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IJLTER.

ORG
International Journal
of
Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
p-ISSN: 1694-2493
e-ISSN: 1694-2116

Vol.23 No.4
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 23, No. 4 (April 2024)
Print version: 1694-2493
Online version: 1694-2116

IJLTER
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 23, No. 4

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

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Foreword

We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of


Learning, Teaching and Educational Research.

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational


Research is a peer-reviewed open-access journal committed to
publishing high-quality articles in the field of education. Submissions
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with this issue.

Editors of the April 2024 Issue


VOLUME 23 NUMBER 4 April 2024

Table of Contents
Educational Innovation: Teacher- and Student-Made Videos to Enhance English Proficiency at University Level . 1
Juanita Argudo-Serrano, María Lorena Albán-Neira, Antonio Lenin Argudo Garzon, Javier Andrés Sánchez Rodríguez,
Nancy Paola Orellana Parra

The Efficacy of a Programme Utilizing Digital Learning Technology in Fostering the Life Skills of Students with
Learning Disabilities ............................................................................................................................................................. 18
Mohamad Ahmad Saleem Khasawneh

Teachers to Learners: Portfolio, please! New Techniques of Portfolio Assessment in ESL Classrooms ................... 34
Samah Abdulhadi Abduljawad

A Modified 5-SPICE Framework Review on English Language Teachers' and Learners' Perceptions of an
Educational Emergency ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
Md. Ziaul Karim, Laxman Gnawali, Md. Kamrul Hasan

Analysis of Innovative and Adaptive Higher Education Curriculum Development to Education 5.0 Based
Challenges in Indonesia ....................................................................................................................................................... 76
Berman Hutahaean, Sadieli Telaumbanua, Losten Tamba, Renato Gema Nugraha Hutabarat, Sumani Sumani

Bridging Content and Language in English-medium Engineering Programs .............................................................. 99


Jeffrey Dawala Wilang, Thanatcha Ngamchatturat, Sirinthorn Seepho

Beyond the Dictionary: Redefining Translation Education with Artificial Intelligence-Assisted App Design and
Training ................................................................................................................................................................................ 118
Ivan Bakhov, Nataliya Bilous, Mykhailo Saiko, Svitlana Isaienko, Svitlana Hurinchuk, Oleh Mykolaiovych Nozhovnik

Impact of Islamic-Based Services Provided by Lecturers and Staff on Students' Perceptions of Religiosity ......... 141
Mardiah Astuti, Fajri Ismail, Yunika Triana, Andi Arif Rifai

Education for Sustainable Development: Mapping Socio-legal and Eco-cultural Sustainability Topics in English
Learning ............................................................................................................................................................................... 161
I Gusti Agung Sri Rwa Jayantini, Putu Desi Anggerina Hikmaharyanti, I Gst Pt Bagus Suka Arjawa, I Gusti Agung Mas
Jayantiari

Using Digital Technologies in Teaching and Learning of Literature in ESL Classrooms: A Systematic Literature
Review .................................................................................................................................................................................. 180
Irdina Shamimi Binti Mohamad Shamshul, Hanita Hanim Binti Ismail, Norazah Binti Mohd Nordin

An Investigation into whether Applying Augmented Reality (AR) in Teaching Chemistry Enhances Chemical
Cognitive Ability................................................................................................................................................................. 195
Vu Thi Thu Hoai, Pham Ngoc Son, Dang Thi Thuan An, Nguyen Viet Anh

A Systematic Review of Research on Gender Diversity in STEM Education ............................................................. 217


Huong Le Thi Thu, Chuyen Nguyen Thi Hong, Vinh Nguyen Huy, Binh Le Thi
A VR-based Industrial Robot Platform for Interactive Teaching Specialized Courses of Mechatronic Engineering
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 234
Huy Tung Le, Thai-Viet Dang, Thi-Thanh Nguyen

Mathematical Proficiency, Scientific Reasoning, Metacognitive Skills, and Performance of Learners in Physics: A
Mathematical Model ........................................................................................................................................................... 252
Christzon Pagdawan Pasigon

Microlearning and Nanolearning in Higher Education: A Bibliometric Review to Identify Thematic Prevalence in
the COVID-19 Pandemic and Post-Pandemic Context .................................................................................................. 279
Omar Chamorro-Atalaya, Carlos Hernán Flores-Velásquez, Soledad Olivares-Zegarra, Carlos Dávila-Ignacio, Richard
Flores-Cáceres, José Antonio Arévalo-Tuesta, Yreneo Cruz-Telada, Raul Suarez-Bazalar

Perspectives of Peers as a Microsystem for Supporting Deaf Students in Inclusive Elementary Schools .............. 298
Betya Sahara, Mumpuniarti Mumpuniarti, Suwarjo Suwarjo, Muhammad Syamsuri

Enhancing Educational Practices during a Pandemic: Examining Teachers' Journey with Blended Learning in
Rural High Schools ............................................................................................................................................................. 320
Sakyiwaa Boateng, Siziwe Marwanqana

Development of Early Childhood Education Teachers in Information and Communication Technologies for
Literacy or Pedagogy.......................................................................................................................................................... 341
Lydia Mavuru, Alice Kuyayama, Joe Phaeton Mukaro

Effects of Facilitating Condition, Social Influence and Self-Efficacy on Science Teachers’ Integration of Digital
Technology in South Africa: A Regression-Based Approach ........................................................................................ 354
Samuel Jere, Mamotena Mpeta

Enhancing Elementary Students’ Oral Reading Fluency Through Repeated Reading and Big Books ................... 376
Peter Paul Canuto, Yuvimin Lumidao, Alize Ballagan, Peter Jr. Calya-en, Richelle Kathe Laoyan, Arnold Oplas

Islamic Teachers’ Implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in Senior High Schools: A Systematic Review ... 394
Jasiah Jasiah, Mazrur Mazrur, Zainap Hartati, Abd. Rahman, Mariah Kibtiyah, Fimeir Liadi, Fahmi Fahmi

Developing professional development for vocational teachers based on the OBE framework and its effect on
trainees’ learning motivation and training satisfaction ................................................................................................. 409
Fan Wang, Chowwalit Chookhampaeng, Jiraporn Chano

Exploring Homeschooling: In-depth Meta-Analysis of Its Impact on Learning Motivation and Factors Influencing
Family Choices .................................................................................................................................................................... 432
Mena Khairy Eldeeb, Tasneem Diab, Yusr Alkubish, Saba Mansoor Qadhi

Pre-Service Teachers’ Professional Competence in Integrating ICT in Business Education in Lesotho: A


Systematic Literature Review ............................................................................................................................................ 462
Mamosa Esther Thaanyane, Thuthukile Jita

Measuring the Impact of Islamic Values-Based Scientific Literacy on Scientific Competency of Madrasah Teachers
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 476
Asiyah Asiyah, Deni Febrini, Adrian Topano, Abdul Aziz Mustamin, M. Arif Rahman Hakim

Re-engineering the Pedagogical Design of Virtual Classrooms in Higher Education using the Community of
Inquiry Framework: Benefits, Challenges, and Lessons Learned................................................................................. 497
Abdurrahman Ghaleb Almekhlafi, Hamdy Ahmed Abdelaziz, Mohamed Sadeg Shabaan
The Effects of Microlearning on EFL Students’ English Speaking: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis ...... 525
Pitchada Prasittichok, Phohnthip Naoise Smithsarakarn
1

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 1-17, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.1
Received Nov 30, 2023; Revised Jan 22, 2024; Accepted Jan 29, 2024

Educational Innovation: Teacher- and Student-


Made Videos to Enhance English Proficiency at
University Level

Juanita Argudo-Serrano*
Universidad de Cuenca
Cuenca, Ecuador

María Lorena Albán-Neira , Antonio Lenín Argudo Garzón ,


Javier Andrés Sánchez Rodríguez and Nancy Paola Orellana Parra
Universidad Católica de Cuenca
Cuenca, Ecuador

Abstract. In the context of English as a foreign language (EFL) education,


the efficacy of various instructional approaches has been a subject of
ongoing concern. Traditional teacher-led methods have been challenged
by the emergence of video-based instruction, raising questions about
which approach yields the more effective learning outcomes. This study
investigated the impact of student- and teacher-made video
implementation versus traditional teacher-led methods on EFL class
outcomes. Standardized tests were used to assess the English proficiency
levels of 214 students who registered for EFL classes in a higher education
institution in Cuenca, Ecuador. A quantitative methodology with quasi-
experimental type and Solomon four-group design was applied to
examine the effects of these different instructional approaches, comparing
groups both with and without pre-tests. The students were organized into
groups at random. The results were arranged into two sections, one
comparing post-test scores and the other focusing on mean differences
among those who experienced both pre-test and post-test assessments.
Notably, statistically significant differences were observed in post-test
evaluations within the groups that received pre-tests, indicating that it
influenced post-test outcomes. However, the most important finding was
that the intervention group had a better mean difference in English level
than the control group. The findings highlight the importance of
considering pre-tests when designing effective instructional strategies
and suggest further investigation into the dynamics of video-based
versus teacher-led instruction in EFL education.

*
Corresponding author: Juanita Argudo-Serrano, [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
2

Keywords: learning English; teacher-made videos; student-made videos;


video-based instruction; higher education

1. Introduction
In recent years, the integration of multimedia resources in English as a foreign
language (EFL) instruction has gained significant attention, reflecting the
evolving landscape of language learning methodologies (Dhivya et al., 2023). As
technology continues to reshape educational paradigms, the exploration of
innovative tools, such as student- and teacher-made videos, has become
imperative for enhancing the language acquisition process (Baker-Doyle, 2021).
These kinds of material (videos) also allow students to hear native speakers
interacting in their everyday, authentic vernacular and they are good sources of
real linguistic systems (Dhivya et al., 2023).

Despite the proliferation of technology in educational settings, a comprehensive


understanding of how student- and teacher-made videos actually influence EFL
learning outcomes at the university level is lacking. While existing literature
provides insights into various pedagogical approaches in EFL classrooms, the
specific impact of student- and teacher-made videos remains relatively
underexplored (Noetel et al., 2020), particularly within the tertiary education
setting.

This research aims to address this gap by conducting a detailed study that
investigates the nuanced dynamics of producing and implementing multimedia
videos versus traditional teacher-led methods on EFL class outcomes among EFL
students. The study delves into the effects of these multimedia resources on EFL
learning, focusing on a specific context — the tertiary level. It also seeks to address
this gap by not only elucidating the potential advantages or challenges associated
with multimedia integration but also by offering practical implications for
educators, curriculum designers, and policymakers seeking to optimize language
instruction in tertiary environments.

By closely examining the intricate interplay between student-generated content,


teacher-led instructional design, and the resultant impact on language learning
outcomes, this study aims to contribute valuable insights to the broader discourse
on effective EFL pedagogy, as well as evaluating effective methodologies which
might help not only students but also teachers develop the target language, active
learning and teaching strategies, creativity, communication and technological
skills.

Central to this inquiry is the overarching question: How do the production and
implementation of multimedia videos affect EFL classes at the tertiary level?

2. Literature Review
Technology has evolved and profoundly changes how people consume and
produce information (Yeh, 2018), ushering in a new era of knowledge acquisition
and dissemination. From the advent of the printing press, to the rise of the
internet, technological advancements have revolutionized the way we access,
process, and share information. This transformative shift has extended its reach

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to higher education (Altbach et al., 2019), sparking a fervent debate regarding the
use of new information technology in the education system (Pelletier et al., 2021).
Higher education should use information technology that facilitates the
comprehensive dissemination of interactive and electronic learning, benefiting
learners by broadening access to digital and intellectual resources for the future
(Biletska et al., 2021). This transformation calls for a comprehensive approach that
embraces interactive and electronic learning, coupled with continuous access to
digital and intellectual resources (Khalid et al., 2018; Mohamed et al., 2021).

Implementing technology in the foreign language learning process has always


been a priority for teachers and theorists alike (McNulty & Lazarevic, 2012),
driven by the belief that technology can enhance the learning experience, make it
more engaging and interactive, and provide access to a wealth of resources that
would otherwise be unavailable (Ertmer al., 2012). Recently, the integration of
videos and films has become common in language instruction as an educational
strategy (Yu, 2020). This trend, driven by the recognition of the power of
audiovisual resources to enhance language learning, has transformed the way
languages are taught and learned. Videos and films offer a dynamic and engaging
approach to language acquisition, providing students with immersive
experiences that promote comprehension, fluency, and cultural understanding.
Yu (2020) mentioned that EFL teachers have been implementing videos created
by others as a source of linguistic information; for instance, recent and rapid
technological advances, as well as a marked increase in students’ and teachers’
access to digital devices, are some of the reasons for this accelerated tendency.
Accordingly, with this digital technology revolution, more teachers are creating
and sharing their own videos and encouraging their students to do so in
meaningful ways (Cowie & Sakui, 2021). This adoption is motivated by the
recognition of the power of video to capture attention, present information clearly
and concisely, and foster active participation among learners.

Considering this, Shadiev et al. (2021) stated that videos can bring some benefits
to the EFL classrooms. These benefits may be found in improving students’
listening comprehension as they become familiar with authentic language use,
different pronunciations, accents, and intonations. In addition, this exposure
enhances their ability to contextualize the target language and develop fluency in
everyday situations. Another benefit mentioned by Shadiev et al. (2021) is
motivation; the audiovisual medium can increase students’ engagement and
attentiveness during class activities, fostering a more enjoyable and stimulating
language learning experience, thereby minimizing boredom and apathy. The last
benefit mentioned was retention, since combining auditory and visual channels
helps students retain information better. The combination of auditory and visual
stimuli provided by videos creates a more immersive and engaging learning
experience, fostering stronger neural connections and promoting better memory
retention.

In contrast, challenges can also be found by EFL teachers when implementing


videos in their classes (Ali & Baig, 2022). The authors mentioned that one primary
difficulty is the selection of appropriate and relevant videos that align with

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specific learning objectives, cater to diverse learning styles, and effectively engage
students in the activities. Additionally, the lack of technological devices and stable
internet access can hinder the effective use of videos in class, particularly in
resource-constrained environments. Finally, assessing not only students’
improvement but also the effects these videos have on their learning can be a
complex task (Ali & Baig, 2022). Traditional assessment methods may not
adequately capture the nuances of video-based learning, and teachers may need
to develop innovative assessment strategies to measure student progress and the
overall effectiveness of video integration.

Nevertheless, there is evidence that videos made by EFL teachers have an effective
influence on students’ academic performance and motivation (Priyo Atmojo,
2022). However, making videos is a time-consuming endeavor for EFL teachers as
it requires meticulous planning of content, careful selection of materials, skillful
editing to ensure the video’s effectiveness as a teaching tool, and consideration of
students’ interests and needs. This personalized approach can foster deeper
engagement, promote understanding, and boost motivation among learners.

In the same manner, student-made videos are a very effective way to promote
active learning, creativity, oral skills, vocabulary building, and even collaborative
learning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills (Anas, 2021). Even though
the students who participated in this research were all digital natives, they faced
some issues while editing the videos and using some specific applications. In
order to have better results, Anas (2021) suggested that it would be necessary to
prepare students to use technology to work on specific assignments that involve
it and, in this way, they may better understand the procedures of doing the task.
Furthermore, when teachers and students work collaboratively to make videos
for their EFL class, this practice not only enhances the didactic content but also
promotes active participation and the development of different skills.

Gallo-Crail and Zerwekh (2002) stated that these kinds of activities help students
remember a great deal of new vocabulary, reading, and oral skills, interaction,
and discussion and, of course, develop new technological abilities while learning
the target language. This active collaborative participation, of both teachers and
students, boosts and engages them as co-creators of educational content.
Moreover, communication and presentation skills can also be fostered. These
important abilities need to be developed, not only when learning English, but also
for professional and personal development (Gallo-Crail & Zerwekh, 2002).

As mentioned by Anas (2021), the creation of videos promotes a learning


environment of cooperation among students and the teacher. The teacher becomes
a facilitator and the students are the main characters in their educational process;
in this way, teachers and students work together, giving each other support and
building a real learning-teaching community (Anas, 2021). Moreover, there is
good feedback from language learners about teachers who produce educational
videos. Teachers do not need to have studied acting because they are as authentic
and passionate as trained actors tend to be (Cowie & Sakui, 2019). Therefore, not

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only is it about new technical means but also about new ways and methods of
teaching and the learning process.

In this regard, teachers who implement quick instructional videos to give


feedback on their students’ work have found that students not only receive
feedback but can also receive auditory feedback directly from their teacher (Cowie
& Sakui, 2021). This auditory feedback can be particularly beneficial for students
who are auditory learners and those who prefer hearing instructions or
explanations in a spoken format.

A screen recording has also emerged as an essential tool for students, particularly
in the context of multimedia projects (Hafner et al., 2015). For instance, they can
effectively document their work and share processes, experiments, or research
data with their teacher and classmates (Cowie & Sakui, 2021). This approach to
project development not only enhances student engagement but also promotes
higher-order thinking skills as students must organize their thoughts, articulate
their understanding, and present their work in a clear and concise manner.
Additionally, it is important to state that creating an instructional video requires
students to use a range of semiotic resources and orchestrate them to make videos
that are creative, entertaining, and, above all, comprehensive demonstrations of
their theoretical and practical knowledge. Thus, these learners fully convey their
ability to communicate effectively (Ho, 2022).

Multimedia video productions may demand expensive technologies, but


creativity and resourcefulness are the driving forces behind effective multimedia
video production. Hafner et al. (2015) emphasized that creativity, not technology,
is the key component in producing engaging multimedia videos (Ciampa, 2014).
This notion is supported by Gromik’s (2012) study, which demonstrated that
mobile smartphones can serve as powerful tools for creating multimedia videos.
The author worked with students who recorded home multimedia videos using
mobile smartphones, and found that students are quite able to take advantage of
these readily available resources. In the study, nine participants used the video
recording function of their cellular smartphones to make weekly video
productions. The task required participants to produce a 30-second video on a
topic selected by the teacher. Students could progressively increase the number of
words they articulated in a monologue. The surveys conducted at the end of the
study revealed the participants’ perceptions that recording smartphone videos
was a useful strategy for enhancing their foreign language learning experience
(Gromik, 2012).

The role of video is especially decisive in improving learners’ pronunciation and


presentation skills. Numerous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of
video in enhancing oral communication proficiency, with evidence suggesting
that videos can improve both receptive and productive language skills. One such
observational study by McNulty and Lazarevic (2012) indicated that videos
contributed to learning motivation and improved pronunciation skills. The
findings revealed that videos significantly enhanced student motivation and led
to measurable improvements in pronunciation accuracy. Importantly, study

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participants expressed a strong preference for concise videos of less than six
minutes in length, that featured clear audio quality and relevant examples, while
also providing additional resources for further review. Alternatively, research by
Cowie and Sakui (2019) identified certain characteristics of multimedia videos
that were perceived as less appealing to learners. These included videos with
exaggerated text, excessively informal or first-person speech, as well an excess of
distracting images.

The potential of videos extends beyond teacher-produced materials, as student-


made videos can contribute to cooperative learning and peer-to-peer support. By
encouraging students to produce their own multimedia videos, teachers empower
students to take ownership of their learning journey, share their knowledge with
others, and receive valuable feedback from their peers. (Cowie & Sakui, 2019).

Yeh (2018) researched students’ perceived benefits of making multimodal videos.


A total of 69 advanced English language learners participated in this study for one
semester (18 weeks) at a university in Taiwan. The students perceived that the
video-making process nurtured their multiliteracies in varying degrees and
broadened their awareness of the interplay between different modes of semiotic
resources for meaning construction. This study also highlighted pedagogical
implications for language teachers, emphasizing the importance of providing
opportunities for students to create multimodal artifacts as a means of developing
their multiliteracies.

These findings align with those of Biletska et al. (2021), who investigated EFL
student teachers’ perceptions of multimodal video creation. Their study similarly
concluded that incorporating multimodal video creation into language
instruction can foster the development of multiliteracies, enhance critical thinking
skills, and promote creativity among learners. The combined findings of these
studies underscore the potential of multimodal video creation as a transformative
tool in language education. By engaging with different modes of communication,
learners can develop a more nuanced understanding of how language interacts
with other semiotic systems, such as images, sound, and movement. This
enhanced understanding can improve communication skills, increase critical
thinking abilities, and heighten appreciation for the multifaceted nature of
meaning construction.

Personal relationships are an important topic that needs to be considered. Chen


(2018) stated that digital empathy is a good starting point for teaching important
social issues to students. In this regard, the author argued that the video
production process could assist students in recognizing the importance of having
more empathy. The participants who joined Chen’s study (2018) felt that the video
project offered many unique learning opportunities to examine their online
behavior. Furthermore, these results suggested that students who have grown up
immersed in digital technologies have become active participants in digital
spheres. The results of Chen’s (2018) study also underscore the potential of digital
empathy to foster self-awareness among students. By examining their own online
behavior, students can gain insights into how their digital interactions may affect

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others. This self-awareness can serve as a foundation for more mindful and
empathetic digital engagement.

In EFL teaching and learning, multimedia video production is a useful strategy


when implemented with different methodological approaches. For example,
teachers who flip their classes use multimedia videos to deliver pre-class
instruction, granting students class time for interactive activities, discussions, and
personalized feedback (Chilingaryan & Zvereva, 2017). When teachers create
multimedia mini-lessons, they foster a positive and supportive learning
environment in several ways. They strengthen student-teacher relationships by
honoring the peculiarities of professional-oriented teaching and by incorporating
students’ unique characteristics into video lessons. Improved student-teacher
relationships result in a better relationship between students and the institution
(Chilingaryan & Zvereva, 2017).

Despite these positive consequences, very little research has studied video
production by students and teachers and its impact on motivation and language
performance in EFL instruction at a tertiary level (Noetel et al., 2020). This study
aims to address this gap by investigating the effectiveness of multimedia video
production in enhancing student motivation, language proficiency, and overall
learning outcomes. The present research aligns with constructivist theory, which
promotes active engagement and meaningful knowledge construction. Joint,
meaningful engagement in knowledge construction is at the center of video
creation in classrooms (Jaleel & Verghis, 2015).

This study explores the impact of multimedia video production on language


performance in EFL instruction at the tertiary level in the Ecuadorian context.
Very little literature was found regarding this topic, so this study aimed to
contribute to the growing body of research on the effectiveness of technology-
enhanced language learning approaches. The findings of this study can inform
pedagogical practices and provide valuable insights for teachers seeking to
incorporate multimedia video production into their EFL classrooms.

