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Nutrition and Exercise: An Overview

Donald K. Layman

Department of Foods and Nutrition, Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of

Downloaded via 54.162.69.248 on June 17, 2020 at 18:45:43 (UTC).

Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801

Across the United States, interest has increased in physical

fitness, exercise, and nutrition. Almost one-half of adult
Americans state that they exercise regularly (1). Activities
include walking, running, swimming, biking, racketball, tennis,
aerobic dancing, and many others. The renewed interest in exercise
appears to be due, in large part, to the association of exercise
with health. Most health organizations, including the American
Heart Association, the American Diabetes Association, the American
Dietetic Association, and theAmericanMedical Association, advocate
exercise for maintenance of health and to reduce the risk of the
onset of the adult diseases of obesity, hypertension, heart disease,
and diabetes (2-4).
Likewise, health-related changes have occurred in the American
diet. The Dietary Goals for the United States developed in 1977 by
the Senate Select Committee on Nutrition (5) recommended that adults
reduce their calorie intake, reduce total fat, saturated fat, and
cholesterol, avoid excessive salt intake, and increase consumption
of complex carbohydrates and fiber.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPO
Th ese r ec o m m en d a t i o n s h a ve
r e s u l t e d i n t r e n d s t o wa r d l o w e r c o n su m p t i o n o f a n i m a l p r o d u c t s p l u s
u se o f l o w f a t p r o d u c t s and i n c r e a s e d c o n su m p t i o n o f f r u i t s and
ve g e t a b l e s . Consum ers a r e s e l e c t i n g l e s s su g a r and s a t u r a t e d f a t
(6 ). D u r i n g t h e p a s t 3 y e a r s , u se o f p o u l t r y and f i s h h a s i n c r e a s e d
a b o u t 1 6 %, w h i l e u se o f b e e f a n d eggs h a s d e c r e a s e d 1 6 %zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgf
( 7) . Th i s
i n c r e a se d c o n sc i o u sn ess o f t he gen er a l p u b l i c t o n u t r i t i o n has a l s o
l e d t o a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f m i r a c l e d i e t s , q u i c k w e i g h t l o s s sc h em es,
and v i t a m i n s u p p l e m e n t s . Su r ve ys i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f
Am e r i c a n s t a k e v i t a m i n su p p l e m e n t s (6 ) a n d many h a ve t r i e d a f a d
wei ght l o s s d i e t ( 8 ) .
The r e s p o n s e o f t h e Am eri c a n p u b l i c t o u t i l i z e d i e t a n d
e x e r c i s e f o r m a i n t e n a n c e o f h e a l t h h a s i n c r e a s e d t h e n eed f o r more
d e f i n i t i v e s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f e xe r c i s e
wi t h d i e t a r y need s. Th i s b o o k r e vi e w s some o f t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n d
m e t a b o l i c ch a n ges t h a t o c c u r d u r i n g e x e r c i s e t r a i n i n g a n d exa m i n es
t h e i m p a c t o f r o u t i n e e x e r c i s e on n u t r i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s .

0097-6156/ 86/ 0294-O001$06.00/ 0

© 1986 American Chemical Society

Layman; Nutrition and Aerobic Exercise

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1986.
2 NUTRITION A N D AEROBIC EXERCISE

