1.

Propellers
1.1 General
In order for a ship to obtain a certain constant spe ed , a for ce needs to be exerted
on the ship. The magnitude of this force depends on the ship's resistance at that
particular speed. If the ship is travelling at constant speed the force exerted on
the ship equals the resistance of the ship. The force that moves the ship can
come from an out side so urce like a tow ing line or the wind, but generally the
force is generated by a power source on the ship itself (engine). The propulsion
syste m usually con sists of the engine or turbine, reducti on gearbox , propeller
shaft and propeller.
Th e efficiency of a propeller takes an
important place in the design-process
of the propeller because its efficiency
and the ship's fuel consumption are
directly related .

If the diameter of the propeller

increases, the rotation s per minut e
can decrease; this generally increa ses
the efficiency and reduce s the fuel
consumption.

The effici ency depends on the flow

field of the propell er, which depends
on the ship 's underwater body, the
power of the propeller, the number of
bl ades, rotations per minute, the
maximum po ss ibl e propeller diameter, the blade surface area and the
ship's speed .

The propeller pitch is the distance in

the direction parallel to the propeller
shaft that a point on the propeller
covers in one revolution in a solid
sub stance. Similar to a point on a
corksc rew turning in a cork . When
rotating in a fluid a propeller will
have a (small) slip. Rotations or
revolutions
per
minute
are
abbreviated as rpm .

7.

1.
6.
the prop ulsicm system

I Engine
2. Engine shaft
3. Reduction gear-box; this reduces
the number of revolutions of the
engine (e.g.1000 rpm ) to an
acceptable rotation rate of the
propeller (e.g. 200 rpm ) The
reduct ion is 5: I.
4. Shaft ge nerator; this supplies the
ship with elec tricity when the
engin e is runnin g
5. Stern tube with bearing
6. Propell er shaft
7. Propeller
Ship Knowledge. a modem encyclopedia

In short, the diameter of the propeller

should be as large as possible so that
a max imum amount of wake, ca used
by the ship's hull, is used . The choice
for high effi cienc y with a largediameter propeller and a low number
of revolutions per minute is easily
ju stifiable, but requires a significant
investment.
RPM and the number of blade s have
influence on vibrations on board and
the resonan ce frequ ency of the ship.
Most ships use a 4-bl aded propeller
while 5-blade prop ellers are more
co mmon when a large power (20000
kW ) is necessary.
246

However. more and more ships use

the 5-bladed version nowadays, even
when less power is needed . The 3bladed propellers are used on ships
with a high number of revolutions per
minute and a low power (700 rpm.
600 kW).
The shape of the blades

Every propeller is designed individually. based on the specific demands

set for this propeller. As a result of
this, there is a large variety in shapes
of blades.

Ship resistance

A ship encounters the following types

of resistance:
a. Frictional resistance

The friction between the water and

the ship's skin is the cause of this type
of resistance. The water in the
boundary layer will be accelerated by
the ship 's speed. Thi s boundary layer
becomes larger when the shell is
fouled.

LNG-rllnker with

The

\1'<11.:1' (~r rile

1/

well-designed bulb

ship

b. Pressure resistance

The ship's momentum pushes the

water aside at the bow and as a result,
the pressure of the water increases.
This increase in pressure will also
take place at the aft. The pressure will
fall where the boundary layer is
released.
lJitfi'renr tvpcs of blades aucched

liub. This co mbination can

IlC:I'tT

/0

(I

he

usedfor actual pml'lIhicll1

The remarks for each shape of blade

apply to both the fixed and the
controllable pitch propellers.
Blade I: Is hardly used anymore.
Blade 2: Is used when there are
strict demands regarding
noise and vibrations on
board.
Blade 3: Is used when the rpm is
high and, consequently, the
diameter is small. A large
blade surface area
somewhat reduces the
efficiency, but it is very
favourable for the ability to
stop the ship and for the
reverse propulsion force.
Blade 4: Is used in nozzles
Blade 5: Is also used in nozzles if
the noise and vibration
levels have to be limited to
a Il'l l Ilf Ifl tlffl ..

-hip Knowledge. a modem m,ydopt'din

SUI'plia without a bulb

c. Wave resistance

This is a result of wave-systems along

the hull that originate from the
differences in pressure. The use of a
bulb at the stem can significantly
decrease the wave-making resistance.
The bulb generates its own wave
system, which is designed to be
opposite to the ship's wave system.
These two wave systems then
neutralize each other.
If the rate of flow of water (or air) is
higher. then the pressure will be
lower compared to the pressure in
parts of the water where the rate of
flow is lower. So in waves, water in a
trough has a higher speed than water
in a wave top. See also chapter 4
'design' and Bernoulli's law.
In oil tankers and container ships it
can be seen very clearly that the bulb
prevents an increase in pressure near
the stem. The improved streamline of
the ship's underwater body reduces a
wave system around the ship . In
suppliers and hopper suction dredgers . there is a large wave system
present around the ship.

Conta iner shill

Trailcriiu;

wit]:

hO{JfJl'I'

a bulb

suction dredger

withou t (/ bulb

d. Added resistance in waves

This type of resistance is caused by

the pitching and rolling of the ship.
e. Air resistance

This depends on the vertical area

above the waterline, which varies
with the draught.
Types "d' and 'e' are variable, depending on wave direction and wind
direction as experienced by the ship.

247

aft , therefore the pressure side is also

call ed ' the face' and the suction side
'th e back ' ,

Fixed rig ht -ha nd etl p ropel ler

polished

Oil

a tunk c: (dew !JI'"i glu 30 ,(J()(} tons). Pm!lcl!cr beillX

red uce roughness , [o r 1('.1.1 rotationfriction arul lessfuc ! ronsumption .

10

V
I

2.

; I
I
I

I
I

5.

I I
I

1.

