People and the Earth Ecosystem:

A Modular Approach

BOBBY V. CABARLES
Instructor

Department of Environmental Science

College of Science, UEP
SY: 2020-2021
 Module Content

Module 1
Ecology: An
Introductions
1.1 Definitions
1.2 Why and How to Study
Ecology Module 5
1.3 Scientific Method Community Ecology
1.4 The Effects of Scale 5.1 Species Diversity and
1.5 Evolutionary Ecology Community Stability
1.6 How Variation Originated 5.2 Island Biogeography
5.3 Community Change
Module 2 5.4 Ecosystem (Main types
Natural Selection and of
Communities)
Speciation
2.1 Phylogenetic
2.2 The Fossil Record Module 6
2.3 Extinction: Causes and Applied Ecology
Patterns 6.1 The Effects of Human
6.2 Human Population
Module 3 6.3 Loss of Wildfire
through
Behavioral Ecology Human Activity
3.1 Group Selection 6.4 How to Solve
3.2 Altruism Ecological
3.3 Living in Groups Problems
3.4 Resource Assessment 6.5 Pattern of Resource
3.5 Animal Communication Use
3.6 For Aging Behavior and Water Catchment Areas
Optimality in individual Forestry Agricultural
3.7 Maintenance of Sex Ratios Land
3.8 Sexual Selection the Sea
Polygyny 6.6 Waste and Pollutions
Polyandry Waste Emitted in the
Atmosphere
Module 4 Economic Poisons
Population Ecology Contamination by
4.1 Physiological Ecology Organic
Substance
Eutrophication
 4.2 Abiotic Factor
4.3 Population Growth
4.4 Mutualism and
Commensalism
4.5 Competition
4.6 Predation
4.7 Herbivory and Parasitism
4.8 Causes of Population Change
Review Question

Answer briefly:

1. What is ecology?
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2. Why is it important to study ecology?
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3. What is natural selection?
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Note: This will be your first quiz.

Course code and Title
GEE People and the Earth Ecosystem—3 units (3 hours Lecture)

Overview
Have you ever hiked through a forest and noticed the incredible diversity of organisms living
together, from ferns to trees to mushrooms the size of dinner plates? Or taken a road trip and watched
the landscape change outside the window, shifting from oak forest to tall stands of pine to grassy
plains? If so, you’ve gotten a classic taste of ecology, the branch of biology that examines how
organisms interact with each other and with their physical environment.
Ecology isn't just about species-rich forests, pristine wilderness, or scenic vistas, though. Have
you, for instance, ever found cockroaches living under your bed, mold growing in your shower, or
even fungus creeping in between your toes? If so, then you’ve seen equally valid examples of ecology
in action.

Instruction to Students
Read and understand the content of this module. Work on various
activities and develop a sense of responsibility in accomplishing the tasks given.
Learn how to Learn. And if you have questions you may chat or email your
teacher thru fb messenger or at [email protected] at a scheduled
time. Also, an announced quiz via phone call will be done to assess your
understanding on the module given.

Requirements of the Course

1. Test/Quiz - 20%
2. Laboratory Activities - 20%
3. Observation/Narrative Report/Project - 10%
4. Midterm and Final Examinations - 50%

Learning Outcomes
After studying this chapter, the learners are expected to:
1. Explain the most important objectives in the study of ecology.
2. Identify scientific procedures ecologists use to do in environmental
investigation.
3. Understand linkages in the basic compositions of earth’s ecosystem.
4. Recall how organisms evolve from simple to its complex process of
genetic variations.
5. Synthesize on how species diversity arise.
Module 1. Introduction to Ecology
Every organism experiences complex relationships with other organisms of its species, and
organisms of different species. These complex interactions lead to different selective pressures on
organisms. The pressures together lead to natural selection, which causes populations of species to
evolve. Ecology is the study of these forces, what produces them, and the complex relationships
between organisms and each other, and organisms and their non-living environment.
Scientist can view ecology through a variety of different lenses, from the microscopic
molecular level all the way to the planet as a whole. These different types of ecology will be
discussed further on. At every level of ecology, the focus is on the selective pressures that cause
evolutionary change. These pressures arise from a variety of different sources, and there are
numerous methods for observing and quantifying this data.
The field of ecology has a huge variety of sub-disciples. Although the types of ecology below
are divided by the level of organization being viewed, some ecologist specialize in specific aspects of
each field. Still other ecologists focus on the interactions between organisms and the abiotic factors
that affect their evolution, such as nutrients and toxins in the environment.

