Rudders

A rudder allows the ship to turn, simple plates have been

superseded by plates welded to cast or fabricated frame.
Rudders are hollow and so provide for some buoyancy . In
order to minimise the risk of corrosion internal surfaces
are provided with a protective coating and some are even
filled with foam. A drain plug is provided to allow for the
drainage of water , enable internal inspection to be made
using fiber optic device and even allow for the limited
application of a protective coating. Plates are welded to
the frames internally in order to provide flush fitting , the
final closing plate must be welded externally. A means of
lifting is provided taking the form of a tube as close to the
center of gravity as possible. Rudders are tested to a
pressure head 2.4m above the top of the rudder.

If the rudder has its entire area aft of the rudder

stock then it is unbalanced .A rudder with between 20 and
40% of its area forward of the stock is balanced since
there will be some angle at which the resultant moment
on the stock due to the water force will be zero. Most
modern rudders are of the semi-balanced design. This
means that that a certain proportion of the water force
acting on the after part of the rudder is counter acted by
the force acting on the for'd half of the rudder; hence, the
steering gear can be lighter and smaller. A rudder may lift
due to the buoyancy effect, the amount of lift is limited by
the jumper bar fitted to the stern frame. The
jumper/rudder clearance must be less than the steering
gear cross head clearance to prevent damage. A rudder is
supported by means of a bearing pintle or a lower bearing
depending upon the design. Where a lower bearing is
employed the rudder is actually supported on split bearing
rings fitted on the lower face of the rudder and the upper
face of the sole piece ( the extended lower section of the
stern frame upon which the rudder sits)

1
SEMI BALANCED RUDDER

Semi balanced rudder with rudder horn

Fully balanced rudder

To reduce the amount of torque required to turn a rudder

the pivot point is moved back from the leading edge. The
amount of torque then varies depending on the angle of
attack. Zero torque leads to instability with rudder moving
within its clearances.

2
Spade Rudder

The reduced diameter at the upper part is purely

to transmit torque. The lower section must also support
bending moments and hence increased diameter. With

3
twin rudder ships the inner rudder must turn through a
greater angle than the outer. This is achieved by having
the tiller arm at an angle to the centre line of the rudder.

It is possible to have the blades angled in or out

when the wheel is amid ships to increase propulsive
efficiency.

SPECIAL STEERING DEVICES

THE KORT NOZZLE

Adequate clearance is essential between propeller

blade tips and sternframe in order to minimise the risk of
vibration. As blades rotate water immediately ahead of
the blades is compressed and at the blade tips this
compression can be transmitted to the hull in the form of
a series of pulses which set up vibration. Adequate
clearance is necessary or alternatively constant clearance,
this being provided with ducted propellers such as the
Kort nozzle Originally designed to reduce erosion on river
banks the nozzle has proved itself also able to increase
thrust without increase of applied power.

The nozzle consists of a ring of aerofoil section

which forms a nozzle surrounding the propeller. The
suction of the propeller causes an acceleration of flow in

4
the mouth of the nozzle and hence a drop of pressure in
this region. Since the pressure on the outer part of the
nozzle remains relatively unchanged, there is a resulting
differential in pressure, which acting on the projected
annulus of the nozzle, gives the additional forward thrust.
This additional thrust is transmitted direct from the kort
nozzle to the hull via the nozzle supports ,so that no
additional force acts on the propeller and shaft thrust
block.

There are two types of Kort nozzles. The fixed

type has a conventional rudder behind it, whereas with
the swivelling rudder type , the whole assembly is
supported by a carrier attached to the rudder stock and
actuated by the steering gear.

In the case of nozzle rudders ,when helm is

applied , the increased thrust has an athwartship
component which has powerful steering effect, so that
hard over angles of 25' ( or 30' in special cases ) are
sufficient to provide effective steering ahead during a
crash stop and ,provided the hull is a reasonable design ,
astern.

This device is especially valuable for tugs,

trawlers, special vessels and more recently ,VLCC, which
are required to manoeuvre well , particularly at slow
speed , and have the best propulsive efficiency.

Bollard pull gains between 30 and 50% ,

equivalent to re-engining up to 1 3/4 times the original
power , have been obtained in tugs and trawlers and in
VLCC gains in propulsive efficiency between 6 to 13% can
be expected. The normal method of calculating rudder
torque's can be applied to nozzle rudders . The maximum
steering effort is required to return the rudder towards
midships and not to move the rudder over from
amidships. Thus , the steering gear must be designed to
keep control of the rudder under these conditions. For
diagram and additional notes see 'method of reducing
vibration' and 'increasing propulsive efficiency'

5
PLEUGER RUDDER

A normal rudder can only be effective when the

ship is moving, and the torque it exerts varies with the
square of the speed ,so that at very low speeds it can be
very ineffective. A pleuger rudder incorporates a
submersible electrically driven propeller which can be run
when the main propulsion is at rest . In order to attain
maximum effect and manoeuvre the ship at rest the
rudder is able to turn to 90',owing to this normal floating
linkage hunting gear cannot be used, and a special cam
hunting gear used. For normal course keeping the angle is
limited to 35',and a warning signal initiated if exceeded.

THE VOITH SCHNEIDER PROPELLOR

This propeller consists of a series of blades of

aerofoil section which project vertically downwards from
the ship's hull and rotate about a vertical axis. The blades
are mounted on axes on a circle around the central axis
and are linked together with a mechanism which can

6
cause them to oscillate so as to provide thrust in any
direction. The amount of thrust can be varied by varying
the degree of oscillation, thus with the blade assembly
rotating in the same direction, manipulation of the blades
can give ahead or astern thrust, or port and starboard
thrust without an ahead or astern thrust component, or
any angle of port or starboard thrust with ahead or astern
thrust.

The cycloid motion of the blades can be made to

produce thrust in any direction round the circle of
rotation. This means that the propeller in addition to
providing the main drive for a ship provides full
manoeuvrability without the need to provide a rudder and
steering gear. This unusual degree of control is of
particular value for special craft or floating equipment
such as floating cranes or drilling ships which must be
kept in position.

The location of the propeller depends upon the

particular application and it can be placed where the
maximum desired effect can be achieved.

JET FLAP RUDDER

Another device which is being investigated at the

N.P.L. is the jet flap rudder. In the trailing edge of an
otherwise conventional rudder, a fluidic switch is fitted,
which can direct a jet of water to port or starboard. The
water is pumped into the hollow rudder through a hollow
rudder stock.

7
 Considerable increase in manoeuvrability is
claimed, especially at low speeds.

ROTATING CYLINDER RUDDERS

This is a device to make a ship equally

manoeuvrable at all speeds and was developed in the U.K
by the Ship Division of the National Physical Laboratory
(N.P.L.).

A normal rudder is effective up to angles of about

35', after which the flow over the rudder stalls in a
manner similar to that over an aeroplane wing at high
angles of incidence. There are various methods of
preventing this from occurring and they all involve feeding
energy into the stream of fluid adjacent to the rudder or
aerofoil surface. This is called boundary layer control. One
such method is to rotate a cylinder at the leading edge of
the section at such a speed that the rudder can be put
over to 90' without stall, and this is the basic principle of
operation of the rotating cylinder rudder. It is, of course,
necessary to reverse the direction of rotation of the

8
cylinder depending on whether the rudder is put to port or
starboard, and such a system can be fitted to almost any
type of rudder, balanced or unbalanced.

The major advantage of putting a rudder over to

such a high angle is that the flow from the main engines
may be deflected through a much larger angle than with a
conventional rudder, and static side thrusts of over 50 per
cent of the bollard pull have been measured. Another
main advantage is that its effect is independent of forward
speed and it works as effectively at zero as at full speed.

Schilling Rudder

Becker flap

The flap is attached to the hull. As the rudder rotates

the flap is turned in an same direction increasing the
aerofoil shape and thereby increasing lift.

9
 This system can be used at very large rudder
angles giving side thrust capabilities

MANOEUVRABILITY AND STOPPING

The problems of improving the manoeuvrability and

braking of ships is of increasing importance as they
increase in size. One device which is being tried out to
improve stopping power is to arrange the control of twin
rudders so that they move outboard simultaneously. This
involves two separate steering gears, one for each rudder,
the movement of which must be synchronised for normal
steering.

With twin rudder ships the inner rudder on a turn

must turn through a greater angle than the outer . This is
achieved by having the tiller arm at an angle to the center

10
line of the rudder . It is also possible to slightly angle the
rudders either in or out to increase propulsive efficiency.