6.
4.
A dra wing

(~r the

upper f ix ed propeller

blade (1 a right-handed prop eller seen

Pressure and suction sides of the

propeller
The approach velocity of the water is
a result of th e ship's movement
throu gh the water. If the ship is lying
still, this Ve = O. The approach
velocity can be calcula ted by
subtracting the wak e velo city from
the s hip ' s speed . The spe ed o f
rotat ion o f the propeller and the
approach vel ocity result in the spe ed
(V). Thi s V hits the propeller blad e at
a certa in angle:

Cavitation
As described a bove. the propell er
pressure of a rotating propeller is not
ju st the result of the water-pressure
on the pressure side , but also of the
underpressure on the oth er side of the
pr op elle r. Propell er s that ro ta te
rapidly can create an under-pressure
th at is so low that watervapour
bubbles are bein g form ed on the
suction side of the propeller. Th ese
gas-bubbles impl ode co ntinuous ly on
the same spot and cau se damage to
the suction side of the blade . Thi s is
called cavitation. Severe cavitationcauses:
a redu ct ion in propul sion pow er
wea r of the blades
vibrations that bend the blad es
noise in the ship
high cos t to rect ify
A proper wor king propell er ofte n
show s light cav itation wich is not
harmful.

a = 9_10 at serv ice speed

[ rom above

I . Cro ss-section of propeller

blade
2. Propeller sh aft
3. Suction side
4. Pres sure sid e
5. Leading ed ge
6. Trailing edge

Th e speed o f the incoming water

create s an under-pressure on the
forw ard sid e of the blade (sucti on
side) and a n ov er-press ure o n the aft
side o f the blade (pressure side). The
propell er blade act s as a win g profile.
Propellers are usually vie wed from

,.

P~-:\
I

:,

;,

Ve

: ,
J

I8

\
'

.' \
~

Fo rces

Oil

the I/pp er

propelle r blad when

tlu : prope ller i s rota ting'
,/

uncl the slti]: is II/O"in/-;

/'
Ship Kno wledg e, (/

= approac h veloci ty =

ship's speed - wake spee d

U = speed of rotation of the
propeller
T "r = angular veloci ty'" rad ius
V = resulting speed
A = lift
W = drag
P
resulting force
S
propulsion force (thrus t)
T
shaft moment

Cavitation damu gc

fil l

a rudder blade

Ca vitation damug

OIl <I

rudder blade

du to /Ilis" illg /' II/g ,

248

Prop ell er

Turning
direc tion

Sail ing
directi on

right-handed
right-handed
left-handed
left -handed

right
left
right
left

ahead
astern
aste rn
ahead

Wheel

(~fj;:C1

Direct
effect
Aft
starboard
port
starboard
port

prop eller
Fo re
port
star boa rd
port
starboard

Indirect
effect
Aft
p011
starboa rd

propeller
Fore
starboard
port

of prcpcllcr :

The influence of the propeller on the

ship's manoeuvring ability
Propellers can be di vided into right handed and left-hand ed propell ers.
Ship s with a fixed prop ell er usuall y
have a right -hand ed version.
A rig ht-hande d pro peller can be
recognised in th e fo llo wi ng wa y.
Stand aft of the propell er, look at the
face and hold on to the top blade with
both hands. If the rig ht-hand side of
the blade is furth est away, it is a righthanded propeller. If the ship is go ing
ahea d, a right-hand ed prop ell er is
rotatin g clockw ise.
If a prop eller is rota ting, the ship has
the tendency to turn to a part icular
side, even if the rudd er is in the midships posit ion and there are no
additional forces acting on the ship.
This effect is ca lled the propeller
effect or wheel effec t (see the module
on man oeuv ring).

Th e d iam eter of fixed prop ell ers

varies betwee n 36 cm and 12 met res.
Th e cho ice o f a fixed or co ntro llab le
pitch propell er (CPP) in ships up to
7000 kW depend s o n, amo ng other
thin gs, the need for a shaft ge nera tor
and the need for easy manoeu vring
qua lities ,
Adv ant ages of a fixed prop ell er over
a co ntrollab le pitch propeller are:
a. They are less fragile
b. Th e prop eller does not re vol ve
when berthing, so it poses less
dan ger to moorin g boat s and the re
is less risk of ropes gett ing
entang led in the propeller.
Disad vant age: in adverse weath er, the
pro pell er may turn too heav ily. this
ca n hamper propul sion .

l nst al la tion of

11[lxcd

rig ht -ha ndcd

propelle r with shaf:

Fixed prop ell ers also have a limited

RP M for man oeu vring.
Alternative propeller designs
Propellers with tip plates have been
invented around 1850, but have only
recently been rediscovered. Tip plates
are attach ed to the blade tips. The
plates prevent the water fro m tlowin g

Prop ell er s wi th adj us ta ble blades

(co ntro lla ble pitc h prop elle rs, cpp )
are often left-hand ed . When the ship
goes astern, the effect of the propeller
is the same as in a right-handed
propeller goin g astern. Going ahead
they hav e the sa me effec t as a lefthand ed prop ell er. Thi s is don e not to
co nfuse pilots. Wh en go ing astern,
the e fficie ncy o f the propeller can
drop below 50%, depend ing on the
type of bl ade and the type of
propeller.

1.2 Fixed propellers

Th e propell er bl ad es of a fixed
propeller have a fixed position . As a
co nsequence the directio n o f rotati on
of the prop ell er has to change if the
ship is going astern . Thi s is realised
with a reversing cl utch or a reversible
engine. A rev ersing clutch, and
therefore als o the fixed prop eller, is
eco nomical in ships up to 1250 kW.
Ship Knowledge,

(l

modern encyclopedia

Fixe d rig lit-handet! propel/Cl" of 11 co ntaine r vesse l (G T 80942j with a reversible

engine. The proprllc r weigh s '15

[ 011 .1'.

has 6 bla de s IIlId a diameter of 8.9511/.

