the following
features; bold print, enough spacing, attractive colour,
picture illustrations be made to rhyme with the children’s
age and interest. All are in the bid to make the learners
participate actively in the teaching-learning situation.

Preprimary education needs very strong foundation because

it forms the bases for other educational levels. Thus the
need for well articulation, structuring and organization of the
curriculum development strategies at this level of education.
The curriculum should recognize activities that make for
creative imagination of the learners as well as manipulative
and motor skills. Exploration of the environment should be
made through the teaching of science subjects as well as
health and moral education.
The strategies for curriculum development should aim to
develop other competencies such as ability to interact with
fellow children and adults, developing the skills of 3Rs
(reading, writing and arithmetic) and problem solving so as
to be able to make decisions.
Other strategies for curriculum development for pre-school
level could be visualized as follows:
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Content: This means subject matter to be taught to the
learners. Content is knowledge, skills, attitudes and values
to be learned. ‘It is regarded as a body of knowledge that
has been systematically organized over the years through
meaningful experiences of life activities which comprise
facts, theories, laws, principles, values, processes, events,
generalizations, skills and competencies.’ (Duru, 2011:162).
To impart content to the pre-primary school children, the
teacher has to present the content holistically so that the
children will learn holistically. Objects are presented as a
whole during instruction.

Instructional Materials:
These are information careers designed specifically to
accomplish objectives in a teaching-learning situation. At
pre-primary education level, the teacher provides
instructional materials with the help of the learner using
community materials. Learners are made to provide the
materials themselves with the help of the family members.
The curriculum should therefore make provision for pre-
school readers training, guide for lead trainers, training
manuals for early child care anthology of local songs and
lyrics; training modules should also be developed
(Agusiobo, 2004). Furthermore, he noted that;
Strategies and techniques should
include demonstration, discussion,
interaction, story-telling and play way
method. Through plays, they develop
muscular co-ordination and control, as
well as ability to think and reason. Also
are various activities to encourage and
420
 include use of songs, toys, charts,
pictures posters, colours, shapes and
textures identification. Again is
provision for assessment based on
objectives and content in the curriculum
development courts (29-32).

These strategies need to include members of the community

to participate in the educational affairs of pre-primary
education level. This participation surfaces in the form of
supervision of the resources and facilities, building and
equipping facilities, production and supply of local toys and
other materials, finance and material donations etc. All these
will go to a great extent for the realization of the stated
objectives.
Included in the strategies is the creation and utilization of
stories that are persistent and educative, provision of varied
apparatus for different activities.
Diagrams and pictures help in arousing curiosity and interest
and should be made to form important part of the
curriculum. It is therefore at the hand of the teacher to make
the implementation very meaningful for the children to learn
Children’s development of love for school as well as making
school their second home. This is greatly dependent on the
teacher’s manner of approach and instructional mode.
Short attention span of the children demands that pictures,
concrete objects, diagrams which tend to sustain their
interest should be sufficiently provided for instruction. This
gives room to some activities which among others include
colouring, dancing, singing, modelling, games and
manipulation of objects in relation to relevant activities.
There is encouragement of inquisitiveness, curiosity,
421
inventiveness, innovativeness as well as initiative in the
learners.

2.) The Primary Level:

This is the education given in
institutions for children aged 6 to 11
plus. Since the rest of the education
system is built upon it, the primary
level is the key to the success or
failure of the whole system. The
duration shall be six years (FRN,
2014:11).

Formal education starts from primary level.

a.) Characteristics of Primary School Children:

The child’s parts of the body increase in size and are more
functional. The sense organs, muscles and brains are more
matures; bones increase in size and become harder. The
child manipulates objects conveniently and active in motor
activities, learns to be independent and self-reliant. The
child can learn more now than learning only in one direction,
is logical and can make corrections on issues. These
children are in concrete operational stage.

b.) Objectives of Primary Education

Federal Republic of Nigeria FRN (2014:11) has the
following as objectives of Primary Education:
a. Inculcate permanent literacy and numeracy, and
ability to communicate effectively;
b. Lay a second bases for scientific and reflective
thinking;
422
 c. Give citizenship education as the bases for effective
participation in and contribution to the life of the
society;
d. Mould the character and develop sound attitude and
morals in the child;
e. Develop in the child, the ability to adapt to the child’s
changing environment;
f. Give the child opportunities for developing
manipulative skills that will enable the child function
effectively in the society within these limits of the
child’s capacity;
g. Provide the child with basic tools for further
educational advancement including preparation for
trades and crafts of the locality
FRN (2014:11-12) identified certain subjects to be taught at
this level for the realization of the above stated objectives
They are:
1. Language – Language of the environment, English,
French and Arabic
2. Mathematics
3. Science
4. Physical and Health Education
5. Religious knowledge
6. Agriculture/Home Economics
7. Social studies and Citizenship Education
8. Culture and Creative Arts (Drawing, Handicraft
music and Cultural Activities
9. Computer Education

423
Strategies for Curriculum Development at the Primary
Level:
For primary level of education, the Federal and or State
Ministries of Education plan and develop the curriculum.
Strategies used in developing curriculum at this level of
education are identified in-relation to the characteristics of
the learner such as maturity, period of schooling, as well as
psychological and social factors. It is in line with this that
this chapter comes up with these strategies;
Content, which is what is administered to the learner should
be made to relate to the culture of not only the society but
also the learner. Various subjects should be made to have
contents that relate to cultural differences of the nation. The
curriculum developer here plans and organizes curriculum
experiences for presentation in a sequential order for
meaningful learning to take place.
The need for the learner to acquire knowledge and
experiences on variety of ethnic and cultural issues calls for
opportunities to be provided the learners for adequate
interaction for meaningful learning. Relevant and significant
textbooks that are well written to reflect the contents of the
curriculum should be used to develop the curriculum at this
level. The textbooks have to be authentic as to
accommodate emergent issues of science and technology as
well as the environmental culture.
Primary school age should be taught using textbooks that
rhyme with the age. The prints of the materials used such as
writings, drawings, and pictures of graphic materials should
be made to be bold. This will enable the children to see and
read them easily.
The needs of the society and that of the learner are very
important to be considered. Curriculum developer should
424
know that consideration should be given to them because if
the curriculum is developed outside these needs, nothing will
be achieved. They form the basis for adequate
comprehension of materials of the instruction.
Consideration also needs to be given on how the instruction
is organized in relation to contents and learning experiences.
The principle of continuity should come into use by ensuring
that content and learning experiences are made to be
continuous and should relate the past to the present and the
present to the future. These contents and learning
experiences should be made to have increasing difficulty
from the lower classes to the higher classes. For instance in
teaching a topic like personal hygiene, the curriculum
developer should handle it in such a way that primary one
learns it with songs and demonstration using pictures that
would bear it. In primary two, efforts should be made to
identify those activities by listing them on the board which
the learners will copy and guide to read them, as well as
encourage them to implement these at home, using the
needed materials. These contents and learning experiences
should be made to proceed from known to unknown, simple
to complex, concrete to abstract. This is referred to as the
principle of sequence.
Another principle to be utilized in developing curriculum at
this level is the principle of integration. Here the knowledge
of curriculum contents from one subject area is used in the
develop of other contents in other subject areas of the
curriculum so that they reinforce one another. It is the
organization of learning experiences in such a way that the
learners see the relationship among various subjects. This
helps the learners to get a unified view of learning
experiences treated in the various areas of the curriculum.
425
For instance, skills of addition, division, multiplication,
subtraction, factorizing, expanding etc, in quantitative
problems and mathematics can be transferred in solving
problems in other subjects areas such as chemistry, physics,
Economics, Ecology, Commerce, etc.
The scope of curriculum at this level of education should be
made to be comprehensive as to instill in the learners many
skills that will make them adjust well in the society. If this
level becomes their terminal level of education they can still
be useful in the society by employing the little knowledge
they acquired in the primary level.

Instructional materials depict information specifically made

for the instruction. Curriculum developer should have
adequate knowledge of the learners’ age, needs, and interests
to help facilitate the development of the curriculum. Non-
projected materials are mostly used to teach at this level and
should therefore be made to come from the materials of the
community. Awareness should be created to the members of
the community as to the production and supply of the
community resources to the school.

Many meaningful strategies and methods that rhyme with

the age should be used for instruction. This level needs to be
kept active and curious during instruction. Methods such as
simulation, dramatization, inquiry, individualized
instruction, story-telling and project methods are very
suitable at the primary level of education (Mbakwem, 2005).
They should always be employed for teaching and learning.
Curriculum developer at this stage should ensure that things
that have to be done that would make curriculum objectives
to be realized would effectively be carried out.
426
3.) The Secondary level:
Later part of basic education i.e. junior secondary education,
is subsumed under secondary education level. The duration
is three years with the same characteristics and objectives of
secondary education level. Secondary education is the
education children receive after primary education and
before tertiary stage. It broadly aims at preparing the
individual for useful living within the society and for higher
education (FRN, 2014:14). It is six year duration of
education given in two stages – a junior secondary school
stage and a senior secondary school stage: Each shall be of
the three years duration. Specifically, this level of education
has additional specific objectives, which include:
1. Provide all primary school leavers with the opportunity
for education of a higher level, irrespective of sex, social
status, religious or ethnic background;
2. Foster National unity with a desire for self improvement
and achievement of excellence;
3. Inspire students with a desire for self improvement and
achievement of excellence;
4. Provide trained manpower in the applied science,
technology and commerce at sub-professional grades;
5. Develop and promote Nigerian languages, art and culture
in the context of world’s cultural heritage;
6. Provide technical knowledge and vocational skills
necessary for agricultural, industrial, commercial and
economic development.

a.) Junior Secondary School:

The junior secondary school shall be both
pre-vocational and academic. It shall be
427
 universal and compulsory, shall teach
basic subjects which will enable people to
acquire further knowledge and skills.
Every student shall offer a minimum of ten
and a maximum of 13 subjects, (FRN,
2004:15).

FRN further grouped the school subjects at this level into

three. Group ‘A’ as core subjects, group ‘B’ as prevocational
electives and group ‘C’ as non-prevocational electives. The
students are to study all subjects in group ‘A’ and at least
one subject each from groups B and C.

b.) Senior Secondary School:

FRN (2014:16) viewed that;
The Senior Secondary School shall be
comprehensive with a core-curriculum
designed to broaden pupils’ knowledge
and out-look. The subjects are divided into
group ‘A’ called ‘core’ subjects of 6
subjects, group ‘B’ – vocational Electives
of 18 subjects and group ‘C’ Non-
vocational electives of 16 subjects. Every
student will study all the 6 core subjects in
group ‘A; and a maximum of one and a
maximum of 2 from the list of elective
subjects in groups ‘B’ and ‘C’ to give a
minimum of 7 and a maximum of 8
subjects. One of the three elective subjects
may be dropped in the last year of senior
secondary school course.