3. Method
A quantitative methodology with a quasi-experimental type and a Solomon four-
group design (Cabrera-Tenecela, 2023; Campbell & Stanley, 2015) was used for
this study. This type of research design combines a pre-test/post-test control
group design and a post-test design (Wilson Mcgahee & Tingen, 2009). According
to these authors, through this design, it is also possible to evaluate and control the
instrument. This design was chosen as it is one of the most rigorous and confident
“since it guards against both threats to internal and external validity” (Wilson
Mcgahee & Tingen, 2009, p. 6). In this sense, the different arrangements of groups,
involving both those who were evaluated with the pre-test and those who were
not, along with treatment and control groups, helped the researcher to verify that
external factors and potential issues have not impacted the outcomes (Cabrera-
Tenecela, 2023).

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According to Mertens (2015), the use of pre-tests can help teachers get information
about students’ needs and knowledge, which may help teachers decide about
content and material, pacing, and class organization. The author also mentioned
that a pre-test/post-test design can give the researcher information about the
effectiveness of the intervention process. This kind of design can also provide the
researcher with data about different factors that may interact during the
intervention. Furthermore, through the pre-test/post-test design, the starting
point is measured before the intervention and then the changes after it are
evaluated (Mertens, 2015).

Participants
A group of 214 students enrolled in EFL courses at a university language institute
participated in the study. The university language institute randomly organized
these students into four different groups. At the beginning of the investigation, a
group of 47 students were assessed on their language proficiency with a pre-test.
This group received the treatment and was re-evaluated with a post-test (PTP). A
second group of 44 students did not take the pre-test but they received the
treatment and were evaluated with the post-test (NPTP). A third group of 63
students took the pre-test, received the treatment, and took the post-test (PNTP).
Finally, the last group of 60 students neither took the pre-test nor received the
treatment but they were evaluated with the post-test (NPNTP).
Within these Solomon four-groups, the students were organized into three
comparison subgroups:
• S) those who received the treatment by creating videos (14+14) or those
who did not receive such treatment (21+17).
• T) those who received the treatment with videos created by their teachers
(14+14) or those who did not receive such treatment (27+17).
• ST) those who received the treatment by creating videos and received
classes with videos created by their teachers (19+16) and those who did
not receive such treatment (15+26).
Table 1 displays the structure of the studied groups.

Table 1: Sample of the study


Video creation groups

Solomon groups S T ST Total

PTP 14 14 19 47
NPTP 14 14 16 44
PNTP 21 27 15 63
NPNTP 17 17 26 60

Total 66 72 76 214

Note: In the context provided, “S” refers to students who created the videos, “T” represents
teachers who created the videos, and “ST” denotes a collaboration between students and
teachers in video creation. Additionally, the following abbreviations are used: “PTP” for pre-
test-treatment-post-test, “NPTP” for no pre-test-treatment-post-test, “PNTP” for pre-test-no
treatment-post-test, and "NPNTP" for no pre-test-no treatment-post-test.

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Statistical analysis was conducted using the JAMOVI software program (The
Jamovi Project, 2021). JAMOVI, a user-friendly and open-source statistical
package, was employed to examine the data comprehensively. The procedures
applied encompassed a range of statistical tests, including ANOVA (analysis of
variance) to assess group differences, post hoc tests to identify specific group
variations, and effect size calculations to quantify the magnitude of observed
effects. The post hoc test was done in order to identify the exact groups that
differed from each other. Additionally, the program facilitated the visualization
of results through graphical representations, enhancing the clarity and
interpretability of the statistical findings.

Instrument
The investigation was carried out during regular classes; the participants were
asked to collaborate in this research and the data collection process took place
with their consent. The Preliminary English Test by Cambridge English for
speakers of other languages was administrated to the Solomon four-groups that
required the post-test and/or the pre-test to assess the students’ English
proficiency before and after the intervention. The evaluation instrument contains
three main components: (1) reading and writing (2) listening comprehension, and
(3) oral communication. This test assesses the students’ language proficiency at an
intermediate level (B1) according to the Common European Framework of
References for Languages. For the purpose of this study, the grades of these three
components were not considered individually, but the total exam grade was taken
into account.

Procedures
A total of seven steps were contemplated in the procedure. The first consisted of
forming the Solomon groups for the quasi-experiment. The second dealt with the
diagnostic evaluation of the students’ English level. This process was followed by
the pre-production of the multimedia videos regarding the creation of the scripts
and the recording space, considering the recommendations of Cowie and Sakui
(2019). Next, the production of multimedia videos, including recording and
editing those videos, took place. Then, these multimedia videos were
implemented in class, as well as the specific evaluation of those videos with the
purpose of improving students’ language proficiency level. After that, the
students’ English-level evaluation was done using a post-test. To conclude, the
comparison of the groups was conducted.

4. Results
The results are organized into two sections, one that compares post-test data and
another that focuses on mean differences among those groups that underwent
both pre-test and post-test assessments.

Post-test
The post-test results were compared with a two-factor ANOVA analysis. It was
possible to demonstrate statistically significant differences among the video

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creation groups and the Solomon groups. However, no significant interaction was
found between these two groups.

Table 2 displays the statistical significance (p) and their respective effect sizes
(η²) for both independent groups.

Table 2: Two-way ANOVA for the post-test


Sum of Mean
Gl F P η²
Squares Square

Global model 688.2 11 62.6 3.781 < .001

Video creation groups 190.7 2 95.3 5.412 0.005 0.045


Solomon groups 430.3 3 143.4 8.143 < .001 0.101
Video creation groups
67.3 6 11.2 0.636 0.701 0.016
✻ Solomon groups

Residuals 3558.0 202 17.6

Figures 1 and 2 show the outcomes obtained in each scenario. For instance, in the
video groups, there is an observable advantage for the group that received classes
with the teacher’s videos (T), scoring an average of 17.26 (SD 4.07), while those
using student-made videos scored 15.33 (SD 4.68). The students and teachers (ST)
group obtained 15.11 (SD 4.45). The Tukey post hoc test reveals significant
differences between S and ST compared to T, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Upon analyzing the Solomon groups, the hypothesis is partially confirmed. The
group assessed both before and after the intervention achieved a mean score of
18.1 (SD 3.46). However, the group that did not take the pre-test but received the
intervention showed considerable variability compared to the other groups,
despite having an average score of 16.6 (SD 5.85). Alternatively, those who took
the pre-and post-tests attained an average score of 15.3 (SD 4.13), while those who
did not receive the treatment but only took the post-test scored 3.29 (SD 3.29).

Notably, the pre-test appears to influence the outcomes in both the treatment and
non-treatment groups, as evidenced by the Tukey post hoc test.

This situation implies that NPTP has a similar average to PNTP, as seen in Figure
2, which aligns with the observed results.

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Figure 1: Error bars of the video creation Figure 2: Error bars of the Solomon
groups at 95% confidence groups at 95% confidence

Figure 3 shows a summary that combines the previous findings and shows that
the teacher’s role is the one that stands out the most in the scores obtained by the
students. However, it can also be seen that the groups that have been intervened
have a much higher level than those that have not been intervened.

Figure 3: Error bars of the Solomon and video groups at 95% confidence

To address the challenge posed by NPTP, it becomes necessary to exclude groups


not assessed with the pre-test from the study. This allows for comparable evidence
between those groups that have undergone the intervention and those that have
not, provided they have both pre- and post-tests, namely PTP and PNTP. Having
the pre-tests available enables us to calculate the difference between the means of
these two groups, originally part of the Solomon design.

Mean differences
When analyzing the differences between the post-test and pre-test (post-test /pre-
test = differences), it is observed that only the two Solomon groups exhibit
differences in the averages. Thus, it can be concluded that the two fully
comparable groups, PTP and PNTP, achieved significant differences, albeit with
a small effect size.

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Table 3 presents the results of the two-factor ANOVA, where the p-value is
significant only for the two mentioned groups.

Table 3: Two-way ANOVA for mean differences


Sum of Mean
Gl F P η²
Squares Square

Global model 232.4 5 46.5 3.50 0.006

Video creation groups 60.0 2 30.0 1.70 0.187 0.029


Solomon groups (PTP y
92.2 1 92.2 5.23 0.024 0.045
PNTP)
Video creation groups ✻
Solomon groups (PTP y 80.1 2 40.1 2.27 0.108 0.039
PNTP)

Residuals 1814.5 103 17.6

According to post hoc comparisons, the video creation groups do not exhibit
statistically significant differences. Nevertheless, there is a notable trend towards
a decrease, rather than an increase, in the teacher group, with an average of -1.27
(SD 5.0). In contrast, the S and ST groups increased, with averages of 1.05 (SD 3.63)
and 0.84 (SD 4.12), respectively. These results are visually represented in the bar
chart in Figure 4.

Regarding the significant differences observed between PTP and PNTP, it is


observed that the average for the former is 1.36 (SD 4.27), whereas for the latter, it
is -0.83 (SD 4.36). These findings are illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 4: Error bars of the video creation Figure 5: Error bars of the Solomon
groups at 95% confidence groups at 95% confidence

Figure 6 shows that the group that has been intervened has a higher level than the
non-intervened group, particularly with respect to the role of the teacher creating
videos. The contrast is similar with respect to the groups in which only students
or students and teachers created. This improvement in the students’ English level
can be explained by the fact that students and peers, students and teachers

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worked collaboratively in creating the videos; in this way, motivation as well as


practicing the target language may have contributed to these results.

Figure 6: Error bars of the Solomon and video groups at 95% confidence

5. Discussion
The results presented in this study indicate that interaction and teachers’ and
students’ collaborative work could yield better results in EFL learning, especially
when implementing technological resources. These results might be compared to
the suggestions made by Anas (2021), Biletska et al. (2021), and Yu (2020), that
implementing information technology in higher education should be in close
association with interactive and electronic learning, as long as all participants
receive the necessary preparation for effectively completing the task.

It is conceivable that teacher- and student-made videos provide linguistic


information that can not only improve students’ language learning but also
support teachers in providing effective feedback. Cowie and Sakui (2019, 2021)
found results similar to those mentioned in this study. Student- and teacher-made
videos not only motivate students but also help them to improve academic
performance. Comparable to this study, similar findings were also revealed by
Priyo Atmojo (2022) and Ali and Baig (2022). This could also be demonstrated in
this research as the student- and teacher-made video groups achieved
significantly better results than the groups in which the teachers created their
videos and shared them with their students without working collaboratively on
them.

Furthermore, these results reflect what Gallo-Crail and Zerwekh (2002)


mentioned that students and teachers who work collaboratively become co-
creators of their learning and teaching content, which of course can promote
motivation and engagement. Teachers and students who work cooperatively in
class engage in active teaching and learning, promote team-building activities,
and co-create meaningful content.
Another pivotal implication of cooperative engagement in language teaching and
learning was stated by Biletska et al. (2021), Shadiev et al. (2021), and Yeh (2018).
Their studies show how these opportunities can foster students’ and teachers’

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listening, speaking, and multiliteracy competence, as well as other skills which


are of great importance in their personal and professional life (Anas, 2021). It can
also help in the creation and understanding of significance, in other words,
understanding meaning. Producing multimedia material may provide better
opportunities not only to learn the target language but also to develop and
improve necessary skills in this changing and very modernized world.

Teachers’ and students’ videos become an unflinching mirror for those involved.
Not only might the videos help participants to evaluate themselves and improve
their language skills, but the process also can enhance their technological skills,
making them more active teachers and learners.

6. Conclusion
The results of this study, subjected to rigorous statistical analysis, have provided
a comprehensive insight into the differences and trends observed among groups
of EFL students. Comparisons between the video creation and Solomon groups
have yielded significant findings, notably significant differences in post-test
evaluations within the PTP and PNTP groups, supported by modest effect sizes.
Furthermore, a declining trend was observed in the teacher group compared to
the student groups, although statistical significance was not reached.

In this regard, it is recommended that EFL teachers implement collaborative


videos made by students and teachers in their class, as this collaboration is proven
to be a significant strategy in the creation of more dynamic and operative
educational practices. These practices not only enhance effective education
content but also empower students and teachers to become active participators in
teaching and learning. This new tool emerges as an innovative educational
method that prepares not only students but also teachers to face the challenges of
the 21st century and promote a more comprehensive and effective education.

Some pedagogical implications for the Ecuadorian context could be grasped from
this research. These findings might be considered as a good starting point for
Ecuadorian teachers to plan their classes and incorporate student-generated
content which can promote language proficiency improvement and motivation to
learn.

These findings provide a solid foundation for future research in English language
pedagogy. The findings highlight the importance of considering factors such as
pre-tests when designing effective instructional strategies. Ultimately, this
research advances knowledge in language education and offers insights that can
be valuable for educators and policymakers.

7. Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research


Although an attempt was made to calibrate the evaluators to perform the same
evaluations for all, this objective was not achieved. Future studies could
investigate how evaluators could be better standardized and applied uniformly
for all Solomon groups.

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Some suggestions for future research addressing different aspects of video-based


instruction for English language teaching and learning can be considered. These
aspects could include using technology to: a) create material to be used in the
classroom, b) incorporate aspects related to the target language in teacher- and
student-made material, and c) consider different pedagogical strategies in the
creation, production, and implementation of student- and teacher-made videos in
EFL classes.

Research in this field could elucidate best practices and innovative approaches to
improve the effectiveness of video-based instruction in English language learning.
Furthermore, research into using such videos for online teaching, personalizing
the content to be taught, and effective video-based learning assessment is
suggested. It would also be imperative to study teachers’ and students’
perceptions and how they use teacher-made, student-made, and student-teacher
video collaborations to take advantage of them while teaching and learning the
target language.

8. Acknowledgment
This paper resulted from a research project entitled Efecto de la Implementación de
la Producción de Videos Multimedia de Micro-Aprendizaje del Inglés como Lengua
Extranjera en las clases del Centro de Idiomas de la UCACUE of the XII Convocatoria
ODS UCACUE and the certification of the Universidad Católica de Cuenca
Research Headquarters.

This research project was co-funded by the Vicerrectorado de Investigación de la


Universidad de Cuenca (VIUC), Cuenca-Ecuador.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 18-33, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.2
Received Jan 3, 2024; Revised Apr 17, 2024; Accepted Apr 21, 2024

The Efficacy of a Programme Utilizing Digital


Learning Technology in Fostering the Life Skills
of Students with Learning Disabilities
Mohamad Ahmad Saleem Khasawneh*
Assistant Professor, Special Education Department, King Khalid University,
Saudi Arabia

Abstract. The main aim of this research was to determine how the
effectiveness of a programme that uses digital learning technology
enhances the life skills of students who have learning disabilities. The
research was conducted over a period of one month on a group of 32
students affiliated to educational institutions in the Governorate of Abha,
Saudi Arabia. Sixteen individuals were assigned to each of an the
experimental and a control group. The experimental group outperformed
the control group on post-tests measuring social skills, independence
skills, and emotional skills. There was no statistically significant disparity
observed in the life skills scores between the experimental group and the
control group at either the follow-up evaluation or the immediate post-
intervention phase. The hypothesis posits that students' likelihood of
experiencing sudden or premature departure decreases when they have
the opportunity to practice and enhance their cognitive and practical
abilities across various curriculum-defined situations.

Keywords: Abha Governorate; digital learning technology life skills;


students with learning disabilities

1. Introduction
The twenty-first century witnessed an immense and unparalleled scientific and
cognitive revolution that included diverse domains of human, natural, and
applied sciences. It marked the emergence of novel scientific disciplines that were
previously unknown (Kaltsidou, 2022). Education was not exempt from this
progress; indeed, it was one of the disciplines most impacted and shaped by it,
prompting educators to be highly attentive. Within the realm of learning
disabilities (LD), the incorporation of diverse digital technologies has emerged to
support the educational process (Sailer, et al., 2021), encompassing contemporary
educational technologies that have successfully penetrated students’ education
across different levels and contributed significantly to the advancement of the

*
Corresponding author: Mohamad Ahmad Saleem Khasawneh; [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
19

educational process. This is particularly crucial considering that the existence of


learning disabilities is acknowledged in numerous agreements ratified by the
majority of countries worldwide (Backfisch, et al., 2021). Given the impact of
learning disabilities and the probability of such disabilities impeding the typical
cognitive acquisition process, investing in individuals can potentially enhance
societal well-being. Learning disabilities affect various cognitive processes
involved in the learning process, including memory, perception, attention,
thinking, learning techniques, and the processing of oral and written linguistic
resources. Dyslexia and dyscalculia frequently impact reading, writing (including
spelling, written expression, and handwriting), and mathematics. Additional
forms of learning are also impacted. The Digital Age Forum in 2020 in Saudi
Arabia highlighted the need for a digital learning environment that caters to the
unique characteristics of students (Alsmadi et al., 2021). It emphasised the
importance of implementing cooperative education strategies and adapting them
to suit the digital environment. This adaptation is crucial as it plays a significant
role in improving social skills and enhancing the quality of electronic applications.
The forum also emphasised the inclusion of group programmes and games to
foster growth. Social opportunities are available for students at every educational
level (Songkram, et al., 2023).

Meier (2021) emphasised the significance of digital technologies in enhancing the


abilities of both students and teachers and highlighted the useful influence of
educational technology in facilitating the learning process. According to Al-
Qahtani (2019), interactive activities enhance learning by promoting effective
communication, being attentive to learners’ needs and interests, and providing
different learning opportunities. Additionally, they help save the time and effort
required for learning. Students who utilize digital learning methods demonstrate
enhanced learning speed and increased innovation. They exhibit improved
arithmetic skills and actively engage in various computer-based activities such as
completing schoolwork, playing games, and communicating with friends through
social networks. Consequently, their academic performance improves
significantly.

Multimedia-based digital learning tools facilitate enjoyable lessons and games,


thereby aiding students in their learning process. The realm of education and
competencies is being progressively infiltrated by the digital realm, and life skills
are among the proficiencies that can be enhanced using digital learning
technology (Agrawal, et al., 2021). The possess a similarity to digital learning in
that they are among the essential components of the abilities required in the
twenty-first century, about which we must be cautious in providing to children in
this era. Multiple organisations have emphasised the significance of instructing
students in digital learning technology and incorporating it into the educational
curriculum, as educational institutions play a crucial role in cultivating a
generation that is adept at meeting the demands of the contemporary era
(Alsmadi, et al., 2021). Several studies have highlighted the significance of
incorporating digital learning into students’ educational curricula. For instance,
Ovcharuk et al. (2020), and Olofsson et al. (2020) all underscored the need for
specialised programmes that enhance students’ life skills and enrich the
curriculum accordingly. Additionally, the studies emphasised the importance of

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training teachers to foster students’ life skills and offering relevant courses to
support this endeavour. The research emphasised the importance of educating the
family about the adverse consequences of inadequate life skills and the need to
connect these abilities to the real-world situations that the student encounters,
both within and outside educational establishments. The research conducted by
Fransson et al. (2019) verifies that the rapid pace of changes has had an impact on
the organisation of knowledge, the social structure, and the education systems.
Consequently, it has become imperative for education to adapt its role to meet the
demands of the digital era. This adaptation is necessary to equip learners with the
essential skills for navigating a new way of life and to address any deficiencies in
their life skills while also fostering their development.

According to Saad (2018), the acquisition of life skills is a significant result of


contemporary curricula at all levels of education, and this applies to all
disciplines, rather than being limited to a specific subject. Such acquisition is a
collective obligation that applies to all specialties, without exception, because
education fundamentally involves living among individuals, interacting with
them, motivating them to engage in labour, and involving them in the process of
development, existence, and the surroundings. The existing curricula are
inadequate in equipping students with the necessary abilities to thrive in a quickly
changing world, primarily driven by technological advancements. Consequently,
there is a significant disparity between individuals’ skill sets and the demands of
modern living in this century. Permana et al. (2021) assert that the academic
curricula supplied to pupils suffer from a noticeable lack of life skills, so it is
imperative to enhance and refine this curriculum. A survey study conducted by
Ningsih et al. (2023) confirmed the lack of life skills among students with learning
disabilities in Saudi Arabia. It is crucial to prioritize the development of these
skills, especially for individuals with learning disabilities, as they play a vital role
in their overall growth and adaptation to their age.

Considering this perspective, the researcher was eager to create a programme that
enhances the life skills of students with learning disabilities. Digital technology
has become indispensable in today’s world. Assistive technology refers to any
object, gadget, or work system that increases or enhances the capacities of
individuals with impairments; it is used in a special education environment.
People with impairments may benefit from more modern technology like
smartphones, and laptops and instructional advice for learning might be
effectively provided by these instruments (Humpl & Andersen, 2022). Everyone
has a responsibility to help students with special needs obtain the education they
need. Interventions including physical exercises, verbal teaching, behavioural
support, and metacognitive skills may be provided to children with LD as a kind
of service. A student with a moderate to severe impairment is only one of many
people who may benefit from assistive technology (Timotheou et al., 2023), and
thanks to technology's conveniences, they have little trouble surviving in social
situations. The use of digital technology might provide interventions that
contribute insight and overcome the obstacles related to them. The goal is to
facilitate the integration of those with learning disabilities by equipping students
with the necessary skills to effectively navigate various life situations, following
contemporary digital learning methods.

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Digital learning has experienced significant progress and advancement in the


modern era. Various digital learning technologies have emerged to support
different types of learners and concepts, which has led to an increased demand
for digital learning and a significant improvement in the development of scientific
learning skills (Alenezi, et al., 2023). As a result, the acquisition of these skills has
become faster as the learning experience is enhanced and tailored to the learner's
capabilities. Within the realm of education, the prior designations appeared to
lack accuracy and specificity in describing these approaches, while also
disregarding the influence of the other senses on the processes of learning and
teaching (Alenezi, 2021). Consequently, more inclusive and precise terminology
emerged to accurately represent the actuality of the novel teaching methods. The
notion of specialised methodologies emerged, along with the concept of
illustrative techniques, potentially enhanced by the advancement and integration
of electronic and technological tools in the realm of education. Many experts in
this subject typically consolidate all these ideas, which have shortcomings in
various aspects, to employ a comprehensive notion including all of the
aforementioned, known as educational technology (Humpl & Andersen, 2022).

Learning strategies encompass the activities involved in designing,


implementing, and assessing the teaching and learning process. The process is
comprehensive and intricate, encompassing individuals (workers),
methodologies, concepts, tools, and organisations. It involves the analysis of
problems, the development of suitable solutions, their implementation,
evaluation, and management (Danmuchikwali & Suleiman, 2020). Effective
learning occurs when it is intentional, guided, and within reasonable limits. This
process involves the administration and growth of the various components of the
educational system. Educational resources encompass all materials, tools, and
circumstances that are employed to facilitate the comprehension and resolution
of uncertainties regarding facts and concepts, hence enhancing the process of
acquiring knowledge (Frolova et al., 2020; Qureshi et al., 2021).