24 9

from pre ssure areas to the suction

areas of the propeller too fast. This
increases the effi ciency by reducing
the ene rgy los s. The improved
hydrodynamics of the water-now
caused by the tip-plate propell ers also
contri bute to the reduction of
vibration s and noise of the propeller.
Another dev elopment is the contrarotating pr opeller. This system
cons ists o f two propellers placed one
behind the other, which are driven by

Drawing

.If a

co ntro lla b le pi u'h propell er witl t propeller slut]' , Tlu: /' ilclI adjustmcut o]

th e blades is (folie

\';(1

oil prcssun: though the holl o w shuf) . (For <,.Ip /w w tioll

1lIIIIIhers .Ice next /' age . ) Thejigures apply Ir!

energy. The combined propellers can

reduce the fuel-c onsumption by 15%.

1.3 Controllable Pitch Propellers

(adjustable pitch propellers)

Propeller wit h lip piate

means of concentric shafts (inner and

outer shafts) with opposite directions
o f rotation. Both the number of
blad es and the diameter differ. The
principl e behind this system is that ,
normally, water is brought into
rotation by the propeller, which
results into a loss of energy. Adding a
seco nd propeller rotating in the
opposite direction reduces the loss of

The blades of this type o f propeller

can be turned. thereby changing the
propeller pitch. The se propellers are
more complicated than fixed-p itch
propellers. Th e mechani sm that
adj usts the prop eller pitch is located
in the boss of the propeller. It is
activated from the engine ro om .
rem otely contro lled from the bridge
by a hydraulic cylinder, The most
striking feature of the controllable
pitch propeller is that it only rotat es in
one direction, making the reversing
clutch or the rev ersible engine

l/

JIrt! J1eller with

(J

orthe

d ill/lie/er of 2.5

II/Clr1'S

obsolete. Unlike the fixed-pitch

p ropeller, the co ntro llable pitch
propeller is an integrated part of the
propulsi on sy ste m. Thi s make s it
possible that power and neces sary
propulsi ve for ces can all be
controlled by simply chan ging the
posit ions of the blades .
The figure on the next page shows
cross -sections of a propeller blad e
and the forc es that act on that part of
a rotating propeller blad e.
On the left are the cros s-sections and
forces when the ship is going ahead.
All the vect ors point backwards, the
ship is going forward .
Now the blades are rotated tow ards
the zero-position. Thi s means that the
propulsive forc es abo ve and below
are equal in magnitude, but opposite
in direction . The nett propul sive force
is zero, but the prop eller still ab sorb s
a large am ount of en erg y that is
converted to turbulenc e of the wake.
To go astern, the blad es are rotated
even further. resulting in a forward
propulsi ve forc e .
Safety precautions
I . The position of the blade s can be
change d manually without loss of
propulsive force .
2. If the hydraulic syst em fail s, the
blad es can be locked in the ahead
position .

Mo dcl tcs: of {/ con tra -ro tating pro p eller

Ship Knowledg e, a modem encyclopedi a

250

I.
Prop eller blade (tip speed 3 1A m/s)
2.
Boss
3.
Watertight / oil tight seal
4.
Stern frame
5.
Prop eller shaft, 240 rpm
6.
Stern tube
7,
Inter med iate shaft (la eng ine shaft)
8.
Redu ction gear box (l :2.5)
9.
Mechani call y dr iven lubri cat ing oil pump
10. Collar shaft (thrus t)
11. Actu at ing motor, coupled to a
mech an ism of bars that serves the
blades

Forwa rd

Neutral

Back wards

The shaft generator can supp ly the

electrica l power on a ship as long
as the main en gin e keep s running.
With controllable pitch prop ellers
the generator frequency can be
kept constant because the rpm of
the engine remains constant. The
engine drives the shaft gen erator
via the redu ction gearbox .

1.4

Drawing of cl sing l propeller blade and it: cross -sections. The pictures show tltc
ro nt rol labl r IJil f'lI {Jl'fJ{Jcller ; the [(I'l '('/' blad i st he blade ill the drawi ngs.

Advantages of a controllable pitch

propeller

1. It ca n propel the ship at all speeds,

even at very low spee d wit hout
loss of power.
, It can cha nge qu ickl y from ahea d
to as tern and vice versa.
3. Imp roved effici ency on sh ips with
alternatin g load s like fishin g crafts
and tugs.
4 . It ca n easi ly be com bined with a
shaft ge nerator (see on the right) .
5. It can stop a sh ip with maximum
power.
Disadvantage:
It is a vuln erable system due to the
hyd rauli c co mpo ne nts and man y
scaling rings. A dam aged sealing ring
results in oil pollut ion .
Ship Knowledge, a modem encyclopedia

If the auxili ary ge nerators pro vide the

shaft generator with energy, it ca n
also be used as:
additi onal power supply during
navig ating
e mergency propulsion"

** If the shaft ge nera tor is to be used

Nozzles

The pur pose of a nozz le is to increase

the propulsive force. Thi s increase
result s from the fact that the prop eller
forces more water to flo w through the
nozzle, Th is water-flo w has a higher
velocity in the nozzle than the water
outside and the resulting pres su re
grad ient then creates the add itional
propulsive force. The efficiency of
the nozzle is at a maximu m when the
water ca n pass unobstru cted . Thi s is
why the la p of the nozzle should
alw ays be as free as po ssible in
relat ion to the aft body .
Not only does a nozzl e increase the
propulsive force , it als o red uces noise
and vibration levels. Furth ermore, the
incom ing water-flow is more hom ogeneous in a nozzle, minimising local

as an emergency prop ulsion, the main

engine must be disconnected from the
red uction gear box in orde r to prevent
the co g whee ls from bein g dam aged.
Class does not prescr ibe this sys te m
and the maximum speed it can obtain.
The syst em is someti mes used on
sma ll ship s.

Controlla ble pitcl: propeller

i ll 11 f ixe d

lIoz::.lc.