428
c.) Characteristics of Secondary Education Children:
The children here are from 12 years and above. They begin
to forget specific properties of objects and now go beyond
concrete situations. The child now reasons in abstract,
becomes logical and deductive. This abstract reasoning
makes this stage of development to be called Formal
operational stage. The child’s thought process is systematic
and well integrated. They can learn abstract subjects.
They need work centered on problem-solving, brain-
storming, discovery and project method. They should be
allowed enough freedom to make their own judgments.
Debates are useful. Democratic atmosphere should be
maintained (Igboabuchi: 1989:84).

d.) Strategies for Curriculum Development at the

Secondary Level:
It should be noted that the curriculum here is formulated by
the ministries of education in conjunction with appropriate
examination bodies. Curriculum developers should select
appropriate contents and learning experiences and ensure
that they are well organized in relation to the principles of
continuity, sequence, integration and scope to achieve the
stated objectives.

It is important to identify here that vocational and technical

subjects are rooted in practicals. Curriculum developers
should greatly emphasize on this making sure that a lot of
practicals dominate the classrooms with demonstration
method.
More important is considering some areas taught to the
students such as shoe making, farm work, mechanic work,
electricity work, engineering, etc. There is the need for well
429
experienced individuals to be made to give their expert
advice and instructions from time to time in the development
of the curriculum. Excursions should be organized regularly
for the students to see active workshops on vocational and
skill training practices taking place. The students should be
made to interact with the resource persons.

Curriculum development centers should ensure that Federal

guidelines are translated into specific subject areas and
represented in syllable. Also production of text materials
should be adequately made with attendant recruitment of
qualified teachers in the needed areas. Resource materials
including those of the community should also be sufficiently
provided.

It is the duty of the principals and heads of various subject

departments and some supporting staff to develop scheme of
work, some curriculum materials and schedules for teaching
and learning. Teachers are key agents in curriculum
implementation. They should be made to develop scheme of
work, unit plans, lesson plans and notes as well as
evaluation. Instruments (Okoro, Emenyonu & Akaranye
2012; and Chukwuebuka, 2012). The above will make for
meaningful teaching as well as help in the realization of the
set objectives.
Under evaluation, curriculum developer should ensure that
mode of evaluation of students’ achievement as well as the
curriculum is adequately determined in relation to the stated
objectives.

430
4. Tertiary Level of Education
This is education given after secondary education in
universities, colleges of education, polytechnics and those
institutions offering correspondence courses (FRN, 2014).

a.) Objectives of Tertiary Education:

a. Contribution to national development through high
level relevant manpower training;
b. Development and inculcation of proper values for the
survival of the individual and the society
c. Developing the intellectual capability of individuals
to understand and appreciate their local and external
environments;
d. Acquisition of both physical and intellectual skills
which will enable individuals to be self reliant and
useful members of the society;
e. Promoting and encouraging scholarship and
community service,
f. Forging and cementing of national unity; and
g. Promotion of national and international understanding
and interaction. (FRN, 2014:28)
The above objectives clearly identify, among others that the
needs of the nation such as; production of manpower
updating their knowledge, recruitment of adequate number
of qualified graduate teachers with educational personnel
who are competent and can solve the problems of the nation,
be it educational, technological, economical and social
problems are deliverable through visual and well education
programmes.
The above tends to relate to the observations of Fafunwa in
Amadi and Obiefuna (2005) that at tertiary education level,

431
the curriculum developer should strive to meet the
following conditions:
I. Prepare the students for citizenship
II. Prepare needed high level manpower in all important
fields of study
III. Make African culture the base for all the training
IV. Should reconnect the African personality which
witnessed considerable disorientation during the
colonial era.

b.) Strategies for Curriculum Development at the

Tertiary Level.
It is important to note that for the tertiary institutions in
Nigeria, the National Commission for Colleges of Education
in the country formulates curriculum for all the colleges of
education in Nigeria. The National Board for Technical
Education (NBTE) formulates the curriculum for the
Polytechnics and related institutions, while the National
Universities commission (NUC) formulates curriculum for
the universities.
The curriculum developer in consideration of the
characteristics of the students and objectives to be achieved
at this level should endeavour to do the following;
I. Make adequate use of history of the curriculum
development at this level ranging from the past
experiences, to the present and then making a better
provision for the future.
II. Ensure that the demands of the society are met. Focus
on the development of the aspirations or desires of the
learners, identify meaningful contents with their broad
knowledge in the various fields, and adequately provide

432
 principles of learning to help achieving meaningful
learning.
In considering the fact that human needs differ, new ideas
are received by people from time to time, resulting to the
need to adapt to new situation and knowledge. There should
be continuity in the revision of the curriculum foe
authenticity to be achieved.
It is therefore imperative that, curriculum development at
this level should involve the public who are gaining from the
products of education, the participants who are the learners,
teachers, non teachers, education consumers who are
pupils/students, parents, communities and agencies. Others
are higher education institutions, scientific and research
institutions and other organizations as well as the resource
persons who are referenced (Anwukah, 2011).

Conclusion
Curriculum needs to be developed. This development
considers the needs of not only the learner but also the
society. Again, the different levels of education with their
characteristics and educational objectives that are meant to
be achieved by each level worth consideration by the
curriculum developers.
Strategies for developing curriculum at each level were
clearly identified in relation to what the curriculum
developer should do. Adequate qualified manpower need of
the country worth consideration in terms of production,
recruitment and provision of needed material resources.
The success and failure of our educational system in
achieving the objectives of education greatly depend on
effective utilization of the discussed strategies by the
curriculum developers.
433
Revision Questions
1. What do you understand by curriculum development?
2. Identify the four levels of education we have and
clearly explain any two of them.
3. Briefly discuss the characteristics of primary and
secondary education
4. Success of curriculum development greatly depends
on effective use of the strategies meant for it. Fully
discuss the strategies for developing curriculum at
primary education level.
5. Identify the objectives of tertiary education and
discuss the strategies for developing this level of
education.

References
Agusiobo, B.C. (2004). Early childhood care curriculum
development. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies,
10 (2), 29 -34.

Amadi, R.N. and Obiefuna, C.A. (2005). An overview of

curriculum studies. Owerri: Joe Mankpa Publishers.

Andrew, K. (1971). The concept of corporate strategy.

Homewwod, IL: Irwin.www.foundations of strategy.com

Anwuka, T.G. (2014). Curriculum development for

responsive education in the 3rd world countries.
Theoretical Foundations. Owerri: Cape Publishers.

Chander, A. (1962). Strategy and structure. Cambridge.

MA: MIT Press. WWW.Foundationsofstrategy.com.

434
Chukwuebuka, N.S. (2012). The curriculum development
strategies for all levels of education. Zuba Abuja:
http://ebuka.chesing.blogspot.com/2012/08/The
curriculum development - strategy – for.htmt.Retrieved
22/4/2016.

Cookey – Gam, S.E. (1980). The rudiments of curriculum

development. Calabar: Centaur Pres.

Duru, V.N. (2011). Curriculum studies concepts,

development and implementation. Owerri: Avan Global
Publication.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014). National policy on

education, 4th edition. Lagos: NEADC. Press.

Igboabuchi, B.O. (1989). Theories of development and their

educational implications. G.C. Unachukwu (ed).
Educational Psychology. Owerri: Totan Publishers
Limited.

Mbakwem, J.N. (2005). Curriculum implementation and

instructional plan. Owerri: Up THRUST.

Obiefuna, C.A, Okoro, I.F., Iwuamadi, F.N (2010). Basic

principles and methods of teaching and learning.
Owerri: Career Publishers.

Okoro. I.F, Emenyonu, B.C and Akaraonye, J. (2012).

Essentials of curriculum implementation. IF.Okoro (ed).
Owerri: Domingo Prints.

435
Offorma, G.C. (1994). Curriculum implementation and
instruction. G.C Offorma (ed). Owerri: Uni-World
Educational Publishers Nig. Ltd.

Unachukwu, G.C. (1989). Principles and stages of human

development. G.C. Unachukwu (ed). Educational
Psychology: Theory and practice. Owerri: Totan
Publishers.

436
 Chapter 22
Curriculum and Culture

By
Helen, N. Ibe Ph D

Introduction

This chapter is discussed using cultural basis of curriculum.

Is curriculum in any way based on culture?

Fundamentally, when we teach, we are teaching

culture. Knowledge, skills, and attitudes are all
manifestations of culture and are not somehow immune to it.
Moreover, when we teach, we are passing along not only
what we know, but how we come to know it as well as the
basis for accepting it as useful knowledge, and the values
these represent. Teaching and learning are not only
embedded in culture, they are cultural transmission in action
– the means to culture. In multicultural settings, educators
must take responsibility to both acculturate students and in
the process avoid cultural bias that could impede
instructional goals.