The definition of digital learning was elucidated at the inaugural International


Scientific Conference on Digital Learning, held 5-6 June 2018, Cape Town, South
Africa. Digital learning, also known as e-learning, refers to the transmission of
education electronically, either partially or entirely, via a web browser over the
Internet or through multimedia platforms (Humpl & Andersen, 2022). This type
of learning enables learners to actively engage with the educational content. By
engaging with the teacher, either synchronously or asynchronously, the student
can acquire knowledge at their convenience, adapting to their circumstances and
capabilities. Additionally, they have the opportunity to effectively manage their
learning through various media (Timotheou et al., 2023). Fielding and Murcia
(2022) defined the system as the provision of a versatile and interactive learning
environment using smart devices, their applications, and networks. Utilizing
computer systems, their interconnected networks, and various forms of
multimedia such as audio, visual content, and graphical elements, along with
search functionalities and digital libraries, as well as access to online platforms,
the process of acquiring knowledge can occur via devices such as computers,
iPads, or mobile phones (Haleem et al., 2022).

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Utilizing digital learning facilitates the acquisition of novel knowledge by


students, hence positively influencing their motivation to learn and enhancing
their ability for self-directed learning. Additionally, digital learning emphasises
cooperative and interactive learning while enhancing communication skills
(Hillmayr et al., 2020). This technology also has a beneficial influence on teachers,
as it assists them in enhancing and diversifying teaching techniques.
Characterized by their professional development and expertise in their respective
fields, educators also exhibit flexibility and accessibility, enabling students to
learn without constraints of time and location. This approach plays a crucial role
in learners acquiring the vast quantity of knowledge given to them throughout
their years of study, as well as developing the necessary technology skills to
prepare for the future (Pettersson, 2021). Sprenger and Schwaninger (2021)
elucidated the significance of employing digital technologies in the educational
domain by emphasizing the value of self-directed learning and fostering the
individual's capacity for critical thinking and creativity.

Digital capabilities refer to the skills and talents that enable individuals to function
effectively and thrive in a society that relies heavily on digital technology
(Hussein, 2020). For efficient utilization and development of digital learning
activities, it is imperative to possess proficient digital skills.

Regarding the establishment and implementation of effective methods within and


outside the educational institution, it is important to engage in collaboration and
assimilate ideas (Abdel Aziz, 2020). The instructor and learner in digital learning,
also known as the electronic teacher and learner or the virtual teacher and learner,
play a crucial role in shaping the characteristics of this educational approach. The
preceding two phrases have been extensively utilized, but with some misgivings
(Kaltsidou, 2022). The teacher's role in planning and developing the educational
process is influenced by their job as a researcher, assistant, guide to content and
operations, and creator of electronic educational programmes (Sailer et al., 2021).
The learner's role is characterized as active and impactful rather than passive
owing to their active participation in the educational process, as they are not
merely recipients of information. Rather, they actively engage in identifying the
materials and tools utilized, as well as exploring ways to employ them effectively.
This approach fosters the development of technical abilities and lays the
groundwork for cultivating innovative technological thinking. The author
highlights his function in using information technology to uncover and cultivate
its inventive capacity (Backfisch et al., 2021).

Life skills refer to the ability to effectively adjust to diverse individuals and meet
the demands and obstacles of life, which can differ, depending on the surrounding
society and environment (Permana et al., 2021). These skills are commonly seen
as fundamental abilities that individuals should develop and internalize to
enhance their personal growth and well-being, and they are essential tools that
enhance cognitive abilities in personal, professional, and social contexts.
According to Ningsih et al. (2023), life skills refer to the actions that a person does
to effectively manage the challenges of life and acquiring them is crucial for
achieving success (Saad, 2018).

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Life skills are crucial in attaining educational objectives. They embody the
paramount results of human acquisition of knowledge, as they aid the individual
in effectively navigating their existence, attaining personal and societal
equilibrium, and adapting to environmental factors and the demands of life (Jaya
et al., 2018; Saad, 2018). These skills facilitate personal growth and enhance
productivity, resulting in benefits for both individuals and their communities.
Additionally, these skills provide learners with the opportunity to improve their
social and living conditions, particularly in a technologically advanced society
where such skills are increasingly necessary (Permana et al., 2021). The following
are some of the subskills that make up life skills (Backfisch et al., 2021):
− Social skills: the skill of cooperation and participation; the skill of social
etiquette.
− Independence skills: the skill of choosing the appropriate outfit on one’s
own; the skill of eating on one’s own.
− Emotional skills: the skill of expressing emotions (happiness - sadness -
anger - crying).
The fact that educational institutions play a different function now than they did
in the past must be properly acknowledged. Their present function is to prepare
students who are lifelong learners, seeking knowledge, and to prepare them for
changes in their lives, self-realization, and social integration, as well as to develop
the mental skills necessary to solve problems and generate knowledge in an
engaging environment (Ningsih et al., 2023). The programme aims to provide
students with a range of real-world experiences and practical skills. Institutions
focus particularly on education and inculcate a set of refined ideals among
students. The only way to do all of this is to implement contemporary teaching
techniques and activities (Jaya et al., 2018). The only remaining option for this
educational establishment to stay up to date with the times is to use contemporary
tools like computer games, smartphones, the Internet, exercise, and practice while
instructing its students. By utilizing the gadgets they already own, the use of these
technologies guarantees increased student engagement in mobile education.
Accordingly, some regard mobile education as an illustration of life learning,
wherein the student gains valuable experience (Abdel Aziz et al., 2020).

To cultivate an exceptional generation of learners who possess the necessary skills


to navigate their future world, we must integrate the key elements of learning,
namely the learner's inclination towards reflective engagement, proficient use of
technology, and acquisition of essential life skills. Al-Qahtani, (2019), and Al-
Shammari and Ahmed (2022) elucidate the significance of using technology
effectively, emphasizing its role as a tool. Utilizing technology effectively enables
the creation of classroom programmes that provide students with opportunities
for individuals to assume responsibility for their work, be held accountable for
their results, consider the implications of their actions, and reflect on how these
experiences can foster the development of life skills; educators can effectively
design learning opportunities that align with the goals of preparing learners and
citizens for the demands of the 21st century (Abdel Aziz et al., 2020; Pettersson,
2021).

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Several studies have explored this topic. Al-Qahtani (2019) investigated the
cultivation of life skills in kindergarten children residing in the Tabuk region. The
research aimed to identify the specific life skills that should be nurtured at the
kindergarten stage in this particular area. The study included a cohort of 30
children, aged 5-6, who exhibited deficits in certain life skills. The study's most
important finding was that there were statistically significant differences between
the three groups after using both the pictorial achievement test and the
performance note card for life skills. The third experimental group, which
received a mix of digital and interactive stimuli, did better.

Hussein (2020) investigated the effects of several approaches to providing


performance assistance in virtual learning tours on the development of students'
health awareness. The results indicated that there were significant differences in
the average scores between the experimental and control groups after the
programme, favouring the experimental group. The programme's influence on
health awareness is evident, and its suggestions encompass the need to cultivate
children's health awareness through a variety of educational approaches that cater
to distinct demographics.

Alshammari and Ahmed (2022) investigated the efficacy of a digital learning,


technology-based programme in fostering early children's life skills. The
programme was only implemented with the experimental group, whilst the
youngsters in the control group were subjected to the traditional technique. The
research and subsequent scrutiny of the outcomes showed that the
implementation of a programme using digital learning approaches favourably
influenced the enhancement of children's life skills.

Abdel Aziz et al. (2020) studied the impact of using digital storytelling on the
development of life skills in children with mild impairments. Their sample
comprised 30 male and female adolescents who were enrolled in educational
inclusion programmes, with ages ranging from 8 to 10. The instruments of note
cards and a compilation of abilities were utilized. The study used a descriptive-
analytical and quasi-experimental method to collect data on the achievement test
and performance note card for children with mild mental disabilities. One notable
finding was a statistically significant difference between the average scores of the
research group students in the pre-measurement and post-measurement. The
post-measurement showed higher scores on the achievement test and
performance note card.

1.1. Research questions


This study seeks to answer the following questions:
1. Are there statistically significant variations in the effectiveness of a
programme that uses digital learning technology to develop the life skills of
students with learning disabilities between the experimental and control
groups?
2. Does the experimental group show notable variations in the effectiveness of a
programme that uses digital learning technology to develop the life skills of
students with learning disabilities?
3. Is there a statistically significant difference between the scores obtained from
post-test and follow-up tests when assessing the effectiveness of a programme

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that uses digital learning technology to develop the life skills of students with
learning disabilities?

2. Methodology
2.1. Research design
This study employed an experimental design to assess the impact of alterations in
one or more independent variables on a dependent variable. The effects were
assessed and recorded accordingly. In this study, the researcher employed both
traditional methodologies and digital learning technologies to assess the impact
on the participants. The study sample consisted of an experimental group that
enrolled in a digital learning technology programme and a control group that
studied using the conventional method.

2.2. Participants
The study included students with learning disabilities who were enrolled in the
Abha Governorate, Saudi Arabia, before its division into 170 schools. We
employed a stochastic sampling methodology to choose our sample and selected
two classes at random to participate in the study. A total of 32 students were
assigned randomly to one of the two classrooms, while the other classroom was
designated as the control group.

2.3. Research instrument


The utilization of two distinct instruments for research facilitated the attainment
of the study's aims:
1. A digital learning technology programme tailored for an educational
project that depends on digital learning technologies. Following a
comprehensive assessment of the experiment's main goals and the
relevant material about the issues being studied, the researcher developed
an initial set of 28 behavioural sessions. The framework consists of
multiple components, namely: use, comprehension, recall, evaluation,
synthesis, and assessment. A team of professionals and experts validated
the precision and comprehensiveness of the data. The particular objectives
were altered by the received feedback, although the overall number of
goals remained the same at 28. Each group employed distinct
methodologies for lesson design; one used digital learning to support the
experimental group, while the other relied on traditional approaches. The
panel of specialists in educational strategy was presented with many cases
for evaluation. The exercise was provided to evaluate their conformity
with the predetermined behavioural objectives and the current topic
matter. After incorporating the input from the experts, multiple
paragraphs underwent further revisions, resulting in the production of the
ultimate version.
2. Developing an assessment instrument to improve the life skills of students
with learning disabilities: The study sought to ascertain the degree to
which the objects employed in the experiment influenced the adaptive
abilities of students facing learning disabilities. Life skills encompass a
range of abilities, including social skills, self-reliance skills, and emotional
skills. The test items were carefully designed to effectively communicate
the intended objective and assess practical abilities in line with the criteria

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set by contemporary academic research. Most of the exam components


consisted of multiple-choice questions which encompassed a digital
learning-oriented instructional project. The item selection strategy was
based on a subscale particularly designed to enhance life skills. Every
question in the set consisted of an initial statement and four possible
answers. Students had to select an appropriate response. The examination
consisted of a total of 21 components.

2.4. Instrument validity and reliability


The instrument's reliability was evaluated through two methods:

1. The evaluation of the instrument by a panel of eight arbitrators, who


determined a threshold of 80% approval rate.
2. The degree of discriminant validity displayed by ten pupils was examined.
The statistical significance of the discriminant validity of the coefficients
was determined based on the observed (F) values of 5.10, 5.40, and 5.60.
Cronbach's alpha was employed to assess the internal consistency of the
instrument. The instrument exhibited a commendable overall dependability score
of 0.835. The dependability coefficients for each criterion vary from 0.821 to 0.852.

2.5. Data analysis


After data collection was complete, the average and standard deviation of the pre-
and post-test scores were determined. Using the Eta square, we were able to
calculate the effect size, which revealed the extent to which digital learning
technology aids students with learning disabilities in developing their functional
abilities. Statistical methods such as Wilcoxon's test and Z-value were used to give
a more comprehensive explanation of the differences between two similar
samples.

3. Results and discussion


Table 1 shows that the life skills of learning-disabled children in the control and
experimental groups were similar before the implementation of a digital learning
technology instructional programme. The results indicate that there was no
statistically significant difference in the two groups' mean scores across many
categories on the pre-test of life skills, it was the same for both sets of students.

Table 1: Initial Assessment


Dimensions Groups N Mean Standard U Z P
score deviation
Social skills Experimental 16 16.30 260.80 31.00 12.50 0.180
Control 16 16.50 264.00
Independence skills Experimental 16 15.80 252.80 28.00 10.80 0.160
Control 16 15.70 251.20
Emotional skills Experimental 16 14.30 228.80 22.00 8.60 0.100
Control 16 14.50 232.00
Total Experimental 16 15.50 248.00 26.00 10.20 0.150
Control 16 15.60 249.60

Table 2 presents the post-test results of the experimental group. The average
scores for life skills, encompassing social skills, independence skills, and

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emotional abilities, exhibited a notable disparity between the control and


experimental groups. The findings indicate that the group of students in the
experimental condition have a significant number of practical life skills.

The table also presents the results related to the questions of the study, showing
the mean scores and standard deviations of the students in the post-testing after
implementing the instructional programme.

Table 2: Post-test
Dimensions Group N Mean Standard U Z P
score deviation
Social skills Experimental 16 20.20 323.20 260.00 0.600 0.000
Control 16 15.30 244.80
Independence skills Experimental 16 20.00 320.00 250.00 0.660 0.000
Control 16 16.20 259.20
Emotional skills Experimental 16 20.50 328.00 270.00 0.650 0.000
Control 16 15.30 244.80
Total Experimental 16 20.20 323.20 260.00 0.600 0.000
Control 16 15.60 249.60

The researcher ascribes the outcome in Table 2 to how these technologies were
introduced, exemplified by multimedia, iPads, projectors, interactive educational
games, and activities that engage all of the students' senses. These methods
effectively facilitated the students' independent acquisition of skills by exposing
them to various scenarios that they experienced through the techniques provided.
Consequently, the students learned about the skills in numerous stimulating
ways, enabling them to learn comfortably, freely, and flexibly. The student bears
the responsibility for how the activity is carried out, which has a direct impact on
the student's level of engagement in the learning process. This assertion is
supported by the research of Alshammari and Ahmed (2022), which highlights
the efficacy of utilizing electronic technology in this regard. It offers students a
more adaptable environment, allowing them to choose the time and location of
learning, as well as study at their own pace and have control over the presentation
rate, sequence, and progression. The researcher also credits this phenomenon to
the inclusion of interactive elements in educational activities and games. These
elements have heightened children's enthusiasm and motivation to learn, develop
skills, and engage with their peers, which has fostered a lively, friendly, and
collaborative atmosphere among the children.

The researcher also credits the effectiveness of the techniques used in the
educational content for igniting students' motivation to learn. These techniques
offer activities that are appropriate for students, moving away from mere
narration and indoctrination. They also help overcome obstacles in the
educational process by incorporating audio-visual stimuli that are rich in colours,
sounds, and movement, and by reinforcing correct answers. This approach
provides the learner with ample opportunities to repeat the activity, identify
errors and rectify them, thereby enhancing their educational attainment. The
method also aligns with the demands of the digital era and fulfils the current
generation's inclination towards constant engagement with electronic devices,
thereby infusing enthusiasm and enjoyment into the educational experience.

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The outcome is also attributed to the congruence between the content of life skills,
encompassing social skills, independence skills, emotional skills, and digital
technologies. This congruence arises from the fact that these skills are suitable for
students owing to their familiarity with the underlying concepts, alignment with
their capabilities, and relevance to their environment. Moreover, the skills are
delivered to students in discrete, interconnected segments that encompass a
multitude of components. Engaging in diverse and stimulating activities that offer
ongoing feedback enhances the retention of knowledge in students' minds, and
motivates them to persist in their learning and attain active involvement. This
result is in line with earlier studies by Al-Qahtani (2019), Hussein (2020),
Alshammari and Ahmed (2022), and Abdel Aziz et al. (2020) .

In response to the second question: Is there a significant divergence in the efficacy


of a programme utilizing digital learning technology to enhance the life skills of
students with learning disabilities within the experimental group? Table 3
displays the outcomes.

The mean scores of the experimental groups in several life skills, such as social,
independent, and emotional skills, exhibited substantial variation. Table 3 reveals
significant variability in the final examination score. The results of evaluation
indicate that pupils in the experimental group had a greater proficiency in life
skills.

Table 3: Pre- and Post-test


Dimensions Pre/Po N Mean Standard Z P
score deviation
Social skills Negative 4 2.00 8 23.50 0.000
Rank 12 6.00 72.00
Positive 0
Rank 16
Ties
Total
Independence skills Negative 4 2.00 8 22.80 0.000
Rank 12 6.00 72.00
Positive 0
Rank 16
Ties
Total
Emotional skills Negative 4 2.00 8 22.50 0.000
Rank 12 6.00 72.00
Positive 0
Rank 16
Ties
Total
Total Negative 4 2.00 8 23.00 0.000
Rank 12 6.00 72.00
Positive 0
Rank 16
Ties
Total

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The researcher credits the outcome to employing a student-centred approach that


incorporates diverse techniques and uses both material and moral reinforcement
methods to effectively engage students in activities. Rather than relying on
various learning methods that enhance skill acquisition, the researcher selects
strategies that align with the specific skill they aim to cultivate in students. By
employing strategies such as dialogue and discussion, think-share,
brainstorming, and hot chair, individuals may develop skills in conversation
etiquette, respect for others, and take advantage of the many learning possibilities
offered by both group and individual learning. Independent learning fosters self-
reliance and cultivates the ability to collaborate, engage in group learning, and
pose thought-provoking inquiries. The objective is to engage in cognitive
processes throughout the presentation of a skill, in order to enhance consciousness
and focus on it, ensuring its continuous presence in the speaker's thoughts.
Adapting various approaches and tasks to align with the idea and abilities
effectively engages youngsters in the learning process, so enhancing their life
skills and facilitating the accomplishment of the study objectives. The utilization
of digital technology, such as multimedia, iPads, projectors, interactive
educational games, and interactive educational activities, enhances the learning
of diverse educational skills and concepts; including them in educational curricula
and programmes enhances the advancement of the educational process and
achieves the intended objectives. Furthermore, this approach caters to different
educational levels and considers the unique characteristics of learners by creating
educational programmes and activities that align with their diverse abilities.
These technologies foster social and behavioural skills by facilitating interactions
with peers and promoting group participation in a pleasurable setting, a result
that is in line with earlier studies by Al-Qahtani (2019), Hussein (2020),
Alshammari and Ahmed (2022), and Abdel Aziz et al. (2020).

The last question was framed to assess whether there was a statistically significant
difference between the scores on the post-test and the follow-up tests when
looking at how well a programme uses digital learning technology to improve the
life skills of students with learning disabilities. Providing a prompt response to
the current inquiry is crucial to deliver a significant answer. Table 4 indicates that
there are no statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the
experimental group between the post-test and follow-up assessments. The study's
findings indicate that the programme's efficacy remained consistent over the post-
intervention phase, rather than showing a decrease after it was discontinued.

Table 4: Post and Follow-up


Dimensions Po/ Foll N Mean Standard Z P
score deviation
Social skills Negative 14 6.20 86.80 10.30 0.130
Rank 0 0.00 0.00
Positive 2
Rank 16
Ties
Total
Independence skills Negative 14 6.20 86.80 9.80 0.090
Rank 0 0.00 0.00
2

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Positive 16
Rank
Ties
Total
Emotional skills Negative 14 6.20 86.80 10.10 0.120
Rank 0 0.00 0.00
Positive 2
Rank 16
Ties
Total
Total Negative 14 6.20 86.80 10.00 0.110
Rank 0 0.00 0.00
Positive 2
Rank 16
Ties
Total

The results align with the notion that digital learning technology has the potential
to enhance the adaptive capacities of students with learning disabilities, fostering
their social, self-reliant, and emotional competencies. There was no noticeable
decrease in the previously published outcomes for the people at issue.
Programmes that employ digital learning technologies also enable lifelong
learning by enhancing the linkage between freshly taught ideas and previously
comprehended ones. The hypothesis posits that students' likelihood of
experiencing sudden or premature departure decreases when they have the
opportunity to practise and enhance their cognitive and practical abilities across
various curriculum-defined situations.

4. Conclusion
The results of this study corroborate the idea that utilizing digital learning
technology can enhance the life skills of students with learning disabilities. Hence,
a key factor lies in the extent to which digital learning technology has successfully
advanced and improved students' ability to develop life skills and generate
abstract mental representations using various methods, resulting in exceptional
performance on assessments that assess all aspects of practical abilities. The
experimental group exhibited superior performance compared to their peers in
the control group, who received only auditory signals.

Acknowledgments
The author extends their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at
King Khalid University for funding this work through Large Research Groups
under grant number (RGP.2 / 465 /44).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 34-51, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.3
Received Feb 28, 2024; Revised Apr 17, 2024; Accepted Apr 21, 2024

Teachers to Learners: Portfolio, please! New


Techniques of Portfolio Assessment in ESL
Classrooms
Samah Abduljawad
Department of English,
Royal Commission for Yanbu Colleges and Institutes,
Saudi Arabia

Abstract. Portfolio assessment is considered to be one of the more


advanced approaches to enhancing the proficiency of English among
second language (ESL) students. The research examines how ESL
learners' writing processes involved in portfolio creation influence their
overall writing performance, specifically focusing on electronic portfolios
(EPs) and paper-based portfolios (PPs). The research also identifies the
challenges that Saudi ESL learners face when using the writing portfolio.
A mixed-method approach was adopted for the research. The
quantitative method consists of ESL tests distributed among one hundred
and twenty male ESL learners at Yanbu Industrial College in Saudi Arabia
to determine the effect of various writing portfolios on students’ writing
performance. A qualitative method, which consists of classroom
observations, document analysis, and interviews with twelve ESL
students and seven ESL teachers from different universities in Saudi
Arabia, has also been utilized. The research highlights the fact that
although there is no significant difference between paper-based (PPs)
portfolios and electronic portfolios (EPs) in developing students'
performance in writing, specific pedagogical approaches should be
implemented in assessing the writing portfolios, such as the students’
reflections and their peers' assessments, to raise their awareness of
language structures. ESL teachers should also adopt a correction method
that only highlights common mistakes to help students notice their errors
and avoid charging them with negative feelings of excessive corrections.
The research’s outcome could raise ESL teachers’ awareness of the best
pedagogical methods of evaluating the writing portfolio and provide
some strategies to help students develop their writing performance.

Keywords: writing portfolios; ESL students; pedagogical techniques

1. Introduction
Understanding the different kinds of language is one of the complicated processes
in the study of the language. A portfolio evaluation that includes different kinds

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
35

of writing samples developed at various points is considered one of the effective


ways of shaping writing performance (Do, 2023). The crucial step in developing
English as a second language (ESL) proficiency is acquiring a good command of
writing. It facilitates communication in academic, professional, and personal life
(Bhowmik & Kim, 2021). However, writing remains a challenging skill for most
of the ESL learners.