Pumps suitable for steering gear systems

Pumps used for supplying the working fluid to the main

steering gear can be of either the variable capacity
reversible delivery type or the fixed delivery non-
reversible type. For large capacity outputs with high rates
of change in demand, the variable capacity pumps are
normally fitted. These are of two main types, the Hele-
Shaw variable stroke pump having radial cylinders and the
swash plate variable stroke pump having axial cylinders.

Hele-Shaw Pump

Left shows the construction and operation of this

type of pump which is normally driven by a constant
speed electric motor. The pistons are fitted in a row of
radial cylinders and through the outer end of each piston
is a gudgeon pin , which attaches the slippers to the
piston. The slippers are free to oscillate on their gudgeon
pins and fit into circular grooves in the circular floating

11
ring . This ring is free to rotate being mounted on ball
bearings , which are housed in guide blocks , this reduces
oil churning and friction losses. The latter bear on tracks
are controlled by the actuating spindles, which passes
through the pump casing. The movement of the floating
ring by the actuating control spindle (operated by, say,
the telemotor receiver) from the central position causes
pistons to reciprocate in the radial cylinders so that a
pumping action takes place. The direction of the pumping
depends upon whether the movement is to the left or
right of the central or neutral position.

The action of the pump is shown above.

It should be noted that an advantage with this

system is that in reversing the direction of the flow of
fluid, the pump moves from maximum delivery in one
direction across to zero delivery then through zero
delivery to maximum delivery in the opposite direction.
The build up in fluid pressure taking place without shock
loading of pipe lines supplying fluid to the main steering
unit.

The pump is usually provided with an odd number

of cylinders, usually seven or nine, which produces more
even hydraulic flow and a better balanced pump.

Variable Stroke Reversible Swashplate Pump

12
 This pump is sometimes called the variable stroke
gear pump (V.S.G), it runs in the flooded condition, the
make up tank being above the level of the pump so that
all the working parts are immersed in oil. It is driven by a
constant speed electric motor the volume and direction of
the oil flow being controlled by means of a stroke control
lever.

The VSG pump is stated to have some

advantages over the Hele-Shaw , this is due to the fact
that the c of g of the Hele Shaw plungers is a relatively
large distance from the centre of rotation operating
relatively large centrifugal forces . The VSG plunges have

13
a c of g close to the centre of rotation creating relatively
small centrifugal forces, this means that the VSG system
can be run at much higher speeds and therefore can be
much smaller whilst doing the same work as the Hele-
Shaw. Due to centrifugal forces acting, the wear on the
V.S.G. pump pistons can be greater than that for the
radial type pistons There is a small clearance between the
valve and cylinder blocks when running off load. When the
unit comes on stroke the hydraulic pressure forces the
two faces together.

External pipes connect ports to steering gear.

VSG pumps and Hele-Shaw pumps have an odd

number of cylinders since calculation shows that this gives
better hydrodynamic balancing (and a better starting
torque when used in a pump driving hydraulic motor).

Auxiliary Pump

Some manufacturers supply an auxiliary pump driven

from the main pump shaft, which draws oil from the
replenishment tank, delivering through non return valves
to each side of the main hydraulic system. A low pressure
relief valve opens to return the auxiliary pump delivery
back to the replenishment tank if the main system is full,
at the same time keeping equivalent initial pressure on
the whole system. This ensures the lubrication of the main
pumps when at no stroke and resists the ingress of air
into the system. Pressure from this pump can also be
used to power the automatic helmsman control, to
operate change over valves, or to power servo control
units which in large installations may be used to operate
pump stroke mechanisms and so reduce the force
required from the telemotor.

Constant Pressure Pumps

The constant pressure delivery pump is a standard

production line , cheap pump; it runs constantly delivering
a set volume of liquid whose pressure must be regulated

14
.Recirculating v/v's allow oil to by-pass rams when
stationary, an oil cooler may have to be incorporated.

Valves must be incorporated to divert the flow of

oil to one side or the other. These normally take the form
of electrically operated solenoid valves which are subject
to wear, as well as damage to seats and solenoid coils.

Shock loading to rams and pipework causing

noise and vibration as well as damage.

Rudder Carrier bearings

The rudder carrier bearing takes the weight of the

rudder on a grease lubricated thrust face. The rudder
stock is located by the journal, also grease lubricated.
Support for the bearing is provided by a doubler plate and
steel chock. The base of the carrier bearing is located by
wsdge type side chocks, welded to the deck stiffening.
The carrier is of meehanite with a gunmetal thrust ring
and bush. Carrier bearing components are split as
necessary for removal or replacement. Screw down

15
lubricators are fitted, and the grease used for lubrication
is of a water resistant type (calcium soap based with
graphite).

A small allowance is made for weardown, which

must be periodically checked. The rudder is prevented
from jumping by rudder stops welded onto the stern
frame.

Rudder stops

Rudder stops are arranged as follows;

Angle from Position of
Note
centreline stop
On telemotor
35 Normal limit
system
On steering Prevents rudder
37
gear striking external stops
External, on emergency stop to
39
stern frame protect propeller

Critical profiling of carrier bearing

Reasons for critical contouring of thrust face;

i. for lubrication

16
 ii. conical in order to prevent side slip and
centralise rudder
iii. projected area gives greater bearing area
allowing smaller diameter bearing

Steering gear

A hydraulic steering gear consists of a bridge control

which applies helm, an engine control which is operated
jointly by the helm and hunting gear (when fitted) and a
power pump and rudder actuator which constitutes the
steering engine.

Telemotor systems

The telemotor system consists of a transmitter on the

bridge and a receiver fitted on the steering gear forming a
part of the hunting gear. The system may be electrical or
hydraulic or a combination of the two.

Most modern vessels are fitted with electric or

electro-hydraulic systems. Due to the increasing size of
vessels pipe runs have lengthen causing lags in the
operation of the receiver in hydraulic systems. In addition
hydraulic only systems generally require more
maintenance.

Hydraulic transmitter

17
 Shown above is a typical hydraulic transmitter
unit. The pinion driving the pistons is turned by the bridge
wheel.

The casing is usually gun metal, with bronze

rams, and copper pipes are led in by frilled leads on the
casting.

To test the system, with the steering gear

actuating pumps stopped, the wheel may be lashed at
hard over and the pressure recorded. It should maintain
this pressure for some time

To allow for expansion in the system and to allow

topping up a 'by-pass valve' is fitted. It will also act as a
safety valve.

Author note:
The main problem appears to be the effect of air entrained
within it. Thus regular venting of the system is required.

By-pass valve

18
 The operating rod is pushed down making both
line common whenever the wheel is at midships, generally
by a cam fitted to the pinion. This ensures they system is
always balanced.

The charging valves are opened only when filling

or flushing.

The moving cylinder is attached to the hunting

gear. When the bridge wheel is turned hydraulic pressure
acts on the cylinder causing it to move. This in turn moves
the hunting gear. The steering gear is then moved to
compensate until the hunting gear is moved back to the
neutral position. The total movement of the receiver is
limited by stops.

19
Electro-hydraulic type telemotor system

Shown is a very simple system capable of

operating a steering hunting gear. A pressure relief valve
would normally be fitted after the valve and across the
pump to prevent over pressurisation of the system.

The signal is derived from the action on the

steering wheel, created by the autopilot or directly from
the non-follow up control levers.

Telemotor fluid

should be a good quality mineral oil with the

following properties;

i. low pour point

ii. non sludge forming
iii. non corrosive
iv. good lubricating properties
v. high flash point
vi. low viscosity

Hunting Gear

20
 The steering gear system above consists of the
telemotor which receives a signal from the bridge wheel.
This acts on the hunting gear.

The hunting gear moves displacing a control rod,

this rod acts on the pump displacement control gear to
alter the delivery from the pump. The delivery from the
pump causes the ram to move rotating the rudder stock
and hence the rudder. The other end of the hunting gear
is mounted on the rudder stock.

The rotation of the rudder stock moves the

hunting gear returning the operating rod for the pump to
the neutral position once the rudder has reached the
correct angle.

Rudder Actuators

21
There are many different mechanisms by means of which
hydraulic power can be converted into torque at the
rudder stock some of which are as follows;

Rapson Slide Actuators - Ram type

Steering gear incorporating the rapson slide

principle are the most common in use on heavy duty
applications.