Society as the Basis of Educational Process

It is the value system of the society that underlies the
formulation of education purposes. Besides, the various
aspects of the culture constitute discrete field of knowledge.
Culture therefore produces the needed content for the
curriculum. It select the desirable and worthwhile aspect of
the culture for propagation. Thus, the curriculum represent a
437
continuous insight into the life of the society by the school
with a view to bring about improvement. The emphasis on
aspects of the culture suggest that everything about the
culture cannot for in the school knowledge.
Thereafter, the educational implications of such experience
are explicates and defined as educational purposes. Cultural
universal is likely to create serious problems in a societies
such as Nigeria. An example could be drawn from the
national language policy in Nigeria, which requires
secondary schools to teach some of the practically oriented
subjects such as Igbo language in the mother tongue of the
students for example hausa, igbo, and yoruba. Though the
National Policy on Education (2004) provides a pleasure
justification for this in terms of promoting cultural heritage
and national unity, critics are afraid of the political dangers
of using the curriculum to legitimate the recognition,
dominance of supremacy of three languages. Selection from
the culture of the society as in stage three, is not an easy
task even after all the philosophical and sociological
question. If education is seen to preserve, transmit and
reflect the cultural heritage of a society, then curriculum
may be regarded as a structural series of learning
experiences extended to individuals through education.
Curriculum design, therefore, consider as a first and basic
components needs of the society. It is worthwhile to study
society and see its problems, values and needs at any
particular time. The students’ interest needs and level of
development should be considered by the designer. Societal
needs are subject to change; thus at different times society
will have different needs. For example, technological
improvements have affected home life in such a way that
society now needs instruction in the Information and
438
Communication Technology. Therefore, curriculum should
increase the basic principles of school subjects such as
physics, chemistry and biology.
The objectives of education can be at either national, state or
local level, they may include transmission of culture,
establishing national unity, development of the potential of
the individual, economic efficiency and self fulfillment.
Curriculum development serves as an input component for
curriculum therefore, is a structural series of intended
learning outcome. Curriculum prescribes the results of
instruction. It does not prescribe the means i.e the activities,
materials and even the instructional content to use in
achieving the results. Curriculum indicates what is to be
learned, not why or how it should
be learned. When developing the curriculum, the teacher
must use her knowledge of the basic principles of curriculum
design. She must use the relevant curriculum approaches and
procedures. Each pattern of curriculum organization adopts a
certain idea or scope because it follows certain special
criteria for sequence, continuity and integration. Each pattern
therefore provides for these characteristics in a different
manner, although they are related.
The concept of culture and curriculum has come with
various meaning and definitions by different authors. A
synthesis of all these meaning will put them as embracing all
the activities experienced by an individual learner under the
supervision of the school. School subject curriculum thus
refers
to the group of courses or planned experiences in the proper
sequence designed to prepare an individual. It includes the
following features:

439
  Aims, goals, and objectives emanating from the needs
of the people.
 Subject matter content
 Learning activities
 Evaluation
Since the above is the aim of curriculum and culture is about
the way of life people therefore, culture should be
considered for curriculum development to be success and a
effective implementation. Curriculum has been viewed as
the analysis and study of how schools are created, organized
and made to function. The concept and the field of the
curriculum therefore should not be limited to the purposes,
content and method in educational process. Rather, it should
be
extended to examine those critical factors in the social-
cultural, socio-political, social economic, and social
ecological environment in which schooling takes place.
Consequently, and by its nature, what constitutes the
curriculum is a selection from the culture of the society is a
critical reflection on the peculiarities of the most stable
values of the society, the dynamics of members of the
society and portions of the society’s cultural heritage that
deserves to be propagated.
Culture-curriculum is better understood when
conceptualized in a socio-culture context. In this way, one
attempts to analyze and evaluate the schooling process
against the influence of the numerous forces or factors in the
social environment bearing in mind that the knowledge
which the school transmits derives from sort of ideologists
values, philosophies, beliefs and norms all of which are
peculiar to various social-cultural groups. besides their

440
inability, culture therefore, is the nucleus of curriculum in
any society.
The cultural elements which the school draws from include
the society’s values, Norms religion, beliefs, taboos,
tradition, language, music, customs, occupations, skills arts,
aesthetics and other attributes which are society transmitted
and locally acquired including modes of problem solving. To
this extent, there is nothing that the school teaches that does
not have a base in that society. While appreciating the role of
culture as the source of school knowledge, it is important to
recognize the fact that these cultural elements are not the
same in all cultures neither are they static within culture.
Student’s learning is enhanced when their culture is
respected and reflected in all aspects of the programme.
Programmes must accommodate various learning styles of
students. Student benefit from active, hands-on learning
experiences that include frequent opportunities to make
choices.

As culture is an important context in which student

develop, decisions related to curriculum should naturally
take information about family culture and home language
into account. Culture differences among societies may
account for some observed differences in Educational
policies and practices in these systems. Since the curriculum
cannot exist outside the socio-cultural environment, the
curriculum planner/worker should be fully guided by a good
knowledge of the culture of the society for whom the
curriculum is intended. Culture is a complex whole which
includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, customs and any
other capabilities acquired by man as a member of the
society. It is the sum total of a given society’s way of life
441
molded and shaped by prevailing circumstances and
environment (Ibe, 2009). This implies that culture is not
static but dynamic and it responds to external influences,
which
bring about changes and curriculum development in schools.
In Nigeria, curriculum development in the schools is
greatly influenced by the culture in which the school
situates. It is a process and a flow from theory to practice
and the feed of curriculum stands on the trench hold of
becoming ordered. Curriculum was originally defined as a
cost of study or training and a product. It consists essentially
of disciplined study of command and mother tongue and the
systematic study of grammar, identifying the curriculum as a
finished product or static body of knowledge which caused
curriculum planners great difficulties in the past
(Obasi,2009).

Culture Defined
The term culture actually came into use during the
middle ages. It derived from the Latin word for cultivation.
Culture is the way of life of a social group and it includes
actions, values and beliefs that can be communicated with
necessary modifications from one generation to the
succeeding one. Culture varies from one society to another
and even within the same group of people depending on the
period. This means that culture is not static but dynamic and
it is expressed in terms of human behaviours, shared among
a people and it is learnt rather than inherited. Therefore, the
fundamental aspects of culture as it influences curriculum in
the school system in Nigeria include belief, values, routines
and customs. Therefore, culture or civilization, is that
complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art,
442
morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society. The telling of this
definition is that, culture is actually treated as a list of
elements. The elements of culture, whether materials or non-
materials, can be taught and learnt only through interaction
as members of a group. Culture is shared; that is, it is
practiced by a whole group of people from generation to
generation (Edmundson, 2007).
Culture is maintained or modified through education
by way of curriculum development. This is because where
educational institutions discharge them duties well; they
influence the total life of the society. This is the society’s
culture; and curriculum is a reflection of what people in the
society feel believe and do. What people feel, believe and do
is their culture. Also, it is behaved that curriculum is an
inevitable aspect of education. Therefore, there is no way in
which culture can exist without some curriculum,
particularly in formal setting in education. Formal education
demands the posing of some simple but fundamental
questions such as “What? To whom? When? and How?”
(Wheeler, 1967). These are curriculum questions. In order to
answer these questions, the curriculum planner must be
“compelled to survey and interpret the nature of his own
society, its basic stable values and the areas in which it is
changing (Wheeler, 1967). He must then be very familiar
with the culture of the society being served.
From the foregoing, it seems obvious that curriculum
has (and must have) a firm basis on culture. Indeed, culture
is the substance of education. Culture is to education what
current is to electricity. Any society whose education (and so
its curriculum) is not based on its culture is in danger of
being unrooted and estranged by the social institution on
443
which it should depend for its survival. The social institution
is the school. In discharging its duties, the school (including
all categories of educational institutions) must pay special
attention to the different classes of culture; and educators
themselves must be familiar with how culture is classified.
In effect, culture traits were understood as representing one
of a
series of stages of mental and moral progress culminating in
the rational society of industrializing.
Although most of these prejudices about non -
Western peoples are still with us. Franz Boas, an early
20thcentury anthropologist, was instrumental in this reversal
of perspective and laid out the ground rules for the modern
anthropological orientation of cultural relativism. These
elements rest on four postulates, which directly confront the
evolutionist position that:
1) Cultural aspects of human behaviour are not biologically
or conditioned but are acquired solely through learning.
2) Cultural conditioning of behaviour is ultimately
accomplished through habituation and thus acts through
unconscious process rather than rational deliberation,
although secondary rationalizations are often offered to
explain cultural values.
3) All culture is equally developed according to their own
proprieties and values; none is better, more advanced, or less
primitive than any other.
4) Cultural traits cannot be classified or interpreted
according to universal categories appropriate to “human
nature”. They assume meaning only within the context of
coherently interrelated elements internal to the particular
culture under consideration ( Pincas, 2001).

444
 Therefore, culture is composed of everything
symbolic that we learn. All culture is learned, but not
everything learned is culture. In fact, research has played a
major role in establishing the relationship between culture
and its effects upon human growth and development and of
the effect of socio-economic and social-class influences
upon children’s learning. As a result, the anthropological
meaning of the term “culture” embraces the way of life, the
goals and the mores of people. The work of scientists and
educators in determining the relationship between culture
and what a child will become has significant implications for
the school. Each child must be considered in his particular
social class and cultural environment. The motivation,
growth, socialization of a child’s from the slums will differ
radically from those of a child of the upper or middle class.
In fact, a large number of children in our schools lack in
their cultural environments, experiences upon which the
school puts a premium: and motivation for school learning
differs radically among children from different cultural
environments. Also, the family life of children differs
radically in different cultural environments.

Aspects of Culture in Curriculum Development

The fundamental aspects of culture include beliefs, values,
routines and customs ( Akudolu, 2010).
Beliefs
Every culture has some beliefs which are accepted as true.
These beliefs are sometimes called superstitious beliefs
because of lack of empirical knowledge or lack of scientific
proof. These beliefs are valued and so are accepted by
majority of people in the community. For instance, the Isoko
people of Delta State, Nigeria, believe that when an owl
445
perches on the roof of a house, it portrays death. Also, the
Yoruba believe that if a child sits at the entrance to a room
when it is raining, thunder would strike the child. Also,
among the Ibos of Imo State, Nigeria, people believe that
when you itch your right palm, it shows you will receive a
gift or lose money.
These beliefs are accepted by majority of the people in these
societies or communities but the basis of commitment on
these beliefs varies from individual to individual. These are
some beliefs, which are accepted by individuals irrespective
of the general beliefs of the community. Such beliefs that are
accepted by individuals are referred to as private beliefs as
against the general
beliefs which are regarded as declared beliefs held by a
majority of the people in the community.

Values
Values are those aspects of cultural practices, actions or
objects that are valued in high esteem in the society. The
values of a society are also those aspects of the culture that
society wants to preserve because their traditionally
valued and they want to pass it from generation to
generation. The values of the society are the aspect of the
culture, which is needed in the society.
These aspects of the culture that are valued should be passed
from generation to generation so as to maintain a particular
valid aspect of the culture. For instance, every society
expects adults to get married for procreation to keep the
society moving. An individual in the society may complain
of inability to pay his children’s school fees but will have
money for marrying another wife to have more children or
446
would provide money for the late father’s burial. This is
because the individual could place a higher premium on
either having more children or spending a huge sum of
money for the burial ceremony of his late
father than paying the school fees of his surviving children.
Values and judgments are not only important elements of
culture but they are also relevant to modern society.
Routines and customs
Routines and customs are also very important aspects of
culture. Ezewu (1983) explained that three concept are
interrelated - recipes, routines and customs. Recipes are the
ideas and the understanding about how things should be
done as prescribed by the culture in question. For instance,
different societies have different ways prescribed by their
culture in performing naming, burial, marriage ceremonies
and so on. The above mentioned ceremonies are performed
differently by Isoko, Urhobo and Ijaws of Delta State. The
Hausa, Yorubas and Igbos perform their differently as no
two societies are identical in terms of the culture of the
people.
Routines and customs refer to the actual doings and the
regularities of those cultural actions or elements. Customs
serve as recipes and routines to which people regularly resort
for recurring purposes (Ezewu, 1983).