An effective strategy for enhancing writing abilities in ESL classrooms is the


execution of an appropriate assessment format, including a paper portfolio (PP)
assessment. Barret (2006) defined a paper portfolio as “a collection of works that
a student has selected, arranged, reflected upon, and presented to show
comprehension and development over time” (p.1). With the implementation of
technology, an electronic portfolio (EP) assessment was enabled. It shares many
characteristics with traditional PP, with the primary distinction lying in its digital
format through the Web. Donkers et al. (2008) stated that “despite variations in
content and format, portfolios report on work done, feedback received, progress
made, and plans for improving competence” (p. 81).

Donkers et al. (2008) have demonstrated that composing portfolios improves


students' performance. Portfolio assessment (PA), including PP and EP, fosters
the metacognitive awareness of students and facilitates their learning. On the
other hand, writing portfolios continue to be an emotive topic in ESL classrooms
as demonstrated by numerous other studies (Farahian & Avarzamani, 2018;
Gebrekidan & Wei et al., 2023; Zeru, 2023). Wang and He (2020) claimed that ESL
students regarded PA as a laborious, ineffective, and complicated procedure
(Wang & He, 2020). As a result, the thorough execution of the PA in ESL
classrooms has repeatedly encountered enormous challenges and thus requires
additional research (Michelotto et al., 2022). It is hoped that more studies can be
carried out to examine the impact of PA on different ESL skills other than writing
(such as speaking and reading) or subskills (grammar and pragmatics). It is also
hoped that more research on the implementation of technology in the ESL
classroom will provide a better understanding of e-portfolios and explore ESL
teachers' and students’ attitudes to this new approach to assessment.

Recent research on Saudi Arabian ESL students' writing enhancement progress


has revealed an unsatisfactory result (Mould, 2010; Grami & Alzughaibi, 2012;
Abduljawad, 2021; Ankawi, 2022; Ansari, 2023). Moulds’s (2010) and
Abduljawad’s (2021) findings showed that the impact of the first language and
the insufficient exposure to English in ESL classrooms deter students from
achieving high grades in English writing exams. Similarly, Ankawi's results
showed that many Saudi ESL students earned low writing scores on
examinations. They achieve high marks in portfolio evaluations, in contrast to
their performance in the final writing examination. Therefore, a significant
proportion of students hold unfavorable perceptions of their writing abilities as
they fail to perceive themselves as effective in the final examinations (Ankawi,
2022). There is an explicit research gap between students' results in the writing
examination and in the writing portfolio. Therefore, this research aims to probe
the impact of paper-based PA and electronic PA on Saudi ESL students’ writing
performance and investigate any essential differences between them. The research

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also explores the barriers Saudi ESL teachers and students face in using the
writing portfolio, which may prevent the students from achieving a high level in
writing tests. Current research on ESL barely examines the challenges associated
with writing portfolios to establish an optimal learning environment for both
teachers and students. Furthermore, this research may enlighten ESL teachers
regarding the most effective pedagogical approaches for assessing the writing
portfolio and offer suggestions for assisting students in improving their writing
abilities. Hence, the following research questions are formulated:

1. Do the paper-based PA and the electronic PA improve Saudi ESL students’


writing skills? And are there any main differences between them in improving
Saudi ESL students’ writing performance?

2. What challenges do Saudi students face in using the writing portfolio that
would deter them from scoring high marks in written examinations? What
pedagogical techniques could ESL teachers use to help students overcome these
challenges?

2. Literature Review
Writing a portfolio is one the most effective, beneficial, and valid tools for teaching
and evaluation in different settings such as colleges and ESL education. A well-
designed portfolio model can play a vital role in improving students’ critical
thinking in writing through creativity, decision-making, and initiative. The
writing portfolio also provides opportunities for teachers to determine the
students’ writing proficiency, abilities, and efforts. Additionally, it strengthens the
relationship between the learning processes and the writing assessment, both of
which have a vital significance (Do, 2023).

A writing portfolio provides learners with opportunities to enhance their writing


ability by offering them revising, editing, and tutoring opportunities
(Tonogbanua, 2018). Portfolio-based writing assessments can contribute to
monitoring student progress over time, provide grounds for extensive revision,
and motivate students to take responsibility for their work.
2.1 Portfolio Assessment (PA) in ESL
The inadequate writing skills of ESL students are due to the two main
components, namely the ESL learner and instructor (Fathi et al., 2020). Teachers
need to have appropriate pedagogical strategies in place to teach writing skills,
including supporting prompts and effective feedback to students most essentially,
where teachers cannot motivate students. Conversely, ESL students face many
barriers, such as the impact of the first language, motivation, and practice (Razi &
Rahmat, 2020). In Saudi Arabia, many scholars indicated that Saudi ESL students
need more knowledge for writing regarding the choice of words, grammatical
accuracy, and organizing information in the context according to its pragmatic
meanings (Alkubaidi, 2019; Grami et al., 2021). This is because of the impact of the
first language (Arabic), poor teaching methodologies, and insufficient exposure
to English in SA. The Saudi curricula focus less on English writing skills,
therefore, the students face challenges in expressing their ideas effectively when
writing academically (Akramovna et al., 2020).

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Thus, new approaches to writing assessment have been developed and


highlighted in the past literature to improve ESL students writing abilities. The
phrase “genuine” standard refers to these novel writing approaches (Nguyen &
Phan, 2020; Grami et al., 2021). In the domain of ESL, PA is the widely used
approach, while those widely recognized are PP and EP. The PA approach
provides ESL students with the opportunity to spend time choosing topics,
arranging ideas, and writing about them before submitting their final writing,
after drafting, revising, and editing. Furthermore, it is a useful tool for enhancing
general second language abilities, such as speaking and writing, as well as writing
subskills, such as spelling and grammar (Ngui et al., 2019).

With the emergence of technology, EP has appeared as a critical component of PA


in the education field. According to Dmytro (2019), in higher education, EP
empowers students, offers feedback, and enhances the interactivity level.
Furthermore, EP assists teachers and students to maintain a focus on their
learning and skill development. This approach offers clear goals and tasks and
utilizes the learning data to help them (Möller et al., 2021). Torabi (2020)
highlighted many advantages of EP, such as improving students’ motivation by
adding audio tracks, videos, and graphs to the content to shape the portfolio
(Torabi & Safdari, 2020). Similarly, Gikandi (2019) indicated in his research that
EP implementation in the educational sector enables competency-based
assessment and learning to enhance fundamental proficiencies, including
problem-solving, digital literacy, interactive collaboration, and self-efficacy.

The implementation of the EP follows the same pattern as utilized in PP. In this
research, PP refers to a collection of students’ writing assignments in ESL
classrooms that are collated, formulated, and reflected upon by ESL students. EP,
on the other hand, refers to a collection of students’ writing assignments in a
digital layout that is collected, formulated, and reflected upon by ESL students
(Möller et al., 2021). Nevertheless, portfolio assessments do not always yield
positive findings. For instance, Domene-Martos et al. (2021) have found in their
research that although the writing portfolio enhances the learning outcomes and
the evaluation processes, it sometimes shows that it is a time-consuming process
and sometimes causes anxiety in students due to stressful tasks. Therefore, more
studies are required to address these challenges and ensure the successful
implementation of PA for ESL.

In the literature on teaching and learning ESL writing skills, some research studies
have investigated the development of PA and the challenges of using it in an ESL
environment. However, it has yet to be extended by qualitative and quantitative
studies to examine the factors that generate these problems and how ESL teachers
evaluate PA effectively (Torabi & Safdari, 2020).
In many studies, EP has been compared with PP. Likewise, Hasnah (2022)
conducted research to compare the writing abilities of ESL students using the
online portfolio and the paper-based portfolio. The research was carried out on 23
first-grade students of SMA Muhammadiyah 1 Natar. There were two groups in
the research: one was an experimental group (online portfolio), and another one

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was a control group (paper-based portfolio). The research results have shown
that, as compared to PP, EP has significantly improved ESL writing skills.

Another research study was conducted by Barrot (2020) on a comparative analysis


of the PP and EP. The research study was conducted with 89 L2 students who
belong to four different classes. Among the four classes, two classes were asked
to compile portfolios through Facebook. At the same time, the remaining two
classes were asked to utilize conventional methods to compile portfolios.
According to the research results, the Facebook portfolio was considered more
favorable by students because of its flexible and accessible nature. Likewise,
Torabi (2020) sought to explore the impact of EP and dynamic assessment on
Iranian ESL students’ writing performance. The results of his findings indicated
that both e-portfolio assessment and dynamic assessment improved students'
writing performance.

2.2 Pedagogical Strategies in PA


This research has employed one of the pedagogical strategies from the dynamic
assessment for writing portfolios, e-portfolios, and paper-based portfolios to
enhance the writing skills of ESL students. Lidz (1987) defined dynamic
assessment (DA) as “interaction between an examiner as an intervener and a
student as an active learner, which seeks to estimate the degree of modifiability of
the student and how positive changes in cognitive functioning can be induced and
maintained” (p.70). DA is generally rooted in the interaction hypothesis, a concept
defined by Vygotsky, which asserts that interaction in a natural context facilitates
acquiring the target language as it links input (what students hear and read); more
particularly selective attention; and output (what students speak and write) in
productive paths (Almeida, 2022; Long, 1996).
Moreover, DA helps the students to acquire the language successfully (Kao &
Kuo, 2023). DA's objective is to provide the learners with assistance in actively
engaging them in various kinds of activities. Nasiri (2020) mentioned in his
research that DA helps identify students' language patterns and the skills that can
aid in predicting future language performance. Therefore, DA was used in this
research to raise students' awareness by implementing a variety of teaching
methods, such as asking students to read their friends’ writings or to interact with
one another (an implicit method) and discuss their mistakes (an explicit method),
to give them enough confidence to break through the fear barriers of writing.

DA encourages ESL students’ language development and expands the students'


capabilities beyond the pedagogical task through the instructor's dialogic
mediations that contribute to facilitating students' learning (Kao, 2015).
Derakhshi's (2019) results indicated that the DA implementation for language
students leads to a significant improvement in their writing capabilities and test
scores. Similarly, Alemi’s (2015) findings demonstrated that the use of mediation
via DA helped Iranian ESL participants become more aware of the rubric of
writing assessment, which consequently improved their ESL writing.

This research also employed freewriting practices, providing practice tests, asking
students to reflect on their writings, and giving further corrective feedback

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methods (which is also called the DA as mentioned above) with the avoidance of
excessive corrections using red markers in checking students' portfolios. Previous
research has suggested that using different educational features significantly
improves the students’ second language (Ngui et al., 2019; Nunan & Capobianco,
2019). For instance, Park (2020) conducted research on thirty university students
who were enrolled at the first level of the academic writing class. He used anxiety
surveys, free writing, and students’ reflections as the main methods of collecting
data. His findings demonstrated the benefits of freewriting practices for ESL
students’ writing fluency and anxiety. ESL students generally agreed that the
freewriting activity increased the quality of their writing, decreased their fear of
writing tests, and improved their thinking skills. However, they reported some
negative aspects of freewriting activities such as time limits and the absence of
feedback. Analysis of students’ reflections also revealed that their language
accuracy also improved. Hence, their scores on the writing tests gradually
increased as these reflections raised students’ awareness of second language
structures.

Besides using everyday freewriting exercises and providing practice tests in the
portfolio-based instruction, another important part of a successful assessment of
the writing portfolio was avoiding the overuse of red markers in checking
students' writing portfolios. According to Fikrlova et al. (2019), using a red marker
for checking the students' portfolios evokes a correlation with failure and
increases the level of anxiety. The return of papers covered with the inevitable
red marks results in a need for more comprehension and awareness of linguistic
mistakes. ESL students may feel discouraged and disappointed if they see red
markers in their portfolios as they feel their efforts do not have merit. Therefore,
it leads to students’ reluctance to read their teachers’ feedback.

Past studies show the different kinds of strategies such as sharing error sheets,
using color codes to identify errors and having the students correct them as an
appropriate strategy to avoid the usage of red markers (Azeez, 2021; De Oliveira
et al., 2021; Núñez-Peña & Bono, 2022). Furthermore, Diab (2022) recommended
the use of a peer corrective feedback approach to improve ESL students' writing
and language skills instead of the instructor's direct feedback with red markers.

In this research, the researcher used both PP and EP, provided many different
writing topics and practice tests, assessed the writing portfolio by means of DA,
and avoided excessive corrections with red markers to check students’ writing
portfolios.

3. Methodology
3.1 Participants in the research
The research participants in this research were ESL teachers from various
universities in Saudi Arabia and their ages ranged between 25 to 55 years. In
addition, there were 120 male students from Yanbu Industrial College (YIC) in
Saudi Arabia. These male students were selected from six different ESL classes,
and their ages ranged between 18 and 22 years, with Arabic as their first language.
The six ESL classes were classified into three groups: Group One consisting of two
ESL classes served as the first experimental group which received a paper-based

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portfolio assessment with new advanced pedagogical strategies and practices;


Group Two consisting of two ESL classes served as another experimental group
which received e-portfolio assessment with the same pedagogical strategies and
practices of the first experimental group, while Group Three consisting of two ESL
classes served as the control group of the study which received paper-based
assessment with regular pedagogical strategies. The total number of students in
this study was 120; each class had 20 students. They were chosen as they had
passed the former semester after studying at the intermediate English level based
on the college curriculum. They were selected from YIC based on a convenience
sampling method as the researcher is working at this college; however, the classes
were selected randomly. In addition, two students from each group were selected
to conduct interviews with the researcher, a total of 12 students from the three
groups, to support the quantitative method's findings, which are addressed in
detail later. All participants, including both ESL teachers and students, received
and signed the consent form. The interview questionnaire is attached in Appendix
A.
3.2 Data collection
The research employed mixed methodological approaches, and data were
collected by both quantitative and qualitative means. The data collection
techniques were tests, classroom observations, document analysis of students'
activities, the researcher's reflections, and interviews with ESL teachers and ESL
students. The researcher applied five procedures: (a) conducting pre-tests and
post-tests before and after the experiment, b) observing the situations which were
the way the instructors used the PA and teaching writing in ESL classrooms, (c)
analyzing students’ writing portfolios, and making reflective notes, (d)
conducting interviews with ESL teachers and students, and (e) concluding. The
purpose of these methods was to provide a complete description of how to
implement PA successfully in teaching and learning English writing in order to
validate the data.
3.3 Intervention
In this research, three groups were considered. Two were the experiment groups,
and the remaining one was the control group. These groups were tagged as Group
A (PP with advanced pedagogical approaches), Group B (EP with advanced
pedagogical approaches), and Group C (EP with regular pedagogical
approaches). In one experiment a paper-based portfolio with advanced
pedagogical strategies was employed. In the second experimental group an
electronic-based portfolio with the same advanced methodological approaches
was used. The third group utilized a controlled group paper-based portfolio with
simple pedagogical approaches.

The experiment portfolios included activities such as writing assignments,


corrected samples, and the students’ reflections. In the e-portfolio, multimedia
channels were also incorporated for peer feedback. The teachers for the
experimental groups were trained in and informed about the goals of the PP and
EP writing portfolios. The syllabus included the various writing types in the
experiment portfolio. The freewriting approach has also been incorporated into
the syllabus as a topic. During the classes, students were given tasks regarding
essay writing. Students then received feedback in class on their writing

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performance, both on the contents and the mechanics. Furthermore, the explicit
methods of teaching for the experiment group were utilized, including instructor-
direct feedback and peer collaboration regarding the errors to enhance the ESL
students’ interest.

On the other hand, the control group was only given the traditional writing
instruction. They were asked to submit simple writing drafts to their instructor
with no peer collaboration or self-reflection. Furthermore, in the control group,
the instructor utilized the traditional way of checking, which involved the grading
criteria as per the rubric. These practices, tests, and activities with the control and
experimental groups were conducted during the semester classes. The main aim
of conducting these experiments was to compare the PP and EP portfolio writing
approaches with the traditional writing approach.

3.4 Research Procedures for Per-Test


First, the pretest was administered to both groups. TOEFL iBT writing sample
tests were used as applied by Nurhayati (2021) to determine the intervention's
efficacy. This method ensures that the writing proficiency of both groups is
comparable. Two ESL teachers checked the designed pretest to ensure its validity.
It is worth noting that the writing post-test topics differed from those of the pre-
tests.

3.5 Research Procedure for Post-Test


After 12 weeks of instructional writing, the students in both groups received the
writing post-test. Again, as with the pre-test, students wrote about two different
topics; however, they were related to their writing syllabus. After both the pre-
and post-tests, the average scores of these tests were calculated to carry out further
evaluation.

After conducting the tests, the data-analysis phase began. The researcher
compared their results on the writing tests using the T-test of Stata17 Software to
explore their performance before and after the experiment. Later, the researcher
analyzed the data from the qualitative materials thematically.

4. Result
For precise analysis, this research focuses on two elements:
● The first element includes English writing exams (EWE), which are
utilized to compare students’ writing competency in English after
implementing various kinds of writing portfolios with advanced
teaching methods; and

● The second element contains observations, document analysis, and


interviews, which are used to determine the successes and challenges
that students face in using writing portfolios in ESL classrooms.

The first analysis presents the students’ performance in the three groups:
● Group A (the first experimental group) which received a paper-based
portfolio assessment with advanced pedagogical strategies;

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● Group B (the second experimental group) which received an e-portfolio


assessment with the same pedagogical strategies and practices as
Group A; and

● Group C (the control group) which received a paper-based portfolio


assessment with regular pedagogical strategies.

The results of these three groups in EWE before and after the experiment were
collected and analyzed using a t-test to answer the first research question.

4.1 Group A Results


Table 1: Group A Results

For Group A, the value of t is 41.589825. The value of p is < .00001. The result is
significant at p < .05. These results indicate a statistically apparent change in
scores from the pre-test to the post-test in this group, as seen in Table 1. The t-test
results of Group A show a highly significant change in scores from the pre-test to
the post-test. This suggests that paper-based portfolio assessment with advanced
pedagogical strategies used with Group A has had a substantial impact on the
student’s performance.

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4.2 Group B Results


Table 2: Group B Results

For Group B, the value of t is 46.6017. The value of p is < .00001. The result is
significant at p < .05, as seen in Table 2. Similar to Group A, the t-test results of
Group B indicate a highly significant change in scores from the pre-test to the post-
test. However, there is a slight increase in students’ scores in Group B, who used
e-portfolios (t=46.6), compared with Group A, who used paper-based portfolios
(t=41.5). This suggests that using either paper-based portfolios or e-portfolios with
good teaching techniques helps students perform better in English writing.

4.3 Group C Results


Table 3: Group C Results

For Group C, the control group, the t value is 3.7443. The value of p is .00058. The
result is significant at p < .05, as seen in Table 3. The t-test results of Group C show
a small change in students’ scores from the pre-test to the post-test. This suggests
that the paper-based portfolio and the traditional methods of teaching writing
implemented in Group C have had a minor positive impact on the student's
performance compared to Groups A and B.

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4.4 Interview Results


Besides the EWE, classroom observations, document analysis, and interviews
were conducted to answer the second research question mentioned above. The
qualitative analysis shows that implementing PA, both paper-based portfolios
and e-portfolios, helped teachers observe the progress of learners’ writing skills.
However, students’ interviews and the researcher’s observations indicated that
the writing portfolio assessment has some disadvantages. For example, it is
challenging and complicated for some students owing to overcorrections by many
teachers when checking students' writing portfolios. This leads to students’
reluctance to go over their writing mistakes:
“Two students mentioned in the interviews that the overdone corrections
using red markers made them feel disappointed in understanding their
mistakes. Many researchers have previously corroborated this negative
impact of the excessive use of red markers on students’ papers.”

The researchers also asked the teachers about the implementation of portfolio
writing in their colleges. The teachers answered as follows:
“Many ESL teachers mentioned in the interviews that they implement the
writing portfolio in ESL classrooms in Saudi Arabia; however, we do not
use it as it is supposed to be used. Another teacher added that most of the
writing topics were chosen by the University Curriculum Department,
which makes students feel boredom and demotivated to write.”

Therefore, implementing technology in teaching writing, such as using an


electronic portfolio in some English writing classes and giving students the
freedom to write about any topic in English writing classes, has the advantage of
relieving the monotony of old learning methods that limits students' motivation.
The researcher’s observations also revealed that, unlike the control group, the
students of the experimental groups received further corrective feedback and
assistance from the instructor and peers, making them more confident and
competent in doing English writing. Moreover, to gain the benefits of writing
portfolios, one of the teachers pointed out the importance of implementing
authentic materials in English writing classes, such as reading novels, to develop
students’ accuracy and fluency in ESL writing. Also, ESL teachers and the
researcher’s observations confirmed the importance of students’ reflections on
their writing, which has a positive role in developing their writing performance.
Many teachers noticed that students’ reflections are a further bonus for those
students who enjoy speaking about their work as well as for those who were too
shy to initiate discussions with teachers.

5. Discussion
The research sets out to investigate any major differences between the e-portfolio
assessment and the paper-based portfolio assessment on improving Saudi ESL
students’ writing performance. Additionally, the research attempts to examine the
challenges that the students face in using the writing portfolio and to explore
efficient pedagogical ways for evaluating the writing portfolios, which in turn
leads to improved student performance in writing successfully.

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For research Q1, the quantitative analysis indicated that using writing portfolios,
both PP and EP, with certain pedagogical methods of assessing these portfolios
enhanced Saudi ESL students’ writing performance. Nevertheless, there was not
any statistically valid difference between the impact of PP assessment and EP
assessment on improving Saudi ESL students’ writing performance. This finding
confirms the results of a study by Torabi and Safdari (2020). They concluded that
paper-based portfolios form the basis for the development of e-portfolios.
Therefore, both can improve students' writing performance once the right criteria
are applied. Likewise, the results of the current research concerning the positive
impact of using writing portfolios and valid pedagogical methods on assessing
the writing performance of Saudi ESL students are in line with Alam and Aktar's
(2019) findings. The results of this research have indicated that the formative
portfolio assessment has improved the language writing and reading skills of
Saudi students by empowering them to control their learning processes (Alam &
Aktar, 2019). The results of this research are also in congruence with Bahrrom et
al.’s (2018) findings (Baharom et al., 2022). This research has shown that
implementing the PA with ESL students has improved their language abilities by
giving them autonomy in various psychological aspects compared to traditional
teaching methods.

According to the research Q2 (What challenges do Saudi students face in using


the writing portfolio that would deter them from scoring high in the writing
exam? And what are some pedagogical techniques that ESL teachers can use to
help students overcome these challenges?), the qualitative data analysis presented
some barriers that ESL students face when using PA. It also offered several
pedagogical techniques that ESL teachers can use to help students overcome these
problems.