P h y s i o l o g i c a l and M e t a b o l i c Resp o n ses t o Ex e r c i s e

The i n f l u e n c e o f p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y on n u t r i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s and
h e a l t h i s n o t t h e same f o r a l l a c t i v i t i e s . Fo r t h e p u r p o se s o f t h i s
b o o k , e x e r c i s e w i l l be c l a s s i f i e d as e i t h e r a n a e r o b i c o r a e r o b i c
a c t i vi t i es. These t erm s p r o vi d e d e s c r i p t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t b o t h
t h e l e v e l o f e x e r t i o n and t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e a c t i v i t y a n d a r e
u s e f u l i n r e l a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s to n u t r i t i o n a l need s. An a e r o b i c
e x e r c i s e i n c l u d e s a c t i v i t i e s su c h as w e i g h t l i f t i n g and s p r i n t i n g ,
a n d i n v o l v e s maximum e x e r t i o n f o r p e r i o d s o f t i m e l e s s t h a n 1 o r 2
m i nut es. Ae r o b i c a c t i v i t i e s are p erf orm ed f o r p e r i o d s u s u a l l y i n
e xc e s s o f 1 5 m i n u t e s a t l e s s t h a n maximum sp e e d o r s t r e n g t h .
A e r o b i c e x e r c i s e r e q u i r e s g r e a t e r en d u ra n c e and i n c l u d e s a c t i v i t i e s
su c h as d i s t a n c e r u n n i n g , swi m m i n g, b i k i n g , a n d w a l k i n g .
Some o f t h e r e s p o n s e s b y t h e b od y t o a n a e r o b i c e x e r c i s e a r e
v i s u a l l y o b vi o u s . Gr e a t e r s t r e n g t h , s p e e d , a n d m u s c l e d evel o p m en t
a r e r e a s o n s t h a t a t h l e t e s e m p h a si ze a n a e r o b i c t r a i n i n g . Ho wever,
r e s e a r c h h a s shown t h a t t h e s e r e s u l t s a r e n o t e a s i l y p r e d i c t e d , a n d
even t h e e f f e c t s on t h e am ount o f m u sc l e mass a r e n o t e n t i r e l y c l e a r zyxwvutsrqp
(9). The e f f e c t s o f t h e s e s h o r t - d u r a t i o n e x e r c i s e s on
c a r d i o p u l m o n a r y f u n c t i o n and on n u t r i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e m i n i m a l .
A e r o b i c e x e r c i s e i n v o l v e s en d u ra n c e t r a i n i n g . As t h e b od y
p e r f o r m s a c t i v i t i e s f o r e xt e n d e d p e r i o d s , p h y s i o l o g i c a l and c e l l u l a r
a d a p t a t i o n s occur (1 0 - 1 2 ). Th ese a d a p t a t i o n s f o c u s on t h e a b i l i t y
o f t h e b od y t o s u p p l y o xygen t o t h e m u sc l e c e l l s , t h e c a p a c i t y o f
t h e c e l l s t o u t i l i z e o xyg e n , a n d a s h i f t i n t h e f u e l s o u r c e t o
g r e a t e r u se o f f a t t y a c i d s . The m a gn i t u d e o f t h e s e ch a n ges d e f i n e s
a e r o b i c c a p a c i t y and end urance.
A e r o b i c t r a i n i n g p r o d u c e s num erous p h y s i o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s ,
i n c l u d i n g ch a n ges i n h e a r t r a t e and o xygen u p t a k e . Th e r e i s a
d ecrea se i n t h e r e s t i n g h e a r t r a t e and t h e h e a r t r a t e a t any
s p e c i f i c work l o a d . Ho wever, c a r d i a c o u t p u t i s m a i n t a i n e d b e c a u se
s t r o k e vol um e i s i n c r e a s e d . Changes a l s o o c c u r w i t h i n t h e m u sc l e
c e l l s t h a t a l l o w f o r i n c r e a s e d o xygen u p t a k e f rom t h e c i r c u l a t i n g
blood. Th u s, a e r o b i c e x e r c i s e t r a i n i n g i n c r e a s e s s t r o k e vo l u m e , t h e
e f f i c i e n c y o f o xygen u p t a k e b y m u sc l e s (A- V 0 2 ) , V0 2 max and r e d u c e s
t h e h e a r t r a t e d u r i n g su b m a xi m a l e x e r c i s e ( 1 0 , 1 3 - 1 4 ) .
At t h e c e l l u l a r l e v e l , a e r o b i c e x e r c i s e t r a i n i n g i n c r e a s e s t h e
o x i d a t i v e c a p a c i t y o f t h e t i s s u e s ( 1 1 ) , a n d p r o d u c e s num erous
ch a n ges i n t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e m u sc l e c e l l s . Changes i n s p e c i f i c
s k e l e t a l m u sc l e c e l l s and t h e e f f e c t s o f e x e r c i s e i n t e n s i t y ,
d u r a t i o n , and f r e q u e n c y a r e d i s c u s s e d i n Ch a p t e r 2 . M it ochondria
i n c r e a s e i n s i z e a n d num ber wh i c h a l l o w s f o r i n c r e a s e d o xygen u se i n
f u e l c o n ve r s i o n t o e n e r g y f o r m u s c u l a r c o n t r a c t i o n . Tr a i n i n g a l s o
p r o d u c e s a s h i f t i n t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f f u e l f o r e x e r c i s e f ro m
c a r b o h yd r a t e s t o f a t t y a c i d s . Si n ce f a t t y a c i d s are t he p r i n c i p a l
f o rm o f f u e l s t o r a g e i n t h e b o d y, t h i s s h i f t i s c r i t i c a l i n a l l o w i n g
f o r p rol onged a c t i v i t y . Use o f c a r b o h yd r a t e s and l i p i d s d u r i n g
a e r o b i c e x e r c i s e i s exa m i n ed i n Ch a p t e r 3 .