1.1 Why and How to Study Ecology

Importance of studying ecology
 Environmental
By studying ecology, the emphasis is put on how every organism needs other
for peaceful coexistence. Having no ideas on ecology will responsible for
degradation of land and environment, which is the living place of other
species leading to their destruction.
 Energy Conservation
The entire living organism needs energy such as nutrition, light, radiation
etc. So lack of ecological studies will be the cause for destruction of the Source:https//.Instantenergy.co
energy resources. Oil, coal, and natural gases are the non-renewable sources m
which will destruct the ozone layer.
 Resource Allocation
All plants and animals have roles in the environment as they sharing limited natural resources
such as air, minerals, space. Lack of ecological studies may be the cause of deprivation and
looting of these natural resources.
 Eco-friendliness
It helps to appreciate living among the organisms; this will follow natural order of things.

1.2 Scientific Method

The study of environments generally begins with field observations. Field work often starts
with non-quantitative observations. A researcher may take a stroll through the forest or snorkel a reef
to look around. Once ecologists have an idea of the system, they can determine what data they’re
interested in collecting. It is never possible to measure everything all of the time, so ecologists need
to make decisions about the frequency of measurements and types of measurements to take. Some
data collection can be automated, through the use of sensors or research post, such as the heights of
trees in the forest. Other data collection methods, like vegetation surveys or animal trapping, must be
done in person. The data from field work helps ecologists figure out the right questions to ask.
What are the three methods ecologists use to do?
 Experiments
Field data is a great first step to understanding an ecosystem, but there are always
questions that can’t be answered with the field surveys. In these cases, ecologists will
employ manipulative experiments with a control treatment to test hypotheses about the
way an ecosystem works. For example, a famous set of experiments by Prof. Stephen
Carpenter of the University of Wisconsin involved adding top predator fish to lakes to
see if this would control primary production. The idea was based off of observational
Source: ww.pinterest.com

data about how lakes changed after winter fish kills. Carpenter’s research team found
that more predator fish leads to: 1) less small fish, 2) more zooplankton and 3) less
phytoplankton. Called a trophic cascade, these experiments have led to improved management of
lakes across the world and other ecosystems like Yellowstone National Park.
 Modeling
Modeling is an important tool that ecologists employ to study ecosystems once
they think they understand how the ecosystem of an environment works. A
model can take many forms, but it represents a specific hypothesis about the
mechanics of an ecosystem. The power of modeling is that a good model can let
researchers test a range of scenarios that would be too expensive or difficult to
do as experiments. Models can help ecologists make predictions about things as
varied as how changes to fisheries regulations will affect fisheries stocks or
how climate change will impact the ranges of disease carrying species like Source:hptts//.2002 W.F Ruddiman

mosquitoes. Models that predict range expansion of disease carrying

mosquitoes can be used to inform doctors in at-risk areas to be on the lookout for new diseases
such as malaria that may not have occurred there before.
 Synthesis
The most powerful research projects are ones that bring together field
observations, experiments and modeling. There are programs in place today that
are designed to create opportunities for synthesis of these different research
methods. For instance, the National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON) is
a new network of locations where a huge range of data will be collected for 30
years following its completed construction. According to information obtained
March 2014 from the NEON website, construction has been completed on 25
Source: www.vabba.pw
sites, and 27 sites are planned for construction in 2014. At these sites there are
also facilities for ecologists to perform experiments, utilizing the data being
collected. The experiments and observational data will be used to build continent-scale models to
predict how the environment will respond to threats like invasive species and climate change.

1.3 The Effects of Scale

Within the discipline of ecology, researchers work at five broad levels, sometimes discretely
and sometimes with overlap: organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere.

Let's take a look at each scale.

Individual/Organism-Organismal ecologists study adaptations, beneficial
features arising by natural selection that allow organisms to live in specific
habitats. These adaptations can be morphological, physiological, or
 behavioral.
Population -A population is a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same
area at the same time. Population ecologists study the size, density, and structure of
Source:www.pinterest.com
populations and how they change over time.
Community-A biological community consists of all the populations of different species
that live in a given area. Community ecologists focus on interactions between populations and how
these interactions shape the community.
Ecosystem-An ecosystem consists of all the organisms in an area, the community, and the abiotic
factors that influence that community. Ecosystem ecologists often focus on flow of energy and
recycling of nutrients.
Biosphere- The biosphere is planet Earth, viewed as an ecological system. Ecologists working at the
biosphere level may study global patterns—for example, climate or species distribution—interactions
among ecosystems, and phenomena that affect the entire globe, such as climate change.