The results of these research questions indicated some barriers to using the PA
that ESL students faced before the experiment was applied. For instance, some
students mentioned in the interviews that it is boring and difficult, and others
stated it is complicated and useless as they do not score high in the final
examinations. Moreover, student interviews revealed that most students do not
follow the teachers’ feedback. They use autocorrect sites (such as ChatGPT) before
submitting the final draft. Unfortunately, the researcher found that the teachers
indicated all students' errors in students’ drafts with red markers. Therefore,
students might feel too disappointed to read their instructor's corrections.
Furthermore, the teachers' interviews revealed that owing to the large number of
students in the class, there is no time to check the students’ writing portfolios
twice, and there is no time to meet students and discuss the teacher’s comments
on their writing portfolios, only those who need it. The teachers also argued that
one of the challenges that deter students from scoring high marks in the final
examination is the lack of writing practice during the semester. This finding is
supported by Ankwai (2022), who mentioned that the Saudi curricula do not focus
much on English writing skills. All these weaknesses of portfolio assessment
stated earlier are in line with other studies (Hudori et al., 2020; Kao, 2015). Hence,
the qualitative data analysis offers several suggestions for how ESL teachers can
assess PA successfully to help Saudi students overcome the barriers they face
using the writing portfolio.

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ESL teachers should use pedagogical methods in teaching and assessing the
writing portfolio to improve students’ writing performance. For instance,
implementing students' reflections is important to help students identify their
own mistakes. Park (2020) supports this result, noting that implementing
students' reflections on portfolios encourages students to revise and improve their
work. Students' reflection helps ESL students notice their mistakes, which leads
to stable knowledge development.

The ESL teachers could also help students be aware of their mistakes by using
dynamic assessment, such as enhanced peer collaboration (implicit methods of
teaching) and consulting with teachers after each writing assignment (explicit
methods of teaching) to provide direct feedback on their work. The findings of
this research allude to the positive impact of DA on ESL learners’ writing
performance. Abdullateef and Muhammedzein (2021) concurred with the results
through research at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University. This study shows
that DA significantly enhances ESL learners’ language and promotes social
practices.

Conversely, ESL teachers should change their way of correcting students’ writing
portfolios and avoid excessive corrections using red markers since the qualitative
data of this research showed that many students did not read their teachers’
feedback on their writing portfolios. ESL teachers should adopt a correction
method that highlights only common mistakes and explains these mistakes with
written comments at the end of the content to help students notice their mistakes
and avoid the negative impacts of excessive corrections. Feren et al. (2020) noted
that the detailed feedback at the end of the paper showed a significant
improvement in English students' writing skills.

Furthermore, to eliminate the monotony and boredom of English writing classes,


ESL teachers should adopt academic methods that mutually construct tasks with
students to motivate them. Providing free writing topics that give them the liberty
of selecting topics of their interest could also serve as a means of motivation. The
greatest value of free writing in portfolio assessments is that the students have an
opportunity to write about many topics within their circle of interests. In this way
they become active participants in the learning process and overcome writing
anxiety (Park, 2020). Implementing an electronic portfolio in writing classes and
using a variety of aids in technology, such as listing videos, graphics, audio tracks,
and texts as the content in e-portfolios, also has the advantage of removing the
monotony of old learning methods, thus enhancing students' motivation. (Torabi
& Safdari, 2020).

6. Limitation
One limitation was that only one university in Saudi Arabia was targeted for data
collection. Another limitation of this research is that it only considers male
students as a sample size because male and female students are separated in Saudi
universities.

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7. Future Implications
For future research, researchers should collect data from multiple universities
instead of only one to obtain diverse perspectives. Future researchers should
conduct a comparative analysis between the PP and EP to determine which
system is most relevant to addressing the issue investigated. Furthermore, the
researchers should consider a longitudinal research design to identify the long-
term impact of PA on ESL students.

8. Conclusion
In ESL classes, simply teaching ESL writing using electronic (EP) or paper-based
(PP) writing portfolios without defined assessment criteria is insufficient to make
the students successful writers in the target language. Some advanced
pedagogical methods should also be combined with implementing the writing
portfolio to improve students’ writing performance. We advocate an integrated
teaching approach to heighten ESL students’ awareness across the writing
portfolios through a fruitful integration of collaborative learning, students’ self-
reflections, everyday writing, and practice tests. Also implementing authentic
materials in teaching ESL writing, such as using literature materials that consist
of novels and poetry, enhances students’ writing performance. Finally, following
effective ways of checking ESL students’ writings and avoiding excessive
corrections in their writing portfolios help them notice their mistakes and avoid
charging them with the negative energy resulting from using red markers. The
research has proven that portfolio assessment (PA) and advanced pedagogical
approaches significantly enhance students' writing capabilities. This research has
provided fruitful insight to educationalists regarding the impact of PA.
Educationists can advance the use of PA for their ESL students by using
innovative strategies.

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Appendix A
Interview Questions:
Section 1: General information
1- Could you please tell me some general information about your teaching
experience?
For example, (What level do you teach, and how long have you been in teaching
English?)

Section 2: Questions
1- What pedagogical methods do you use in teaching writing?
2- Do you only follow the course specifications of the writing course? What Kind
of materials do you use in teaching writing?
3- Do you notice differences between paper-based and electronic portfolios in
developing students' writing performance?
4- From your teaching experience, what barriers do your students face in using
the writing portfolio that would deter them from scoring high in the writing
exam?
5- Tell me some procedures that you follow to check the writing portfolio. In
other words, how do you assess their writing portfolios, and what color do you
use to correct their portfolios?
6- Do you have any comments that you would like to add?

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 52-75, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.4
Received Feb 20, 2024; Revised Apr 8, 2024; Accepted Apr 21, 2024

A Modified 5-SPICE Framework Review on


English Language Teachers' and Learners'
Perceptions of an Educational Emergency
Md. Ziaul Karim
Department of Languages
Faculty of Agriculture
Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202

Laxman Gnawali
Department of Language Education
School of Education
Kathmandu University, Nepal

Md. Kamrul Hasan*


Department of English
School of Humanities and Social Sciences
United International University, Dhaka-1212

Abstract. Covid-19 pandemic caused the biggest global on-site academic


lockdown for more than a year, resulting in the largest disruption in the
history of education. This review article highlights how tertiary English
language education (ELE) in developing countries like Bangladesh
continued during the unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic (from March
2020 onwards) - the 1st time long-lasting educational emergency that
crippled the world. Considering this context, twenty (20) empirical
papers on tertiary ELE from the COVID outbreak in 2020 to 2023 were
reviewed through a Modified 5-SPICE framework where SPICE stands
for Setting, Participants, Investigation type, Content and Ethical
considerations applied by the reviewed articles. The thematic data
analysis based on the Modified 5-SPICE framework applied
Wellington’s (2015, as cited in Cohen et al., 2018) seven data analysis
stages. The findings disclosed that the COVID-19 educational
emergency utilized some existing educational technologies (EdTechs)
and made a forced entry of some new technologies. ELE teachers and
students had mixed feelings as they faced initial challenges which they
gradually tried to overcome. This paper sheds light on their perspectives
and complexities in addition to the future possibilities of emergency
EdTechs at the tertiary ELE level. The findings are expected to assist

*
Corresponding author: Kamrul Hasan; [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
53

pedagogues, policymakers, learners and other stakeholders to recognize


the importance of the growing New Normal EdTechs to form a better
Next Normal ELT pedagogy.

Keywords: educational emergency; educational technologies; techno-


pedagogies; New-Normal education; emergency remote teaching

1. Introduction
English as a global language has established its consolidated roots in the
education sectors of both developed and developing countries. The British
colonized many countries like Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Malaysia and
Indonesia while countries like Nepal, Iran, and Saudi Arabia were never under
their direct colonial power (Singh, 2021). Yet, English Language Education (ELE)
has become an inseparable component of the higher education system in all
these nations. At the tertiary level of education, according to Krsmanovic (2022),
''Almost all students all over the world are required to take English course(s) in
their first or second year of study, no matter what the core subject is'' (p.1).
Hence, English teachers need to teach one or sometimes multiple English
language courses besides their core courses.

Before COVID-19, the ELE pedagogy in the developing world applied mostly
the behavioristic knowledge transmission model with a one-size-fits-all
approach like the hypodermic needle theory where teachers were like a 'sage on
the stage' (King, 1993, p.30) while the students were like clay-made banks –
passive recipients of coins (lessons). Traditional face-to-face brick-and-mortar
classrooms with chalk and talk methods were predominant though the
Grammar Translation Method (GTM) was replaced by the Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) approach in policy and paper (Kabir et al., 2020). As
time passed, the ELE landscape underwent some ontological and
epistemological reforms. For example, the 'native-speakerism idealism' (Fang et
al., 2022, p.305) in ELE no longer holds water. For the emergence of World
Englishes (Kachru, 1992, as cited in Fang et al., 2022) and the recent trends in
teaching Global Englishes, ELE gained acceleration with ''multifaceted linguistic,
cultural and multimodal practices'' (Fang et al., 2022, p.305) and Non-Native
English Speaking Teachers (NNESTs) have outnumbered the Native English
Speaking Teachers (NESTs). Therefore, the focus of ELE is shifting ''from the
traditional, monolingual perspective towards multi/translingualism'' (Fang et
al., 2022, p.306) in this 'trans-era' to promote a decolonizing pedagogy.

Researchers, teachers and policymakers were busy exploring new ways of


effective physical classroom ELE pedagogies when COVID-19 in early 2020 like
a shockwave (Maniruzzaman, 2022) swept the traditional teaching away and
ushered in an era of educational emergency with a novel pedagogical shift (Ping
et al., 2022). Consequently, a pedagogical crisis emerged where technology was
the ultimate savior of the total education system. Afrin (2020) reported that
times and technologies were in a quick flux and ''English teachers needed to hop
on board before the train left'' (p. 80). The developed nations could quickly adapt
to the virtual pedagogy since many courses were already run online through

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distance mode but the developing states struggled to adapt to the new techno-
pedagogies. This review paper through a modified 5-SPICE framework (See
details in the Methodology section) tried to find out how the educational
emergency is perceived by the tertiary English language teachers and students
as delineated by the ethically conducted empirical studies. In addition, the
review article is designed to find out the predominant themes that came to the
fore out of the reviewed articles.

2. Literature Review
2.1. How COVID-19 Affected the Education System
The WHO declared COVID-19 a public health emergency on January 30, 2020
(Islam et al., 2021). On March 8, 2020, the first COVID-19 case was detected in
Bangladesh (Ferdous & Shifat, 2020) and all academic institutions were closed
from March 17 to March 31, 2020 (Khan et al., 2021; Rahaman, et al., 2021;
Sultana, 2021). Although the University Grants Commission (UGC) and the
Ministry of Education (MoE) were initially against virtual teaching (Sultana,
2021), the Education Minister had to finally recommend conducting all academic
activities of universities through online modes on April 30, 2020, (Sultana, 2020).
While some private universities tried to commence online classes from May 7,
2020 (Khan et al., 2021), the public universities started virtual classes flexibly
from June 25, 2020, (Kamol, 2020). An identical situation also existed in many
developing countries, especially in Asia. The pandemic affected 216 countries by
June 2020 and produced much trepidation among all people. Patients were
detected with COVID symptoms and millions of death casualties happened
(Islam et al., 2021). All Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) were shut down
(Muhaji, et al., 2023). A new pedagogical shift to emergency remote teaching
(ERT) (Hodges et al., 2020), became a New Normal reality, a rescuer.

2.2. What is Education in Emergency?


Kragt (2021) opines that education in emergency (EiE) or educational emergency
was shaped by the United Nations (UN) with the establishment of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (1948) after World War II. In the past, educational
emergencies occurred partially with a minor impact on the education sector
either due to battles, political unrest or natural calamities like floods, cyclones,
earthquakes, and landslides. Therefore, the UN highlights only four emergency
causes: conflict, migration, natural hazards and health-related crises. COVID-19
is a health-related catastrophe that exposed global education to an
'unprecedented global emergency' (Pherali & Mendenhall, 2023, p.3).

Since 1950, UNESCO has been rendering EiEs to ensure people’s right to
education. It tries to ensure inclusive and equitable education under difficult
circumstances by collaborating with ministries of education and regional and
international partners. It always keeps the candle of education burning in the
world’s most acute humanitarian crises as in Ukraine and Afghanistan and in
elongated conflicts, as in Syria and Iraq, through Disaster Risk Reduction in
Education (UNESCO, 2023).

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With education as a humanitarian response (Burde et al., 2017), the Inter-Agency


Network of Education in Emergencies (INEE) was founded in 2000. In 2010, the
right to EiEs was adopted as a resolution. COVID-19 confined the educational
space to the digital realm, begging technological access to fulfill educational
requirements (Gupta et al., 2021). It has created a long-term emergency situation
(Novelli et al., 2017). Consequently, it was not UNESCO’s headache only; every
nation had to tackle the EiE with its fastest policy reform and adoption of some
congenial EdTechs it could resort to. In this paper, we have used EiE,
educational emergency and emergency education to mean the same.

2.3. Educational Technologies during COVID-19 Emergency


Educational technologies (EdTechs) include multifarious platforms, apps,
software, and virtual and augmented reality (AR/VR) as pedagogical tools.
There is a quick evolution of Web technologies (Web 1.0 to Web 4.0). By 1999,
Web 2.0 (Social web) technology built on the previous Web 1.0 (Read-only web)
came into existence. Since 2004, it has transformed into a social constructivist
system where users can interact as active participants with one another by
sharing their perspectives and opinions through tags, posts, shares, and likes.
Some applications of Web 2.0 include Zoom, Netflix, Spotify, Instagram,
Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, email, Pinterest, YouTube, TikTok, Flickr,
Podcasting and many more instant messaging apps (Kenton, 2023). Gradually
Web 3.0 (Semantic web) has come into existence to decrease human decisions as
machines are providing contents on the web through artificial intelligence (AI).
Web 4.0 (Symbiotic Web) is on the verge of becoming a reality (Singh, 2023).

Before COVID-19, WEB 2.0 tools were merely used on personal initiatives but
after COVID-19, some were institutionally integrated as pedagogical tools. Web
3.0 with its live streaming and AI Chabot is getting popular now in the
education sector. The pandemic accelerated the use of these EdTechs. Hence, all
teachers need to master both non-internet (laptop, desktop, radio, TV, phone),
and internet-based technologies now since after the pandemic, generation Z
(children born between 1995 and 2009) students are getting more gadget-smart
than before (Ahmad et al., 2019). Teachers also have to prepare for the new
'Generation Alpha' (children born between 2010 and 2025) who are also
considered as 'Gen C or Generation COVID' by some researchers (Eldridge,
2023) due to their enhanced exposure to technologies.

2.4. Research Questions


This paper tried to find out the answer to the following questions:
(RQ1) How is the educational emergency perceived by the tertiary English
language teachers and students as delineated by the ethically conducted
empirical studies?
(RQ2) What are the other predominant themes that came to the fore out of the
reviewed papers?

3. Methodology
As we planned to conduct a systematic review, one of them browsed the
internet, looking for some existing frameworks. The 5-SPICE framework caught

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his attention and he shared this with the other two researchers who also agreed
to apply it for this article. This framework does not belong to a single proponent.
Rather, it was proposed by researchers and clinicians from Brigham and
Women's Hospital in Boston, MA and Partners In Health, Harvard Medical
School, to allow all community health program stakeholders to participate in
dialogues and analysis to accelerate the roles of the community health workers.
SPICE actually stood for Setting, Population, Intervention, Comparison and
Evaluation. However, these elements might be modified to suit a particular
context. One such application of the 5-SPICE framework was applied by
Palazuelos et al. (2013) in a community health worker program where SPICE
referred to Supervision, Partners, Incentives, Choice and Education. Later, it was
also used in health education research with minor modifications by Singh et al.
(2015). Hence, we also modified the 5-SPICE protocol to fit with their research
questions, naming it 'Modified 5-SPICE Framework' where 5-SPICE means
Setting, Participants/Population, Investigation, Content and Ethical standards.

3.1. Reasons for the Choice of the 5-SPICE Framework


The researchers selected this framework for two reasons – (i) the purposive
preference and (ii) the importance of the number '5'.

3.1.1. The Purposive Preference


The title of our study guided us to think of our research questions on which the
total review was based. Therefore, it seemed very logical for us to adapt the 5-
SPICE protocol since they could find in their research questions the five
important segments in tune with the framework:
S- Setting (Where and when): The tertiary education sector during and after
COVID
P- Population/Research Participants (Who): Tertiary English language teachers
and students
I – Investigation (How): Original research or empirical studies/ Methodologies
C – Content (What): Teachers' and Learners' perceptions about educational
emergency
E – Ethics (How): Ethical standards upheld by the reviewed studies

3.1.2. The Importance of the Number '5'


The term 'SPICE' is derived from the concept of five spices (cloves, fennel seeds,
star anise, cinnamon and Sichuan peppercorns) which Chinese chefs usually use
to create a sophisticated taste to engage all the five taste buds (sweet, sour, salty,
bitter, and pungent/spicy). The history of 5 Spices originated in China in the 4th
century BCE. The Chinese later developed the five spices 'Wonder Powder'
which continues to add flavors to the meals in different cultures worldwide.
This powder was traditionally used as an antiseptic and was believed to cure
toothaches and indigestion (Bi et al., 2015). The term SPICE has five letters in it.
The number 5 is related to many important ideas like the 5 senses (sight, touch,
hearing, smell and taste) and the five fundamental components (earth, fire,
water, air or wind, and space) of the world according to the 5-Elements Theory
in Hinduism. It also has significance in other religions as in the Five Pillars of
Islam and in the Buddhist Ethics of Pancha Sheela (5 virtues). Five is a magic
number in Greek history since it represents the pentagram or pentacle (a five-

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pointed star polygon) to symbolize humanity, perfection and protection from


the devil.

3.2. Reasons for the Choice of the 5-SPICE Framework


We browsed 'scholar.google.com' on March 31, 2023, to search for original
research articles on 'English language teachers' and learners' perceptions about
educational emergency during COVID-19'. Write-ups displayed on screen
included review articles, empirical studies, reports, theses, editorials, and book
chapters. Therefore, we activated filtered options like 'sort by date' and 'type of
articles'. We searched only empirical research studies in PDF forms from the
year 2020 to 2023, since during and post-COVID pedagogical practices and
emerging techno-pedagogies were the phenomena they were looking for. We
read the titles and downloaded 30 PDF documents out of 100 lists from the first
1 to 10 pages of scholar.google.com. Then we browsed www.google.com with
the same theme but included the name of the country 'Bangladesh'. Finally, we
read the titles and downloaded ten articles from the first three pages. In total, we
downloaded 40 articles.

3.3. Inclusion Criteria


After reading the abstracts of 40 articles, we selected only 20 for review. For
screening and selecting the articles (20) for the review, the modified 5-SPICE
framework was applied. Figure 1 shows the graphical representation of the
modified 5-SPICE framework.

Figure 1: Modified 5-SPICE framework graphically represented

From 2020, we selected four articles (two from Bangladesh, one from India and
one from Indonesia). Seven articles (four from Bangladesh, one from Iran, one
from Pakistan and one jointly from Saudi Arab and Bangladesh) published in
2021 were also reviewed. Eight articles (four from Bangladesh, one from Nepal,

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one from Malaysia, and one based on 25 countries in 5 regions of Asia, Europe,
Latin America, North America and the Middle East and another research work
(on 40 countries including Serbia, Pakistan, Mexico, Greece, Philippines, UK,
Italy, and Indonesia) from the year 2022 were selected for review. Finally, only
one article from Indonesia published in 2023 was considered for this study. All
these twenty (20) articles were from the field of English language education in
universities during the COVID and post-vaccine periods. The researchers
wanted to add some research works on the same theme from Singapore,
Thailand, the Maldives and Srilanka, but when they browsed, the search engine
'scholar.google.com' showed none that could match their inclusion criteria (see
Figure 1). However, the selected articles involved research participants from the
Middle East, Europe, Asia Pacific and, North and South America. Table 1
showcases a year-wise summary of the reviewed articles sequentially based on
the modified 5-SPICE framework.

Table 1: Year-wise Summary of the reviewed articles based on the modified 5-SPICE
framework
S-Setting (Time + P- I- C-Content E-Ethics
Place) Participants Investigation
Author (s)
Year Countries Population/ Methodology COVID-time Ethical
of (No. of Research Educational Standards
Publica Articles) Participants Emergency
tion
(2020-
2023)
Afrin; 2020 Total – 60 EFL Mixed Virtual Informed
Ferdous & Four (4) students of a Method EFL/ELT Consent
Shifat; private (Survey Data classes at
Subekti; Bangladesh university & Textual tertiary level Voluntary
Purushotham (2) Analysis) Participation
& Swathi Qualitative Dealing with
Indonesia (10 EFL Quantitative mental No harm or
(1) learners of a (Data health of risk
private collected ELT teachers
India (1) university & through and EFL Anonymity
10 ELT Google learners in
teachers questionnaire online Confidentiality
from ); Qualitative learning
different (data
private collected Pre-service
universities); through semi- English
Quantitative structured teachers’
(46 students interviews beliefs
and 20 over regarding
teachers telephone online
from private and through learning
universities) online implementat
messaging) ion
9 pre-service
English Qualitative Online
teachers (secondary learning and
taking data in the its effects on
Technology forms of the English
for participants' language
Language written skills among

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Learning reflections/ higher


class in the Thematic education
English analysis used students
Language to analyze the
Education data
Department
of a Descriptive
university Survey
method
130 students
from an
Engineering
college
Younesi; Total – 220 Mixed Virtual
Sultana; Sifat 2021 Seven (7) responses Method teaching of
et al.; Khan et from English
al.; Rahaman Iran (1) academic Mixed language
et al.; Khan et English Method
al.; Islam et al. Bangladesh learners and Online
(4) trainers from Mixed teaching
23 Method impact on
Pakistan (1) Universities students'
Mixed performance
Bangladesh 30 students Method and teachers'
& Saudi and 10 (Survey new role
Arabia (1) teachers of a questionnaire
private s and Focus Learner
university Group acumens of
Discussions) online EFL
92 (54 female classes at
and 38 male) Mixed Bangladeshi
students of 5 Method private
private (Phenomenol universities
universities ogy &
pragmatic Teacher and
158 teachers paradigm) student
and 1468 voices about
students Qualitative online
phenomenolo instruction
15 students gy & auto
from ethnography Perceived
private, effectiveness
public, and , challenges,
national and
universities suggestions
about online
100 students learning
and 5
university- Motivational
level strategies
teachers being
employed in
3 university EFL classes
teachers (the
researchers Teachers'
themselves) lived
experiences
regarding E-
learning

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Rai; Ping et Total – 4 EFL In-depth Coping


al.; Arju & 2022 Eight (8) teachers unstructured strategies of
Juhi; from four interview university
Maniruzzama Nepal (1) universities under EFL teachers
n; Nisha; narrative for online
Aktar et al.; Malaysia 21 sessional inquiry instruction
Koruyan et (1) academics
al.; from the Qualitative Challenges
Krsmanovic Bangladesh English (One to one in
(4) language interview) technology
unit of a integration
25 public Mixed- for online
countries university method teaching and
from - learning
European, 100 1st year Mixed-
Asia EFL learners method English
Pacific, from eight (SPSS used language
South/ universities for data learning
Latin of Dhaka analysis) challenges
America, during the
Middle Jahangirnag Mixed COVID
East and ar Method pandemic
North University
American teachers (8 ) Qualitative Blended
regions (1) & students (Narrative Learning in
(50) Enquiry) the New
40 Normal
countries- 50 student Mixed-
Serbia, participants method Learners'
Pakistan, from perceptions
Mexico, different Mixed- about the
Greece, private method effectiveness
Philippines universities (SPSS is used of virtual
, UK, Italy, for data classes
Indonesia 4 teachers analysis) during
and other from 4 COVID
countries public and
not private Teachers'
mentioned universities narratives
(1) from initial
156 virtual
University classrooms
Teachers of and
English professional
developmen
89 EFL t during the
instructors COVID
and lecturers
in tertiary English
education teachers'
beliefs and
practices
during
COVID

Perceptions
of EFL
educators of
their

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instruction
during the
pandemic

Muhaji et al. 2023 Total – 16 EFL Qualitative Adoption of


One (1) teachers (Narrative online
from 7 enquiry) technologies
Indonesia universities for language
(1) in West and teaching
East Java

3.4. Analytical Framework


According to Cohen et al. (2018), ''Some of the analytical tools can be pre-
ordinate (a priori: ideas, themes, codes, key points, analytical framework etc.
decided in advance)'' (p.644). As we chose the 5-SPICE analytical framework (see
Figure 2), it was convenient to categorize the significant findings from the
articles under five major phenomena. Figure 2 presents the modified 5-SPICE
analytical framework of this paper.