25/

pressure
differences
that
responsible for cavitation
vibrations.

are
and

The combination of a propeller in a

nozzle is often called a ducted
propeller. In principle, the nozzle can
be used on every type of vessel
except on very fast ships like highspeed ferries where they have no
increasing effect on the propulsive
force. If the frictional resistance
(caused by the nozzle) becomes

...

e- "

.z-::

The main characteristic of rudder

propellers is their ability to rotate like
a rudder, unobstructed, the full 360.
Rudder propellers are also called
'azimuthing thrusters' or 'Z-drives'.
To achieve this freedom of rotation, a
right angle underwater-gear box is
driven by a vertical power shaft. This
vertical shaft is centered in the rudder
stock,

Tile lift [ orce, created hv tlte underprcssu r Oil tlu: outside

1.5 Rudder propellers

ortlu: noz zle

larger than the increase in propulsive

force, there is a loss of efficiency.
Nozzles are often used on inland
vessels, hopper suction dredgers,
tugs, fishing vessels and suppliers.
The advantages and disadvantages of
fixed or controllable pitch propellers
are the same for propellers in a nozzle
and propellers without one, For
shallow draught ships the same thrust
can be delivered with a smaller
system diameter.
Nozzles come in two main types:
I. Fixed versions
2. Rotating versions
(see Section 1.5)

T\I'o I1IddCl' li mp et!ers ill

<I lIIe::.Il'.

witl;

360" rotu tion.

A gear driven by a pinion is attached

to the top of the rudder stock. This
makes
the
unlimited
rotation
possible.
Nowadays, rudder propellers can
have a power up to 7500 kW. There
are several versions of rudder
propellers, namely:

order to get sufficient propulsive

force efficiency without the need
for ballast.
2. Deck units. The diesel-drive units
are placed on deck; the rudder
propeller is attached to the back of
the drive unit. These types can
also have a depth-adjustment
system.
3. A retractable unit. Is can be
withdrawn entirely into the ship
and is only lowered when the
ship is at sea. When in top
position, the propellers can be
part of a tunnel thruster and are
then called 'retractable thrusters',
Not used for main propulsion.
4. Bow thrusters or stern thrusters
are also called tunnel thrusters.
They are based on a transverse
propeller and a right angle
underwater gearbox. These are
used exclusively to position the
bow with a starboard or port side
thrust.
Types I and 2 function as main propulsion units while type 3 is an
auxiliary propulsion unit. Type 4 is
for low-speed manoeuvring.
The most important advantage of a
rudder propeller is its ability to give
optimal thrust in each rudder
position.

I. A fixed unit assembled in an

assembly box, It can be equipped
with a depth-adjustment
system.When the ship is empty,
the propeller can be lowered in

One particular type of fixed nozzles is

the wing-nozzle. In spite of its
modest dimensions, this still increases the propulsive force if the
speed exceeds 12- I8 knots.

Fixed p rn petlcr ill

<I

I,'ing-no;: z{e

Ship Knowledge, a modem encyclopedia

Tug boa: "'l lIipped wit h IWo a: il/l lllhillg th rust e rs <111 <1 a

1>",,' th ruster
252

Except for the tunnel thru ster, all

rudd er prop ellers can stee r the ship
360 , thereby givin g the ship exce lle nt
manoeuvrability. Nowadays. modern
elec tro nic equipment fo r sa te ll ite
navigation can be employed to coupl e
the rudder propellers to the dynamic
po sit ioning sys tem (OP-system) . Thi s
can keep a ship in a pred etermined
positi on irre sp ecti ve of the influ enc es
of currents and wind . Retractabl e
thru sters are often used for thi s
purpose . When the ship is in position ,
the azimuth thrusters are lowered and
the ship switches to OP. Oth er
advantages of the rudder propell er are
the very compact engine room (because
there is no need for a long propeller
shaft) ; this
results
in
low er
installation costs as compared to a
con ventional propell er.

.... . . __

_ r..........

' JUNr.

1~""lt~

Rudder propeller inst allati on s are

o fte n used on pas sen ger liners, ca ble
ships, float ing cr an es, supplie rs.
dredg ers, barg es etc.
1. Hori zont al connecting shaft from
engine
2. Horizontal gearbox to vertical
sha ft
3. Vertical shaft
4 . Vertical gearbox to horizontal
propeller shaft
5. Nozzle
6. Fixed pitch propeller

Sch emativ pres entation of the command p ath [r um bridge control to the milder
propeller

1.-

Aeri u! pha w groph

(~ r a

supplier shows the

(I!'l i /ll (l I Il W I70 CII1Till g

capobilitics o] (i rudder pro pell er ill combination witi: 0

IN) \\' I h m S11'!'

Cross- scrt u: o f a rudder pro pcll er

Ship Kno wledge. ([ modern encyclopedia

253

The joy stick on the control panel is a

so-called 'one-man operated joy stick
system' which co ntrols the entire
propul sion sys tem and the rudders.

SSP dlowHloculc

Drive rill rudder pro pel ler

Aerial phot ograph of If fe rry showing thruster waslt

f)i,-c('/ -d ri I'C engine 10 propeltc r

Diesel -elect ric drive

A cruise ,1/1 ;" with 2 elect rica l rudde r propel lers that call rotate .iN)'"'.

Ship Knowledge, (/ mod em encyclope dia

254

1.6 Electrical rudderpropeUers

(Brands: Azi pod, Dolphin, Mermaid.
SSP)
The difference between the rudder
propeller of paragraph 1.5 and the
elec tric rudder propeller or podded
pro pulsor is that the latter has its
pro pulsion engine located ou tside the
ship. The e lec trica l eng ine with
adj ustable rpm is placed in a pod that
is attac hed to the botto m of the ship .
Eve ry pod has a propeller attached to
it. drive n by the electric motor. There
are two main types: a fixe d pod with
a rudder or a 360 degree rotating pod
without a rudde r. Both these types ca n
eith er push or pull. Th e propeller is
then located on the back or the front
of the pod, respective ly.
The elec tric rudder propeller does not
requir e gearboxe s. clutc hes, propeller
sha fts and rudd ers.
Th e diesel en gin es ca n be placed
an yw here on the ship, as long as there
is space available, unlike the ship s
with a mechani cal drive where the
e ngi nes are co nnected to the propeller
by a long sha ft and other parts .
So thi s propul sion sys te m is a
co mpac t syste m that simplifies the
design and construc tion of the ship as
comp ared to conventional propul sion
systems . Although the sys tem was
originally developed for icebr eakers,
it is now in use on suppliers, cruise
ships , tanke rs, ferries and ships with a
DP-sys tem.