Cultural Determinants of the Content of Curriculum in

Nigerian Schools
Education is regarded as one of the social institutions of the
society. However, several writers have come up with
different definitions of the term. (Akintunde, 2008) sees
education as the process by which society deliberately
transmit its cultural heritage through schools, colleges,
447
universities and other institutions. This means that the
content of the curriculum in schools must be loaded with
cultural elements of the society.
Consequently, knowledge, which is produced in the school
system, should be firmly grounded in the culture of the given
society. This means that no two societies can have identical
educational system. Since educational system is supposed to
be a reflection of the society’s culture, needs and aspirations,
the nature of the know-ledge available in any given society
should be sought in the nature of a society’s institutions and
culture. This is because knowledge is disseminated and
acquired so that members of the society can improve
themselves and operate the social institutions of the society.
This implies that the culture of a given society reflects the
types of knowledge produced in the society.
If European types of education are based on European
philosophies of education which reflect different national
philosophies about German, French, British, Russian or
Spanish character, it should be obvious that Africans
should secure their cultural identity by fashioning their own
philosophies of education. The structure, content and
methods of education differ from nation to nation in the
advanced world because national educational policies are
formulated in line with the philosophies, values and history
of a people. Arya, Margaryan and Collis (2003) assert that
it is essential that any kind of educational policy and
planning which is a key to development or an eye opener to
the learner’s self-awareness and that of his surroundings
make culture its base. This means that areas of emphasis in
stipulated curricula course outlines and contents must
necessarily reflect or related to the learner’s cultural
heritage.
448
It was found that the major cause of the failure of
colonial/missionary education was that it was not adapted to
the socio-cultural milieu in which it operated. Colonial
education never incorporated valued aspects of the culture as
its base and this is why colonial education has been regarded
as inadequate for Africans in general and Nigerians in
particular.
Culture has been described as a way of life of a
people. There is no culture that is static. Since education has
been defined as cultural transmission, it also plays an
important part in achieving cultural change. This is because
a good education system should have conservative, transitive
and innovative functions as society is not static but dynamic.
Akintunde (2008) asserts that “aspects of society’s culture
which are not found adequate for the survival and progress
of society at any point in time could either be modified or
changed through the process of education. Therefore,
knowledge in every society is relative to time and place. It
therefore means that any good educational system should
imbibe the culture as presented of the people. Therefore, it is
the culture of the society that should determine the
knowledge in the school curriculum. Similarly, the
knowledge that is produced and transmitted through the
process of education is in fact the cultural elements of the
given society. Ezewu (1987) provides a model through
which the different school subjects can be fitted to each of
the elements of culture.
According to Ezewu (1987), culture is made up of
speech, material traits, arts, mythology, scientific know-
ledge, religious practices, family and social practices, real
and personal property has a corresponding body of
knowledge packaged in the components of the school
449
curriculum. This is because there can be no culture without
the knowledge of it by the member of the given society. This
is why different sociologists believe that culture provides the
basis for knowledge both in the society and in the school
curriculum. From the foregoing, one can see that it is the
cultural elements that determine the content of education and
curriculum development in Nigeria. Every child is born into
a society with a culture. The young child is not yet regarded
as a member of the society in Nigeria until he has learnt his
culture through the process of education.

Curriculum development is the planning process of

learning opportunities intended to bring about certain
changes in pupils assessments of the extent to which these
changes have taken place. It is sometime misconstrued with
curriculum planning as stated by Gibbons, (2009). To him,
curriculum planning is one of those terms in education that
are marked by impression and doubts. Many authors use the
term and related ones like curriculum development and
curriculum process without bothering to define them and
show how each differ from the other. Curriculum planning
involves making series of decisions and choices which are
based on values and grounds to be covered to reach the goals
of education. However, curriculum development is the term
used to describe the creation of curriculum materials that are
products of curriculum planning for use by the learner. The
development of syllabus for various subjects at all levels of
education and suggestions about teaching methods,
textbooks, and other instructional materials represent aspects
of curriculum development.

450
Sources of Thinking and Behavior

The sources of influence on thinking and behavior can be

seen as existing at several levels, including human nature,
culture, and personality (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). The
authors have chosen to represent these influences differently
in Figure 1 to highlight an increased complexity and to
emphasize the nature of these constructs as mutually
influencing sources of thought and behavior.

Human nature comprises the assumed commonalities

all humans share because they are members of the same
species – Homo sapiens. People inherit these ways of
thinking and behaving because they result from our genetic
makeup and the constraints this places on how they respond
to the world. These constraints come in the form of sensory
capabilities and other physiological traits, as well as
predispositions toward socialization, for example. Of course,
the human genetic stream diverges and re-converges over
451
time, so the concept of “species” itself is imperfect. But one
can, in practice, see commonalities across the human
species.

Culture includes those ways of thinking and

behaving that are taught by social groups, including family,
friends, community, and work colleagues, developed through
direct interaction but also through exposure to media
(Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Among many other things,
culture includes,

... how people express themselves (including shows of

emotion), the way they think, how they move, how problems
are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how
transportation systems function and are organized, as well as
how economic and government systems are put together and
function. (Hall, 1981, pp. 16-17). Cultural preferences are
strongly embedded because humans are highly social
creatures with strong needs to fit within our groups. There
are many layers of culture, from work and family cultures to
community and regional cultures up to national and even
international cultures based on shared heritage and language.
Culture is learned but is also constrained by human nature.

Unlike human nature, which is inherited, and culture,

which is learned, personality is both learned and inherited.
Individuals within cultures vary in ways that are as dramatic
as the variations across cultures, and one can map similar
personality variations across different cultures. This suggests
that personality is in part a reflection of the natural
variability within human nature and cuts across cultures.
But, also, there is no one-to-one correspondence of
452
personalities across cultures due to the blend of cultural and
natural influences on personality. Some discernable
personalities and even some emotions may be culturally
unique (Kitayama & Markus, 1994).

Together, culture and human nature have a

monumental influence on individual personalities, yet people
are also willful and creative in their responses to the world,
frequently stretching or transcending their natural and
cultural inclinations. And even though they are products of
their cultures, some individuals ultimately have a profound
influence on their cultures; consider the ongoing influence
that individuals like Confucius or Plato have had on
civilizations over thousands of years. Through processes of
natural selection, individuals and cultures may even be seen
as influencing human nature over time. In this way, even
human nature is in a sense “learned.” Prioritizing culture in
education and training goes beyond wanting to be effective
in promoting knowledge acquisition. It is also an ethical
concern.

Curriculum Defined
The word curriculum has a Latin origin “currus” which
means “course” and by the 19th century, the word curriculum
had come to be used in reference to education. Curriculum is
now taken as a course which students or pupils undertake as
they compete for their academic works. Ibe (2016) defined
curriculum to consist of all the planned and unplanned
learning experiences which the learners are exposed to
during the period of schooling. From Ibe’s definition, it
implies that certain virtues, vices and skills which are
453
components of the unplanned curriculum are imbedded in
culture.
The term “curriculum” is an organized instruction Akudolu,
(2010). A desirable curriculum should include extra class
activities and counseling services. These elements -
organized instruction, extra-class activities and counseling
services - according to Akudolu,(2010) are indispensable
components of the modern curriculum concept. They are
also interrelated. Akudolu,(2010) goes further to consider
three components of what she calls “the educational
programme” - another term for “curriculum”.
Curriculum include more than formal school subjects
and organized instruction. The nature and type of elements
involved are also specified. Secondly, it is clear that none of
the elements on its own can stand for or interpret the
curriculum. Rather, each of them is important and has
specific contribution to the whole gamut of the educational
programme. It is these elements working in concert with
their individual special contributions and functions that
constitute the curriculum or educational programme. On the
other hand, curriculum development is the planning process
of learning opportunities intended to bring about certain
changes in pupils assessments of the extent to which these
changes have taken place.

Curriculum Designs
Some of the approaches to curriculum are: The
subject matter approach,
integrated curriculum, job analysis approach, the
occupational analysis approach competency approach, the
modular approach e.t.c. The subject matters approach
constitutes a logical and effective method of organizing new
454
knowledge and therefore an effective method of learning it.
By following organized bodies of subject matter, a student
can build his store of knowledge more effectively and
economically. Integrated curriculum is a modification of
subject curriculum and can be used effectively in school
subjects. It provide flexibility in meeting students’ need and
interest and permits a graduation and distribution of course
material in keeping with successive level of comprehension
as such student gain maturity and understanding.
Job analysis approach includes a number of tasks.
This approach is one of the most often used to provide pre
and in-service professional training to occupational teachers.
It places emphasis on the knowledge, skills, attitude and
judgments that are generally required for the successful
performance of a task rather than all the components
comprising the task. The modular approach is the unit or
standard of measurement. It is the unit of standard of
curriculum based on the development of entry level
competencies of the students. In the modular design the
students and their occupational goals from the basis for
programme planning. With the modular approach, the total
subject programme divided into unit is referred to as
modules. These modules will each take approximately thirty
hours of instructional time to achieve with the average group
of students Every student irrespective of the culture will be
able to develop at least to minimum entry level in modular
occupation.

Culture and Curriculum Development

In many communities today the general society is
reflected in the cultural diversity of the classrooms. When
students are being referred as cultural different, it means
455
those whose racial, nationality, religious, and ethnic
characteristic distinguish them from the majority. Their
speech, manners, attitudes and habits may be distinctive.
They may have backgrounds and personality structure that
differ significantly from others. Culture diversity may
present a variety of problems to a teacher. The students are
exposed to two sets of norms, one set at home and another
set as school. Often, these norms pull opposite direction.
Other students respond to their peculiar behaviour with
prejudice. Teachers and students may be inclined to treat all
members of a particular minority group, all too often the
teacher fails to recognize special problems and potentialities
of an individual.
The culture difference helps to become acquainted
with the community, the homes and families of students, and
the individual students themselves. As the teacher become
acquainted, she will be able to identify which minority
groups are present and to what extent. A large group
deserving of an attention is companied of culturally
disadvantages families some culturally different families
may be culturally disadvantaged, but these terms are by no
means synonymous. The major problems confronting
disadvantaged families include; housing, shortage of
adequate housing for low income families, opposition of
community associations and individuals to having culturally.