Figure 2: Modified 5-SPICE analytical framework

We kept the selected articles in four different folders named by years (2020, 2021,
2022 and 2023). Then they opened a Microsoft Word doc file where five thematic
categories (See Figure 2) were typed in bold. The thematic analysis of this paper
consisted of the following seven stages suggested by Wellington (2015, as cited
in Cohen et al., 2018, p.646):
Stage 1: Familiarization with the data/literature also called 'Immersion'
Stage 2: Data/Literature Arrangement through reflection (dividing up the data
according to the Modified 5-SPICE framework)
Stage 3: Data/Text Analysis (Selecting, filtering, classifying and re-categorizing)
Stage 4: Synthesizing or recombining data/text
Stage 5: Relating to other works and locating data
Stage 6: Reflecting again for further details
Stage 7: Presenting and sharing the findings with discussions

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Firstly, we went through the selected articles and after getting familiar with the
data, we arranged them under the five thematic categories with the names of
authors and years of publication. Then, we read again, reflected, filtered the
disorganized data to re-categorize them (i.e. similar information was classified
together with in-text citations). After the third cycle of reading the data under
the five major themes, we synthesized some repeated concepts and thematic
analyses to get to the key analysis. Next, we related it to other works, read and
reflected again before presenting and sharing the findings with discussions.

4. Findings
The findings are elaborated under five phenomena or themes divided into a few
sub-categories (see Figure 2). The 1st theme 'Education sector during and after
COVID-19' showcases organizational improvements and pedagogical
innovations. The 2nd theme delineates stakeholders' (teachers' and learners')
perspectives, perplexities and propositions for technology use. The 3rd one
describes the methodologies applied in the articles. The 4th category focuses on
teaching aids and materials, pitfalls and future possibilities of EiE technologies.
The final theme (5th) exhibits the ethical standards upheld by the research
works.

According to the selected analytical framework, the five themes are categorized
based on the two RQs. The 2nd theme answers the 1st RQ while all the
remaining four themes answer the 2nd RQ.

RQ1- How is the educational emergency perceived by the tertiary English


language teachers and students as delineated by the ethically conducted
empirical studies?

4.1. Tertiary English Language Teachers and Students


Teachers and students, the core stakeholders of an educational context, are the
most affected by the ERT. The teachers' and students' viewpoints, the challenges
they faced and their propositions regarding EiE technologies are separately
described below:

4.1.1. Teachers' Perspectives


Ferdous and Shifat (2020) found out that teachers initially disliked online
platforms due to poor net speed and device access. Self-doubt started to develop
from their concern of not conveying their best efforts to the students. They felt it
essential ''to see the students’ smiley faces in the flesh'' (p.105). Sultana (2021)
discovered that many teachers had no experience using technology inside the
classroom and were not trained. Teachers' tensions between their past and
present selves, stakeholders’ interventions (University, UGC, and Ministry of
Education), education context and infrastructure including the economy - all
these ever-changing variables affected teachers' identities.

Due to 'massification' (Ping et al., 2022) or massive student enrolment in higher


education in Malaysia, sessional academic staff or adjunct faculty members were
recruited. Yet, they were prone to experience a lack of professional development

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and unequal opportunity compared to their full-time counterparts during the


COVID period. Some teachers felt virtual teaching was 'like the union of the sky
and the earth in a place like Mugu' (Rai, 2022, p.44). Initially it was like chewing
the iron but gradually many teachers favored ICT integration in ELT during the
pandemic. Teachers perceived online technology as challenging but achievable
with time and energy (Muhaji et al., 2023).

4.1.2. Learners' Perceptions


Learners struggled to afford devices and internet packages to cope with virtual
education (Shifat et al., 2021). However, Rahman et al. (2021) found out that
students played active roles on social media during COVID-19 but were callous
about receiving a text message either from a teacher or a friend. Learners also
worried about 'session jam' - a common issue in many public universities in
Bangladesh. Students think, real-time discussion is the key to satisfactory
academic performance and immediate feedback on class activities can increase
their learning. Many students can easily collect online materials but they get
tired of reading those online or from soft copies (Ferdous & Shifat, 2020).

Sultana (2021) demonstrated that some students were dissatisfied because their
teachers lacked techno-pedagogical skills. Therefore, they wanted their teachers
to have IT knowledge, deliver the ELE content properly and publish their results
on time (Purushotham & Swathi, 2020). Moreover, the universities failed to
provide effective online LMS. Maniruzzaman (2022) showed students'
preference for onsite classes over online classes which were boring and less
interactive though they expressed their confidence in both modes.

4.1.3. Perplexities
Technophobia (Aktar, 2020; Islam et al., 2020; Aktar et al., 2022) was a problem
both teachers and learners suffered from. Students seemed intimidated to
communicate through emails and open accounts on prescribed platforms while
many teachers were poor in using online teaching tools and sharing recorded
lessons or materials (Aktar et al., 2022).

To conduct effective online education, teachers initially had to suffer from


inadequate infrastructures or resources, limited pedagogical skills, lack of social
connections with students and colleagues, poor internet, unsupportive gadgets,
the app's complexity, lack of proper home environments, lack of online
assessment techniques and affordability and equity issues (Ferdous & Shifat,
2020; Subekti, 2020; Afrin, 2020; Shifat et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2021; Islam et al.,
2021; Rahman et al., 2021; Ping et al., 2022; Rai, 2022; Aktar et al., 2022; Arju &
Juthi, 2022; Muhaji et al., 2023). Ferdous and Shifat (2020) revealed teachers'
increased workload in preparing new digital PowerPoint presentations; their
mental stress and frustrations regarding the uncertainties of salary, promotion,
bonus and allowance; their physical and psychological gap with their students
and colleagues; balancing personal and professional life. Other crucial
challenges included inadequate online materials, physical discomforts, social
isolation with stress, social disbelief, psychological anxiety, technological
addiction and the digital divide between urban and rural teachers (Rai, 2022;
Rahman et al., 2021). Arju and Juhi (2022) and Sultana (2021) found teachers

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having problems operating breakout rooms for various tasks, fast technological
troubleshooting, engaging students in activities, conducting online assessments
and providing quick feedback. In the context of Pakistan, Khan et al. (2021)
depicted similar picture where teachers struggled to keep learners motivated
and maintain assessment ethics.

Shifat et al. (2021) revealed that online mode was more challenging for students
than teachers. English language learners faced problems due to inadequate
logistic provision, high-priced devices, slow and interrupted internet services,
inaccessibility of class materials, raucous home environment, incessant reading
of online materials, lack of interaction for language development, struggle with
online assessment (Ferdous & Shifat, 2020), having stress, depression, insomnia
and short temper and lack of family support (Islam et al., 2020; Sultana, 2021).
Sultana (2021) also reported that learners had issues like not owning a laptop or
computer, not having a webcam or working microphone and not recharging the
mobile data for its cost. Furthermore, doing all kinds of tasks on a smartphone
was not always possible. Arju and Juhi (2022) excavated challenges like boredom
or fatigue emanating from less or no classroom interaction, lack of motivation,
technical support and self-confidence and unfamiliar learning environments.
Consequently, the new pedagogical transition might have influenced students'
affective domains in areas like ''empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition,
imitation, anxiety and attitudes, which may have impacted their performance on
the final examination'' (Sultana, 2021, p.150).

4.1.4. Propositions
Arju and Juhi (2022) mention that COVID-19 is an emergency when building
support communities, sharing knowledge and experiences is essential for
teachers to provide meaningful learning processes aiming at therapy, empathy,
and care for students. Khan et al. (2021) in Pakistan's context, claim that a
motivated teacher can produce motivated students. However, a suitable
environment is required where both students and teachers are friendly,
cooperative and interactive to make the learning process productive and boost
positive motivation.

Online pedagogical policy formulation, teacher training, upskilling the students


for hybrid pedagogy, curricula redesigning, developing teaching materials and
assessment strategies, integrating and installing technology, improving the
infrastructure, ensuring robust internet access and adjusting the management
systems are essential (Islam et al., 2021; Khan et al., 2021; Rahaman et al., 2021;
Maniruzzaman, 2022; Aktar et al., 2022; Arju & Juhi, 2022). Ping et al. (2022)
highlight equal training needs of sessional academics (part-time teachers) and
full time faculty members. They emphasize utilizing the university's in-house
LMS to accommodate synchronous and asynchronous classes and upload
recordings of online lectures and self-learning materials. Islam et al. (2021) ask
for a drive to formulate a uniform policy for organizations to avoid incongruities
and ensure proper implementation through central and institutional monitoring.

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Sultana (2021) thinks that teachers must take pedagogical risks for effective
teaching. They have to self-train by attending webinars and MOOCs (Massive
Open Online Courses). Frequent meetings among colleagues to share thoughts,
ideas and techniques are required to bring the best out of the worst. Afrin (2020)
recommends recording live lectures with the teacher's face while streaming,
testing lecture slides and videos before a class launches, using existing resources
and ensuring open access. She also highlights the need for arranging consistent
webinars on techno-pedagogies in low-resource contexts like Bangladesh,
offering decent pay packages to the pedagogues and developing hygiene
amenities and supervision on campus. Shifat et al. (2021) endorse an interactive
and collaborative learning environment, a combo of audio-visual text and
sufficient tools for teaching in crisis.

Maniruzzaman (2022) considers effective and engaging pedagogies, such as pair


and group work, simulations, role-plays, and jigsaws for students from diverse
backgrounds. Quizzes, assignments, presentations, portfolios, viva voce – these
formative assessments can be administered online while summative assessments
like the course final examinations can be conducted onsite. Teachers must know
how to store and share materials through online file hosting services like Google
Drive, Dropbox, emails and Google Classroom. Teachers also require
smartphone literacy. In this case, teachers require 'adaptive metacognition'
(Maniruzzaman, 2022) which refers to changing oneself and one's environment
according to the social and instructional variability.

Aktar et al. (2022) speculate that teachers require technological knowledge to


find appropriate materials, select, adapt and adopt online materials, use and
manage LMS. Students are also required to have fundamental digital literacy in
operating and using them as applied and suggested by teachers. Arju and Juhi
(2022) applaud collaborative peer review, feedback sessions and presentations to
facilitate students' social needs. Khan et al. (2021) in Pakistan found out that
multilayer lecture techniques remove the monotony of learners involving them
in interesting activities. Khan et al. (2021) suggest teachers adopt asynchronous
activities and flexible assignment deadlines. Online assessment should
incorporate oral and written tests where students submit the Test Ethics Pledge
and keep their cameras on (Lee et al., 2020, as cited in Khan et al., 2021) to ensure
fairness and prevent cheating. They advocated for checking plagiarism through
software packages (e.g. Turnitin). Islam et al. (2021) believe that time and space
to prepare techno-pedagogical lectures and assessments should be budgeted for
teachers. They argue for developing a rational, holistic and proper e-learning
guideline and a common platform with the help of the government.

The second research question discovers the dominant themes.


RQ2- What are the other predominant themes that came to the fore out of the
reviewed papers?

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4.2. The Education Sector during and after COVID


COVID forced the education sector into a long-lasting EiE that required
organizational improvements and pedagogical innovations to sustain after
COVID-19.

4.2.1. Organizational Improvements


Although COVID disrupted the total education system, digital technologies
served as a rescuer. In Bangladesh, only Open University established the
required ''infrastructure for e-learning and had been conducting its academic
activities via the internet, intranet/extranet, audio and/or video tape, satellite
TV and CD-ROM since 1992'' (Arju & Juhi, 2022, p.14). Except for Open
University, Bangladeshi universities had no distance education, let alone online
education before COVID-19. Bangladeshis like many oriental nations used to
consider universities with online courses, as certificate-producing institutes
(Younesi, 2021). However, this remote online teaching-learning was warmly
welcomed during and after the COVID-19 crisis.

Any sudden transition throws organizations into a critical situation when they
must invest in professional development, capacity building and take measures
to adapt to the change. The private-run organizations with swift top-down
decisions were in the driver's seat in the case of applying online education more
effectively than the government-owned ones where policies are usually adopted
through tiered bottom-up planning. Islam et al. (2021) identified that some
universities established an institutional G Suite affiliation. Concurrently, the IT
wing of all universities became vibrant in arranging training sessions for
teachers and students. All institutes adopted total virtual teaching during the
pandemic period. Later after two doses of vaccines by mid-2021, technology-
enhanced instruction, web-mediated instruction and mixed-mode instruction in
the names of hybrid, blended or HyFlex (Hybrid-Flexible) education were
applied when a teacher took classes from inside the classroom in the presence of
some students while students with health problems could join online from their
comfort zones. Though blended learning first developed in the 1960s and gained
its formal terminology in the 1990s, it became a new pedagogy for developing
countries like Bangladesh after COVID-19. Blended learning or hybrid teaching
requires strong information communication technology (ICT) and highly
qualified technical staff. The ICT wing of every university became vibrant to
embrace the new techno-pedagogy. Similar was the case in many other countries
in the world.

4.2.2. Pedagogical Innovations


Ping et al. (2022) and Rai (2022) believe that teachers could enhance their digital
literacy by exploring different online platforms through self-initiation and self-
discovery and taking help from colleagues, family members, and other
networks. They could instantly share soft copies of the lecture notes and it
improved teacher-student interaction.

Afrin (2020) postulated that students also had to learn new things to adapt to a
rapidly shifting world. They developed soft skills and technological literacy to
get hold of the teacher-provided materials and communicate well digitally. They

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could access class materials synchronously and asynchronously and felt excited
when they received their quiz grades instantly (Islam et al., 2021). ERT was less
costly and less stressful as students could work from their own homes and
comfort zones (Shifat et al., 2021; Ping et al., 2022). Incorporating face-to-face
lectures with technology is an attribute of the flipped classroom and blended
learning, where students can learn anywhere at any time at their own
convenience (Ping et al., 2022).

4.3. Methods Applied in Empirical Studies


The twenty reviewed articles were all empirical studies that applied mixed
method (13), qualitative (6), and quantitative (1) approaches. Mixed method
approaches included surveys, textual analysis, Google form questions, focus
group discussions, and telephone and online messaging. Some used SPSS
(Statistical Package for Social Science) data analysis software. In the case of the
qualitative study, Subekti (2020) used secondary data from participants' written
reflections on online learning. On the other hand, Islam et al. (2021) adopted
phenomenology and autoethnography. Rai (2022), Aktar et al. (2022), Ping et al.
(2022) and Muhaji et al. (2023) conducted unstructured interviews under
narrative enquiry. Only one article by Purushotham and Swathi (2020) used the
descriptive survey method as part of a quantitative study. They selected 130
research participants out of 300 through probability sampling to conduct their
research.

4.4. Emergency Education Technologies


This is a significant theme of this study. The transition from face-to-face
classroom teaching to virtual pedagogy was obvious during COVID-19 and later
blended learning or hybrid teaching was incorporated in the post-vaccine era as
the 'show must go on' (Afrin, 2020). Maniruzzaman (2022) believes that for
blended learning, infrastructural provisions, such as laptops and/or computers,
interactive whiteboards, sound systems, multi-media projectors, sufficient
power supply, high-speed internet connection, networking equipment, digital
libraries, well-resourced classrooms and management facilities are required.
The two modes - synchronous and asynchronous teaching-learning with ample
technologies (See Table 2 below) came into the limelight after COVID-19.

Table 2: Technologies used in ELT during and after COVID-19

Technologies Purposes References

Zoom, Skype, WhatsApp, ➢ synchronous applications (Afrin, 2020; Islam et al., 2021; Nisha,
WebX, Facebook Live, Google ➢ video conferencing 2022; Purushotham & Swathi, 2020;
Meet, Facebook Messenger, ➢ live classes Rahman et al., 2021; Rai, 2022; Shak et
Viber, Microsoft Team, Adobe ➢ real time talking al., 2022; Shifat et al., 2021; Subekti, 2020;
Connect Sultana, 2021)

Edpuzzle, Loom and OBS ➢ virtual interactivity (Afrin, 2020)

➢ asynchronous teaching-
Moodle, Schoology, Google learning (Afrin, 2020; Rahaman et al., 2021; Shifat
Classroom, NAVID, VESTA ➢ learning management et al., 2021; Subekti, 2020; Sultana, 2021;

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systems Younesi, 2022)


➢ web-based platforms
➢ some teachers use in (Hsu & Lo, 2018 as cited in Muhaji et al.,
Wiki technology, Edmodo, universities as 2023), (Purnawarman et al., 2016 as cited
Blackboard Learn pedagogical aids in Muhaji et al., 2023), (Islam et al., 2021)
email, smartphone, SPADA,
Google Apps, YouTube, ➢ common apps
Instagram, TedEd, Socrative, (Muhaji et al., 2023)
Blogs, Jitsi and Google Docs
Panopto, Top Hat,
BigBlueButton, LearnCube and ➢ a few essential apps in (Afrin, 2020)
WizIQ ELE

Sultana (2021) mentions that to carry forward the post-pandemic education


system; many countries have already utilized ''TV broadcasts, online libraries,
resources, guidelines, online channels, and video lectures as alternative means to
traditional classroom learning'' (p.151). She claimed that at pre-COVID tertiary
level in Bangladesh, technology
was limited to delivering lectures using PowerPoint slides, but now it
has become a tool for all teaching and learning activities, as teachers
became more engaged with technology going beyond mere PowerPoints
to using other tools such as Zoom, Google Meet, Google Classroom, and
Google Drive to deliver lectures and give tests, quizzes, and exams
(p.135).

4.4.1. Teaching Aids and Materials


Nisha (2022) posited that many students used mobile phones in the first place
and personal computers in the second place in the case of online learning.
Ferdous and Shifat (2020) and Khan et al. (2021) also found students using
smartphones, laptops and desktops. Khan et al. (2021) discovered that teachers
used PowerPoint slides, online articles, audio lectures and video clips more than
the printed materials that none could access due to the libraries being closed.

4.4.2. Pitfalls of Technology Use


There is a proverb 'Haste makes waste'. The quick shift to remote teaching
lacked much needs analysis and policy processes (Khan et al., 2021) resulting in
inadequacies and difficulties. The government and the higher education
authorities imposed technology on teachers and students without any trial. The
rapid emergency situation did not allow institutions to adopt a planned system
of pedagogical practices. Ferdous and Shifat (2020) posited that COVID halted
the vital resources and support networks and teachers and learners fell out of
the frying pan into the fire. Quick pedagogical practice shifts (Muhaji et al., 2023)
and impromptu imposition of online teaching (Shifat et al., 2021) created serious
challenges for them. Maniruzzaman (2022) speculated that the pandemic time
pedagogical transition at lightning speed negatively affected student-teacher
motivation, preparedness, attitude, practice and performance. Moreover, Aktar
et al. (2022) reported that most of the universities had no virtual learning
environment (e.g., Moodle, Blackboard, Canvas) to store and deposit any

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materials, including PPT slides and recorded lectures which students could
easily access.

4.4.3. Future Possibilities


Sultana (2021) predicts that ELE's new possibilities and positive effects during
the pandemic may usher in an era of post-pandemic education through quality
instruction and collaborative pedagogies. She also thinks that teachers may
consider blended learning activities in regular classrooms in a similar future
crisis. Aktar et al. (2022) echoed the same by claiming that the pandemic had
offered plenty of innovations and technologies including AI (Artificial
Intelligence), in the Fourth Industrial Revolution to shape the future of ELE.
Subekti (2020) pronounces that synchronous and asynchronous modes boost
learning effectiveness and reduce burdens allowing a win-win solution for both
learners and teachers. She considers the LMS as a kind of sanctuary where
learners can 'go slow to grow fast'. A teacher can use this platform for
performing multiple tasks, such as monitoring students' activities, organizing
lectures, uploading course materials, conducting assessments, giving feedback
and opening discussion forums where learners can navigate during his/her
flexible time parameter.

Rai (2022) believes that after the pandemic both tools Open Educational
Resources (OER) and Open Educational Practices (OEP) have started to
contribute to ELE. There is a paradigm shift that has transformed both teachers'
and students' attitudes towards online education. The new dynamism will
develop a high level of critical thinking, interpersonal, managerial and language
skills and cognitive abilities in students. The ICT tools will help them perform as
autonomous, creative and research-oriented learners with motivation. Rahaman
et al. (2021) speculate that virtual learning tools will augment the new academic
standard. Maniruzzaman (2022) believes that the new normal will accommodate
ERT, virtual learning and traditional face-to-face learning.

4.5. Ethical Considerations


Ethical standards are important to conduct original research. Richard Mason in
1986 proposed PAPA (Privacy, Accuracy, Property and Accessibility) framework
(Young et al., 2020) with the required ethical considerations. Privacy means
confidentiality and anonymity. Participants' identities, and other details like
contact information, associated departments, faculty names etc. must be
anonymized. All collected data, transcription and audio recordings should be
preserved confidentially and the data cannot be used anywhere without consent.
Presenting true and original information without falsifying any data can uphold
accuracy. Property right refers to the copyright of the legal owner of resources.
Moreover, it's important to mention who will get access to the research works. In
addition to the PAPA framework, other ethics include ensuring justice, assuring
research participants of no harm and risk, taking informed consent and using
the best polite language during interviews. Each of these reviewed articles (20)
upheld these ethical standards.