Cross-section of the atipod installation

1. Propeller
2. Bearin g and shaft labyrinth (sea l)
3. Hydr aul ic stee ring unit with
toothed rim

4 . Co llec tor rings for the

transmi ssion of data and power
5. Ship 's bottom
6. Electro-rno tor
7. Bearing (radial and thru st)

Ad vantages are:
I. It is possib le to separate the powe r
source and the propul sion sys tem
2. It can combi ne the power suppl y
of the auxiliaries and the
propul sion sys tem
3. Few vibrations and little noise
4. Exce llent manoeu vring
ca pabilities
5. Lower fuel-cos ts

Sc hema tic representation

orlit e /Jf(}/JIII.I'ioll system with

I. Azipod with a 1200 volts cyc loconverter

2. Five die sel eng ines co upled to 5
ge nera tors (2 times 11 .2 MW and
3 times 8.4 MW. These supply the
S/,ip Knowledge. 0 modem encyclopedia

pods,

energy for all the ship's syste ms

like propul sion, AC, gall ey.
waterm akers etc.
3. Main grid, 11000 volts / 60 Hz
4. Bow thru sters

255

1.7

Propeller shafting

The stem tube contains the bearings

in which the propeller shaft is rotating. Usually, there are two bearin gs,
the aftmost one being the longest.
Close to this aft bearing is the sea ling
system that keep s the sea water out of
the propeller shaft and the oil inside.

Bearing: that part of a machine in

which a rotating part rests.

The front side of the stern tube is

attached to the aft peak bulkhead, the
aft part is attached to the stern or
propeller post.
The sealing system must be able to
withstand extreme conditions like :
axial speeds up to 10 m/s
water-pressure up to 3 bar
axial and radial propeller shaft
displacernents of several millimetres
the ship 's vibration
6000 hours of rotation time per
year, during 5 years
Stern post with a controllab le pitch propeller

I. Stern
2. Rudder
3. Propeller boss
4. Propeller
5. Propeller post
6. Aft stern-tube seals
7. Shafting
8. Forward stern-tube seals
9. Intermediate shaft bearin gs
10. Propeller shaft
Stern
SI1i" Kno wledge, a modern encyclop ed ia

IJO S (

with .-.ha(ri/lg ut a controllahl pitc]: propelle r

256

The lubricati ng age nt bet ween the

propelle r shaft and the shafting ca n
be: a. oi l
b. water
a. Lubricating oil
Approxim ately 70 % of all ships use
o il as a lub rica nt for the propeller
shaft. When oil is the lubricant, the
bearing is usu all y mad e of whi te
met al. and so me times of sy nthetic
materi al. Th e d isad vantage of syn thetics is that the y poorl y tra nsmit the
frictio na l heat between bearing and
shaft. At the front side of the front
bearin g there is a sealing case, whi ch
prevent s oi l from leakin g int o the
ship .
SII' I'/I hea r i ng a nd sea ls

T he scaling system at the backside

co nsists of a sea ling case and mos tly
th ree scali ng ri ngs . Th ese sea ling
rings arc made of sy nthetic rub ber.
The space between the two bearings
is completely filled with lubricant.
Th e aft seal prevents oi l from leaking
to the out side. The lubricant pre ssure
is only slightly higher than the wa ter
press ure. So if seawater sho uld
somehow ente r the two water-sea ls.
the higher lubri cant pressu re prevent s
it fro m reac hing the pro peller shaft.
Seawater co uld seriously dam age the
un prot ect ed propeller shaft. T he
higher lubri cant pre ssur e is main tained by a small pre ssur e tan k (A) .
wh ich is placed a few met res above
the load line.
Tank A is pan o f the main lub ricat ing
ystcm. tan k B co ntains lubricat ing
oi l for the seawater seali ng rings. T he
oi l in the ma in lub ricating system is
. elf-c irculating du e to the fac t that
warmer o il rises upwards . Tank C is
both the drainage tank and the storage
ta nk. If oil leakage shou ld so mehow
cur, it is usually limited to small
a mounts . If not, dry doc ki ng is
neccesary. A chro me stee l bush is
fitted aro und both the propell er. shaft
aft near the propell er and forward in
way of the aft peak bul khead . T he
. ace bet wee n the bu sh and the tube
ontains lubri cant. Th e aft chro me
ree l liner is attac hed to the propell er
bo ss with bolt s. the chrome-s tee l liner
o f the for ward bush is attac hed to the
pro peller shaft wi th a cla mped ring.
. ro und both bushes, attac hed to the
hip. are no n-ro ta ti ng hou sin gs,
here the sea ling rin gs are fitted.
11I1' A:I/tl l\'/er/ge. (/ modern encycl opedia

out er seal

4. 11.

inner sea l

Outer and inner seals

10.

L-......,....__

8.

3.
Closed svstem with Iubricating oil

I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Prop ell er boss

Prop ell er shaft
Chro me -stee l liner
Seawater sea l
Oil sea l
Stern fra me
Aft bearing
Propell er shafting

9. C lamped ring
10. Oil tan k
11. Fastening with bolt s on the
stern post
12. Bolt attac hme nt on the aft pea k
bul khead
13 . Stern tube
14 . For ward bearing

257

Advantages of placing a chrome-steel

bush are :
it prevents the propeller shaft
from getting into contact with
seawater
very resistant to wear
During dry docking, measures should
be taken to determine how much the
propeller shaft has sunk. This is
indicative of the wear of the aft
bearing. A special depth gauge, the so
called 'poker gauge', is present on
board that can measure the sagging of
the shaft. Normal sagging is zero.