A flow chart of three boxes explaining the hierarchy of living organisms. WW

The top box contains a photograph of tall trees in a forest and is captioned,
“Organisms, populations, and communities: In this forest, each pine tree is an
organism. All of the pine trees living in the area make up a population. All of
the populations of different species in the area form a community. “The second
box contains a photograph of a body of water, behind which a stand of tall
grasses is developing into more dense vegetation and trees as distance from the
water increases. The photo is accompanied by the following text:
Source:hptts//.Khanacademy.org “Ecosystems: This coastal ecosystem in the southeastern United States consists
of a community of living organisms plus their physical environment. “The third box
contains a drawing of planet Earth and is labeled, “The biosphere: The biosphere consists of all the
ecosystems on Earth, considered together. A flow chart of three boxes explaining the hierarchy of
living organisms. The five levels of ecology are listed above from small to large. They build
progressively—populations are made up of individuals; communities are made up of populations;
ecosystems are made up of a community plus its environment; and so forth. Each level of
organization has emergent properties, new properties that are not present in the level's component
parts but emerge from these parts' interactions and relationships. The levels of ecological study offer
different insights into how organisms interact with each other and the environment. I like to think of
these levels as magnifying glasses of different strengths. If you really want to get what's going on in a
particular ecological system, you'll likely want to use more than one!

1.4 Evolutionary Ecology

If you have spent some time studying biology, then you have likely seen pictures of early
human species. It probably did not take you long to realize that we have changed rather significantly
over the years, however, do you know what caused those changes? Evolution is the development of
changes that can be passed genetically over the history of an organism.
These changes happen for a reason: when everything is going well for an organism, it has no
reason to change anything. However, when conditions are not so favorable anymore, an organism
may consider changing in order to have a better chance of surviving. Scientists study these pressures
when they study ecology, which is the study of the interactions between an organism and its
environment.
To fully understand ecology, you have to keep in mind that there are many different aspects of
an organism's environment. These include other organisms of the same species, other species of
organisms, and the nonliving parts of the environment. When we study how these ecological factors
cause changes in an organism throughout its history, we are studying evolutionary ecology.

1.5 How Variation Originated

Genetic variation is a measure of the variation that exists in the genetic makeup of individuals
within population. The genetic variation of an entire species is often called genetic diversity. Genetic
variations are the differences in DNA segments or genes between individuals and each variation of a
gene is called an allele. For example, a population with many different alleles at a single chromosome
locus has a high amount of genetic variation. Genetic variation is essential for natural selection
because natural selection can only increase or decrease frequency of alleles that already exist in the
population.

Genetic variation is caused by:

 Mutation
Mutations are changes to an organism’s DNA and are an important
driver of diversity in populations. Species evolve because of the
accumulation of mutations that occur over time. The appearance of
new mutations is the most common way to introduce novel genotypic
and phenotypic variance. Some mutations are unfavorable or harmful
and are quickly eliminated from the population by natural selection.
Others are beneficial and will spread through the population. Source: internationalbusinesstimes.org
Whether or not a mutation is beneficial or harmful is determined by
whether it helps an organism survive to sexual maturity and reproduce. Some mutations have no
effect on an organism and can linger, unaffected by natural selection, in the genome while others
can have a dramatic effect on a gene and the resulting phenotype.
 Random mating between organisms
In random mattings involves the mating of individuals regardless of any
physical genetic or social preference. In other words the mating between
two organisms is not influenced by any environmental, hereditary, social
interactions, hence potential mates have an equal chance of being
selected.
Source: www.miami.edu
 Random fertilization
Refers to the fact that if two individuals mate, and each is capable of producing over eight million
potential gametes, the random chance of any one sperm and egg coming together is a product of
these two probabilities-some seventy trillion different combinations of chromosomes in a
potential offspring.
 Crossing over (or recombination) between chromatids of homologous chromosomes
during meiosis
Is the exchange of genetic material during sexual reproduction
between two homologous.
 Evolution and Adaptation to the Environment
Variation allows some individuals within a population to adapt to the
Source; Chegg.com
 changing environment. Because natural selection acts directly only on phenotypes, more genetic
variation within a population usually enables more phenotypic variation. Some new alleles
increase an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce, which then ensures the survival of the
allele in the population. Other new alleles may be immediately detrimental (such as a malformed
oxygen-carrying protein) and organisms carrying these new mutations will die out. Neutral alleles
are neither selected for nor against and usually remain in the population. Genetic variation is
advantageous because it enables some individuals and, therefore, a population, to survive despite
a changing environment.