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5. Discussion
The shift to Emergency Remote Teaching was an emotional rollercoaster that
simultaneously offered excitement, frustration, stress and reward for the
teachers and students (Maniruzzaman, 2022). The findings lead to the following
discussion based on the SWOC (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and
Challenges) framework.

5.1. Strengths
The greatest distance education experiment in history brought about the
emergence of pedagogy of care (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020) and established a
positive 'culture-change moment' (Calonge et al., 2022). Teachers and students
became well-equipped with strategies to solve technological glitches and show
resilience and mindfulness to survive and continue teaching-learning in crisis
moments, overcoming distance-learning pedagogy challenges. The new
academic standard developed teachers’ and learners’ soft skills they lacked
before. Teachers and organizations learnt how to overcome the session jam
which students were worried about. The contactless EiE exposed all the
academic stakeholders to hybrid pedagogy replacing stereotypical teaching. It
gave birth to an era of techno-pedagogy for all where teachers require new
identities as techno-pedagogues and students as smart App users and problem
solvers.

To accelerate educational activities, academic institutions developed web-based


tools and web portals where teachers uploaded soft copies of their lectures and
instructions for students' convenience. All organizations ensured their digital
presence to create new digital identities. They gave birth to their digital twins as
a dire need of the time (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). Additionally, each
organization created a Learning Management System (LMS) as a disciplined
database (Aldiab et al., 2019 as cited in Islam et al., 2021) to support future
teaching-learning. Ping et al. (2022) feel that this LMS is environment-friendly as
it reduces the printing of note sheets. Thus, there is a transition from an old
pedagogy to a new techno-pedagogy in the global educational context.

5.2. Weaknesses
COVID-19 created the greatest disruption to the higher education landscape
giving rise to an 'educational punctuated equilibrium' (Calonge et al., 2022).
Teachers could not properly enhance learners' overall performance and failed to
properly monitor their students during exams when they could resort to
plagiarism. The teaching agency and teacher identity were initially at risk.
Students lost motivation and were suffering psychologically due to the lack of
physical presence on campus for social interaction and face-to-face learning. EiE
also generated digital poverty and digital divide among university teachers and
students in low-resource settings.

5.3. Opportunities
All teachers tried to upskill their digital competencies as it was a sink-or-swim
situation. According to Islam et al. (2021) during online classes, teachers posted
announcements, recorded lectures, shared the screen, uploaded course materials

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and were involved in live chatting. Gradually, they used ICT tools efficiently to
conduct virtual or hybrid classes (Rai, 2022). Khan et al. (2021) stated that
teachers demonstrated their humanistic stance and consideration for
disadvantaged students and hence, human compassion emerged as a
pedagogical quality (Afrin, 2020). The teachers felt they must be smart with Web
2.0 and Web 3.0 technologies to teach Generation Z (Muhaji et al., 2023) and
Generation Alpha students, the digital natives born with gadgets. EiE made
teachers and students understand resilience as an adaptive process to maintain
their identities and continue learning, growing, and evolving despite multiple
adversities. Islam et al. (2021) consider tech-based education as a timely weapon
to face an invisible enemy (COVID-19). Both teachers and students had to make
use of multiple devices (e.g., mobile phones, laptops, desktops, tabs) and social
networking sites (e.g., Messenger, WhatsApp, Viber, and Imo groups) for
academic purposes.

The changed circumstances enhanced digital technology use for which teachers
and learners got training and technical support. Teachers learnt how to record
audio and video lectures and live classes for learners' convenience. The
government and mobile operator companies are taking steps to offer cost-
effective data packages with uninterrupted internet services even in rural areas.
The government and some private institutions are providing subsidies and
stipends to disadvantaged teachers and students. The institutional website or
blog is getting more secure, simple and user-friendly. A pool of dedicated and
strong IT people to assist students and teachers with LMS functionalities,
materials development, and instant problem-solving has been formed as an
inseparable part of education. Interesting and relevant mini-lesson pedagogy is
being designed for learner interaction through instructional modes in multiple
formats, platforms, and devices. Hence, future EiE will adopt multi-modal ERT
channels through the creation of a sustainable, robust emergency-resilient
educational ecosystem.

5.4. Challenges
Mudzingiri et al. (2022) believe that education during the COVID emergency
''was accompanied by the challenges of digital technology resources and the lack
of training and preparation for digital platforms'' (p.297). EiE gave rise to
technophobia among teachers and learners. It injected turmoil and uncertainty
across the education sector. There was an initial fear of deskilling and de-
professionalization among academic staff. It also led to instructional frustration
or even an identity crisis among teachers, all of which could lead to educators
leaving the profession. Teachers felt worried about the over-dependence of
students on assignments, presentations, short questions and quizzes. Virtual
teaching resulted in a higher attrition rate among the students.

6. Conclusion
Through the Modified 5-SPICE framework, this paper addresses the importance
of techno-pedagogies during COVID-19 in the tertiary ELE context. With some
preliminary glitches, all the educational stakeholders, especially the teachers as
'frontline heroes' (Pherali & Mendenhall, 2023) have been able to keep pace with

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the New Normal technologies. Desperate times call for desperate measures. ERT
as a desperate measure during the pandemic has ushered in an era of techno-
pedagogy for all. Every teacher and student has mastered hard and soft skills to
be an unbreakable shield against such an emergency situation in the future.
Hence, COVID-19 has been a blessing in disguise. It has given birth to
institutional digital twins that will be a ubiquitous requirement to tackle any
future catastrophe. Teacher agency and teacher identity may be under threat if
techno-pedagogy is not embraced. However, tech-savvy teachers with ELE
expertise and continuous professional development strategies will surpass
teachers with conventional pedagogies and create consolidated identities and
agencies. Despite the new insights gained by the study, this small-scale desk
research has not been able to shed light on many other original research works
in developed contexts. Therefore, further large-scale research needs to be carried
out to add more insights into using EiE technologies at the university level in the
wider ELE context. However, the pedagogical implications of the findings of this
study can’t be denied. The institutional authorities, policy makers, curriculum
developers, teacher trainers, ELE pedagogues, learners and other stakeholders
can gain valuable insight from the findings to perform better in the next-normal
educational setting even though any unprecedented emergency arises.

Acknowledgement of Funding
This research is funded by UIU-LCT project of United International University,
Madani Avenue, Dhaka- 1212, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 76-98, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.5
Received Feb 25, 2024; Revised Apr 11, 2024; Accepted Apr 22, 2024

Analysis of Innovative and Adaptive Higher


Education Curriculum Development to
Education 5.0 Based Challenges in Indonesia
Berman Hutahaean*
Universitas Katolik Santo Thomas, Medan, Indonesia

Sadieli Telaumbanua
Universitas Prima Indonesia, Medan, Indonesia

Losten Tamba
Universitas Katolik Santo Thomas, Medan, Indonesia

Renato Gema Nugraha Hutabarat


Universitas Quality, Medan, Indonesia

Sumani
Universitas PGRI Madiun, Indonesia

Abstract. This study comprehensively analyzes the evolving landscape of


higher education curriculum development in response to the advent of
Education 5.0 in Indonesia. Recognizing the seismic shifts prompted by
digital transformation and the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the research
identifies the imperative to realign educational frameworks to foster
twnet-first-century competencies and technological integration and
enhance lecturers’ capabilities. This research aims to analyze the
development of an innovative and adaptive higher education curriculum
to the challenges based on Education 5.0 in Indonesia. Through a
qualitative methodology encompassing case studies of three Indonesian
universities that have pioneered innovative and adaptive curricula, the
investigation sheds light on the strategic orientations and methods
employed. Core informants and supporting informant data were
amassed through interviews, observations, and documentary analysis
involving key stakeholders: universities, industry, government and
community representatives. Employing the Miles and Huberman model
for data analysis, the findings underscore the necessity for curricula that
not only imbibe technological advancements orienting toward twenty-
first-century competencies but also integrate technology, humanities and
local wisdom in learning prioritize flexibility, learner personalization and
stakeholder collaboration in curriculum development and execution.

*
Corresponding author: Berman Hutahaean, [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
77

Furthermore, the study highlights the critical role of continuous


evaluation and accreditation in upholding curriculum quality and
credibility. Collectively, these insights contribute to delineating a
framework for higher education curricula that are equipped to meet the
demands of Education 5.0, thereby serving as a beacon for curriculum
developers, policymakers and educational practitioners aiming to
navigate the complexities of contemporary educational dynamics.

Keywords: curriculum development; higher education; innovative;


adaptive learning; education 5.0

1. Introduction
Education 5.0 is a term used to describe an educational paradigm that focuses on
developing twenty-first-century skills, such as creativity, collaboration,
communication, critical thinking and character, by utilizing advanced digital
technologies, such as artificial intelligence, Internet of Things, Big Data, cloud
computing, and augmented reality (González et al., 2022; Rusman et al., 2023).
Education 5.0 is expected to produce graduates who are ready to face the
challenges and opportunities in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR),
which is characterized by rapid, complex, and uncertain changes in various fields
of life, including the current hostile and favorable challenges of AI (Rymarczyk,
2020).

The precipitous advancement of AI in recent years has heralded significant


transformations across various sectors, including Education (Yu, 2024). While AI
technologies offer unprecedented opportunities for enhancing learning
environments and operational efficiencies, they concurrently present substantial
challenges (Dwivedi et al., 2021). One of the most pressing concerns is the
displacement of human roles by AI tools, leading to a diminished engagement of
individuals in real and tangible activities (Caporusso, 2023). This phenomenon
raises questions about the future of work and the skills and competencies that
need to be nurtured within the educational sphere to prepare individuals for a
rapidly evolving digital world.

Recognizing these developments, this research aims to delve into the existing
problems and gaps within the educational field, particularly in the context of
higher education curriculum development in Indonesia (Hutahaean et al., 2022).
The advent of AI and its implications necessitates a reevaluation of educational
frameworks to ensure they remain relevant and capable of equipping students
with the skills required in the digital age (Gill et al., 2022). However, a notable
need exists for a clear framework or model in the literature that addresses the need
for curricula to adapt to technological advancements and innovatively foster
critical competencies among students.

This study seeks to fill this gap by proposing a model for an innovative and
adaptive curriculum responsive to the challenges posed by the digital revolution,
including integrating AI in educational settings. By examining the design and
implementation of such curricula in selected Indonesian universities, this research

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contributes to a deeper understanding of how higher Education can evolve to


meet the needs of students in the twenty-first century. Moreover, it underscores
the importance of curriculum development processes that are methodically sound
and aligned with contemporary educational demands and challenges, setting the
stage for a discussion on the methodological aspects in the subsequent section.

A critical aspect of Education 5.0 is the curriculum, a plan and arrangement


regarding the objectives, content, learning materials and methods used as
guidelines for organizing learning activities to achieve specific educational goals
(Rapanta et al., 2020). The higher education curriculum, as one of the levels of
education that plays a role in producing quality, relevant and competitive human
resources, must be able to adapt and innovate according to the challenges and
needs that exist in the Education 5.0 era (Darmaji et al., 2019; Tavares et al., 2023).

This study aims to analyze the development of an innovative and adaptive higher
education curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 in Indonesia. This
research uses a qualitative descriptive method with three core informants, namely
three universities in Indonesia that have implemented an innovative and adaptive
curriculum, namely University A, University B and University C, and three
supporting informants, namely three stakeholders related to the higher education
curriculum, namely industry, government and society. The data analyzed came
from interviews, observations and documentation conducted on informants.

This research is expected to contribute to developing a higher education


curriculum informed by the challenges and opportunities in the era of Education
5.0 and provide information and inspiration for researchers, practitioners and
policymakers interested in the higher education curriculum in Indonesia.

2. Literature Review
2.1 Education 5.0
Education 5.0 represents an educational paradigm focusing on developing 21st-
century skills by leveraging advanced digital technologies (N. Rane et al., 2023).
These skills include creativity, collaboration, communication, critical thinking and
character development (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). The integration of artificial
intelligence, the Internet of Things, Big Data, cloud computing and augmented
reality plays a pivotal role in shaping Education 5.0 (Rane, 2023). The goal is to
produce graduates who are well-prepared to navigate the challenges and
opportunities of the 4IR, characterized by rapid and complex changes across
various domains (Bikse et al., 2022; Ramnund-Mansingh & Reddy, 2021).

Education 5.0 has several characteristics, namely:


1) It is oriented toward learning outcomes that positively impact individuals,
society and the environment, not just the learning process oriented toward
grades or certificates (Rusilowati & Wahyudi, 2020).
2) It requires the integration of technology, humanities and local wisdom in
learning to produce graduates who have balanced technical, social, and
cultural skills (Ratana-Ubol & Henschke, 2015; Sumiati et al., 2020).
Education 5.0 seeks to balance technical knowledge with social and cultural

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understanding. It encourages the integration of technology, humanities and


local wisdom into the learning process (Jamaludin et al., 2020).
3) It provides flexibility and personalization in the learning process to adapt to
each individual’s needs, interests, learning styles and the conditions and
situations in the environment (Lamya et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2019).
4) It involves collaboration between parties with the same interests and goals in
education, such as universities, industry, government and society, with
mutual contributions, support and benefits (Rybnicek & Königsgruber, 2019).
5) It aims to improve the quality and capacity of educators as facilitators,
inspirers and true learners who can support, motivate and inspire students
in the teaching and learning process, research, community service and self-
development (Blašková et al., 2014; Vadivel et al., 2021).
6) Outcome-Oriented Learning: Education 5.0 emphasizes learning outcomes
that positively impact individuals, society and the environment. It goes
beyond grades or certificates, focusing on holistic development (Saidi et al.,
2023).

While existing literature provides insights into Education 5.0, there still needs to
be a more precise identification of arguments related to the adaptive, innovative
and challenging nature of curricula. Our research reviews previous empirical
studies to address this gap, examining their methods, results and conclusions. By
outlining these gaps, we aim to contribute to the ongoing discourse on curriculum
development. Combining the research questions addressed in this study is
essential. Therefore, constructing feasible research questions becomes imperative
to demonstrate the relevance of our study and its ability to achieve its objectives.

2.2 Higher Education Curriculum


The curriculum is a plan and arrangement regarding the objectives, content, and
learning materials and the methods used as guidelines for organizing learning
activities to achieve specific educational goals (Zuo & Wang, 2021). The higher
education curriculum, as one of the levels of education that plays a role in
producing quality, relevant and competitive human resources, must be able to
adapt and innovate according to the challenges and needs that exist in the era of
Education 5.0 (Rusman et al., 2023; Tavares et al., 2023).
The higher education curriculum has several components, namely:
1) Objectives are statements of what higher education aims to achieve regarding
knowledge, skills, attitudes and values (Serva Tuju et al., 2022; Wagenaar,
2014).
2) Content is the material or substance delivered in higher education, whether
in the form of courses, modules, projects, or other activities relevant to the
field of study (Barrot, 2023; Mateus et al., 2019).
3) Methods are the means or techniques used in higher education, whether in
terms of delivery, interaction or evaluation, by the set objectives and content
(Barrot, 2023).
4) Media are tools or means used in higher education, whether in the form of
books, slides, videos, audio, or digital technology that can support the
teaching and learning process (Nicolaou et al., 2019; Zuo & Wang, 2021).

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5) Evaluation is the process of measuring or assessing the performance or


results achieved by higher education, whether in the form of tests, quizzes,
assignments, portfolios or observations, which can provide feedback or input
for improvement and improvement (Zuo & Wang, 2021).

2.3 Innovative and Adaptive Higher Education Curriculum Development


Curriculum development is the process of planning, implementing and
evaluating the curriculum, which involves various related parties, such as
educators, students, industry, government and society, to improve the quality,
relevance and impact of education (Khan & Law, 2015). Innovative and adaptive
higher education curriculum development is a curriculum development process
that can produce a curriculum that is by the challenges and opportunities that
exist in the Education 5.0 era, using a creative, flexible, and collaborative approach
(Carayannis et al., 2022; Legi et al., 2023; Tierney & Lanford, 2016).

The development of an innovative and adaptive higher education curriculum has


several steps, namely:
1) Needs analysis is the process of identifying and analyzing the needs and
demands that exist in the world of work and society, as well as the
development of science and technology, which is the basis for determining
the objectives and content of the curriculum (El-Sabagh, 2021).
2) Curriculum design, which is the process of designing and compiling a
curriculum, considers various aspects, such as the university’s vision,
mission, goals, quality standards set by the government, industry, society
and available resources and facilities. Curriculum design also incorporates
the principles of an innovative and adaptive curriculum, namely orientation
to twenty-first-century competencies, integration between technology,
humanities and local wisdom, flexibility and personalization, collaboration,
and accountability (Serva Tuju et al., 2022; Stojadinovic et al., 2021).
3) Curriculum implementation is the process of implementing the curriculum
using methods and media that follow its objectives and content. It involves
collaboration between universities, industry and society as partners, clients
or beneficiaries. Curriculum implementation must consider effectiveness,
efficiency, and sustainability principles and conduct regular and systematic
monitoring and supervision (Stojadinovic et al., 2021; Supriyoko et al., 2022).
4) Curriculum evaluation is the process of assessing and measuring the
performance or results achieved by the curriculum, both in terms of quality,
relevance and impact, using instruments or tools that are valid, reliable and
accurate and by making the necessary improvements and enhancements.
Curriculum evaluation must be carried out by taking into account the
principles of objectivity, transparency and accountability and by involving
various parties who have interests and responsibilities for the curriculum,
such as educators, students, industry, government and society (Hutahaean et
al., 2022; Japee & Oza, 2021; Woods, 1988; Yazçayır & Selvi, 2020)

2.4 The Integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI)


Integrating AI into educational paradigms represents a transformative shift,
necessitating a reevaluation of existing curricular frameworks to ensure they align
with the competencies required in the digital age (Abraham & Abraham Jackson,

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2024). This literature review elaborates on the theoretical and conceptual


underpinnings crucial for understanding innovative and adaptive curriculum
development dynamics in the face of technological advancements, drawing
extensively on the insights from leading scholars in the field (Abulibdeh et al.,
2024).

Central to this discussion is the work of Mahmud and Wong (2022), who articulate
the importance of developing curricula that are not only technologically
integrated but also foster critical thinking, creativity and adaptability among
students. Similarly, Parker et al. (2024) emphasize the role of AI in reshaping
educational practices, highlighting the potential for enhanced personalized
learning experiences. However, these advancements also bring forth challenges,
including the risk of obsolescence of traditional educational models and the need
for educators to acquire new pedagogical skills.

A detailed examination of empirical studies reveals varied approaches to


integrating AI technologies within higher education. For instance, Bozkurt et al.
(2021) employed a mixed-methods approach to assess the impact of AI-based
tools on learning outcomes, finding significant improvements in student
engagement and understanding. Conversely, Ouyang and Jiao (2021) conducted
a longitudinal study that pointed to the challenges of implementing AI solutions,
such as technical difficulties and resistance from faculty members.

Despite these insights, a gap persists in the literature regarding comprehensive


curriculum development models that are innovative in incorporating AI and
adaptive to the evolving educational landscape (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). This
gap underscores the necessity for research that interrogates the efficacy of such
models and explores their implementation across diverse educational contexts.

Addressing this need, the present study formulates research questions to


investigate the design, implementation and outcomes of innovative and adaptive
curricula in Indonesian universities. These answers to these questions shed light
on how such curricula can prepare students for the challenges and opportunities
of the digital age, thereby contributing to the broader discourse on educational
innovation in the context of AI integration.

3. Research Methodology
In this study, researchers used a qualitative research method with a case-study
approach. According to Sugiyono (2019), qualitative research methods are
research methods that produce descriptive data in the form of written or spoken
words from people and observable behavior. According to Yin et al. (2018), a case
study is a research strategy that studies a phenomenon in depth in a natural
context, using various sources of evidence. The researcher chose a qualitative
research method with a case study approach because the researcher wanted to
analyze the development of an innovative and adaptive higher education
curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 in Indonesia by describing,
explaining and understanding the phenomenon holistically and

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comprehensively, by considering various related aspects, such as context, process,


results and impact (Creswell, 2017).
This research adopts a qualitative case-study approach, strategically chosen for its
effectiveness in exploring complex phenomena within their real-life contexts.
Contrary to the conflation between research design and approach initially
observed, this clarification delineates the case study as the research strategy
employed to gain in-depth insights into implementing innovative and adaptive
curricula in Indonesian universities in response to the challenges posed by
Education 5.0.

Case Study Selection and Rationale. The selection of three Indonesian


universities for this study was grounded in purposive sampling. These
institutions were identified based on their proactive initiatives in curriculum
development to address the evolving educational demands. To ensure a rigorous
selection process, criteria were established, including documented evidence of
curriculum innovation and adaptability, recognition for educational excellence
and willingness to participate in the study. This approach mitigates the potential
bias of convenience sampling by prioritizing relevance and representativeness
over mere accessibility.

In this study, researchers determined three universities in Indonesia that had


implemented an innovative and adaptive curriculum to the challenges based on
Education 5.0, as the case under study. The three universities are University A,
University B and University C. Researchers selected the three universities based
on purposive sampling criteria, a sampling technique with specific considerations
that are dictated by the research objectives (Miles et al., 2018; Sugiyono, 2019). The
criteria used by researchers are as follows:
1) The college has implemented a curriculum that is innovative and adaptive to
the challenges of Education 5.0, as indicated by curriculum documents,
academic guidelines or other relevant evidence.
2) These universities have a good reputation nationally and internationally, as
indicated by their rankings, accreditation or awards.
3) These universities are willing and cooperative to become informants and
provide the data researchers need.

In this study, researchers used source triangulation techniques to collect data.