Ship dri ven by waterjet propulsion

b.Water as a lubricant
When water is the lubricant for the
propeller shaft, the bearings are made
of rubber or synthetics. Water lubrication can be achieved with both open
and closed systems. In the open
system, the water is pushed out where
the propeller shaft leaves the ship ,
thus preventing sea water from entering the ship . In the closed system, the
water is pumped round the shaft, from
fore to aft. This means that the water
always has a slight over-pressure as
compared to the sea water. The navy
uses water lubrication because enemy
vessels can detect lubricating oil. In
some countries water lubrication is
compul sory for local shipping to
protect the environment.

I. Propeller boss
2. Shaft
3. Bearing (rubber, lignum
vitae, tufuse)
4. Stern tube

Full spee d ahea d

2 Water-jet propulsion
The main principles of the
water-jet are:
the impeller (propeller) draws in
sea water through an inlet
the same impeller adds head /
pressure to the water flow
when the water is pushed through
a nozzle
the nozzle converts the water pressure into a high-speed jet
the acceleration of the water flow
generates a thrust force that gives
the ship its speed
for sailing astern , the waterflow
exiting from the nozzle can be
reversed in the forward direction
with the reverse plate and reverse
section.

The same principle as for a water

jet is applied in an aircraft jet
engine, but here air is the medium
instead of water. The principle is
based on Newton's law F m x a,
where F is the force in Newton, m
the mass of the water and a is the
acceleration of the water.

The waterjet has an electronic

steering system. This means that the
orders
from
the
bridge are
immediately processed by microprocessors. This makes it possible for
the water-jet, engine and gearbox to
be controlled directly from the bridge.
Along with yachts, a lot of passenger
and car ferries, rescue and patrol
boats are nowadays equipped with
water jets. In 1998 the first cargoships were built with water-jet
propulsion. The maximum speed of
modern water-jets lies around 70-75
knots (appro-ximately 135 km/h) .
The fastest ferries can reach a speed
of appro-ximately 50 knots.

WarN lubrication tail shajt syst em

Ship Knowledge, a modem encyclopedia

25R

./

-~
--

5
7

err }1,1 -scction orwaterjet ( \\'iirl,lilc'i Prop ulsion .1" 1.1)

I. Inlet
., Drivin g shaft

. lmpeller
.+. Hydr aul ic steering cylinder
5. Jeta vat or, steering part
6. Hydrauli c cy linder that alters the
direct ion of the propul sion
- Reversin g plate, ca n be moved
by the cy linde r
'i . Reverse sec tion
'I. Sea ling box to pre vent water
from entering the ship
IQ.Combined guide and thru st
bearin g
l l .N ozzle

This picture showsthe 111(/1/()I'IIITil1g abilities ,,( two cur-ferries (60 metres in lengt h)
(111<1

hie l'i<'II'

11

fll ' O

f!il ,I .lel1ge r [e r r icst -lt) metres i ll

length}

or 1I water jCl

clh Cil t/

Side

\ 'i<' \I ' <!( 1I wut c r

j ctfuil astern

H'tl/l'I:iel with reversing buck et

1 'I' I'ie ll' orll water ]et

Ir rim; cou rse 10 florl

'ide r ie\l' I!( II wate rjet

lide

hip Kno wletli;. 11 modern cncycloprdiu

Wul cr)c t

II'i l ft

reve rsing buck et down

zero 1!I1'II.l1

259

The advantages of water jets are:

no rotating parts under water.
This makes it safe to manoeuvre
in shallow waters.
less resi stance, especially at
higher speeds, because there are
no fittings (e.g . the rudder)
suspended below the ship.
excellent manoeuvring capabilities. For instance, a ship can
navigate sideways without any
problems .
less sensitive to cavitation than
propellers on fast ships.
high efficiencies of up to 72%
onical conn ection 11I'1\\'('el/ the rudder

3. Rudders

Sell ing ill the heel

3.1

For slow speed manoeuvring the

rudder should cover the propeller
diameter as much as possible in order
to make optimal use of the water-flow
of the propeller.

General

The function of a rudder is to steer the

ship. The rudder is usually located in
the water-flow aft of the propeller.
Depending on the type of ship, the
area of the rudder is approximately
1.6% of the underwater lateral area
(length x draught) .
The rudder should be shaped in such
a way that the water-flow can be
directed as effectively as possible,
coupled to a minimum resistance.
Giving the horizontal cross-section of
the rudder a wing-profile satisfies
these two demands. In fact, the rudder
is a vertical wing, on which a lifting
force is generated by the water-flow
in the same way that an aeroplane
wing, propeller blades and a nozzle
get a lift. This is also known as the
rudder force . The drag should be as
small as possible. The lifting force
gives a turning moment around the
ship's centre of displacement: this is
what rotates the ship. roJ
L

~1I

rudder

stoc k and tlte rudder Made

The force that the steering engine

must supply depends on the torque
(force x distance) that must be applied
to rotate the rudder.
Thi s force is the resultant (N) in the
drawing. The total moment
depends on:
the position of the rudder stock
compared to the point of
application of N
the distance between the rudder
stock and the leading edge of the
rudder (balance).
When the rudder is free hanging, the
rudder stock must also be able to
absorb the total bending forces of the
rudder (spade type).
Depending on the rudder-profile, the
rudder stock is located at 25-47 %
abaft the leading edge of the rudder.

A co ntrollable pit rl: /iro/N'lIe r and (/flap

rudder (If (/ ntul ti-pu rpos vessel. The

underside of 11i<' rudder stor]: CUll 111'

sec)

ill the rudder:

Most rudders are hollow and empty.

The inside is stiffened with horizontal
and vertical profiles.
Section 3.2 will only describe freehanging rudders. In smaller vessels
(like fishing boats), however, rudders
are still supported in specially
constructed heels, or with mariner
rudders at half height (bigger ships)
Suspension of the rudder.
The drawings and photos will give an
idea of how rudders are supported.