The Concept of Cultural Competency (CC)

The concept of CC was developed in the United
States as their health care system sought to improve access
for the increasing diversity of its population (Rogers,
Graham and Mayes, 2007) and to address inequities in the
456
delivery of social services in Native American populations.
Although Australian institutions have drawn on the
American model(s) to inform the development of
frameworks currently in use, CC in the Australian context
can also be seen to have evolved from developments of
related approaches which have attempted to make its health
care systems more inclusive for Indigenous clientele.
Campinha-Bacote (1999) maintains, moreover, that in
order for practitioners to truly understand a particular
cultural group and the diversity within it, learner
practitioners must actively look for opportunities to
participate in cultural encounters with members. Finally, in
order to deliver culturally appropriate services, practitioners
must have an inherent curiosity or drive to ‘want to, rather
than have to’ (Campinha-Bacote, 1999, p. 182) undertake the
processes that enhance cultural (self) awareness, knowledge
and skills and be interested in actively seeking opportunities
to engage in encounters with those from other cultures.

Cultural Competence Defined

Cultural competence is a set of congruent behaviors,
attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency
or among professionals and enable that system, agency or
those professions to work effectively in cross-cultural
situations (Moule, 2012). The word culture is used because it
implies the integrated pattern of human behavior that
includes thoughts, communications, actions, customs,
beliefs, values and institutions of a racial, ethnic, religious or
social group. The word competence is used because it
implies having the capacity to function effectively. Cultural
competence is defined as a set of values, behaviors, attitudes,
and practices within a system, organization, programme or
457
among individuals and which enables them to work
effectively cross culturally. Further, it refers to the ability to
honour and respect the beliefs, language, interpersonal styles
and behaviours of individuals and families receiving
services, as well as staff who are providing such services.
Striving to achieve cultural competence is a dynamic,
ongoing, developmental process that requires a long-term
commitment.

Five essential elements contribute to a system's institution's,

or agency's ability to become more culturally competent
which include:

1. Valuing diversity
2. Having the capacity for cultural self-assessment
3. Being conscious of the dynamics inherent when
cultures interact
4. Having institutionalized culture knowledge
5. Having developed adaptations to service delivery
reflecting an understanding of cultural diversity

These five elements should be manifested at every level of

an organization including policy making, administrative, and
practice. Further these elements should be reflected in the
attitudes, structures, policies and services of the
organization.

Cultural competence requires that organizations:

 Have a defined set of values and principles, and

demonstrate behaviors, attitudes, policies, and

458
 structures that enable them to work effectively cross-
culturally.
 Have the capacity to (1) value diversity, (2) conduct
self-assessment, (3) manage the dynamics of
difference, (4) acquire and institutionalize cultural
knowledge, and (5) adapt to diversity and the cultural
contexts of communities they serve.
 Incorporate the above in all aspects of policy-making,
administration, practice and service delivery,
systematically involve consumers, families and
communities.

Cultural competence is a developmental process that evolves

over an extended period. Both individuals and organizations
are at various levels of awareness, knowledge and skills
along the cultural competence continuum.

Cultural competence is defined as a set of values, behaviors,

attitudes, and practices within a system, organization,
programme or among individuals and which enables them to
work effectively cross culturally. Further, it refers to the
ability to honour and respect the beliefs, language,
interpersonal styles and behaviours of individuals and
families receiving services, as well as staff who are
providing such services. Striving to achieve cultural
competence is a dynamic, ongoing, developmental process
that requires a long-term commitment.

At a systems, organizational or programme level, cultural

competence requires a comprehensive and coordinated plan
that includes interventions on levels of:

459
 1. policy making;
2. infra-structure building;
3. programme administration and evaluation;
4. the delivery of services and enabling supports; and
5. the individual.

This often requires the re-examination of mission statements;

policies and procedures; administrative practices; staff
recruitment, hiring and retention; professional development
and in-service training; translation and interpretation
processes; family/professional/community partnerships;
health care practices and interventions including addressing
racial/ethnic health disparities and access issues; health
education and promotion practices/materials; and community
and state needs assessment protocols.

At the individual level, this means an examination of one’s

own attitude and values, and the acquisition of the values,
knowledge, skills and attributes that will allow an individual
to work appropriately in cross cultural situations.

Cultural competence mandates that organizations,

programmes and individuals must have the ability to:

1. value diversity and similarities among all peoples;

2. understand and effectively respond to cultural
differences;
3. engage in cultural self-assessment at the individual
and organizational levels;
4. make adaptations to the delivery of services and
enabling supports; and
5. institutionalize cultural knowledge.
460
  A set of congruent behaviors, attitudes and policies
that come together as a system, agency or among
professionals and enable that system, agency or those
professionals to work effectively in cross-cultural
situations.
 Cultural competence requires that organizations
have a defined set of values and principles, and
demonstrate behaviors, attitudes, policies, and
structures that enable them to work effectively cross-
culturally.
 Cultural competence is a developmental process that
evolves over an extended period. Both individuals
and organizations are at various levels of awareness,
knowledge and skills along the cultural competence
continuum.

Cultural incompetence in the business community can

damage an individual’s self-esteem and career, but the
unobservable psychological impact on the victims can go
largely unnoticed until the threat of a class action suit brings
them to light.

Notice that some definitions emphasize the knowledge and

skills needed to interact with people of different cultures,
while others focus on attitudes. A few definitions attribute
cultural competence or a lack thereof to policies and
organizations. It’s easy to see how working with terms that
vary in definition can be tricky.

Elements
461
The elements of Cultural Competence include (a)
Awareness, (b) Attitude, (c) Knowledge, and (d) Skills.

 Awareness. Awareness is consciousness of one's

personal reactions to people who are different. A
police officer who recognizes that he profiles people
who look like they are from Mexico as "illegal aliens"
has cultural awareness of his reactions to this group of
people.
 Attitude. Paul Pedersen’s multicultural competence
model emphasized three components: awareness,
knowledge and skills. DTUI added the attitude
component in order to emphasize the difference
between training that increases awareness of cultural
bias and beliefs in general and training that has
participants carefully examine their own beliefs and
values about cultural differences.
 Knowledge. Social science research indicates that our
values and beliefs about equality may be inconsistent
with our behaviors, and we ironically may be unaware
of it. Social psychologist Patricia Devine and her
colleagues, for example, showed in their research that
many people who score low on a prejudice test tend
to do things in cross cultural encounters that
exemplify prejudice (e.g., using out-dated labels such
as "illegal aliens" or "colored".). This makes the
Knowledge component an important part of cultural
competence development.

Regardless of whether our attitude towards cultural

differences matches our behaviours, we can all benefit by
improving our cross-cultural effectiveness. One common
462
goal of diversity professionals, such as the incredible
Dr.Hicks from URI, is to create inclusive systems that allow
members to work at maximum productivity levels.

 Skills. The Skills component focuses on practicing

cultural competence to perfection. Communication is
the fundamental tool by which people interact in
organizations. This includes gestures and other non-
verbal communication that tend to vary from culture
to culture.

Notice that the set of four components of our cultural

competence definition—awareness, attitude, knowledge, and
skills— represents the key features of each of the popular
definitions. The utility of the definition goes beyond the
simple integration of previous definitions, however. It is the
diagnostic and intervention development benefits that make
the approach most appealing.

Cultural competence is becoming increasingly necessary for

work, home, community social lives

Models of Cultural Competence

Although there are several models to choose that can be used

to guide curriculum planning Campinha-Bacote, model as a
guide for teaching cultural competency to students
(Campinha-Bacote, 2002) is preferred. According to this
model, achieving cultural competence is a developmental
process, not a onetime event. The Campinha-Bacote model
(2002) consists of five constructs: (1) cultural awareness, (2)

463
cultural knowledge, (3) cultural skill, (4) cultural encounters,
and (5) cultural desire.
These constructs are intertwined; cultural desire is the
foundation of this proc
ess and provides the energy that is needed to persevere on
this journey (Campinha-Bacote, 2002). Cultural awareness,
the ability to understand one’s own culture and perspective
as well as stereotypes and misconceptions regarding other
cultures, is a first step (Campinha-Bacote, 2002; Hunt&
Swiggum, 2007). The development of cultural knowledge
can be introduced and explored throughout the curriculum,
both in courses that are general as well as courses that teach
specific skills.
Cultural skills, the ability to evaluate a student and develop a
treatment plan, build on the foundations of cultural
awareness and knowledge. Courses that emphasize
educational skills can be used to help students develop a skill
set that will address the unique needs of the individual.
Cultural encounters can be dispersed throughout the
curriculum, with the emphasis on the application of practice
skills, as the student advances in the programme.

Implementation of the Campina-Bacote Model into

Curriculum Design
Five objectives that reflect the Campinha-Bacote model for
achieving cultural competency are organized. The objectives
are further divided into specific goals
along with suggestions, activities, and resources to achieve
the stated objective.
Objective 1: Students will Improve their Cultural Awareness

464
1a. Students will demonstrate the ability to examine and
explore one’s own culture (including family background and
professional programme)
.
1b. Students will identify stereotypes, biases, and belief and
value systems that are representative of the dominant culture
in the nation.
1c. Students will demonstrate an understanding of how one’s
own biases and belief system may subtly influence the
provision of educational services and lead to cultural
imposition.
It is found that courses that emphasize communication
interaction offer opportunities for exploration and
understanding of one’s own culture. These
courses are usually taught to students prior to acceptance
into a professional programme or during the first year. These
introductory courses will sensitize students by providing
information that promotes cultural awareness and
knowledge, although a comprehensive programme should
emphasize a continuum of cultural competence that is
threaded throughout the curriculum
(Campinha-Bacote, 2002). Assignments that are specific to
cultural awareness may include a class exercise in which
students write about their own ethnicity/racial background.
This leads to a class discussion about cultural awareness,
stereotyping, and variations among cultures. Several
exercises may be used within and outside of
the classroom to assist students in improving their cultural
awareness. They may be worked on independently or in
small groups. Examples of classroom activities that may be
adapted depending on the programme.