The rapson slide acting on either a fork tiller or

the more common round arm. The tiller drives the rudder
stock by means of a key or keys. The crosshead is free to
slide along the circular arm of the tiller so that the straight
line effort of the rams is applied to the angular moving
tiller. Each set of two cylinders in line are connected by a
strong steel girder usually called a "Joist" which stiffens
the system and forms a "guide bar" for the crosshead
guide slippers to slide along. The joist is often designed to
incorporate the steering engine stops.

An important consideration in all steering gears is

the "wear down" of the rudder carrying bearing, this
bearing takes all the weight of the rudder. Therefore there
must be adequate clearance between the bottom of the
tiller and the crosshead bearing, so as the rudder bearing
wears down in service the tiller and crosshead bearing do
not touch, clearance when new can be 22 mm at bottom
and 12 mm at top; the top clearance is a precaution to

22
stop the tiller bumping up the steering rams in the
unlikely event of the rudder lifting in heavy weather.
Should the bottom of the tiller and the crosshead bearing
touch, then the weight of the rudder will be transferred
from the rudder bearing to the steering rams with
disastrous results such as leaking of working fluid from
the cylinders and shearing of the rams.

In the case of forked tiller design, the thrust from

the rams is transmitted to the tiller through swivel blocks.
One advantage of this arrangement is that the overall
length of pairs of rams is reduced compared to the round
arm tiller design and this can be an important
consideration in some cases. A disadvantage is that where
as any slight misalignment in the case of the round arm
tiller is not vitally important, it could lead to uneven
loading of the swivel blocks in the forked tiller design and
it is essential that the line of the rams be exactly at right
angles to the rudder stock centre line if this is to be
avoided.

With the Rapson Slide the torque reaction from

the rudder is taken on the tiller by a force which is
balanced by an equal and opposite force having two
components one of which is produced by the ram and acts
in the line of the ram, whilst the other is at right angles to
the line of the ram and is produced by the guide reaction.

23
 Where guides are not fitted as is sometimes the
case with smaller steering gears then the guide reaction
force must be carried by bearings or the glands of the
cylinders.

a = actuator area
p = Working fluid pressure
n = Number of effective rams ( 1 for 2 ram, 2 for 4 ram)
q = rudder angle
r = tiller radius at amidships
r' = tiller radius at qo of tiller helm
s = guide reaction force
f = force on ram with tiller amidships ( = p x a)
f' = effective force acting at 90o to tiller

r' = r / cos.q also f' = f / cos.q = p x a / cos.q

t = torque available = f' x r' x n
= ((p x a) / cosq). (r / cos.q) . n
t = (p x a x n x r) . (1 / cos.2q)

Showing that the rapson slide effect which gives

increase of available torque with increases of rudder angle

The torque demanded from the steering gear

increases and is at a maximum at maximum rudder angle
when the mechanical advantage of the Rapson Slide gear
is at a maximum. Ram type gears are also well adapted to
take advantage of the high pressures which are currently
available, since ram diameters and casing are relatively
small and leakage paths are small or non-existent.

Oscillating Cylinder Actuators

The use of oscillating cylinders or pinned actuators is a

recent development. They can be used as single cylinder
units for hand only steering or two cylinder units for hand
and power steering. While four double acting cylinders can
cope with larger torque demands. These units are double
acting because pistons work in the cylinders and pressure
can be applied to either side as compared with ram gears
which are single acting.

24
 In these cases, the torque T applied to the rudder
stock varies with the rudder deflection angle and on the
location of the actuator. In general the torque developed
will be less at the maximum rudder angle than the
maximum possible from the actuator.

Maximum torque from actuator = p.a.n.r.

Torque at 35 o
= p.a.n.r. cos (35 = o)
where o = angle traced out by the actuator
between o = 0o and o = 35o
Mechanical advantage at 35o = Cos 35o = 0.82
since the actuators are pivoting about their pin centre,
they usually have their working fluid tank and pump
mounted on the actuator cylinder, or they are connected
to tank and pump by a flexible pipeline.

Rams Connected To Crossheads By Links

This type of gear is used if the athwartships space is

limited, or the head room at the rudder head is restricted,
as for example, in the case of a vehicle ferry having a slip
way aft. The design enables the steering gear to be
moved forward where there is reasonable head room for
access.

As in the case of the oscillating cylinder design

the Mechanical Advantage of the Rapson Slide gear is lost
in the links and the torque output of the gear is at a
minimum at hard over when the torque demand created
by the rudder hydrodynamic forces is at a maximum.

Rotary Vane Gear

These consist of two elements:

1. a cylindrical static casing (stator) with

usually three internal vanes which
project radially inwards
2. a rotor keyed to and concentric with the
rudder stock, the rotor has rotor vanes
which project radially outwards into the
spaces formed by the stator vanes.

25
 The spaces formed between the stator and
rotor vanes are used as high and low
pressure chambers. The main advantage of
the system is that it is compact, occupying
about 1 / 10 the space of a ram system. The
disadvantages are ;

1. it has a long oil sealing path

2. it is a constant torque machine at all
angles of helm compared to the ram
system where due to the Rapson slide
effect, the torque available increases
with increasing helm.

Where 100% redundancy is required two rotary

vanes in piggy back are used.

All vanes are spheroidal graphite cast iron

secured to the cast iron rotor and stator by high tensile
steel dowel pins and cap screws. Rotor strength is
maintained by keys fitted full length of the rotary vane.
Steel sealing strips are fitted along the working faces,
backed by synthetic rubber in grooves along the working
faces which are elastically loaded, so as to ensure that
contact with the mating surfaces is maintained in order to
hold the hydraulic pressures.

26
 The chambers are alternately connected to the
suction and delivery from the hydraulic pump so that they
can be used to produce the rudder actuating torque.
Because the distribution of the pressure chambers is
balanced around the rudder stock, only pure torque is
transmitted to the stock and no side loading are imposed
by the gear.

There are two main types of rotary vane steering

gear in use today. One has its stator firmly fixed to the
steering flat deck and the stator housing and cover are
provided with suitable bearings to enable the unit to act
as a combined rudder carrier and rudder stock bearing
support. The other type of vane gear is supported where
the stator is only anchored to the ships structure to resist
torque but is free to move vertically within the constraints
of the separate rudder head bearing and carrier which is
similar to the bearing provided for ram type steering
gears.

The rudder carrier ring bearing (Pallister Bearing)

is taking the weight of the rotary vane steering gear and
the rudder and stock.

27
 Rotation of the stator is prevented by means of
two anchor brackets and two anchor bolts . The anchor
brackets are securely bolted to the stool and vertical
clearance is arranged between the inside of the Stator
flanges and the top and bottom of the anchor brackets to
allow for vertical movement of the rudder stock. This
clearance varies with each size of rotary unit but could be
about 40 mm total . It is essential that the rudder carrier
should be capable of restricting the vertical movements of
the rudder stock to less than this amount.

The anchor bolts are fitted with special bushes in

halves, shaped externally in order to pre-load the
synthetic rubber shock absorbers , which are fitted
between them and the anchor brackets. The maximum

28
deflection of the shock absorbers under full load is
approximately 1 mm.

The working angle of the gear is governed by the

number of vanes and their thickness. Vanes act as rudder
stops when a moving vane contacts a fixed vane. Valves
at inlet to the chambers may be shut causing a hydraulic
lock. In the rotary vane units the Mechanical Advantage is
unity at all angles and hence torque is constant

Torque = p.a.n.r.
where n = number of rotating vanes

Tendfjord Rotary Piston Gear Actuator

This gear consists of a casing around the rudder stock

which contains pistons of rectangular section sliding in
angular compartments concentric with the rudder stock.
The tiller projects into a gap between the cylinder, the
piston ends abutting onto the tiller but not being attached
to it so that axial movements of the rudder cannot be
transmitted to the pistons. Steering gears of this type
operate at hydraulic pressures up to 41 bar (600 lbf/in2)
and are in general restricted to low power application.

As with the rotary vane steering gears the

Mechanical Advantage is unity at all angles and hence the
torque is constant.

Torque = p.a.n.r.
where n in this case is unity.

Components

Relief Isolating And Bypass Valves

Hydraulic actuators are provided with relief and bypass

valves between complementary pairs of cylinders or
chambers of vane gears. The relief valves are set to lift at
pressures above the normal maximum.