 Geographic Variation
Some species display geographic variation as well as variation within a
population. Geographic variation, or the distinctions in the genetic makeup of
different populations, often occurs when populations are geographically
separated by environmental barriers or when they are under selection
pressures from a different environment. One example of geographic variation
are clines: graded changes in a character down a geographic axis. Source; Dragongflyissueinevolution13.com

Sources of Genetic Variation

Gene duplication, mutation, or other processes can produce new genes and alleles and
increase genetic variation. New genetic variation can be created within generations in a population, so
a population with rapid reproduction rates will probably have high genetic variation. However,
existing genes can be arranged in new ways from chromosomal crossing over and recombination in
sexual reproduction. Overall, the main sources of genetic variation are the formation of new alleles,
the altering of gene number or position, rapid reproduction, and sexual reproduction.
 Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is the change in allele frequencies of a
population due to random chance events, such as natural
disasters.

Source:www.pinterest.com

 The Bottleneck Effect

Genetic drift can also be magnified by natural events, such as a
natural disaster that kills a large portion of the population at
random. The bottleneck effect occurs when only a few
individuals survive and reduces variation in the gene pool of a
population. The genetic structure of the survivors becomes the
genetic structure of the entire population, which may be very
different from the pre-disaster population.
 The Founder Effect Source;https//study.com/

Another scenario in which populations might experience a strong influence of genetic drift is if
some portion of the population leaves to start a new population in a new location or if a
population gets divided by a physical barrier of some kind. In this situation, it is improbable that
those individuals are representative of the entire population, which results in the founder effect.
The founder effect occurs when the genetic structure changes to match that of the new

Source;Teacherspayteachers.gov
population’s founding fathers and mothers.
 Drift and fixation
The Hardy–Weinberg principle states that within sufficiently large
populations, the allele frequencies remain constant from one
generation to the next unless the equilibrium is disturbed by
migration, genetic mutation, or selection. Because the random
sampling can remove, but not replace, an allele, and because random
declines or increases in allele frequency influence expected allele
distributions for the next generation, genetic drift drives a
Source: Slideplayer.com
population towards genetic uniformity over time. When an allele
reaches a frequency of 1 (100%) it is said to be “fixed” in the population and when an allele
reaches a frequency of 0 (0%) it is lost. Once an allele becomes fixed, genetic drift for that allele
comes to a halt, and the allele frequency cannot change unless a new allele is introduced in the
population via mutation or gene flow. Thus even while genetic drift is a random, directionless
process, it acts to eliminate genetic variation over time.
 Gene Flow and Mutation
An important evolutionary force is gene flow: the flow of alleles in and out of a population due to
the migration of individuals or gametes. While some populations are fairly stable, others
experience more movement and fluctuation. Many plants, for example, send their pollen by wind,
insects, or birds to pollinate other populations of the same species some distance away. Even a
population that may initially appear to be stable, such as a pride of lions, can receive new genetic
variation as developing males leave their mothers to form new prides with genetically-unrelated
females. This variable flow of individuals in and out of the group not only changes the gene
structure of the population, but can also introduce new genetic variation to populations in
different geological locations and habitats.
A population’s genetic variation changes as individuals migrate into
or out of a population and when mutations introduce new alleles.

Source:m.wikepedia.com

 Nonrandom Mating and Environmental Variance

Population structure can be altered by nonrandom mating (the
preference of certain individuals for mates) as well as the
environment.Genes are not the only players involved in
determining population variation. Phenotypes are also influenced by
other factors, such as the environment. A beachgoer is likely to
have darker skin than a city dweller, for example, due to regular
exposure to the sun, an environmental factor. Some major
characteristics, such as gender, are determined by the Source:weekly.com
environment for some species. For example, some turtles and
other reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD). TSD means that individuals
develop into males if their eggs are incubated within a certain temperature range, or females at a
different temperature range. TT
 References
1. www.ebi.ac.uk>cource>introductio-phylogenetics

2. biologydictionary.net>ecology (Retrieved by BD editors 2017)w

3. Mahantry, S. (20017) Research and Reviews: Journal of Ecology and

Environmental Sciences
4. Steele, J. (2015) What are the three Ecologist Use to Study the
Environment?