I n f l u e n c e o f A e r o b i c Ex e r c i s e on N u t r i t i o n a l Needs

I n t e r e s t i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f n u t r i t i o n and e x e r c i s e a r i s e s f ro m
many s o u r c e s . A t h l e t e s and c o a c h e s o f t e n seek an e x t r a ed ge f ro m
s p e c i f i c foods or sup p l em ent s. W r e s t l e r s , d a n c e r s , a n d gym nast s

Layman; Nutrition and Aerobic Exercise

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1986.
1. LAYMANzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Overview 3

f r e q u e n t l y a t t e m p t t o c o n t r o l f o o d i n t a k e t o m o d i f y b od y w e i g h t ;
a n d , as s t a t e d a b o ve , l a r g e num b ers o f p e o p l e a r e now l o o k i n g t o t h e
c o m b i n a t i o n o f i m p r o ve d n u t r i t i o n and e x e r c i s e f o r m a i n t e n a n c e o f
health. Th u s , t h e t o p i c s o f " N u t r i t i o n and Ex e r c i s e " p r o d u c e a wi d e
v a r i e t y o f q u e s t i o n s f ro m a d i v e r s e a u d i e n c e w i t h d i f f e r e n t n eed s
and g o a l s . Qu e s t i o n s m ost f r e q u e n t l y a s k e d i n c l u d e :

Is e xe r c i s e i m p o r t a n t f o r wei gh t c o n t r o l ?
Is i n c r e a s e d p r o t e i n e s s e n t i a l f o r m u scl e b u i l d i n g o r
st rengt h?
Does e x e r c i s e r e d u c e t h e r i s k o f h e a r t d i s e a s e ?
Sh o u l d a t h l e t e s t a k e v i t a m i n s u p p l e m e n t s ?
Ar e s a l t t a b l e t s o r e l e c t r o l y t e d r i n k s e s s e n t i a l f o r
e xe r c i s e d u r i n g h o t wea t h er?
Is e xe r c i s e i m p o rt a n t f o r a d i a b e t i c ?
Does a e r o b i c e x e r c i s e c r e a t e an i n c r e a s e d n eed f o r i r o n ?
Does e x e r c i s e p r e ve n t o s t e o p o r o s i s ?