29
 The bypass valves are normally closed but can be
opened on a two cylinder gear to enable emergency
steering to be used. On a four cylinder gear one pair of
cylinders can be bypassed while the other pair provide
emergency steering at a reduced torque, an instruction
plate is fitted over the controls valve block giving a
combination of failures and which valves have to be open
or shut to cope with the emergency etc. It should be
noted that if one ram or cylinder in a four ram system
breaks down, then never isolate the cylinder diagonally
opposite the damaged unit, since the steering gear will
not operate due to the fact that the remaining two
cylinders will be either on all pressure or on all suction at
the same time.

Isolating valves are provided at each cylinder or

rotary vane chamber which when closed will hold the
rudder by trapping the oil in the chambers. Isolating
valves are also fitted to pumps so that a pump can be
completely shut off from the circuit and removed for
servicing while steering is continued with the other pump.

In the case of gears with duplicated variable

stroke pumps, in order to be able to bring a standby unit
quickly into operation, the pump stroke mechanisms are
permanently coupled together and both pumps are left
open to the hydraulic circuit. Thus it is only necessary to
start up a motor for the stand by pump to be operative. It
is usual to run both pumps in restricted navigation waters.
As a variable stroke pump can operate as a motor if
pressure oil is applied to one side while it is on stroke, it is
necessary to prevent wind milling or rotation of the pump
which is on stand by duty.

Otherwise, the output of the operation pump,

instead of moving the steering gear would be used up in
rotating the stand by pump.

One method to prevent this,is using a fixed

ratchet is provided concentric with the pump driving shaft.
Pawls that can engage this ratchet are carried in the drive

30
coupling. When the pump is on stand-by the pawls engage
with the ratchet and prevent rotation when oil on the
delivery side of the operating pump is on pressure. In this
condition the tendency to motor the stand by pump will
always be against its normal direction of rotation. As soon
as the pump is started, rotation being in the opposite
direction, the pawls disengage and by centrifugal action
fling out against the inner flange of the coupling
completely clear of the ratchet. When a pump is on stand-
by and the rudder is being driven by water pressure in the
direction in which it is being moved so as to generate
pressure on what is normally the suction side of the
operating pump, this will cause the stand by pump to
rotate in its normal running direction. This means that the
pawls will disengage and the pump will be motored round,
allowing the rudder to move more quickly to a new
steering position than the single operating pump will
allow.

Another method of protection against rotation of

the stand by pump is to fit Servo pressure operated
automatic change over valves in the pipelines; these
ensure that the pump can only be started in the unloaded
condition (neutral) and in addition prevents the stand by
pump from being motored by the pump in service.

On some ships it has been discovered that the

ball bearing races on the stand-by pump have been failing
due to brinelling of the ball bearings, caused by ship
vibrations, and in these cases it is usual to fit devices
which allows the stand by pump to be motored slowly.

When fixed delivery pumps are duplicated in

supplying oil to a common hydraulically operated control
valve, an automatic change over valve can be fitted which
will isolate the stand by pump when it is at rest, but will
connect it to the actuator when the pump is started up.

Stops And Limit Switches

31
External or stern posts stops are set at the absolute limit
to hard over movement of the rudder , protects propeller
and ship stern in the event of metal or other failure which
allows rudder to swing in an uncontrolled manner.
Mechanical stops on the rudder actuator operate before
the external stop are reached .these take the form of
travel limits. Stops on the bridge control operate before
mechanical stops. local controls are set midway. auto pilot
controls are set first. It should be noted that the vanes act
as stops on rotary vane gears.

Drive Back Due To Heavy Sea's

Heavy seas acting on the rudder can force the actuator

against the hydraulics sufficient to lift the relief v/v, in
which case the rudder will move. Hunting gear will tend to
return the gear to its correct position.

Hand And Power Hydraulic Steering Gears

For small ships during navigational course keeping hand

steering can be used, whist during manoeuvring power
steering can be used. These may take the form of chains
or simple hydraulics operated by a fixed delivery pump
attached to the steering gears.

"Follow Up" Steering

This is the normal method of steering and involves the

feedback of steering angle to the helm. This is suited to
both manual and automatic operation.

The ships heading may be set into the autopilot

which can then compare the actual to desired heading and
adjust the rudder angle to suit

"Non-follow Up" Steering

Normally used for back up purposes only. Consists of a

single lever per steering gear unit, by moving the lever in
on direction the rudder will begin to turn, the rudder will

32
continue to turn until the lever is released or it reaches
the limit of its operation

Charging A System With Fluid

. In all cases high quality hydraulic oil should be used ,

containing inhibitors against oxidation , foaming, rust and
wear and emulsification.

In order to keep the transmission load as low as

possible when hand steering , hand power systems must
have oil of low viscosity.

The condition of the oil should be monitored and

ensured at least clean and free of moisture.

Steering gear failure

A study of steering gear defects demonstrates that the

most common are related to vibration and the working
loose of components.

The most common source of failure are the pump

and the hydraulic system associated with it.

Rudder torque calculations

Formulae for assessing rudder torque's are based upon

the expression Ta ACpV2 Sin q where:-
T = rudder torque
C = rudder area
Cp = centre of pressure distance from centre line of
rudder stock
V = velocity of ship
q = rudder angle measured from mid-ship position

33
 In practice different constants obtained
empirically are used with this expression and take into
account such factors as propeller slip and wake speed as
appropriate depending upon the relation of the rudder and
propeller positions. The position of the centre of pressure
has a significant effect upon rudder torque and hence the
size of the steering gear required; the greater the
distance of the C of P from the centre line of the rudder
stock, the larger the torque required; therefore designers
attempt to bring the C of P as near to the centre line as
possible. With the simple "barn door" type rudder on
some single screw ships, no adjustment can be made, but
the semi-balanced and balanced-type rudders can be
designed to reduce the torque required; for instance, with
the spade type rudder such as fitted to twin screw ferries,
the position can be adjusted by the designer to give
optimum position. This lies between 30 and 32 per cent
abaft the leading edge of the mean chord of the rudder.
Such a rudder would have its C of P forward of the stock
position at low angles of helm, would balance around 10o
to 15o and drift aft of the stock at higher rudder angles.

In graph above is shown a typical torque

characteristics for a spade type balanced rudder and a
"barn door" or unbalanced plate rudder. The astern
torque's should also be calculated since this is sometimes

34
higher than the ahead torque, this is true for spade
rudders.

POWER

The peak power that a steering gear must develop is the

product of the maximum torque (T) usually at hard over
with the ship travelling at full speed, and the maximum
speed (S) of rudder movement i.e. Power (max) a T x S.

The combination of maximum power and speed

only exists for 2 or 3 seconds during each manoeuvre; so
clearly the average power required to operate the steering
gear is considerably below the peak. Because the steering
gear must have sufficient power to overcome friction and
still have ample reserve of power, the value for used in
the foregoing expression is significantly higher than that
used in the expression for rudder torque. When
considering the diameter of the rudder stock, bending and
shear stresses must be taken into account.

Rules

Design of steering gears have been influenced over the

years by the rules and regulations of national authorities
and classification subjects. Any changes of real substance
tend nowadays to originate from the international
Maritime Organisations(I.M.O.) conventions
and regulations. Classification society
requirements are as follows;

1. All ships to have power operated main

gear capable of displacing the rudder
from 35o port to 35o starboard at the
deepest draught and at maximum service
speed. Must also be capable of displacing

35
 the rudder from 35o port to 30o starboard
in 28 seconds and vice versa.
2. The auxiliary gear must be power
operated and capable of being brought
rapidly into action. The auxiliary gear is
only required to steer the ship at either 7
knots or half service speed
3. If the main gear comprises two or more
identical power units, then a single
failure of either power unit or piping
must not impair the integrity of the
remaining part of the steering gear
4. Each power unit must be served by at
least two electrical circuits from the main
switchboard. One circuit may pass
through the emergency switchboard. All
circuits to be separated as widely as
possible throughout their length.
5. All power operated gears to be fitted
with shock relieving arrangements to
protect against the action of heavy seas.
6. An efficient brake or locking
arrangement to be fitted to enable the
rudder to be maintained stationary
7. the maximum power developed by the
gear is proportional to T x S
where T = rudder torque
S = Speed of rudder movement

also T = A x P x sinq x V2
where A = rudder area
P = centre of pressure
q = rudder angle
V = velocity of the ship

Special requirements

Owners may specify additional requirements such as

faster hard-over to hard-over time, strength of
components above that required by the Rules, additional
control points and additional duplication,

36
New tankers of 100 000dwt and above-shall comply with the
following

The main steering gear shall comprise of

either

 two independent and separate power

actuating systems each capable of
meeting the hard over port to 30o
starboard in 28 sec requirements,

or

 at least two identical power actuating

systems which acting simultaneously in
normal operation, shall be capable of
meeting the hard over requirements.
Where necessary to comply with this
requirement inter connection of
hydraulic power systems shall be
provided. Loss of hydraulic fluid from one
system shall be capable of being
detected and the defective system
isolated so that the other system shall
remain fully operational

In the event of loss of steering capability due to a

single failure other than the tiller, quadrant or
components serving the same purpose (these are
excluded from single failure concepts), or seizure of the
rudder actuators. The steering capability shall be regained
in not less than 45 seconds after the loss of one power
actuating system.