5. cources.lumenlearning.com>chapter (The Evolution of Population)

Retrieve 2020

Test Yourself
Answer briefly the following questions:
1. What emphasis should we prioritize to put every living organism in peaceful coexistence
with nature?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________
2. Does scientific modeling helps represent the real mechanics of an ecosystem? Justify your
answer.__________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
____________
3. What is the basic level in the hierarchy of living organisms? Explain its
rule____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________
4. How random and nonrandom mating of organisms do differs from each
 other?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
5. Among the sources of genetic variation, how evolution and adaptation
to the environment works?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________\
 MODULE 2
2. Natural Selection and Speciation
Learning Outcomes:
After studying this chapter, students are expected to:
1. Understand on how geographic locations affects evolutionary
process.
2. Differentiate the mechanics of natural selection and speciation.

3. Explain how rocks help uncover fossil records.

4. Understand the intensity extinction events.
5. Explain synergy and how it works.

The role of natural selection in speciation, first

described by Darwin, has finally been widely accepted. Yet, the
nature and time course of the genetic changes that result in
speciation remain mysterious. To date, genetic analyses of
speciation have focused almost exclusively on retrospective
analyses of reproductive isolation between species or
subspecies and on hybrid sterility or inviability rather than on
ecologically based barriers to gene flow. However, if we are to
fully understand the origin of species, we must analyze the

Source;Ck12foundation.com
process from additional vantage points. By studying the genetic causes of partial reproductive
isolation between specialized ecological races, early
barriers to gene flow can be identified before they become
confounded with other species differences. This population-
level approach can reveal patterns that become invisible
over time, such as the mosaic nature of the genome early in
speciation. Under divergent selection in sympatry, the
genomes of incipient species become temporary genetic
mosaics in which ecologically important genomic regions
resist gene exchange, even as gene flow continues over
most of the genome. Analysis of such mosaic genomes
suggests that surprisingly large genomic regions around
divergently selected quantitative trait loci can be protected
from interrace recombination by “divergence hitchhiking.” Here, I describe the formation of the
genetic mosaic during early ecological speciation, consider the establishment, effects, and transitory
nature of divergence hitchhiking around key ecologically important genes, and describe a 2-stage
model for genetic divergence during ecological speciation with gene floww.

Natural Selection- is the process that results in the addaptation of an organism to its environment by
means of selectivity reproducing changes in its genotype, or genetic constitution.

Speciation- is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species. The
biologist Orator F. Cook coined the term in 1906 for cladogenesis, the splitting of lineages, as
opposed to anagenesis, phyletic evolution within lineages.

How Natural Selection Works

Hummingbird Image Gallery Rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus). A hummingbird's long bill
and tongue evolved to let the bird reach deep into a flower for nectar. A hummingbird's long bill and
tongue evolved to let the bird reach deep into a flower for nectar.
Several hundred million years ago, there were no vertebrate animals on land. The only vertebrate
species in the world were fish, all of which lived underwater. Competition for food was intense. Some
species of fish that lived near the coast developed a strange mutation: the ability to push themselves
along in the mud and sand on the shore with their fins. This gave them access to food sources that no
other fish could reach. The advantage gave them greater reproductive success, so the mutation was
passed along. This is what we call natural Source: science.howstuffworks.com
selection.Natural selection is the engine that drives
evolution. The organisms best suited to survive in their particular circumstances have a greater
chance of passing their traits on to the next generation. But plants and animals interact in very
complex ways with other organisms and their environment. These factors work together to produce
the amazingly diverse range of life forms present on Earth.

How Speciation Works

Speciation is how a new kind of plant or animal species is created.
Speciation occurs when a group within a species separates from other
members of its species and develops its own unique characteristics.
 Source;hptts.//; Study.com/

2.3 Phylogenetics
Humans as a group are big on organizing things. Not necessarily
things like closets or rooms; I personally score low on the organization
front for both of those things. Instead, people often like to group and
order the things they see in the world around them. Starting with the
Greek philosopher Aristotle, this desire to classify has extended to the
many and diverse living things of Earth.
Most modern systems of classification are based on evolutionary
relationships among organisms – that is, on the organisms’ phylogeny.
Classification systems based on phylogeny organize species or other
groups in ways that reflect our understanding of how they evolved from
their common ancestors. Source:Quora.com
In this article, we'll take a look at phylogenetic trees, diagrams
that represent evolutionary relationships among organisms. We'll see exactly what we can (and can't!)
infer from a phylogenetic tree, as well as what it means for organisms to be more or less related in the
context of these trees.
Phylogenetic- is the study of evolutionary relationship among biological entities often
species, individuals or genes, which may be referred to as taxa.
Anatomy of Phylogenetic
In a phylogenetic tree, we are representing our best
hypothesis about how a set of species (or other groups) evolved from
a common ancestor. As we explore further in the building trees, this
hypothesis is based on information we are collected about our set of
species- things like their physical features and the DNA sequences of
their genes.