465
l. Those who participate in these exercises are provided with
a safe and secure environment in which to explore their
feelings, attitudes, and preferences toward ethnic groups,
race, and religion. The outcome of this exercise is for
students to understand that they may have an unconscious
preference for a specific race, skin tone, religious group, or
ethnic group. Students are provided with the opportunity to
understand innate and unconscious attitudes that might
influence their decision making ability in a setting.
. Students must imagine that if the Earth’s population was
shrunk to 100 persons what the representation of certain
racial/ethnic groups would be like in areas that include
religious representation, sexual orientation, literacy, wealth,
education, and living conditions. Many students are not
aware of the privilege they have experienced by living
in an enlightened community.
They should examine the rates of poverty and general
deprivation that are experienced by the global community.
Self-assessment questionnaires and surveys encourage
student self-reflection and lead to group discussions and the
development of cultural awareness, cultural sensitivity, and
appreciation for diversity (Spence-Cagle, 2006).
The student will demonstrate the ability to use a professional
interpreter in the evaluation process.
Students’ ability to develop cultural skill depends on the first
two constructs that were explored, awareness and
knowledge. Skill development overlaps with practice and
cultural encounters.
. Students must learn when to leave aside traditional
assessment procedures and encourage interviewees to
describe their performance experience in their own words
(Rogers, Graham and Mayes, 2007).
466
Students will apply previously learned knowledge and skills
to develop culturally
Competence in educationl, and neighborhood community
settings.
Students will utilize the “Culture Brokering Model” to
recognize and identify conflict that is a result of cultural
beliefs and values.
Students will demonstrate the ability to use strategies that
result in educational services for students.

Students will demonstrate advocacy skills for those groups

that are underrepresented in educational systems and will
negotiate and network among
providers to assist students in achieving adequate services.
Cultural encounters allow students to apply classroom
knowledge and techniques into real world settings. Students
gain knowledge about different cultural backgrounds and
achieve skill by learning verbal and non-verbal
communication techniques. Effective learning is developed
through experiences that help students become self-aware
and appreciate cultural differences, thus developing
acceptance and advocacy . Just as students in Education
profession curricula must fulfill fieldwork requirements
(teaching practice) to ensure that they are competent
practitioners, they should also be provided with
opportunities to demonstrate competence with culturally
specific interactions. Provision of opportunities to gain
exposure to various cultural and ethnic groups can be
dispersed throughout the curriculum, at many different levels
(Schwier, Campbell and Kenny, 2004)). The progression
may start with encounters that are mostly observational and

467
progress to interactions that require formulating a planof
action, a treatment plan, or a community-based intervention.
Objective 5: Students will Develop the Desire for Cultural
Competency and Understand that It is a Life-Long Process

 Students will develop and demonstrate the ability to

empathize and care for students from diverse
racial/ethnic groups.

 Students will demonstrate flexibility, responsiveness

with others, and the willingness to learn from others.

 Students will exhibit “cultural humility,” the ability to

regard students as cultural informants.

By using the Campinha-Bacote Model, it is hoped that

students will develop the final construct of this model,
Cultural Desire. “It has been said that people do not care
how much you know, until they first know how much you
care” (Campinha
-Bacote, 2002, p. 182-183). Cultural desire is a result of
successful cultural encounters. Successful cultural
encounters are the result of good preparation and the support
and guidance offered to the student throughout the process.
The student should understand that this is a life-long pursuit
for the professional who has a true desire to practice in a
culturally responsive manner.
Griswold et al. (2007) discuss the development of empathy
and cultural humility among Education students.

468
Multicultural Education and Training: a Growing
Concern.

Numerous factors are converging that make teaching and

learning in cross-cultural and multicultural contexts more
commonplace. Expanding world trade and globalization of
industry, finance, and many professions are creating a world
in which cross-cultural interactions occur more frequently
than at any time in the past (Friedman, 2007). As well,
increasing specialization within many professions has led to
a widely dispersed audience for targeted education and
training. Professionals wishing to stay current or students
wanting to develop specialized skills that match the needs of
a rapidly changing world demand access to proper
educational opportunities, even if this requires international
travel or distance learning approaches. Simpler and cheaper
telecommunications, in particular, fuel a growing
willingness to teach and learn across cultures. Advances in
Internet technologies and applications make open and
distance learning a fully viable alternative to traditional
education, creating a natural environment for the
development of effective virtual learning communities.

But contrary to the growing flatness that Friedman (2007)

reports, cultural diversity remains apparent among learners,
perhaps owing to deeply rooted cultural values and modes of
thinking that are difficult to separate from learning processes
(Young, 2007). A growing appreciation of cultural diversity
is demonstrated by more than its acknowledgement and
tolerance, but also by a desire to preserve that diversity as a
valuable asset for addressing the many challenges faced by
the global community now and in the future. Additionally,
469
one can recognize a strong desire to preserve diversity in
response to the threat of loss of cultural identity in the face
of globalization and because of the benefits of community
cohesiveness through unique cultural expression (Mason,
2007).

The growing need for educational access leads students

rightly to demand culturally adaptive learning experiences
that allow full development of the individual (Visser, 2007).
As noted by Pincas (2001), students entering into
professional education in a multicultural context not aligned
with their own culture can experience significant conflict.
This conflict arises not only in regards to incompatible
teaching and learning styles, but also because the growing
“professional self” struggles to maintain both a connection to
the local culture in which the student eventually intends to
work and a connection to the learning environment.
Accordingly, instructional providers and instructional
designers should struggle to maintain sufficient presence and
student engagement, develop skills to deliver culturally
sensitive and culturally adaptive instruction (Gunawardena
& LaPointe, 2007).

As education and instructional design are inherently social

processes (Schwier, Campbell, & Kenny, 2004), then
instructional providers can no longer take a neutral position
in developing their courses and materials. For instruction to
do the most good for students, instructional providers must
be cognizant of the cultures of their learners and how those
cultures manifest themselves in learning preferences
(Nisbett, 2003).

470
Cultural sensitivity is not just one-way, however.
Instructional providers should be acutely aware of their own
culture because their world views cannot be separated from
the training that they develop (Thomas, Mitchell, & Joseph,
2002). They should become cognizant of how their own
cultural perspectives are represented in the design decisions
they make. Furthermore, instructional providers should
examine the assumptions they hold about how learners will
and should respond, keeping an open mind for potentially
unexpected responses. Moreover, they must balance the need
to help students adapt to specific professional, academic, and
mainstream cultures (which instructors, by proxy, represent)
and the need to embrace the culture in which the student is
embedded (Henderson, 1996). This is no small challenge.

Agencies in the Educative Process and Curriculum

Development
There are certain agencies that affect curriculum
development. These include the family, peer groups, and
other members of the community. There are basic agencies
in the educative process that make education much more
comprehensive than the skills, attitudes, and knowledge
attained in the school. Some agencies other than the school
make major contributions to the growth
and development of the schoolchild. Influence is brought to
bear in different ways and with great force by:
1) The family
2) The Church
3) The play group
4) Juvenile delinquency

471
The family
The home is still the main institution affecting the life and
growth of the child. The family exerts significant influence
on the social, emotional and moral development of the child.
His personality and values are affected by the family. In
planning any relevant curriculum for the learners, the
planner should be familiar with the family and home
conditions of the learner. The intellectual climate of the
home and attitudes of the parents towards education affects
the individual’s behaviour and accomplishment in schools.
A study of the family at close range reveals much
information for a more complete and sympathetic
understanding of children. From the child’s earliest age, the
feelings of oneness, identification with the family group, is
naturally instilled. Even before he begins the first grade of
school at the primary level, many of his patterns of living, of
conduct, of emotions and attitudes, and of ideals are already
set. In one family, swift and sure obedience is absolutely
required; in another home it is understood that the
occupation of the son or the daughter shall be decided by the
parents; in still another, much freedom and choice may be
permitted the child. Neatness and cleanliness in the home are
likely to be reflected in the appearance and dress of the
child; and the language
habits of the parents appear in marked form in their children.
Respect for and obedience to adults, respect for the property
and rights of others, race prejudice, social stratification-these
are but a few of the mores and attitudes that the child
absorbs more frequently and fundamentally outside school
walls than within them.
As boys and girls grow older, friction is especially likely to
arise between parents and adolescents because the training
472
that the adolescent has received in the family begins to clash
with the customs “gang” or of the community.
The Nigerian family is changing in its size, its stability, its
mobility, and its neighbourhood culture. Several factors are
causing these changes and are putting more pressures on
children and youth. One factor is the growing complexity of
life in a modern world of automation. Another is the rapid
urbanization of the society, which takes children from a
simpler rural situation into a more tense and complex urban
style of living. A fourth factor is the tremendous problem of
maintaining satisfactory family living in slum and low-
income city areas.
More attention is now being devoted in the school to aspects
of the home and of the family life. Courses in homemaking
are found frequently on both the secondary school and the
collegiate levels, and the courses in marriage and family
relationships and in sex education are given on both levels.
In the curriculum of the secondary schools, newer courses in
social living, social
problems, and child care are often centered around family
life.

The Church/Mosque
These are public worship centres for Christians and Moslems
respectively. However, apart from these two worship centres
where people go to worship God in order to satisfy their
spiritual needs, there are other worship centres in the society
to satisfy the spiritual needs of the people. Religion itself is a
social institution.
Although religion is a human society it is not necessarily
accepted by everyone and even those who accept religion do
not accept it in the same degree. The major role of the
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church and the mosque is in molding the character of the
child and the people in general.
Similarly, the church and the mosque are also agencies of
intellectual development in the society. The Sunday schools
and adult literacy classes introduced in churches have helped
to teach the people how to read, interpret
and even write out verses in the bible and other learned
works. The Islamic religion also encourages the art of
reading, interpreting and writing out short verses in the Sura.
The church and the mosque teach the virtue of obedience to
the law of God Almighty and the constitutional laws of the
society. This is because both religions teach peace in the
society. There are rules in these societies that could bring
peace. Such rules include ‘love your neighbour as yourself’,
‘do unto others, as you would want them to do unto you’.
These are two golden rules that could bring peace to the
society because if you love your neighbour as yourself, you
will not kill, steal, bear false witness against your neighbour,
and so on.
Christian and Moslem youths are known to participate in
public activities like community sanitation and road
construction in the communities. Although, clashes and
conflicts have been recorded between these two religions in
Nigeria, they still play a very significant role in socialization
of the child and the education of the child in the society.