Steering gear other than hydraulic should meet the same

standards.

Example of suitable system permissible for all ships

37
 The system shown consists of two sets of rams
but could equally be two rotary vane units. With no power
on the solenoids are in by-pass mode with oil being
allowed to pass freely from one side to the other. When
an electric motor is started the control pump supplies oil
to the solenoid shutting it. High pressure oil from the main
unit is now fed to the rams as required. The other unit
remains in by-pass until the electric motor is started.

Low level alarms are fitted to the tanks. Low low

changeovers may also be fitted so that in the event of oil
loss from one system, the other system is started.

New tankers between 10 000gt upwards to 100 000tdwt

38
 For these tankers the single failure criterion need
not apply to the rudder actuator or actuators subject to
certain requirements being fulfilled. These include a
requirement that steering be regained within 45 seconds
following failure of any part of the piping system or power
units and a special stress analysis of non-duplicated
rudder actuators.

The left hand unit is shown in operation.

For this basic arrangement the power units must

be identical

New ships 70 000gt and upwards

system suitable for all ships except tankers of 10 000 gt

and above

39
 The main steering shall comprise two or more
power units and that the main steering gear is so
arranged that, after a single failure in its piping system or
in one of the power units the defect can be isolated so
that steering can be speedily regained.

'Speedily' is intended to mean the provision of

duplicate hydraulic circuits or , for example, a
conventional four ram steering gear with a common
hydraulic circuit with appropriate isolating valves

New ships of less than 70 000 gt and tankers less than 10 000
gt

suitable system

40
 Single failure is not applicable as a rule, however,
attention is drawn to the requirement that auxiliary
steering gear be independent of any part of the main gear
except the tiller. There is no requirement that main and
auxiliary power units be identical.

The auxiliary steering gear must be capable of

putting the rudder over from 15o from one side to the
other in not more than 60 seconds with the ship at its
deepest draught and running ahead at half maximum
speed or 7 knots.

Existing tankers of 40 000gt and upwards

The steering gear shall be arranges so that in

the event of single failure of the piping or one
of the power units, steering capability can be
maintained or the rudder movement can be
limited so that steering capability can be
speedily regained by

 An independent means of restraining the

rudder

41
 or

 fast acting valves to isolate the actuator

or actuators from the external hydraulic
piping together with a means of directly
refilling the actuators by a fixed
independent power pump and piping
system

or

 An arrangement so that, where hydraulic

power systems are interconnected any
loss of hydraulic fluid from one system
shall be detected and the defective
system shut off either automatically or
remotely from the bridge so that the
other system remains intact

Requirements for all new ships

 Administrations must be satisfied in

respect to the main and auxiliary
steering gear provided for every ship
that all components and the rudder stock
are of sound construction
 Every component, where appropriate,
utilise anti-friction bearings which will be
permanently lubricated or provided with
lubricant fittings
 Parts subjected to hydraulic pressures
should be designed to cope with 1.25
maximum working pressure when the
rudder is hard over at maximum draught
and service speed
 special requirements for fatigue
resistance( due to pulsating hydraulic
pressure), relief valves and oil
cleanliness
 Low level alarm to be fitted to each
hydraulic reservoir.

42
  Fixed storage capacity sufficient to
recharge on system

Auxiliary steering gear

The other set of steering (auxiliary ) may be an

arrangements of blocks and tackles or some other
approved alternative method.

The auxiliary steering gear need only be capable

of steering the ship at navigable speed, but it must be
capable of being brought speedily in to action in an
emergency. Navigable speed is one half of maximum
service speed ahead or 7 knots whichever is the greater.

The auxiliary steering gear must be a power

operated type if the rudder stock exceeds 230mm for
passenger ships and 250mm for cargo vessels. No
additional means of steering is required when electric or
electro-hydraulic steering gear is fitted having two
independent motors or two sets of pumps and motors.

Electrical Supply

Short circuit protection and overload alarm are to be

provided in steering gear circuits. Indicators for running
indication of steering gear motors are to be installed on
the navigation bridge and at a suitable machinery control
position. Each electric or electro-hydraulic steering gear
shall be served by at least two independent circuits fed
from the main switchboard. Cables for each circuit led
through a separate route as far apart as possible so that
damage to one cable does not involve damage to the
other. A change over switch is fitted in an approved
position to enable power supplies to be interchanged. One
circuit may pass through an emergency switchboard.

Rudders

In passenger ships where the rudder stock exceeds

230mm, an alternative steering position remote from the
main position is to be provided. Failure of one system

43
must not render the other system inoperable. Provision
made to transmit orders from bridge to alternative
position. The exact position of the rudder must be
indicated at principal steering positions. An efficient
braking or locking device must be fitted to the steering
gear to enable the rudder to be held stationary if
necessary. Spring or hydraulic buffer relief valves fitted in
steering gear system to protect the rudder and steering
gear against shock loading due to heavy seas striking the
rudder. Suitable stopping arrangements are to be
provided so as to restrict the total travel of the rudder.
Stops or cut outs on the steering gear are arranged so
that it operates on a smaller angle of helm than the
rudder stops.

Rudder restraint

Since failure of a single hydraulic circuit can lead to

unrestricted movement of the rudder, tiller and rams,
repair and recharging may not be possible. Difficulty
arises with which the speed a restraint whether in the
form of a mechanical or hydraulic brake can be brought in
to use.

Due to the possibility of considerable damage

occurring before it could, regulations have concentrated
on continuity of steering rather than a shut down and
repair solution

Testing and drills

a. Within 12 h before departure, the ship's steering

gear shall be checked and tested by the ship's
crew. The test procedure shall include, where
applicable, the operation of the following:
i. the main steering gear;
ii. the auxiliary steering gear;
iii. the remote steering gear control systems;
iv. the steering positions located on the navigation
bridge;
v. the emergency power supply;

44
 vi. the rudder angle indicators in relation to the
actual position of the rudder;
vii. the remote steering gear control system power
failure alarms;
viii. the steering gear power unit failure alarms; and
ix. automatic isolating arrangements and other
automatic equipment.
b. The checks and tests shall include:
i. the full movement of the rudder according to
the required capabilities of the steering gear;
ii. a visual inspection of the steering gear and its
connecting linkage; and
iii. the operation of the means of communication
between the navigation bridge and steering
gear compartment.
c.
i. Simple operating instructions with a block
diagram showing the change-over procedures
for remote steering gear control systems and
steering gear power units shall be
permanently displayed on the navigation
bridge and in the steering gear compartment.
ii. All ships' officers concerned with the operation
or maintenance of steering gear shall be
familiar with the operation of the steering
systems fitted on the ship and with the
procedures for changing from one system to
another.
d. In addition to the routine checks and tests
prescribed in paragraphs (a) and (b), emergency
steering drills shall take place at least once every
three months in order to practise emergency
steering procedures. These drills shall include
direct control from within the steering gear
compartment, the communications procedure with
the navigation bridge and, where applicable, the
operation of alternative power supplies.
e. The Administration may waive the requirement to
carry out the checks and tests prescribed in
paragraphs (a) and (b) for ships which regularly
engage on voyages of short duration. Such ships

45
 shall carry out these checks and tests at least once
every week.
f. The date upon which the checks and tests
prescribed in paragraphs (a) and (b) are carried
out and the date and details of emergency steering
drills carried out under paragraph (d), shall be
recorded in the log-book as may be prescribed by
the Administration.

Steering gear regulations

As listed by lloyds

General

1.1 Application

1.1.1 The requirements of this Chapter apply to the

design and construction of steering gear.

1.1.2 Whilst the requirements satisfy the relevant

regulations of the International Convention for the Safety
of Life at Sea 1974, as amended, and the IMO Protocol of
1978, attention should be given to any relevant statutory
requirements of the National Authority of the country in
which the ship is to be registered.