Source;www.Khanacademy.com
Which species are more related?
In a phylogenetic tree, the relatedness of two species has a very specific meaning. Two species
are more related if they have a more recent common ancestor, and less related if they have a less
recent common ancestor.
We can use a pretty straightforward method to find the most recent common ancestor of any
pair or group of species. In this method, we start at the branch ends carrying the two species of
interest and “walk backwards” in the tree until we find the point
where the species’ lines converge.
For instance, suppose that we wanted to say whether A
and B or B and C are more closely related. To do so, we would
follow the lines of both pairs of species backward in the tree.
Since A and B converge at a common ancestor first as we move
Khanacademy.com backwards, and B only converges with C after its junction point
Source;www.Khanacademy.com with A, we can say that A and B are more related than B and C.

Where do these trees come from?

 To generate a phylogenetic tree, scientists often compare and analyze many characteristics of
the species or other groups involved. These characteristics can include external morphology
(shape/appearance), internal anatomy, behaviors, biochemical pathways, DNA and protein sequences,
and even the characteristics of fossils.
To build accurate, meaningful trees, biologists will often use many different characteristics
(reducing the chances of any one imperfect piece of data leading to a wrong tree). Still, phylogenetic
trees are hypotheses, not definitive answers, and they can only be as good as the data available when
they're made. Trees are revised and updated over time as new data becomes available and can be
added to the analysis. This is particularly true today, as DNA sequencing increases our ability to
compare genes between species.

2.4 The Fossil Record

A fossil record is a group of fossils which has been analyzed and arranged
chronologically and in taxonomic order. Fossils are created when organisms die, are
incased in dirt and rock, and are slowly replaced by minerals over time. What is left is
a mineral impression of an animal which once existed. Many fields and specialties are
utilized to categorize and arrange these fossils, including comparative anatomy,
radiometric dating, and DNA analysis. Using the data from the fossil record, scientist
try to recreate phylogenies, or trees describing the relationships between animals, both
alive and extinct. The fossil record helps inform how different groups of animals are
related through evolution. Source:Pinterest.com

Humans
The human fossil record is perhaps one of the best documented, due in part
to the historical contention that has surrounded the debate of evolution. Nearly
every “missing link” in the chain has been unearthed, revealing a solid chain of
fossils from modern humans to our earliest ape-like ancestors. The fossils can be
differentiated by their distinct features, and can be dated using radioactive isotopes
for very accurate dating. The oldest fossils of members of the Homo genus were
found to be around 1.5 million years old. These belonged to Homo ergaster. It is
believed that Homo ergaster spread from Africa and diverged into the species seen
source;Apologeticpress.org
below.
Human evolution chart
Homo erectus and Homo neanderthalensis both have a
distinct fossil record, and it is likely that they competed with modern
Homo sapiens. Genetic analysis have confirmed that modern human
genomes contain traces of genes from the Neanderthals, suggesting
that the two species interbred at some point in the past. The fossil
record of humans can be traced back even further, all the way to very
ape-like ancestors which still climbed trees.
Source:Dreamstime.com
Whales
Surprisingly enough, the fossil records of many animals have
been assembled in near completion as well. The fossil record of
whales, for instance, has a set of several well-defined members that
lead inevitably to modern whales. Fossils have been found of coyote-
sized semi-aquatic predators which were thought to live amphibious
life-styles near the shore. Later fossils reveal a much more aquatic