Th i s b ook a d d r e s s e s t h e s e i s s u e s and exa m i n es t h e c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h

i n t hese a r e a s .
To e va l u a t e n u t r i t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e r e a d e r need s a b a s i c
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f n u t r i e n t s and t h e p a r a m e t e r s t h a t a f f e c t t h e i r
need s. N u t r i e n t s a r e c h e m i c a l s u b s t a n c e s n eed ed t o m a i n t a i n l i f e
wh i c h a r e s u p p l i e d t o t h e b o d y i n f o o d o r d r i n k s . The n u t r i e n t s
i n c l u d e v i t a m i n s , m i n e r a l s , c a r b o h yd r a t e s , f a t s , p r o t e i n s , a n d
wat er. Th ese c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f n u t r i e n t s encom p ass a p p r o xi m a t e l y
4 5 d i f f e r e n t c h e m i c a l s t h a t a r e i n v o l v e d i n e ve r y f u n c t i o n o r
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e b o d y. Wh i l e some o f t h e s e f u n c t i o n s t h a t a r e
d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e d by e xe r c i s e w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t he sub seq uent
c h a p t e r s , a c o m p l e t e l i s t i n g o f t h e s e f u n c t i o n s i s b eyo n d t h e s c o p e
o f t h i s book. Fo r a more t h o r o u g h r e vi e w o f n u t r i e n t f u n c t i o n s , t h e
r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o any one o f a number o f e x c e l l e n t n u t r i t i o n
references (5 -6 ,1 5 -1 6 ).
To a s s e s s t h e i m p a c t o f e x e r c i s e on t h e n eed s f o r s p e c i f i c
n u t r i e n t s , n u t r i e n t f u n c t i o n s m ust b e e v a l u a t e d . At a g e n e r a l i ze d
l e v e l , t h e f u n c t i o n s o f n u t r i e n t s a r e (a ) g r o wt h o r m a i n t e n a n c e o f
t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e b od y (one ca n c o n s i d e r e i t h e r m a c r o - s t r u c t u r e s
l i k e m u sc l e s a n d b o n e s , o r m i c r o - s t r u c t u r e s l i k e c e l l membranes and
e n zym e s), (b ) f u e l s f o r t h e e n e r g y t o r u n t h e b od y p r o c e s s e s , (c )
f l u i d s and r e g u l a t i o n o f b od y f l u i d s , a n d (d ) p r o t e c t i o n f ro m t o x i c
s u b s t a n c e s i n c l u d i n g t o x i c c h e m i c a l s , c a r c i n o g e n s , and a n t i g e n s .
The e f f e c t s o f e x e r c i s e on n u t r i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s ca n b e a s s e s s e d
a g a i n s t t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f s u b s t a n t i a l ch a n ges i n one o r more o f
t hese f u n c t i o n s .
As t h e e f f e c t s o f e x e r c i s e on t h e b od y a r e e xa m i n e d , c l e a r l y
t h e p r i m a r y e f f e c t s a r e on b od y f l u i d s and f u e l s . M ovement o f t h e
b od y r e q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l f u e l s and t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n ve r s i o n o f
t h e s e f u e l s i n t o en ergy p r o d u c e s h e a t wh i c h m ust be d i s s i p a t e d , i n
l a r g e p a r t , b y e va p o r a t i o n o f swea t f ro m t h e s k i n .
Wat er i s t h e most c r i t i c a l o f t h e e f f e c t s o f e x e r c i s e on
n u t r i t i o n a l req ui rem ent s. As d i s c u s s e d i n Ch a p t e r 8 , e x e r c i s e
p r o d u c e s i n c r e a s e d b o d y h e a t and i n c r e a s e d w a t e r l o s s e s . If t his
r e s u l t s i n d e h y d r a t i o n , i t w i l l d e c r e a s e p e r f o r m a n c e a n d ca n p r o d u c e
n a u s e a , i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n h e a r t b e a t , h e a t s t r o k e , and d e a t h .
A s s o c i a t e d w i t h wa t e r l o s s e s , t h e r e a r e l o s s e s o f s a l t s o r