1.1.3 Consideration will be given to other cases, or to

arrangements which are equivalent to those required by
the Rules.

1.2 Definitions

1.2.1 Steering gear control system means the equipment

by which orders are transmitted from the navigating
bridge to the steering gear power units. Steering gear
control systems comprise transmitters, receivers,

46
hydraulic control pumps and their associated motors,
motor controllers, piping and cables.

1.2.2 Main steering gear means the machinery, rudder

actuator(s), the steering gear power units, if any, and
ancillary equipment and the means of applying torque to
the rudder stock (e.g. tiller or quadrant) necessary for
effecting movement of the rudder for the purpose of
steering the ship under normal service conditions.

1.2.3 Steering gear power unit means:

(a) in case of electric steering gear, and electric motor

and its associated electrical equipment;

(b) in the case of electrohydraulic steering gear, an

electric motor and its associated electrical equipment and
connected pump;

(c) in the case of other hydraulic steering gear, a driving

engine and connected pump.

1.2.4 Auxiliary steering gear means the equipment other

than any part of the main steering gear necessary to steer
the ship in the event of failure of the main steering gear
but not including the tiller, quadrant or components
serving the same purpose.

1.2.5 Power actuating system means the hydraulic

equipment provided for supplying power to turn the
rudder stock, comprising a steering gear power unit or
units, together with the associated pipes and fittings, and
a rudder actuator. The power actuating systems may
share common mechanical components, i.e. tiller
quadrant and rudder stock, or components serving the
same purpose.

1.2.6 Maximum ahead service speed means the maximum

service speed which the ship is designed to maintain, at
the summer load waterline at maximum propeller RPM
and corresponding engine MCR.

47
1.2.7 Rudder actuator means the components which
converts directly hydraulic pressure into mechanical action
to move the rudder.

1.2.8 Maximum working pressure means the maximum

expected pressure in the system when the steering gear is
operated to comply with 2.1.2(b).

1.3 General

1.3.1 The steering gear is to be secured to the seating by

fitted bolts, and suitable chocking arrangements are to be
provided. The seating is to be of substantial construction.

1.3.2 The steering gear compartment is to be:

(a) readily accessible and, as far as practicable, separated

from machinery spaces; and

(b) Provided with suitable arrangements to ensure

working access to steering gear machinery and controls.
These arrangements are to include handrails and gratings
or other non-slip surfaces to ensure suitable working
conditions in the event of hydraulic fluid leakage.

1.4 Plans

1.4.1 Before starting construction, the steering gear

machinery plans, specifications and calculations are to be
submitted. The plans are to give:

(a) Details of scantlings and materials of all load bearing

and torque transmitting components and hydraulic
pressure retaining parts together with proposed rated
torque and all relief valve settings.

(b) Schematic of the hydraulic system(s), together with

pipe material, relief valves and working pressures.

(c) Details of control and electrical aspects.

48
1.4.2 These plans should give details of scantlings and
materials of the steering gear together with proposed
rated torque and all relief valve settings.

1.5 Materials

1.5.1 All the steering gear components and the rudder

stock are to be of sound reliable construction to the
Surveyor's satisfaction.

1.5.2 All components transmitting mechanical forces to

the rudder stock are to be tested according to the
requirements of Part 2.

1.5.3 Ram cylinders; pressure housings of rotary vane

type actuators, hydraulic power piping, valves, flanges
and fittings; and all steering gear components
transmitting mechanical forces to the rudder stock (such
as tillers, quadrants, or similar components) are to be of
steel or other approved ductile material, duly tested in
accordance with the requirements of Part 2. In general,
such material is to have an elongation of not less than 12
per cent nor a tensile strength in excess of 650 N/mm2.
Special consideration will be given to the acceptance of
grey cast iron for valve bodies and redundant parts with
low stress levels.

1.5.4 Where appropriate, consideration will be given to

the acceptance of non-ferrous material.

1.6 Rudder, rudder stock, tiller and quadrant

1.6.1 For the requirements of rudder and rudder stock,

see Pt 3, Ch 13,2.

1.6.2 For the requirements of tillers

Performance

General

49
2.1.1 Unless the main steering gear comprises two or
more identical power units, in accordance with 2.1.4 or
8.1.1, every ship is to be provided with a main steering
gear and an auxiliary steering gear in accordance with the
requirements of the Rules. The main steering gear and the
auxiliary steering gear is to be so arranged that the failure
of one of them will not render the other one inoperative.

2.1.2 The main steering gear and rudder stock is to be:

(a) Of adequate strength and capable of steering the ship

at maximum ahead service speed which shall be
demonstrated in accordance with 7.2;

(b) Capable of putting the rudder over from 35 А on one

side to 35А on the other side with the ship at its deepest
seagoing draught and running ahead at maximum ahead
service speed and under the same conditions, from 35А
on either side to 30А on the other side in not more than
28 seconds.

(c) Operated by power where necessary to meet the

requirements of (b) and in any case when the Rules
excluding strengthening for navigation in ice, require a
rudder stock over 120 mm diameter in way of the tiller;
and

(d) So designed that they will not be damaged at

maximum astern speed; however, this design requirement
need not be proved by trials at maximum astern speed
and maximum rudder angle.

2.1.3 The auxiliary steering gear is to be: (a) Of adequate

strength and capable of steering the ship at navigable
speed and of being brought speedily into action in an
emergency;

(b) Capable of putting the rudder over from 15 А on one

side to 15А on the other side in not more than 60 seconds
with the ship at its deepest seagoing draught and running
ahead at one half of the maximum ahead service speed or
7 knots, whichever is the greater; and

50
(c) Operated by power where necessary to meet the
requirements of (b) and in any case when the Rules,
excluding strengthening for navigation in ice, require a
rudder stock over 230 mm diameter in way of the tiller.

2.1.4 Where the main steering gear comprises two or

more identical power units, an auxiliary steering gear
need not be fitted, provided that:

(a) In a passenger ship, the main steering gear is capable

of operating the rudder as required by 2.1.2(b) while any
one of the power units is out of operation;

(b) In a cargo ship, the main steering gear is capable of

operating the rudder as required by 2.1.2(b) while
operating with all power units;

(c) The main steering gear is arranged so that after a

single failure in its piping system or in one of the power
units the defect can be isolated so that steering capability
can be maintained or speedily regained.

2.1.5 Main and auxiliary steering gear power units are to

be:

(a) Arranged to re-start automatically when power is

restored after power failure;

(b) Capable of being brought into operation from a

position on the navigating bridge. In the event of a power
failure to any one of the steering gear power units, an
audible and visual alarm is to be given on the navigating
bridge;

(c) Arranged so that transfer between units can be readily

effected.

2.1.6 Where the steering gear is so arranged that more

than one power or control system can be simultaneously
operated, the risk of hydraulic locking caused by a single
failure is to be considered.

51
2.1.7 A means of communication is to be provided
between the navigating bridge and the steering gear
compartment.

2.1.8 Steering gear, other than of the hydraulic type, will

be accepted provided the standards are considered
equivalent to the requirements of this Section.

2.1.9 Manually operated gears are only acceptable when

the operation does not require an effort exceeding 16 kg
under normal conditions.

2.2 Rudder angle limiters

2.2.1 Power-operated steering gears are to be provided

with positive arrangements, such as limit switches, for
stopping the gear before the rudder stops are reached.
These arrangements are to be synchronized with the gear
itself and not with the steering gear control.

Construction and design

General

3.1.1 Rudder actuators other than those covered by 8.3

and the `Guidelines' are to be designed in accordance
with the relevant requirements of Chapter 11 for Class I
pressure vessels (notwithstanding any exemptions for
hydraulic cylinders).

3.1.2 Accumulators, if fitted, are to comply with the

relevant requirements of Chapter 11.

3.1.3 The welding details and welding procedures are to

be approved. All welded joints within the pressure
boundary of a rudder actuator or connecting parts
transmitting mechanical loads are to be full penetration
type or of equivalent strength.

3.1.4 The construction is to be such as to minimize local

concentrations of stress.

52
3.1.5 The design pressure for calculations to determine
the scantlings of piping and other steering gear
components subjected to internal hydraulic pressure shall
be at least 1,25 times the maximum working pressure to
be expected under the operational conditions specified in
2.1.2(b) taking into account any pressure which may exist
in the low pressure side of the system. Fatigue criteria
may be applied for the design of piping and components,
taking into account pulsating pressures due to dynamic
loads, see Section 9.