Source:www.Quora.com
predatory animal, still resembling a dog, but with a much larger tail and a head adapted to hunting in
the water. Around 35 million years ago, an animal existed which was almost fully aquatic and had
lost its hind limbs. 5 million years later, the fossils of what appear to be modern whales start to
appear.
The Oldest Fossils
When talking about the fossil record of life on Earth, the
record goes back much further. The oldest known rocks that have
been analyzed are around 3.8 billion years old. Tracing the minerals
and hydrocarbons present in certain rocks has led to the conclusion
that some form of single-celled life was present around 2.7 billion
years ago. Fossil impression of single celled organisms, thought to be
some early ancestor of plant and animal cells, can be found around
1.6 billion years ago in the fossil record.
However, the first multicellular life that left abundant fossils is The cyanobacteria from Archean rocks of Western
usually dated to around 1.2 billion years ago, with a large Australia dated 3.5 billion years old is the oldest
known fossil.
expansion sometime around 600 million years ago. This period is
dubbed the Precambrian period, and marks the start of highly Source: Dinasourfact.net
complex life. Shortly after, the Cambrian period starts with an enormous radiation of marine life
worldwide.
The Cambrian period includes the rise of vertebrates with internal skeletons and of
crustaceans and arthropods with external skeletons. This period hold the “Cambrian explosion”, one
of the largest expansions of species found in the fossil record. Terrestrial animals did not appear until
much later, around 415 million years ago in the Silurian period. By comparison, humans diverged
from our ape relatives around 2 million years ago, during the Tertiary period. These divisions can be
seen on the following chart.

2.5 Extinction: Causes and Patterns

A species may go extinct either because it is unable to evolve rapidly enough to meet
changing circumstances, or because its niche disappears and no capacity for rapid evolution could
have saved it. Although recent extinctions can usually be interpreted as resulting from niche
disappearance, the taxonomic distribution of parthenogenesis suggests that inability to evolve may
also be important. A second distinction is between physical and biotic causes of extinction. Fossil
evidence for constant taxonomic diversity, combined with species turnover, implies that biotic factors
have been important. A similar conclusion emerges from studies of recent introductions of predators,
competitors and parasites into new areas. The term 'species selection' should be confined to cases in
which the outcome of selection is determined by properties of the population as a whole, rather than
of individuals. The process has been of only trivial importance in producing complex adaptations, but
of major importance in determining the distribution of different types of organisms. An adequate
interpretation of the fossil record requires a theory of the coevolution of many interacting species.
Such a theory is at present lacking, but various approaches to it are discussed.
Causes of Extinctions
 The 6th Mass Extinction is Here
When we talk about extinctions, we need to understand that it’s not just
about the disappearance of a single specie but also the effects of its
disappearance to the environment that it interacts with. It’s a broad
topic. Concerned groups and governments are trying to save these
endangered species through breeding and preserving their habitat – but

Source:hptts//Nextias.com/
 these are all temporary solutions. What we need to do is to address the root causes of extinction of
species.
Extinctions have happened several times in our geological history and they were mostly
caused by natural events such as comets and volcanic eruptions… some causes remain unknown.
But definitely, the current dilemma of Rhinos, Tigers, Bluefin Tuna and Gorillas is unnatural. This
6th mass extinction is on us – Homo Sapiens.

Top Causes of Current Extinctions

 Over Hunting
The ivory of elephants, the fur and organs of tigers, the deliciousness of tuna and the
supposedly medicinal effect of shark’s fin are some examples of why we have over hunted
these animals to the point of extinction.

 Destruction of Habitat
It is currently the biggest cause of current extinctions.
Deforestation has killed off more species than we can
count. Whole ecosystems live in our forests. It is
predicted that all our rainforest can disappear in the next
100 years if we cannot stop deforestation. To date, 13
million hectares of forest have been converted or
destroyed – how many species have perished? Our coral
reefs are also threatened. Reefs are home to 25% of marine
animals. To date, 27% of coral reefs have been
destroyed.
Source: www.sepponet.com
 Pollution
When we introduce unnatural chemicals that contaminate our
air, soil and seas, it interferes with the metabolism of animals and they are unable to cope. Air
pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Water and soil
pollutants are heavy metals such as mercury, cadmium and lead – and pesticide and herbicide
compounds.
 All of these factors work in synergy
The whole is greater than the sum of if
its parts known in the systems theory
causing the fastest rate of extinction
ever seen. Large bodied animal and
rare species are more prone to the
changes caused by humans to the
planet. Extinctions can disrupt our
ecological processes like Source: Medium.com Soure; Entrepreneur.com

pollination and seed distribution and a collapse of the

food chain which can cause more extinctions.
  Ordovician-Silurian extinction - 444 million years ago
The Ordovician period, from 485 to 444 million years ago, was a time of
dramatic changes for life on Earth. Over a 30-million-year stretch, species
diversity blossomed, but as the period ended, the first known mass
extinction struck. At that time, massive glaciation locked up huge amounts
of water in an ice cap that covered parts of a large south polar landmass.
The icy onslaught may have been triggered by the rise of North America’s
Appalachian Mountains. The large-scale weathering of these freshly
uplifted rocks sucked carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and drastically
cooled the planet.
As a result, sea levels plummeted by hundreds of feet. Creatures living in
shallow waters would have seen their habitats cool and shrink dramatically,
dealing a major blow. Whatever life remained recovered haltingly in
chemically hostile waters: Once sea levels started to rise again, marine oxygen levels fell, which
in turn caused ocean waters to more readily hold onto dissolved toxic metals.
Twitter.com