The play group

During the adolescent period, the play group is more
frequently called the “the group of peers”, “the gang” or the
“activity group”. Before reaching the age when pubertal
changes begin to work within him, the child is as likely to be
loyal to his family, his church, or his school as to his gang.
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On the other hand, the secondary school student is more
likely to be loyal to his play group than to
any other group. That group demands loyalty of him; it
constitutes part of an unwritten code that is not violated with
impunity.
The imaginative, interest-shifting, neighborhood play group
of early childhood was based primarily on individual
activity. The gang of the adolescent has its own sense of
unity, based on cooperative activity, through which the club
or gang itself becomes the basis for the conduct of each
member, as well as the very motivation of the organization.
Certain standards and activities for the adolescents are
definitely fixed and rigidly required.
Obedience to these gang rules is of paramount importance,
and punishment is swift for the offender. Conflicts arise
among adolescents in these groups or gangs. The following
main types of conflict emerge from time to time: 1.) Conflict
within the group itself; 2.) conflict between the group and
other groups; 3.) Conflict with organized agencies of
authority, such as the home, the church, and the police, and
at times even with the school.
Through these conflicts the growing child seeks escape from
a restricted home environment, the routine of everyday life,
or the authority of agencies that he thinks are too cramping
or dominant.

Conclusion
The culture of any society affects its curriculum. Hence,
culture includes everything that can be communicated from
one generation to its successor. This involves a whole way of
life, a structure of feeling and peoples heritage which is
made up of both material and non-material aspects of life
475
since that word curriculum has come to be used in reference
to education, and is now taken as a counsel which students
undertake as they compete for high grades, passes,
certificates or other forms of academic rewards. In addition,
there can be no education without culture because education
is a process that lends continuity and meaning to lives.
Hence, curriculum comes to be used in relation to education,
the only general view about it is that it is a programme of
studies to be completed by teachers and learners which need
to be developed through the influences of the society’s
culture.

REFERENCES

Akintunde, S.A. (2008) Democratizing Classroom Practices in

Nigeria: What Action Research has to offer. Journal of
Teachers Education, 9(1). 124-133

Akudolu, L.R (2010). The formal, non-formal and informal

continuum in peace education curriculum . Paper
presented at the WCCI Nigerian chapter 8 th biennial
conference on developing peace education curriculum for
Nigeria. 18-23 October 2010.

Arya, K., Margaryan, A., & Collis, B. (2003). Culturally sensitive

problem solving activities for multi-national corporations.
TechTrends, 47(6), 40-49.

Castro, F.G., Barrera Jr., M., & Martinez Jr., C.R. (2004). The
cultural adaptation of prevention interventions: Resolving
tensions between fidelity and fit. Prevention Science, 5(1),
41-45.

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Cole, M. (1996). Cultural psychology: A once and future
discipline. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Edmundson, A. (2007). The cultural adaptation process (cap)

model: Designing e-learning for another culture. In A.
Edmundson (Ed.), Globalized e-learning cultural challenges.
Hershey, PA: Idea Group, Inc. 267-290

Ezewu EE (1987). ‘Characteristics and Human Learning in

School’. In E.E. Ezewu (Ed). Social Psychological Factors
of Human Learning in school,Onitsha: Leadway Books Ltd

Gibbons, A.S. (2009). The value of the operational principle in

instructional design. Educational Technology, 49(1), 3-9.

Ibe, H.N (2009). Curriculum instructions. Owerri. Joe Mankpa

Publishers
Ibe, H.N (2012). Effects of Teaching Methods and Study Habits
on Senior Secondary School Students’ Performances in
Biology in Imo State. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Imo
State University, Owerri.

Ibe, H.N (2016). Curriculum: from theory to practice. Owerri.

Career Publishers.

Irvine, J.J., & York, D.E. (1995). Learning styles and culturally
diverse students: A literature review. In J.A. Banks (Ed.),
Handbook of research on multicultural education (pp. 484-
497). New York: Macmillan.

Levine, R. (1997). A geography of time. New York: Basic Books.

Mason, R. (2007). Internationalizing education. In M.G. Moore

(Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed., pp. 583-
591). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Obasi, V.A (2009). Curriculum designs and strategy. Owerri.
Bond Computers.

Parrish, P. E., & Linder-VanBerschot, J.A. (2009a). The cultural

dimensions of learning framework questionnaire. Retrieved
from http://homes.comet.ucar.edu/~pparrish/index.htm.

Pincas, A. (2001). Culture, cognition, and communication in

global education. Distance Education: An International
Journal, 22(1), 30-51.

Rogers, C.P., Graham, C.R., & Mayes, C.T. (2007). Cultural

competence and instructional design: Exploration research
into the delivery of online instructoin cross-culturally.
Educational Technology Research & Development, 55(2),
197-217.

Schwier, R.A., Campbell, K., & Kenny, R. (2004). Instructional

designer's observations about identity, communities of
practice and change agency. Australasian Journal of
Educational Technology, 20(4), 69-100.

Wheeler,D.K (1967).Curriculum process. London: Hodder and

Stoughton.

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 Chapter 23
Curriculum Management: A Tool for Authentic
Teaching and Learning
by
Azubuike, Amarachi Salome
Introduction
Over the years, a lot of changes such as the use of
information communication technology (ICT) in teaching,
use of innovative and learner centred approach of teaching
and entrepreneurship in education among others have taken
place in the educational system and the curriculum as well.
These changes came about because of the dynamic nature of
the society, the societal demands, technologies and world
view. These innovations affect every aspect of the
educational system. The change in Nigerian curriculum
involve adding suffixes to courses, breaking down existing
courses to provide more choices to students, but most
significantly, adopting new evaluative and teaching methods
to boost the academic achievement of the students as well
aiming at achieving the stated national educational goals.
World, societies, businesses and technologies are
changing rapidly, and this development has led to the
creation of what is commonly known as knowledge society.
This knowledgeable society is affected by the type of
curriculum, how it is designed and developed and how it is
implemented. Curriculum needs to be taken care of to avoid
curriculum drift, which a situation where the curriculum
does not achieve what is meant to achieve. And in order to
479
ensure that this well designed curriculum adapt properly to
the forces pushing it around, the need for curriculum
management becomes pertinent. This chapter deals with
curriculum, curriculum management, rationale for
curriculum management, importance of curriculum
management, components of curriculum management,
curriculum management procedures and the role and
responsibilities of the curriculum managers in curriculum
management.
Concept of Curriculum
Curriculum is defined by Udofia, Usoro, Afangideh & Umoh
(2010) as the content and purpose of all educational
programmes in the school. This definition make the
curriculum to include all the subjects, activities and learning
experiences; and learning outcomes. Curriculum can be
defined as the document, plan or blue print for instructional
guide which is used for teaching and learning to bring about
positive and desirable learner behaviour change. The school
curriculum can be taken to mean the instrument by means of
which schools seek to translate the hopes of the society in
which they function into concrete reality (Offorma, 2006).
Curriculum can therefore be referred to as the
knowledge and skills students are expected to learn which
includes the learning objectives they are expected to meet,
the unit of lesson that teachers teach, the assignment and
projects given to students, books and materials they needed
to use to achieve their goals. Relevant school curriculum is
developed according to the needs of the relevant community
and the learners. The school curriculum must be thoroughly
planned and should make provision for compulsory and
480
optional learning activities in the form of examination and
non-examination subjects and for suitable after school
activities. The ultimate aim would be to lead the child to
adulthood. It appears that the curriculum is a broad concept
which includes all planned activities and subject courses
which take place during normal school day. It also include
after school planned activities such as societies and sports.
The curriculum is continuously subjected to evaluation
which is aims at leading and accompanying the child to
adulthood so that he/she becomes a useful citizen in the
society or community.

THE CURRICULUM TREE

The curriculum tree is representing the curriculum like a tree

where every part of the tree is a significant part of the
curriculum.

 The National curriculum content as the leaves of a

tree

481
  The skills, attitudes and attributes you want to
develop in learners as the roots.

The curriculum tree shows how this might look. The

challenge is to look at both the leaves and the roots - what to
teach and the outcomes to achieve – and - to see how to
make the connection between the two by designing effective
learning experiences.

 The learning experiences form the trunk of the tree:

the activities, lessons and events that link the leaves
to the roots.
 The leaves (content) - what are the key learning
objectives?
 The roots (outcomes) - what wider skills do they want
to promote?
 The trunk (learning experiences) - what learning
activity are they going to plan? How long will this
take and how will time be organized? Who needs to
be involved? Where will the learning take place?
How does this link to other subjects or prior learning?

The curriculum tree is so designed in partnership to help

curriculum planners take stock, set priorities and plan for the
future. The curriculum tree represents a curriculum for the
future. It considers carefully, the social and cultural issues
and challenges that the 21st century poses for young people.
This is, after all, a curriculum for the future. For one to take
part in curriculum journey, first step in is to be really clear
about what one is trying to achieve. What type of education
young people need? What do they need to know, to
understand what to be able to do and to be like? Being clear
482
about the aims of the curriculum will drive the decisions one
will make about organizing learning and enable one to
evaluate the impact of changes on the learners. The
curriculum tree shows three main part of the curriculum
focusing on the:
 Core skills which are English, Mathematics,
Sciences and Information and Communication
Technology (ICT)
 Broader curriculum includes Foundational subjects
such as history geography, arts and French
 The enriched curriculum focused on
entrepreneurial subjects’ and vocational subjects.
Curriculum Management
Curriculum management encompasses the many
administrative procedures involved in maintaining accurate
and up-to-date information about curricular offerings. It
means management of curricular data and courses. In
includes resources, tools and instruction as well as
information to assist teachers, assistants and students. It
involves processes such as initiating new courses or subject,
modifying existing offerings, making changes to existing
ones, scheduling information, and reviewing what is taught.
Management process of the curriculum will ensure the
effective implementation of the curriculum.
Billard (2003) regards curriculum management as the
ability of the principal to carry out developmental
supervision and provide curriculum leadership in school. It
focuses on those skills and practices seen to be appropriate
for officials, principals and teachers in attempting to meet

483
the challenges of the rapidly changing curriculum.
Curriculum management is all about improvement and
effective implementation (Sleegers, Geysel & Van den Berg,
2000). According to them, the whole process of curriculum
management may involve activities such as managing the
change in the curriculum, training of teachers and principal
officers in the new curriculum, monitoring and supporting
the principals and teachers at various levels, coordinating the
curriculum implementation, ensuring the implementation of
the policy, development of the staff, managing the available
resources, and evaluating the curriculum. Curriculum
management can therefore be defined as a structured set of
actions and activities designed to asses, adjust, develop,
improve, upgrade and implement the curriculum in order to
meet the objectives of changing curriculum in the dynamic
society.
Rationale for Curriculum Management
In keeping with the goals and objectives of education
there is urgent need to create, use, and maintain a plan for
curriculum development and review. The purpose of the
curriculum development and review is to establish a process
through which curriculum is developed, implemented,
reviewed, evaluated, and revised on a regular cycle (Billard,
2003). This process should ensure that the curriculum helps
the school realize its vision for educating its young people.
All students have meaningful and reasonable opportunities to
learn, achieve and demonstrate the body of knowledge and
skills represented in National policy on Education.
The need to tackle with innovative elements in the
curriculum is one of the rationales for curriculum
management. Ajibola (2008) points out that experience of
484
educational innovation all over the world have shown that
curriculum is at the same time a policy, a technical issue, a
process and a product involving a wide range modifications
and actions.
Curriculum drift may occur when the curriculum is
left as it is. So there is need to avoid curriculum drift. This is
a process whereby the curriculum has left what is meant to
achieve or where some parts of the curriculum are left
unattended.
There is also need for curriculum alignment. This is a
process whereby the curriculum is adjusted either by
removing the irrelevant ones, improving the relevant ones
and adding the new ones in other to achieve the stated
educational goals.