Layman; Nutrition and Aerobic Exercise

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1986.
4 NUTRITION A N D AEROBIC EXERCISE

e l e c t r o l yt e s. Ho wever, w a t e r l o s s i s c l e a r l y t h e m ost l i m i t i n g
f a c t o r f o r work c a p a c i t y as d e f i n e d i n a p o s i t i o n p a p er b y t h e
Am e r i c a n C o l l e g e o f S p o r t s M e d i c i n e ( 1 7 ) .
A f t e r s u p p l y i n g an a d e q u a t e amounT o f w a t e r , t h e n e xt m ost
i m p o r t a n t d i e t a r y i s s u e i s a d eq u a t e e n e r g y. Ph ys i c a l a c t i v i t y i s
t h e m a j o r v a r i a b l e o f e n e r g y e xp e n d i t u r e and t h e o n l y com p onent
u n d e r vo l u n t a r y c o n t r o l . The o t h e r com p onent s a r e b a s a l m e t a b o l i s m
(t h e e n e r g y exp en d ed t o m a i n t a i n t h e v i t a l b od y p r o c e s s e s w h i l e a t
r e s t ) a n d S p e c i f i c Dynam i c A c t i o n (t h e en ergy u t i l i z e d d u r i n g t h e
d i g e s t i o n , a b s o r p t i o n , and a s s i m i l a t i o n o f n u t r i e n t s a f t e r a m e a l ) .
Th ese two com p onent s exp en d a b o u t 1 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 k i l o c a l o r i e s o f e n e r g y
p er d a y, d e p e n d i n g on t h e s i z e o f t h e b od y and c o m p o s i t i o n o f
m eal s. Ho wever, f o o d i n t a k e s r a n g e f ro m 2 0 0 0 t o 6 0 0 0 k c a l s p er d a y,
d e p e n d i n g on t h e l e v e l o f a c t i v i t y . Se d e n t a r y a d u l t s n eed a b o u t
2 0 0 0 - 2 5 0 0 k c a l / d a y , w h i l e a t h l e t e s consume a p p r o xi m a t e l y 3 0 0 0 - 4 0 0 0
k ca l / d a y (1 8 ). The p r i m a r y f a c t o r s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e n e r g y
e xp e n d i t u r e o f e x e r c i s e a r e t h e w e i g h t o f t h e b od y a n d t h e d i s t a n c e
t r a ve l e d . Wh i l e i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e r e i s l e s s e n e r g y exp en d ed a t
w a l k i n g sp e e d s ve r s u s r u n n i n g d ue t o g r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c i e s i n
m ovem ent , o ve r a f a i r l y w i d e r a n g e o f r u n n i n g sp eed s e n e r g y
e xp e n d i t u r e i s e s s e n t i a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f sp e e d f o r a g i ve n d i s t a n c e
(1 9 - 2 0 ).
Fu e l s f o r t h e b od y a r e l i m i t e d t o c a r b o h yd r a t e s , f a t s , a n d
p rot ei ns. I n t h e Am e r i c a n d i e t , t h e s e f u e l s a r e consum ed i n a r a t i o
o f a p p r o xi m a t e l y 4 6 : 4 2 : 1 2 w i t h t h e recom m ended r a t i o b e i n g c l o s e r t o
5 3 :3 5 :1 2 (5 ). Thus i n a n o n g r o wi n g a d u l t , t h e s e r a t i o s p r o vi d e