H orirontal cro ss -section oftlu: rud der blade o f

v =
v

L
D
N

+
Ship Kno wledg e, a m odem enc yclo pedia

(~r(/ }lap

a
1I

balance rudder

velocity of water-flow

= lift
= drag

resultant force
under-pressure
over-pressure
distance between the rudderstock and the point of
application of N
260

6.

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. :

.
.~-~~---'l.

container [ ced er

i i

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Constn ution o{ purl o ] tli uti .I hil' o{ (/

\' iCI\ '

i... .

i
j

of the ships centre plane

- _.- '-

\ 'iell'

I. Transom
-, Steering flat
3. Aft perpendicular = rudd er axle
-l, Rudder
5. Rudd er trunk
6, Space for the rudd er stock
7. Ice-protecti on
8. Rudder dom e (de adwood)
9 . Stern post or propeller post
10,Wash bulkhead on centre line
11 ,Wing plate
12,Centre line propeller sh aft
13.Side keelson
l-l.Floor plate

Co nstruction ofpa rt

(~r lil c

IIji ship ofa co ntainerfeeder

Frame

i ll

ot i

p erp endicula r
tf nn ne ())

Fratnc nu m br r 2

'I' Knowledge, a modern encyclo pedia

261

.\

..

).

/'

ide keelson

3.2 Types of' rudders

The mo st co mmon rudd er-types are:
1. spade rudder
2. nap rudder
3. mariner rudder
4. fish-tail rudder
I. In ter ms of co nstruction. the spade
rudder is very simple becau se it has
no supports . For this reason it is a
very chea p rudd er and it is widely
applied, from yachts to fast ferrie s.
The rudder becomes narrow er from
top to bottom .

Two fl ap rudders under

11 large

ca rgo ferry

po ssi ble tha t 40 % of the ship's

propulsi ve force is directed sideways .
In co mb ination w ith a bow thru ster
such a ship could navigate transversely.

;\ spcuk: m ilder

0; 1 11

rcri cr: [ rcclv

Disadvant ages are:

the price
vulnerab ility
the larger rudder forces requ ire the
rudd er stock to be bigger.

Advantages of na p rudders are:

ex tra manoe uvrabi lity (that is. if
the mai n rudder blade is as large
as the spade rudde r
co urse co rrec tions ca n be
per formed with sma ller rudd er
angle s. Thi s means tha t the ship
loses less speed and therefore
co nsumes less fuel

+-- -5.
iF-\-

Ship Knowl edge.

Cl 1/I 0dl' I'II

encycl opedia

Explanation of the image on the

right:
t;i-!:--+--

I . Rudder blad e
2, Rudder-stock in rudder trunk
3. Flap
4 . Hinge line
5. Steer ing engine
6, Steering engine foundat ion
7. Gland and bearing
8. Rudder dom e
9, Bearing with a diaphragm bush
10. Flap ac tuator

6.

rT'=H--+---+-- 2.

suspcndedfnnn tlu: rudder dome

2. The flap rudder has a hinged nap at

the back of the rudder blade . Th is n ap
is moved mec hanically by the nap
guide at the top of the rudder in such
a way that the nap's turning ang le is
twice as large as the turning ang le of
the main rudder blade. The steering
meth ods of the nap di ffer per type of
tla p rudd er. Wh en th e ma ximum
rudd er angle is 45 , the n ap has a
maximum angle of 90 with respec t to
the ship. In this rudder position it is

8.
9.

3.
_---1_ 1.

4.

n u!' n uldcr

262

3, The mariner rudder is used o n

large ships like co ntai ner ships, bulk
carriers. tanke rs and passen ger liners.
The stern post is integrat ed into the
ship's co nstruc tion and the mariner
rudde r is attac hed to the stern post
with the ability to rotate , Thi s result s
in a robust rudd er. Disad vantages of
this co nstructio n are that there is a
larger risk of cavitatio n at the suspe nsion points and that the cas t co nstruction is more expensive.
\:/e ll'

c one bloc k.

or

1110 / 0 "

tanker 'Strotns' ill drydock

~-.:
-=ij::~~

p1a t l. bl ank .

Rt'II1{)1'a/ uf complet e rudd er: I .. eight

Filling of pintlo /0

111'\1' hushings

approx ima tclv l Ztl tons

Const n ution ofa mariner rudd e r

Alignment of rudder and stoc]: ill ,!JOI)

4. Th e fishtail rudder is
gene rally used on smaller ships wi th a speed of
less than 14 kno ts, Th e
man oeuvr ing q ua lities
of this type of rudd er lie
so mew here in betw een
those of the s pade
rudder and the flap
rudd er,

\(<lri" c,. rudder

Curreutjlos, l it

IIu ui1l1111J1

rudde r 0 1/, 11'

Ship Knowledge. a modem encyclopedia

263

-_----5

3.3 Steering engines

1. General

Wh en it is decided , on the br idge , to

alter the co urse, the automatic pilot or
th e helm is used to ac tivate the
stee ring e ng ine, whic h, in turn,
rotates the rudder-stock and the
rudd er. The rudder carrier suppo rts
the rudder-sto ck and the rudd er. Th e
rudder carrier also functi on s as a
bea ring around the rudd er-stock , and
it sea ls the rudder trunk to prevent
sea water from entering the ship by a
gland . SOLAS demands that every
stee ring engine should be equipped
with 2 sets of pumps and ,
conse q ue ntly, al so 2 se rvo sets ,
serv ing the hydraulic pumps. Both the
ram and the rotary vane steering
eng ines operate by hydr auli c power,
Both types o f stee ring gear are
equa lly co mmo n in shipping . Th e
magnitude of the stee r or rudder
moment is ex presse d in kNm (ki loNe wt on -m eter ). In ge nera l the
greates t rudde r m oment occurs at
30-35 degrees.

~6

~3.