Importance of Curriculum Management

A well-designed curriculum is managed to accommodate
other education programmes in order to achieve its aims.
The importance of curriculum management are:
1. It enable and support the process through which
curriculum development, review and approval leads
to implementation of the effective curricular that
result in improved student outcomes consistent with
educational objectives.
2. It helps every learner to make progress, building on
their experiences both within and outside of school.
3. It is based on a clear and shared understanding of
people and provides for the full range of capabilities
and aspirations. It provides a coherent and relevant
set of learning experiences.
485
 4. It provides opportunities to learn in a range of places
and uses expertise from outside the teaching staff to
enrich learning
5. It provides opportunities for learners to experience
different learning approaches, subject disciplines,
thematic approaches and areas of study of their own
choice
Components of Curriculum Management
The Four major components of curriculum management are
those areas the curriculum managers should focus in the
process of curriculum management. They are:
1. Curriculum Design-The design of a curriculum is the
blue print or a general framework of the curriculum
on a small scale which is meant to be interpreted and
translated into action. It identifies the element of the
curriculum, states their relationship and the principle
with which they will operate. It gives a clear picture
of what you want the learners to achieve and the sort
of things you needed to be taught based on the
national curriculum content.
2. Curriculum Implementation-Curriculum
implementation is the actual putting the designed
curriculum into action. This is the major work of a
teacher. In curriculum management, curriculum
implementation is the comprehensive staff
development strategy designed to empower and
ensure that teachers have the knowledge and skills
necessary to deliver the written, taught, and tested
curriculum, as needed. It prioritizes professional
development goals and develops a plan, taking into
consideration opportunities/programs, use of time,
486
 funding, available expertise (within and outside of
district), technology needs, etc.

Curriculum Management Procedures

The curriculum is a big learning plan that needs updating at

any point of its process. Abnormal adjustment and
assessment can result to curriculum drift which will
eventually affect the actualization of the National education
goals. Five major procedures of curriculum management are
highlighted as follows:
1. Curriculum Mapping: This is the first step in any
curriculum management effort. It is a process of
linking and tagging the structural element of the
curriculum with each other; and with the learning
487
 outcomes and content areas. In other words,
curriculum mapping is done by integrating all the
components of the curriculum in other to achieve
cohesion. Curriculum mapping is very important
because it transforms the curriculum from a series of
documents and experiences into an accurate
representation of the curriculum.
2. Content and Structure Analysis: After mapping out
the curriculum, the contents can be assessed whether
it is relevant and also find out whether the structure of
the curriculum supports the learning goals and
objectives. Ways to carry out curriculum content and
structure analysis are:
a. Gap/Redundancy analysis. This is done to find out
if there is any gap in the curriculum or if there is
any part of the curriculum that is left redundant. If
the competences or learning experiences expected
in a graduating student is lacking, you know that
there is a gap in the curriculum. More so, if you
are teaching one particular topic and abandoning
some other areas redundancy has occurred.
Therefore, thorough analysis can be carried out to
avoid these hindrances to curriculum development
and educational achievement.
b. Teaching Types Analysis: This analysis looks into
the teaching types especially the pedagogical
approaches in teaching, the learning experiences
being exposed to the child, and the frequency of
the teaching. This is one of the components of
accreditation review. It can be used to ensure that
the programme stays true to its pedagogical
foundation and the students are given opportunity
488
 to have different type of learning experiences and
the contents are taught in a way most appropriate.
c. Sequencing Analysis: This is done to ensure that
the topics are aligned to achieve the objectives.
The contents are sequenced and tagged with a list
of Bloom’s taxonomy making sure that each can
be used to achieve the objectives. This is very
important because it is one of the major ways to
avoid curriculum drift. It can help to identify
missing, inappropriate and stale content so as to
adjust and replace them.
3. Student Assessment: Assessment is very important in
a curriculum cycle. It shows the ultimate outcome of
the curriculum. Students’ assessment is very
important in curriculum management because the
results can give insights into the curriculum problems
that may not show up in other areas. Students’
assessment can help to find problems that are hidden
in curriculum implementation. This is done by
gathering information from the students on all the
activities done in the school as pertaining to the
teacher and curriculum implementation.
4. Programme Evaluation: Programme evaluation
provides staff and the authority with real feedback
about the curriculum. If one wants to know that the
curriculum development work is having the desired
impact on learners, one need to establish a clear
baseline and then carry out regular, planned
evaluations to check the progress of the work. This
will help to recognize successes and highlight areas of
the curriculum that could still be improved, as well as
evaluating the important aspects of attainment of the
489
 objectives and qualifications needed to bring
improvement in the curriculum. Curriculum managers
need to consider what other outcomes that are
important and monitor how well the curriculum is
performing against the wider goals. An effective
curriculum journey is an ongoing development that
uses information gathered through evaluations.
5. Research, Review, Revise: This stage involves
gathering data on content and structure analysis,
student assessment result and programme evaluation
feedback, these being analysed will help to determine
whether the curriculum needs changing, adjustment or
total overhauling. This is the job of the curriculum
committee or managers. Some of these procedures
might require further research to decide how to
proceed.
Roles and Responsibilities of the Curriculum Managers
1. School Board
 Approves a budget that supports the curriculum
management in its entire process
 Approves learning goals
 Approves the type of curriculum that should be taught
to the learner
2. Superintendent
 Communicates the meaning and importance of the
curriculum management and related work to all
Stakeholders
 Oversees the implementation of Curriculum and
related policies
 Allocates resources needed to implement Curriculum
490
  Provides support to administrators in modeling
instructional leadership
 Fosters and supports a collaborative and reflective
culture in the school
3. Facilitator of Curriculum and Professional Development
 Supports Superintendent in carrying out curriculum
policies and related policies
 Oversees implementation of Curriculum Management
procedures and related policies.
 Allocates resources needed to implement the
curriculum
 Communicates and works with other curriculum
managers
 give and share/develop opportunities and time to
train and support teachers
 Fosters and supports a collaborative and reflective
culture in the school
4. Principals
Principals are the driving force behind any school and it is
argued the key to improving the quality of any learning
process (Billard, 2003). Mitchel & Sackney (2000) states
that principals engage in the process of curriculum reform
implementation every day of their school leadership life as
they initiate curriculum changes and implement decisions on
educational inventions improvement. Stoel and Kruger
(2007) finds that the use of leadership power is crucial for
continuous nurturing and proportion of knowledge and skills
of teachers through curriculum and instruction. Grimmet
(1996) also notes that principals should play five key
leadership roles and actions in curriculum and instructional
leadership; instructional support, collaboration inquiry,
491
modeling collegiality and experimentation, focusing teacher
take on achievement, helping teachers frame their inquiry
and connecting actions with pupils learning. However the
major functions of the principals in curriculum management
are:
 Communicate the meaning and importance of the
curriculum management and related work to all
stakeholders
 Support and sustain the curriculum management
procedures
 Foster and support a collaborative and reflective
culture in the school
 Evaluation the curriculum procedures.
5. Team Leaders: Curriculum team leaders work with other
principals to develop a shared commitment to a common
vision of excellence in teaching. However they:
 Facilitate curriculum management procedures
 Communicate/meet with principal and Facilitator of
curriculum to support and sustain the curriculum
management
 Foster and support a collaborative and reflective
culture in the school
 Have knowledge of state and national standards,
district curriculum, and instructional materials in the
appropriate content area in order to support
professional development
 Support teachers through curriculum implementation
and monitoring processes
6. Teachers: Teachers are the implementers of the
curriculum

492
  Participate in various curriculum management activities as
directed by the school authority to develop, implement, and
monitor curriculum
 Develops deep understanding of the curriculum and effective
ways to teach it to meet the needs of all learners
 Participate in school and district professional development that
support all of the above responsibilities
7. Parents: Develop an understanding of school curriculum
 Provide feedback as appropriate
8. Students
 Develop an understanding of the curriculum as appropriate
 Provide feedback as appropriate
Review Questions

1. a. What is curriculum? b. Illustrate the curriculum tree

2. Define curriculum management
3. State five rationale for curriculum management
4. Mention the components of the curriculum
management
5. List five curriculum management procedures
6. Explain four curriculum management procedures
7. List the process involve in the content and structural
analysis in curriculum management procedures
8. Who are the curriculum managers?
9. State the roles of the principals as the curriculum
manager.
10. List five importance of curriculum management

493
References
Ajibola, M.A. (2005). Innovations and curriculum
development for basic education in Nigeria: policies,
priorities and challenges of practices and
implementation. Research Journal of International
Studies, 8, 51-58.

Billard, F.O. (2003). Managing secondary school teachers

for effective instruction. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 29(1), 111-118.

Grimmet, P.P. (1996). The struggles of teacher in the context

of education reform: Implication for instructional
supervision. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision,
12(1), 37-65.

Mitchel, C. & Sackney, L. (2000). Profound improvement

building capacity for a learning community. Lisse.
Nl: Sweta & Zeitlinger.

Obanya, P. (2003). Functional education for liberating

Africa. Journal of Nigeria Academy on Education.
1(1), 21-39.

Oforma, G. C. (2005). Curriculum for wealth creation.

Paper presented at the seminar of the world council
for curriculum and instruction, held at the federal
college of education kano on 25th October.

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E. (2010), Entrepreneurial curriculum Guidance on
Vocational Choices of Senior Secondary School
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Proceedings 1 (1) 200 – 207. www.aib.com assessed on
30th August 2011.

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