e s t i m a t e s o f t h e f u e l u se f o r d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s . The p r i m a r y f u e l s
f o r e x e r c i s e a r e c a r b o h yd r a t e s and f a t s . Ch a p t e r 3 e xa m i n e s
u t i l i za t i o n of s p e c i f i c f u el s d uri ng a ero b i c e xe r c i s e . As t h e
amount o f d a i l y e x e r c i s e i n c r e a s e s , t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e d e n e r g y
e xp e n d i t u r e a n d h en ce i n c r e a s e d n eed f o r en ergy n u t r i e n t s u s u a l l y
r e f l e c t e d i n i n c r e a s e d f o o d c o n s u m p t i o n , d e c r e a s e d b od y f a t , o r b o t h
(see Ch a p t e r 9 ) .
P r o t e i n h a s l o n g b een a d o m i n a n t f e a t u r e a t t h e t r a i n i n g t a b l e
f o r a t h l e t e s who b e l i e v e t h a t h i g h i n t a k e s o f p r o t e i n a r e e s s e n t i a l
f o r m u sc l e d evel o p m en t a n d s t r e n g t h . Ho wever, r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s
t h a t l i t t l e o r no a d d i t i o n a l p r o t e i n i s r e q u i r e d f o r maximum m u s c l e
growt h. I n t e r e s t i n g l y, r e c e n t s t u d i e s suggest t h a t a e r o b i c e xe r c i s e
may h a ve l a r g e r e f f e c t s on p r o t e i n m e t a b o l i s m t h a n a n a e r o b i c
t r a i n i n g (2 1 ). The e f f e c t s o f b o t h a n a e r o b i c a n d a e r o b i c e x e r c i s e
on t h e n u t r i t i o n a l n eed s f o r p r o t e i n a r e r e vi e w e d i n Ch a p t e r 4 .
As d i s c u s s e d a b o ve , a e r o b i c e x e r c i s e p r o d u c e s num erous
p h y s i o l o g i c and m e t a b o l i c c h a n ges i n t h e b o d y. Many o f t h e s e
c h a n ges a r e b e l i e v e d t o b e b e n e f i c i a l f o r p r e ve n t i o n o f h e a r t
d i sease. The e f f e c t s on c a r d i o p u l m o n a r y f u n c t i o n were m e n t i o n e d
e a r l i e r a n d a r e c l e a r l y b e n e f i c i a l , a s a r e t h e ch a n ges i n b od y
c o m p o s i t i o n d e s c r i b e d i n Ch a p t e r 9 . Fu r t h e r , a e r o b i c e x e r c i s e
a p p e a r s t o h a ve p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s on b l o o d c h o l e s t e r o l a n d o t h e r
lipids. Th ese e f f e c t s o f e x e r c i s e on t h e m e t a b o l i s m o f l i p i d s and
t he i m p ort ant t r a n sp o r t p a r t i c l e s c a l l e d l i p o p r o t e i n s are d i sc u ssed
i n Ch a p t e r 5 .
A t h l e t e s h a ve l o n g s o u g h t t o m a xi m i ze p e r f o r m a n c e b y u se o f
sp eci al nut ri ent s. " Er g o g e n i c A i d s " h a ve b een p ro m o t ed t o i n c r e a s e
end urance, s t r e n g t h , or p erform ance. Er g o g e n i c a i d s i n c l u d i n g
v i t a m i n s , m i n e r a l s , and o t h e r s u b s t a n c e s a r e s u g g e s t e d t o " s u p p l y"