3.1.6 For the rudder actuator, the permissible primary

general membrane stress is not to exceed the lower of the
values determined by calculation for the material:

3.2 Components

3.2.1 Special consideration is to be given to the suitability

of any essential component which is not duplicated. Any
such essential component shall, where appropriate, utilize
anti-friction bearings such as ball bearings, roller bearings
or sleeve bearings which shall be permanently lubricated
or provided with lubrication fittings.

3.2.2 All steering gear components transmitting

mechanical forces to the rudder stock, which are not
protected against overload by structural rudder stops or
mechanical buffers, are to have a strength at least
equivalent to that of the rudder stock in way of the tiller.

3.2.3 Actuator oil seals between non-moving parts,

forming part of the external pressure boundary, are to be
of the metal upon metal type or of an equivalent type.

3.2.4 Actuator oil seals between moving parts, forming

part of the external pressure boundary, are to be
duplicated, so that the failure of one seal does not render
the actuator inoperative. Alternative arrangements
providing equivalent protection against leakage may be
accepted.

53
3.2.5 Piping, joints, valves, flanges and other fittings are
to comply within the requirements of Chapter 12 for Class
I piping systems components. The design pressure is to
be in accordance with 3.1.5.

3.2.6 Hydraulic power operated steering gear are to be

provided with the following :

(a) Arrangements to maintain the cleanliness of the

hydraulic fluid taking into consideration the type and
design of the hydraulic system;

(b) A fixed storage tank having sufficient capacity to

recharge at least one power actuating system including
the reservoir, where the main steering gear is required to
be power operated. The storage tank is to be permanently
connected by piping in such a manner that the hydraulic
systems can be readily recharged from a position within
the steering gear compartment and provided with a
contents gauge.

3.3 Valve and relief valve arrangements

3.3.1 For vessels with non-duplicated actuators, isolating

valves are to be fitted at the connection of pipes to the
actuator, and are to be directly fitted on the actuator.

3.3.2 Arrangements for bleeding air from the hydraulic

system are to be provided, where necessary.

3.3.3 Relief valves are to be fitted to any part of the

hydraulic system which can be isolated and in which
pressure can be generated from the power source or from
external forces. The settings of the relief valves is not to
exceed the design pressure. The valves are to be of
adequate size and so arranged as to avoid an undue rise
in pressure above the design pressure.

3.3.4 Relief valves for protecting any part of the hydraulic

system which can be isolated, as required by 3.3.3 are to
comply with the following:

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(a) The setting pressure is not to be less than 1,25 times
the maximum working pressure.

(b) the minimum discharge capacity of the relief valve(s)

is not to be less than 110 per cent of the total capacity of
the pumps which can deliver through it (them). Under
such conditions the rise in pressure. is not to exceed 10
per cent of the setting pressure. In this regard, due
consideration is to be given to extreme foreseen ambient
conditions in respect of oil viscosity.

3.4 Flexible hoses

3.4.1 Hose assemblies approved by LR may be installed

between two points where flexibility is required but are
not to be subjected to torsional deflection (twisting) under
normal operating conditions. In general, the hose should
be limited to the length necessary to provide for flexibility
and for proper operation of machinery, see also Ch 12,7.

3.4.2 Hoses should be high pressure hydraulic hoses

according to recognized standards and suitable for the
fluids, pressures, temperatures and ambient conditions in
question.

3.4.3 Burst pressure of hoses is to be not less than four

times the design pressure.

Steering control systems

4.1 General

4.1.1 Steering gear control is to be provided:

(a) For the main steering gear, both on the navigating

bridge and in the steering gear compartment;

(b) Where the main steering gear is arranged according to

2.1.4, by two independent control systems, both operable
from the navigating bridge. This does not require
duplication of the steering wheel or steering lever. Where
the control system consists of a hydraulic telemotor, a

55
second independent system need not be fitted, except in a
tanker, chemical tanker or gas carrier of 10 000 gross
tonnage and upwards;

(c) For the auxiliary steering gear, in the steering gear

compartment and, if power operated, it shall also be
operable from the navigating bridge and is to be
independent of the control system for the main steering
gear.

(d) Where the steering gear is so arranged that more than

one control system can be simultaneously operated, the
risk of hydraulic locking caused by single failure is to be
considered.

4.1.2 Any main and auxiliary steering gear control system

operable from the navigating bridge is to comply with the
following:

(a) Means are to be provided in the steering gear

compartment for disconnecting any control system
operable from the navigating bridge from the steering
gear it serves;

(b) The system is to be capable of being brought into

operation from a position on the navigating bridge.

4.1.3 The angular position of the rudder shall:

(a) If the main steering gear is power operated, be

indicated on the navigating bridge. The rudder angle
indication is to be independent of the steering gear control
system;

(b) Be recognizable in the steering gear compartment.

4.1.4 Appropriate operating instructions with a block

diagram showing the change-over procedures for steering
gear control systems and steering gear actuating systems
are to be permanently displayed in the wheelhouse and in
the steering gear compartment.

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4.1.5 Where the system failure alarms for hydraulic lock
(see Table 19.5.1) are provided, appropriate instructions
shall be placed on the navigating bridge to shutdown the
system at fault.

Section 5 Electric power circuits, electric control

circuits, monitoring and alarms

5.1 Electric power circuits

5.1.1 Short circuit protection, an overload alarm and, in

the case of polyphase circuits, an alarm to indicate single
phasing is to be provided for each main and auxiliary
motor circuit. Protective devices are to operate at not less
than twice the full load current of the motor or circuit
protected and are to allow excess current to pass during
the normal accelerating period of the motors.

5.1.2 Indicators for running indication of each main and

auxiliary motor are to be installed on the navigating
bridge and at a suitable main machinery control position.

5.1.3 Two exclusive circuits are to be provided for each

electric or electrohydraulic steering gear arrangement
consisting of one or more electric motors.

5.1.4 Each of these circuits is to be fed from the main

switchboard. One of these circuits may pass through the
emergency switchboard.

5.1.5 One of these circuits may be connected to the motor

of an associated auxiliary electric or electrohydraulic
power unit.

5.1.6 Each of these circuits is to have adequate capacity

to supply all the motors which can be connected to it and
which can operate simultaneously. 5.1.7 These circuits are
to be separated throughout their length as widely as is
practicable.

5.1.8 In ships of less than 1600 gross tonnage, if an

auxiliary steering gear is not electrically powered or is

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powered by an electric motor primarily intended for other
services, the main steering gear may be fed by one circuit
from the main switchboard. Consideration would be given
to other protective arrangements than described in 5.1.1,
for such a motor primarily intended for other services.

5.2 Electric control circuits

5.2.1 Electric control systems are to be independent and

separated as far as is practicable throughout their length.

5.2.2 Each main and auxiliary electric control system

which is to be operated from the navigating bridge is to
comply with the following:

(a) It is to be served with electric power by a separate

circuit supplied from the associated steering gear power
circuit, from a point within the steering gear
compartment, or directly from the same section of
switchboard busbars, main or emergency, to which the
associated steering gear power circuit is connected.

(b) Each separate circuit is to be provided with short

circuit protection only.

5.3 Monitoring and alarms

5.3.1 Alarms and monitoring requirements are indicated in

5.3.2 and Table 19.5.1.

5.3.2 All alarms associated with steering gear faults are to

be indicated on the navigating bridge and in accordance
with the alarm system specified by Pt 6, Ch 1,2.3.

Section 6 Emergency power

6.1 General

6.1.1 Where the rudder stock is required to be over 230

mm diameter in way of the tiller, excluding strengthening
for navigation in ice, an alternative power supply,
sufficient at least to supply the steering gear power unit

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which complies with the requirements of 2.1.3 and also its
associated control system and the rudder angle indicator,
shall be provided automatically, within 45 seconds, either
from the emergency source of electrical power or from an
independent source of power located in the steering gear
compartment. This independent source of power shall be
used only for this purpose.

6.1.2 In every ship of 10000 gross tonnage and upwards,

the alternative power supply shall have a capacity for at
least 30 minutes of continuous operation and in any other
ship for at least 10 minutes.

6.1.3 Where the alternative power source is a generator,

or an engine driven pump, starting arrangements are to
comply with the requirements relating to the starting
arrangements of emergency generators.