 Late Devonian extinction - 383-359 million years ago

Starting 383 million years ago, this extinction event eliminated about 75 percent of all species on
Earth over a span of roughly 20 million years.
In several pulses across the Devonian, ocean oxygen levels dropped precipitously, which dealt
serious blows to conodonts and ancient shelled relatives of squid and octopuses called goniatites.
The worst of these pulses, called the Kellwasser event, came about 372 million years ago. Rocks
from the period in what’s now Germany show that as oxygen levels plummeted, many reef-
building creatures died out, including a major group of sea sponges called the stromatoporoids.
 Triassic-Jurassic extinction - 201 million years ago
Life took a long time to recover from the Great Dying, but once it
did, it diversified rapidly. Different reef-building creatures began to
take hold, and lush vegetation covered the land, setting the stage for
a group of reptiles called the archosaurs: the forerunners of birds,
crocodilians, pterosaurs, and the nonavian dinosaurs. But about 201
million years ago, life endured another major blow: the sudden loss
of up to 80 percent of all land and marine species.
Source:Zmescience.com

 Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction - 66 million years ago

The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event is the most recent mass
extinction and the only one definitively connected to a major
asteroid impact. Some 76 percent of all species on the planet,
including all nonavian dinosaurs, went extinct.

Source: Sciencepress.com
Patterns of Extinction
Several mass extinctions have occurred throughout earth
history. Cycles found to be associate with these events has resulted in

Source: pinterest.com
 paleontologists proposing mechanisms to explain these events. It seems that mass extinctions occur at
regular time intervals with a periodicity of approximately 26 million years. This concept was first
suggested by Alfred Fischer and Michael Arthur, but has been further expanded upon by various
researchers utilizing data collected by David Raup and John Sepkoski. Raup and Sepkoski
constructed graphs utilizing incidences of extinction of marine families through time. The rate of
extinction was represented on a graph as a series of rising and falling peaks. Surprisingly, these peaks
coincided with most major events of extinction throughout earth history. However, a significant
number of paleontologists believe Raup and Sepkoski's research to be flawed, arguing that the dates
used in the study are incorrect, and that the spacing pattern is not always 26 million years. Until new
evidence can be brought forth, the question of periodicity will clearly remain a source of debate
within the paleontological community.
The concept of periodicity has important implications for determining which factors cause
extinction. Hypotheses invoking catastrophism have particularly been advanced utilizing this concept,
which imply extra-terrestrial forces as extinction-causing agents. This is because only astronomical
forces are known to operate on such a precise periotic time schedule. Contrary to catastrophism are
hypotheses which focus on gradualism. These gradualistic hypotheses invoke various terrestrial
extinction mechanisms including volcanism, glaciation, global climatic change, and changes in sea
level. Most recently hypotheses centered on the new non-linear science of complexity have emerged.
Under these hypotheses species-species interactions lead to occasional instability resulting in
cascades which may ripple through entire ecosystems, with potentially devastating results.

References
Pinterest.com
1. Via, S. (20o9) Natural selection in Action during

2. Safran, R.J. and Nossil, P. (20012) Speciation: The Origin of New

Species. Nature Edition Knowledge 3(10): 17

3. www.ebi.ac.uk>cource>introductio-phylogenetics

4. Brusca, R.C. and Brusca, G.J. (2007) Invertebrates. Sunderland, MA:

Sinauer Association, Inc.

5. Park.org>Canada>museum (patterns of Extinction)

6. Smith, J.M. (1989) The Causes of Extinction

7. https:///www.theworldcounts.com>stories (Retrieved 2020)

8. www.nationalgeographic.org>media (Retrieved 2019)

Test Yourself
1. Why species in different geographic locations affects its
evolutionary process?
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2. How natural selection and speciation works?

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3. How rocks help uncover fossil records?
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4. What extinction event has the greatest impact in the diversity of
species on earth? Explain-
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5. Explain what is synergy and how it works?
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