Uoubl c-uctins; cylinrl rs ilia ru m steeri ng engine of

SII/UIlIC.I.I'"

.2. Ram steering engines

In ram steering engines , the rudd er

stock is rotated by a tiller that, in turn ,
is controlled by the ram s. A ram
co nsists of a cylinder and a piston .
Th e tiller and the rudder stock are
oft en linked by a conical connecti on.
Ram stee ring engines may have I
ram, two rams or 4 ram s. If the
cy linde rs are double -acting, the
stee ring engine can still opera te
throu gh one of the cylinders when the
othe r o ne fails. Thi s is a lso a
requirem ent of SOLAS.

Rudd er stoc k
Tiller
Ram (piston + cylinder)
Hydraulic lines
Electro-rnotor
Prot ection of coupling betw een emotor and hydr. power pack
7. Pump in tank filled with oil
(po wer pack )

711is .l le a illg eng ine has e very

('(}IUI ){IIl I'n l in pairs

Ru m steerim; engin e (Il l u la rg .I hil )

(furl/ iug tlu: milder

/(I

sta rboa rd ]

I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Sh ip Knowledge, a modem encyclopedia

Rani stee rin g eng ine

(lr u larg ship

264

Rota ry vane steering engines

HlghP'

Low P

....
ouno

Very Jcrw p,...~

ro tary va ne steering e ng ine cons ists

a fixed cas ing . In sid e the casi ng is
~ ro tor to w hic h w ings are attac he d .
Th i arra nge me nt di vid es the hou se
to fo ur ch ambe rs. tw o hi gh sur e . tw o low-pressure ones . A
e bl o ck direct s hydraul ic o il at
igh pre ssure int o the c ha m be rs
im ultaneo usly, pu shing/rot ating th e
or and subs eq ue ntly the rudder. If
e rudder is rotated to th e other side .
. hi gh -pressure chambers becom e
w -p re ssu re chambers a nd vice
rs a . T he rudder stock is locat ed in
th ce ntre of the rotor; th e rotor is
ss ed o nto the conical secti on of th e
ru dder stoc k. The wings and th e fixe d
di visio n bl ock s ar e pro vided wi th
pri ng -Ioaded plat es wh ich a re th e
a ls bet w een the high - a nd low pre s. ure oi l c ham bers .
The adva ntages o f a ro tary va ne
I e ring eng ine over a ram steering
ngine are :
it tak es up less sp ace
it is easier to build in
it has a n int egrated bearing
it ha s a cons tant rudd er moment

The dis adv antag e:

it is not ea sy to rep air and
ma intain.

Schematic m 'en 'icll ' of a roTary \'(II/c steering engine

I. Space for ru dde r stoc k

2. Rot or w ith w ings
3 . Fi xed di vision b loc ks with oi l lines
4. Chambers (fi lle d w ith oi l)
5. Electric mo tor
6 . Hydraulic pump in o il re servoir
7. Valve block

Ship KIIOIl'!edli e. II modern encyclo pedia

265

..: --~

I.

Preface electricity

2.

Electrical installations

3. Insulated and earthed distribution systems

...

Ba sic design criteria

u
.u

Type of service
Type of operation

S. E lectroma gnetic compatibility EMC.

6. E q u ipm ent
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8

Generators
Electric motors
Cables
Switchboard an d switchgear
assemblies
Circuit breakers and
contactors
Type-approved equipment
Starting devices
Emergency generator

7. Automation
7.1 Alarm, monitoring and
control systems
8.

Communication systems
Internal communication system
External communication system
Navigation and nautical
equipment
Dangerous areas
Operational settings

11.1 Factory acceptance tests

11.2 Harbour acceptance tests
11.3 Sea trials

,
LJ

O~

:JO

1. Preface electricity

-----------

This chapter has the intenti on to explain the sequence of de sign , installation and
commissioning of the ele ctrical installations on board. Electri city comes in two
basic types Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC). DC is either
produced by static electricity as lightning, by a chemical proces s in batteries,
fuel cells or by a dynamo co nverting mechanical energy into Direct Current.

Lig/ Ilning. a/w an an imp res sive waste ( ~ r cuerg

DC can be stored in an acc umulator

and later retrie ved when requ ired,
allowing for various capac ities in
generation and consumers. An
example is a conventi on al dieselelectric submarine. In modern ships
DC systems are limited to small
installations or transitional so urces of
power. UPS units or uninterrupted
power supply units are a combination
of a battery-charger converting AC
into DC , a battery storing the DC and
a co nverter con vertin g the DC into
AC. These unit s are oft en used for
computer power supplies whe re an
uncontrolled shut-down would lead
to loss of information or crash of the
programme. Small units are used in
transitional lighting fixture s. Disadvantages of DC systems are DC
generators with collect or s and
brushes, complex switch-gear. Motors
with collectors and bru sh es all
require a lot of maintenance and get
more complicated wh en the s ize
increases.
The basic result of the simplest
generator consisting o f a mo ving
magnet inside a coil is an alterna ting
current, AC. Even a bicy cle dynamo
is such a device. For larger sizes the
permanent magnet has been replaced
by an electric DC magnet supplied
through slip rings; Later the maintenance unfriendly slip rin gs were
replaced by an exciter, a so rt of
Ship Knowledge. {/modern encyclopedia

rotating AC transformer with rectifiers on the rotor. First AC was

alternating current sing le phase, later
it became rotating current 3-phase.
Alternating current all ow s for simple
switch gear. The current goes down to
zero every cycl e and the arc over an
opened contact extingu ishe s itself as
the voltage is zero.

.'le ge l/cmlor /1II""r IIw in/!'IICI/ICe

Alternating current is a ver y suitable
tran sport medium o f e ne rgy for
light ing, small pow er and for co ntro l
signals. The conversion o f AC sing le
pha se into rotating energy requires an
auxiliary coil to defin e the direction.
Small electric sin gle-phase motors
have an auxiliary or starting winding.
A logic evolution after the singlephase AC system is the three-phase
AC or rotating current system.

268