Section 7 Testing and trials

7.1 Testing

7.1.1 The requirements of the Rules relating to the testing

of Class 1 pressure vessels, piping, and related fittings
including hydraulic testing apply.

7.1.2 After installation on board the vessel the steering

gear is to be subjected to the required hydrostatic and
running tests.

7.1.3 Each type of power unit pump is to be subjected to

a type test. The type test shall be for a duration of not
less than 100 hours, the test arrangements are to be such
that the pump may run in idling conditions, and at
maximum delivery capacity at maximum working
pressure. During the test, idling periods are to be
alternated with periods at maximum delivery capacity at
maximum working pressure. The passage from one
condition to another should occur at least as quickly as on
board. During the whole test no abnormal heating,
excessive vibration or other irregularities are permitted.
After the test, the pump is to be opened out and

59
inspected. Type tests may be waived for a power unit
which has been proven to be reliable in marine service.

7.2 Trials

7.2.1 The steering gear is to be tried out on the trial trip

in order to demonstrate to the Surveyor's satisfaction that
the requirements of the Rules have been met. The trial is
to include the operation of the following:

(a) The steering gear, including demonstration of the

performances required by 2.1.2(b) and 2.1.3(b). For the
main steering gear trial, the propeller pitch of controllable
pitch propellers is to be at the maximum design pitch
approved for the maximum continuous ahead RPM. If the
vessel cannot be tested at the deepest draught,
alternative trial conditions may be specially considered. In
this case, for the main steering gear trial, the speed of the
ship corresponding to the maximum continuous
revolutions of the main engine should apply;

(b) The steering gear power units, including transfer

between steering gear power units;

(c) The isolation of one power actuating system, checking

the time for regaining steering capability;

(d) The hydraulic fluid recharging system;

(e) The emergency power supply required by 6.1.1;

(f) The steering gear controls, including transfer of control

and local control;

(g) The means of communication between the steering

gear compartment and the wheelhouse, also the engine
room, if applicable;

(h) The alarms and indicators.

(j) Where the steering gear is designed to avoid hydraulic

locking this feature shall be demonstrated.

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Test items (d), (g), (h) and (j) may be effected at the
dockside.

Section 8 Additional requirements

8.1 For tankers, chemical tankers, or gas carriers of

10 000 tons gross and upwards and every other ship
of 70 000 tons gross and upwards

8.1.1 The main steering gear is to comprise two or more

identical power units complying with provisions of 2.1.4.

8.2 For tankers, chemical tankers or gas carriers of

10 000 tons gross and upwards

8.2.1 Subject to 8.3 the following are to be complied with:

(a) The main steering gear is to be so arranged that in the

event of loss of steering capability due to a single failure
in any part of one of the power actuating systems of the
main steering gear, excluding the tiller, quadrant or
components serving the same purpose, or seizure of the
rudder actuators, steering capability is to be regained in
not more than 45 seconds after the loss of one power
actuating system.

(b) The main steering gear is to comprise either:

(i) two independent and separate power actuating

systems, each capable of meeting the requirements of
2.1.2(b); or

(ii) at least two identical power actuating systems which,

acting simultaneously in normal operation, are capable of
meeting the requirements of 2.1.2(b). Where necessary to
comply with these requirements, inter-connection of
hydraulic power actuating systems is to be provided. Loss
of hydraulic fluid from one system is to be capable of
being detected and the defective system automatically
isolated so that the other actuating system or systems
remain fully operational.

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(c) Steering gears other than of the hydraulic type are to
achieve equivalent standards.

8.3 For tankers, chemical tankers or gas carriers of

10 000 tons gross and upwards but of less than 100
000 tons deadweight

8.3.1 Solutions other than those set out in 8.2.1 which

need not apply the single failure criterion to the rudder
actuator or actuators, may be permitted provided that an
equivalent safety standard is achieved and that:

(a) Following loss of steering capability due to a single

failure of any part of the piping system or in one of the
power units, steering capability is regained within 45
seconds; and

(b) Where the steering gear includes only a single rudder

actuator special consideration is given to stress analysis
for the design including fatigue analysis and fracture
mechanics analysis, as appropriate, the material used, the
installation of sealing arrangements and the testing and
inspection and provision of effective maintenance. In
consideration of the foregoing, regard will be given to the
`Guidelines' in Section 9.

8.3.2 Manufacturers of steering gear who intend their

product to comply with the requirements of the
`Guidelines' are to submit full details when plans are
forwarded for approval.

Section 9 `Guidelines' for the acceptance of non-

duplicated rudder actuators for tankers, chemical
tankers and gas carriers of 10 000 tons gross and
upwards but of less than 100 000 tons deadweight

9.1 Materials

9.1.1 Parts subject to internal hydraulic pressure or

transmitting mechanical forces to the rudder-stock are to
be made of duly tested ductile materials complying with
recognized standards. Materials for pressure retaining

62
components are to be in accordance with recognized
pressure vessel standards. These materials are not to
have an elongation less than 12 per cent nor a tensile
strength in excess of 650 N/mm2.

9.2 Design

9.2.1 Design pressure. The design pressure should be

assumed to be at least equal to the greater of the
following:

(a) 1,25 times the maximum working pressure to be

expected under the operating conditions required in
2.1.2(b).

(b) The relief valve(s) setting.

9.2.2 Analysis. In order to analyse the design the

following are required:

(a) The manufacturers of rudder actuators should submit

detailed calculations showing the suitability of the design
for the intended service.

(b) A detailed stress analysis of pressure retaining parts of

the actuator should be carried out to determine the
stresses at the design pressure.

(c) Where considered necessary because of the design

complexity or manufacturing procedures, a fatigue
analysis and fracture mechanics analysis may be required.
In connection with these analyses, all foreseen dynamic
loads should be taken into account. Experimental stress
analysis may be required in addition to, or in lieu of,
theoretical calculations depending upon the complexity of
the design.

9.2.3 Dynamic loads for fatigue and fracture mechanics

analysis. The assumption for dynamic loading for fatigue
and fracture mechanics analysis where required by 3.1.5,
8.3 and 9.2.2 are to be submitted for appraisal. Both the

63
case of high cycle and cumulative fatigue are to be
considered.

9.2.4 Allowable stresses. For the purpose of determining

the general scantlings of parts of rudder actuators subject
to internal hydraulic pressure the allowable stresses
should not exceed limits calculated using the materials to
be used

9.2.5 Burst test. Pressure retaining parts not requiring

fatigue analysis and fracture mechanics analysis may be
accepted on the basis of a certified burst test and the
detailed stress analysis required by 9.2.2 need not be
provided. The minimum bursting pressure should be
calculated using set formulae:

9.3 Construction details

9.3.1 General. The construction should be such as to

minimize local concentrations of stress.

9.3.2 Welds.

(a) The welding details and welding procedures should be

approved.

(b) All welded joints within the pressure boundary of a

rudder actuator or connection parts transmitting
mechanical loads should be full penetration type or of
equivalent strength.

9.3.3 Oil seals. Oil seals forming part of the external

pressure boundary are to comply with 3.2.3 and 3.2.4.

9.3.4 Isolating valves are to be fitted at the connection of

pipes to the actuator, and should be directly mounted on
the actuator.

9.3.5 Relief valves for protecting the rudder actuator

against over-pressure as required in 3.3.3 are to comply
with the following:

64
(a) The setting pressure is not to be less than 1,25 times
the maximum working pressure expected under operating
conditions required by 2.1.2(b).

(b) The minimum discharge capacity of the relief valve(s)

is to be not less than 110 per cent of the total capacity of
all pumps which provided power for the actuator. Under
such conditions the rise in pressure should not exceed 10
per cent of the setting pressure. In this regard due
consideration should be given to extreme foreseen
ambient conditions in respect of oil viscosity.

9.4 Non-destructive testing

9.4.1 The rudder actuator should be subjected to suitable

and complete non-destructive testing to detect both
surface flaws and volumetric flaws. The procedure and
acceptance criteria for non-destructive testing should be
in accordance with requirements of recognized standards.
If found necessary, fracture mechanics analysis may be
used for determining maximum allowable flaw size.

9.5 Testing

9.5.1 Tests, including hydrostatic tests, of all pressure

parts at 1,5 times the design pressure should be carried
out.

9.5.2 When installed on board the ship, the rudder

actuator should be subjected to a hydrostatic test and a
running test.

9.6 Additional requirements for steering gear fitted to

ships with Ice Class notations

C/E : W.YOUSSEF

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