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1. LAYMANzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Overview 5

o r " p r o d u c e " m ore e n e r g y. B e s i d e s p u r e v i t a m i n and m i n e r a l

s u p p l e m e n t s , o t h e r a i d s i n c l u d e h o n e y, wheat germ o i l , g e l a t i n ,
g l u c o s e , a n d v i t a m i n E. Wi t h t h e e xc e p t i o n o f p o s s i b l e
p s y c h o l o g i c a l b e n e f i t s , any o t h e r s u g g e s t e d b e n e f i t s a r e w i t h o u t
so u n d s c i e n t i f i c d o c u m e n t a t i o n ( 2 2 ) . As w i t h m ost m i s l e a d i n g
a d v e r t i s i n g , t h e p r e m i s e b e g i n s w i t h a b a s i c f a c t and t h e n p l a ys t o
t h e d e s i r e s o f t h e c o n su m e r . Fo r e xa m p l e , c o n v e n t i o n a l wi sd om h o l d s
t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f many o f t h e B - vi t a m i n s a r e d ep en d en t on t h e
am ount o f e n e r g y o r number o f c a l o r i e s u sed b y t h e b o d y. Fo r
t h i a m i n , r i b o f l a v i n , n i a c i n , p a n t o t h e n i c a c i d , a n d b i o t i n , t h e n eed s
c o u l d i n c r e a s e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o en ergy e x p e n d i t u r e . Thus t h e a t h l e t e
b u r n i n g t w i c e t h e e n e r g y o f t h e n o n - a t h l e t e was assum ed t o h a ve
a p p r o xi m a t e l y t w i c e t h e B - vi t a m i n n e e d s . Wh i l e t h e " l o g i c " t h a t
e x e r c i s e i n c r e a s e s B - v i t a m i n n eed s i s r e a s o n a b l e , o n l y r i b o f l a v i n
has b een s p e c i f i c a l l y s t u d i e d . Ch a p t e r 6 su m m a ri zes t h e s e f i n d i n g s
and i n d i c a t e s t h a t w h i l e r i b o f l a v i n n eed s a r e i n c r e a s e d , t h e
i n c r e a s e i s s m a l l a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d i n c r e a s e d f o o d c o n su m p t i o n
s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e t o m eet t h e s e n eed s w i t h o u t s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n .
The e f f e c t s o f e x e r c i s e on t h e d i e t a r y n eed s f o r m i n e r a l s h a ve
n o t b een e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e i m p a c t
o f e x e r c i s e on t h e m i n e r a l s i r o n and c a l c i u m wh i c h a r e exa m i n ed i n
Ch a p t e r 7 . I r o n i s an e s s e n t i a l com p onent o f h e m o g l o b i n wh i c h i s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t r a n s p o r t o f o xygen w i t h i n r e d b l o o d c e l l s i n t h e
blood. Th u s , i r o n d e f i c i e n c y (a n em i a ) w i l l d e c r e a s e o xygen c a r r y i n g
c a p a c i t y o f t h e b l o o d a n d h en ce l o w e r a e r o b i c c a p a c i t y . Th i s
p r o b l e m a p p e a r s t o b e m ost i m p o r t a n t f o r women who f r e q u e n t l y h a ve
m a r g i n a l i r o n i n t a k e s (_5).
Ca l c i u m n eed s a n d m e t a b o l i s m h a ve become an i m p o r t a n t n u t r i t i o n
i s s u e due t o t h e i n c r e a s e d p r e va l e n c e o f o s t e o p o r o s i s . Os t e o p o r o s i s
i s a d i s e a s e o f f r a g i l i t y o f m a j o r b ones su c h as t h e p e l v i s , f e m u r ,
and s p i n e c a u s e d b y an a g e - r e l a t e d l o s s o f b one m i n e r a l s . As
d i s c u s s e d i n Ch a p t e r 7 , c a l c i u m i n t a k e a n d p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y may
f a v o r a b l y a f f e c t t h e c a l c i u m c o n t e n t o f b o n es and d e l a y t h e o n s e t o f
ost eop orosi s.
Th ese i s s u e s and a s s o c i a t e d t o p i c s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n more d e t a i l
i n the f o l l o w i n g c h a p t ers. Each o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l a u t h o r s h a s
p r o vi d e d b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n a n d r e s e a r c h d a t a i n an e f f o r t t o
r e vi e w and e va l u a t e t h e i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s . F i n a l l y , ea ch a u t h o r h a s
p r o vi d e d a summary s t a t e m e n t d e f i n i n g t h e n u t r i e n t n eed s d u r i n g an
a e r o b i c e xe r c i s e p rogram .

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1. LAYMANzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGF
Overview

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RECEIVED September 6, 1985

Layman; Nutrition and Aerobic Exercise

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1986.