Source triangulation is a data collection technique using various sources to obtain
more complete, valid, and reliable data (Bonello & Meehan, 2019; Miles et al.,
2018). The data sources used by researchers were as follows:
1) Core informants, namely the three universities that were the cases studied,
were represented by officials or staff responsible for curriculum
development, such as rectors, deans, heads of study programs or curriculum
coordinators. These core informants provided data on the universities’
curriculum development regarding process, results and impact. To ascertain
the successful integration of innovative and adaptive curricula, we selected
three universities based on the following criteria:
a. Orientation Toward Education 5.0 Challenges: Universities that
explicitly addressed the challenges posed by Education 5.0 in their

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curriculum development. These universities demonstrated a proactive


approach to aligning their curricula with the demands of the twenty-
first-century (Munikwa & Mapara, 2022).
b. Evidence of Implementation: We verified that these universities had
implemented innovative and adaptive curricula through interviews,
observations and documentation. The evidence included curriculum
documents, faculty interviews, and classroom observations (Gale et al.,
2020).
c. Representativeness: While we acknowledge that other institutions may
also embrace similar actions, we focused on these three universities as
representative cases. We aimed to provide insights into the process of
curriculum development, its impact and outcomes within the context of
Education 5.0 (Gürdür Broo et al., 2022).
2) Supporting informants, namely three stakeholders related to the higher
education curriculum, namely industry, government and society, were
represented by representatives or people who had links or interests with the
higher education curriculum, such as directors, managers, employees,
officials, activists, or academics (Aleixo et al., 2018). These supporting
informants provided data on their perceptions, expectations and responses
to the curriculum developed by higher education institutions in terms of
quality, relevance and impact.
3) Various documents related to the higher education curriculum were obtained
from universities, industry, government and society, such as curriculum
documents, academic guidelines, research reports, accreditation reports,
articles, news or social media. These documents provide data that supports,
complements or compares data obtained from informants.

Data Collection and Instruments. Data were collected through semi-structured


interviews, observations and document analysis. The interview guides,
observation checklists, and document analysis frameworks were meticulously
developed to ensure comprehensive coverage of the study’s focal points,
including the curriculum development process, the integration of innovative and
adaptive elements, and the outcomes of such initiatives.

An interview is a data collection technique involving direct conversations with


informants, face-to-face or through other communication media, such as
telephone, email or social media, using pre-prepared questions. Observation is a
data collection technique that directly observes the object, situation or behavior
under study or through recording media, such as photos, videos or audio..
Document analysis is a data collection technique used to search, collect, and
analyze documents related to the problem under study (Creswell, 2017; Sugiyono,
2019).
Our data sources include:
1) Interviews: We conducted face-to-face interviews with core informants
(university representatives) and supporting informants (industry,
government and society). Interviews were conducted face-to-face and online,
depending on the participants’ availability and preferences. This flexibility
ensured a higher participation rate and accommodated the informants’

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diverse schedules. The interviews aimed to gather insights into the


universities’ curriculum development processes, challenges faced and
strategies employed. Supporting informants, such as industry partners and
educational policymakers, were also engaged to understand the broader
impact and reception of the curricular innovations.
2) Observations: Classroom observations allowed us to witness the
implementation of the curricula. We observed interactions between lecturers
and students, teaching methods and student engagement.
3) Documentation: Curriculum documents, policy guidelines and relevant
materials provided essential information. These documents helped us
understand the formal aspects of curriculum design and implementation.

Data Management and Analysis. Data management involves organizing,


categorizing, and thematizing the collected data (Miles et al., 2018). We ensured
objectivity, transparency and accountability throughout the process.

In this study, researchers used the Miles and Huberman model data analysis
technique, consisting of three stages: data reduction, data presentation, and
conclusion drawing (Miles et al., 2018). Data reduction simplifies, organizes and
selects data relevant to research objectives using coding, categorization or
thematization techniques. Data presentation is the process of organizing and
structuring data that has been reduced into a form that is easy to understand and
interpret using techniques such as tables, diagrams, graphs or narratives.
Concluding is the process of interpreting and making meaning from the data that
has been presented using techniques such as comparison, triangulation, or
verification (Creswell, 2017).

All collected data were managed using NVivo software to facilitate organized
storage, coding and analysis. This software enabled the efficient handling of
diverse data sources and supported the thematic analysis to identify patterns and
insights related to the study objectives (Bonello & Meehan, 2019).

Validity and Reliability. To ensure the reliability and validity of the research
instruments, a pilot test was conducted with a small group of educational experts
not included in the main study (Karmilla et al., 2016). Feedback from this pilot test
led to refinements in the interview questions and observation criteria.
Additionally, triangulation of data sources was employed to cross-verify
information and enhance the study’s credibility.
Instruments and Validity.
1. Interview Instruments: We developed interview guides tailored to
each informant group (core and supporting). The questions covered
curriculum development, challenges, stakeholder collaboration and
impact assessment.
2. Observation Instruments: We used structured observation forms to
record classroom dynamics, teaching methods and student
participation.
3. Document Analysis: We systematically reviewed curriculum
documents, ensuring consistency and alignment with Education 5.0
principles.

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Ethical Considerations. The institutional review board approved the research,


and all participants provided informed consent. The anonymity and
confidentiality of the participants’ responses were strictly maintained throughout
the research process.

4. Research Results and Discussion


In this section, researchers present and discuss the results obtained from the data
analysis that has been carried out using qualitative descriptive methods. The
results were arranged around the following research questions:
1) How can we develop an innovative and adaptive higher education
curriculum that meets the challenges based on Education 5.0 in
Indonesia?
2) What factors influence the development of an innovative and adaptive
higher education curriculum to the challenges based on education 5.0
in Indonesia?
3) How does developing an innovative and adaptive higher education
curriculum impact the challenges of education-based 5.0 in Indonesia?

Curriculum oriented toward twenty-first century competencies, namely


creativity, critical thinking, communication and collaboration. These
competencies are needed to face the challenges and opportunities in the era of
globalization and digitalization, which demand the ability to adapt, innovate and
collaborate in the world of work and society. A higher education curriculum
oriented toward twenty-first-century competencies must provide opportunities
and facilities for students to develop their creativity regarding ideas, products and
processes. A higher education curriculum oriented toward twenty-first-century
competencies must also provide opportunities and facilities for students to solve
existing problems, both theoretical and practical problems, using various methods
and approaches. A higher education curriculum oriented toward twenty-first-
century competencies must also provide opportunities and facilities for students
to collaborate with fellow students, lecturers and other parties, both on and off
campus, using various media and platforms that support communication and
cooperation. A higher education curriculum oriented toward twenty-first-century
competencies must also provide opportunities and facilities for students to
communicate effectively using various languages and styles, both orally and in
writing.

The interviews with the core informants showed that the three universities had
implemented a twenty-first-century competency-oriented curriculum differently.
University A developed a project-based curriculum, where students were
assigned projects related to their field of study, using various learning resources,
including technology. The projects were aimed at demonstrating students’
creativity, problem-solving, collaboration and communication, both in the process
and the outcome. University B developed a problem-based curriculum, where
students were given real problems relevant to their field of study, using various
methods and approaches, including technology. These problems challenged
students’ critical, analytical and reflective thinking and require effective

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collaboration and communication. University C developed a portfolio-based


curriculum, where students could create portfolios that reflected their twenty-
first-century competencies using various products and processes, including
technology. These portfolios demonstrated students’ creativity, problem-solving,
collaboration and communication in individual and group form.

The results of interviews with supporting informants show that the three
stakeholders, namely industry, government and society, appreciated the need for
a curriculum oriented toward twenty-first-century competencies because of the
needs and demands of the times consider it. Industry said that graduates who
have twenty-first-century competencies will be more adaptable, innovative and
collaborative in an increasingly complex and competitive world of work. The
government said that graduates with twenty-first-century competencies will be
better able to contribute to social, cultural and economic development using
various media and platforms that support communication and cooperation.
Society says that graduates with twenty-first-century competencies will be more
sensitive to global and local issues and responsible for the environment and
humanity.

Twenty-first-century competencies. Universities emphasize competencies such as


creativity, critical thinking, communication and collaboration. These
competencies are essential for graduates to thrive in a globalized, digitalized
world, where adaptability, innovation and collaboration are paramount.

Integrate technology, humanities and local wisdom in learning. Technology is a


learning tool and resource that can support the teaching and learning process in
terms of efficiency, effectiveness and affordability. Humanities is the study of
humans, whether in terms of culture, history, philosophy or art. Local wisdom
derives from the community’s culture and traditions. These three aspects
complement and enrich each other to improve the quality of education and
graduates. The higher education curriculum that integrates technology,
humanities and local wisdom must utilize various existing technologies, such as
the internet, computers, smartphones, tablets and others, to support the teaching
and learning process synchronously and asynchronously. The higher education
curriculum integrating technology, humanities and local wisdom must also utilize
various online learning resources, such as e-books, e-journals, videos, podcasts
and others, to support the teaching and learning process independently and in
groups. The higher education curriculum that integrates technology, humanities
and local wisdom must also be able to teach and apply humanities and local
wisdom, both in the scientific, professional and expertise fields, by appreciating
and respecting the differences and uniqueness of each.

The interviews with the core informants showed that the three universities had
implemented a curriculum that integrated technology, humanities and local
wisdom differently. University A developed a technology-based curriculum
(hybrid), where part of the learning process was carried out online, using various
applications and platforms, such as Google Classroom, Zoom, YouTube and
others. University A also developed a humanities-based curriculum, where
students were given courses related to the humanities, such as philosophy,

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history, culture and art. University A also developed a local wisdom-based


curriculum, where students were given courses related to local wisdom, such as
regional languages, customs and environmental wisdom.

University B developed a humanities-based curriculum, where students were


given courses related to the humanities, such as ethics, psychology, sociology and
anthropology. University B also developed a technology-based curriculum, where
students were given technology-related courses, such as informatics, engineering
and design. University B also developed a local wisdom-based curriculum, where
students were given courses related to local wisdom, such as religion, culture and
art.

University C developed a local wisdom-based curriculum, where students were


given courses related to local wisdom, such as character education and
entrepreneurship citizenship. University C also developed a technology-based
curriculum, where students were given technology-related courses, such as
communication, media and information. University C also developed a
humanities-based curriculum, where students were given courses related to the
humanities, such as literature, language and culture.

Technology Integration (Research Questions-RQ1): The study revealed that all


three universities had proactively integrated technological advancements into
their curricula, aligning with global digital transformation trends. Data from
interviews underscored significant enhancements in digital literacy among
students and faculty alike; a sentiment echoed in the observed classroom practices
where digital tools were actively employed to facilitate learning. Documentation
from University A revealed a structured framework for embedding digital
competencies across disciplines, illustrating a strategic approach to technology
integration.

Incorporation of Humanities and Local Wisdom (RQ2): Analysis of curriculum


documents and faculty interviews highlighted a conscious effort to blend
humanities and local cultural insights into the curriculum. Observations
confirmed that courses included modules focused on local wisdom, aiming to
foster a deeper connection between students and their cultural heritage while
developing critical thinking skills. This approach has been praised for its potential
to cultivate well-rounded graduates equipped to navigate the complexities of the
global and local contexts.

Challenges and Opportunities (RQ3): Interviews with university leaders and


faculty revealed various challenges, from infrastructural limitations to staff
resistance to change. However, these challenges were counterbalanced by
opportunities, including stronger industry-academia partnerships and an
enriched student educational experience. Documentation and observations
supported these findings, showcasing instances where universities successfully
navigated obstacles to innovate curricula.

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Discussion in Light of Previous Research The findings from this study resonate
with existing literature that emphasizes the importance of technological fluency
in modern education. However, the novel integration of local wisdom and
humanities significantly contributes to the discourse on adaptive curricula. This
dual focus addresses a critical gap in existing research, as highlighted by Abidoye
et al. (2024), who call for a more holistic approach to curriculum development in
the digital age.

The challenges identified align with those documented by Ali (2020), who also
notes resistance to technological integration in higher education. However, this
study extends the conversation by identifying clear pathways through which
institutions have turned challenges into opportunities for curriculum
enhancement.

Integration of Technology, Humanities and Local Wisdom. Curricula incorporate


technology to enhance learning experiences. Humanities courses provide a
broader perspective, fostering empathy, cultural understanding and ethical
reasoning. Local wisdom is integrated to preserve cultural heritage and address
societal needs.

3) Flexibility and personalization in the learning process.


Flexibility is the ability to adapt to student’s needs, interests, learning styles and
the conditions and situations in the environment. Personalization is the ability to
provide learning experiences based on students’ characteristics, potential, goals
and the development of science and technology. A flexible and personalized
higher education curriculum must provide choices and variations in the learning
process regarding material, methods, media and evaluation. A flexible and
personalized higher education curriculum must also be able to provide
appropriate and relevant feedback and guidance for students, both individually
and in groups.

Interviews with core informants showed that the three universities had
implemented flexible and personalized curricula differently. University A
developed a project-based curriculum where students could choose project topics,
sources and methods that suited their interests, goals, conditions and situations.
University A also developed a portfolio-based curriculum, where students could
choose products and processes that matched their characteristics and potential, as
well as the development of science and technology. University B developed a
problem-based curriculum where students could choose problems, approaches
and solutions that suited their interests and goals, as well as existing conditions
and situations. University B also developed a competency-based curriculum,
where students could choose competencies that aligned with their characteristics
and potential and the development of science and technology. University C
developed a curriculum based on learning independence, where students could
choose courses, sources and media that fit their interests and goals and existing
conditions and situations. University C also developed a curriculum based on
campus freedom, where students could choose activities, places and times
according to their characteristics and potential, as well as the development of
science and technology.

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The results of interviews with supporting informants showed that all three
stakeholders, namely industry, government and society, supported a flexible and
personalized curriculum, as it was considered to improve the quality and
relevance of higher education. Industry said that graduates who followed a
flexible and personalized curriculum would have more skills needed in the world
of work, such as adaptation, innovation and collaboration. The government said
that graduates who followed a flexible and personalized curriculum would have
more knowledge needed by society, such as citizenship, entrepreneurship and
humanity. The community said that graduates who followed a flexible and
personalized curriculum would have more attitudes and values needed by the
environment, such as tolerance, empathy and responsibility.

Flexibility and Personalization. Curricula offered flexibility, allowing students to


tailor their learning paths. Personalization ensured that individual needs,
interests and aspirations are met.

4) Collaboration between universities, industry and the community in


curriculum development and implementation.
Collaboration is cooperation by various parties with the same interests and goals
by providing mutual contributions, support and benefits. Higher education,
industry and society are three parties that have an essential role in higher
education, both as organizers, users and beneficiaries. A collaborative higher
education curriculum must involve universities, industry and the community in
curriculum development in terms of identification, formulation, implementation
and evaluation. A collaborative higher education curriculum must also benefit
higher education, industry and society by improving quality, relevance and
impact.

The interviews with the core informants showed that the three universities had
implemented a collaborative curriculum differently. University A developed a
project-based curriculum where students could undertake projects related to their
field of study by working with industry, government or the community as
partners, clients or beneficiaries. University A also developed a portfolio-based
curriculum, where students can demonstrate products and processes related to
their twenty-first-century competencies by working with industry, government
or the community as givers, assessors or users. University B developed problem-
based curricula where students could solve real problems relevant to their field of
study by working with industry, government or the community as sources,
mentors or solutions. University B also developed a competency-based
curriculum, where students could develop competencies required by the
economy and society by working with industry, government or society as trainers,
mentors or partners. University C developed a learning independence-based
curriculum, where students could choose courses that suited their interests and
goals by working with industry, government or society as providers, facilitators
or inspirers. University C also developed a curriculum based on campus freedom,
where students could carry out activities that suited their characteristics and
potential by working with industry, government or society as partners, sponsors
or reinforcers.

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The results of interviews with supporting informants show that the three
stakeholders, namely industry, government and society, participate in the
collaborative curriculum in different ways. The industry said they participated in
the collaborative curriculum by providing inputs, resources and opportunities for
universities and students and getting qualified, relevant and work-ready
graduates. The government said they participated in a collaborative curriculum
by providing policies, regulations, and support for university students and
graduates who contributed, were competitive and had integrity. The community
said they participated in a collaborative curriculum by providing problems,
challenges, and solutions for universities and students and getting graduates who
were helpful, innovative and responsible.

Collaboration Across Stakeholders. Universities collaborated with industry and


society to co-create relevant curricula. Industry input ensures alignment with
workforce demands, while societal perspectives enrich curriculum content.

5) Improving the quality and capacity of lecturers as facilitators, inspirers and


true learners.
Quality is the level of excellence or perfection someone or something possesses,
which various indicators or criteria can measure. Capacity is the ability or
potential possessed by someone or something, which can be developed in various
ways or strategies. Lecturers are teaching staff tasked with organizing higher
education in terms of planning, implementation and evaluation. Lecturers are also
tasked with conducting research, community service and self-development. An
innovative and adaptive higher education curriculum that meets the challenges
based on Education 5.0 must improve the quality and capacity of lecturers in
terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. An innovative and adaptive
higher education curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 must also
be able to increase the role of lecturers as facilitators, inspirers and true learners
who can support, motivate and inspire students in the teaching and learning
process research, community service and self-development.

The interviews with the core informants showed that the three universities had
implemented innovative and adaptive curricula to the challenges of Education 5.0
in different ways. University A developed a project-based curriculum where
lecturers act as facilitators, providing guidance, direction and feedback to
students in carrying out projects. Lecturers serve as sources of inspiration for
students, offering examples, ideas, and suggestions to aid in project creation.
Moreover, they embody the spirit of lifelong learning, constantly enhancing their
expertise through research, publications, and training. At University B, a
problem-based curriculum has been implemented, wherein lecturers function as
facilitators, guiding students by presenting problems, methods, and resources for
problem-solving. They also serve as motivators, presenting challenges, questions,
and solutions to students as they tackle these problems. Additionally, they remain
committed to their own ongoing intellectual growth, fostering critical, analytical,
and reflective thinking through continued research, publications, and seminar
participation. Meanwhile, University C adopts a curriculum emphasizing
learning independence, with lecturers acting as facilitators to provide students
with choice, variety, and flexibility in selecting courses and activities. They also

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serve as mentors, offering motivation, encouragement, and guidance to students


as they explore their interests, talents, and potential. Like their counterparts at
University B, these lecturers are dedicated to their own development, striving for
independence, diversity, and excellence through ongoing research, publications,
and community engagement.

The results of interviews with supporting informants show that the three
stakeholders, namely industry, government and society, appreciate an innovative
and adaptive curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 because it is
considered to improve the quality and capacity of lecturers, as well as the role of
lecturers as facilitators, inspirers and true learners. The industry said that lecturers
who have high quality and capacity, as well as the role of facilitators, inspirers
and true learners, will be able to produce qualified, relevant and work-ready
graduates. The government says that lecturers who have high quality and
capacity and act as facilitators, inspirers and true learners will be able to produce
graduates who contribute, are competitive and have integrity. The community
says that lecturers who have high quality and capacity and act as facilitators,
inspirers and true learners will be able to produce graduates who are helpful,
instrumental and responsible.

6) Improved curriculum accountability and credibility through continuous


evaluation and accreditation.
Accountability is the responsibility held by a person or institution to explain,
report and account for the performance or results achieved. Credibility is the trust
or reputation that a person or institution has for the performance or results
achieved. A curriculum is a plan and arrangement regarding the objectives,
content, learning materials and methods used as guidelines for organizing
learning activities to achieve specific educational goals. Evaluation is collecting
and processing information to assess performance or results achieved.
Accreditation is a formal recognition given by an authorized institution to a
person or institution that meets specific quality standards. An accountable and
credible higher education curriculum must demonstrate performance or results in
terms of quality standards established by government, industry and society. An
accountable and credible higher education curriculum must also be able to
undergo a continuous evaluation and accreditation process, both internally and
externally, to ensure its quality, relevance and impact.

The interviews with the core informants show that the three universities have
implemented an accountable and credible curriculum differently. University A
developed a project-based curriculum, where student performance or outcomes
were assessed based on the projects they created, using clear, objective and
transparent indicators or criteria. University A also developed a portfolio-based
curriculum, where students’ performance or outcomes were assessed based on
the portfolios they submitted, using clear, objective and transparent indicators or
criteria. University A also undergoes a continuous evaluation and accreditation
process, both internally and externally, using valid, reliable and accurate
instruments or tools. University B developed a problem-based curriculum, where
student performance or outcomes are assessed based on the problems they solve,
using clear, objective and transparent indicators or criteria. University B also

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developed a competency-based curriculum, where student performance or


outcomes were assessed based on their competencies, using clear, objective and
transparent indicators or criteria. University B also undergoes a continuous
evaluation and accreditation process, both internally and externally, using valid,
reliable and accurate instruments or tools. University C developed a learning
independence-based curriculum, where student performance or outcomes were
assessed based on their chosen courses and activities, using clear, objective and
transparent indicators or criteria. University C also developed a curriculum based
on campus freedom, where student performance or outcomes were assessed
based on their activities, using clear, objective and transparent indicators or
criteria. University C also undergoes a continuous evaluation and accreditation
process, both internally and externally, using valid, reliable and accurate
instruments or tools.

The results of interviews with supporting informants show that all three
stakeholders, namely industry, government and society, appreciate an
accountable and credible curriculum because it is considered to ensure the
quality, relevance and impact of higher education. The industry said that an
accountable and credible curriculum would be able to produce graduates who
had delivered performance or results in terms of quality standards set by the
industry, both in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes. The government said
that an accountable and credible curriculum would be able to produce graduates
who had delivered performance or results in terms of the quality standards set by
the government, both in terms of competence, achievement and integrity. The
community said that an accountable and credible curriculum would be able to
produce graduates who had delivered performance or results according to the
quality standards set by the community, both in terms of benefits, roles and
responsibilities.

7) Factors Influencing Curriculum Development


Several factors shape the development of innovative and adaptive higher
education curricula:
a. Vision, Mission and Goals. Universities’ strategic direction influences
curriculum design, and precise alignment with Education 5.0 principles
drives curriculum innovation.
b. World of Work and Society Demands. Curricula respond to industry needs,
preparing graduates for real-world challenges. Societal expectations drive
curriculum relevance and impact.
c. Science and Technology Advancements. Curricula adapt to technological
shifts, integrating digital literacy and emerging fields. Science and
technology developments inform curriculum content and methodologies.
d. Government Policies and Regulations. National policies guide curriculum
development. Compliance with quality standards ensures accountability and
credibility.

8) Interpretation of Findings
a. Accountable and Credible Curricula. Universities demonstrate
accountability and credibility through transparent assessment methods.
University A’s project-based and portfolio-based assessments exemplify this

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approach. Continuous evaluation and accreditation maintain quality


standards.
b. Collaboration Yields Impactful Curricula. Collaboration between
universities, industry and society fosters curriculum relevance. Industry
emphasizes skills, while society values attitudes and values. University B’s
problem-based and competency-based approaches reflect this collaboration.
c. Challenges and Opportunities. Challenges include balancing technology
integration with humanities and local wisdom. Opportunities lie in
personalized learning and interdisciplinary approaches.

5. Conclusion
Based on the results of the research and discussion, it can be concluded that:
1) The development of an innovative and adaptive higher education curriculum
to address the challenges of Education 5.0 in Indonesia is conducted through
various approaches. These include orienting students towards twenty-first-
century competencies; integrating technology, humanities, and local wisdom
in learning; offering flexibility and personalization in the learning process;
fostering collaboration between universities, industry, and society in
curriculum preparation and implementation; enhancing the quality and
capacity of lecturers as facilitators, inspirers, and lifelong learners; and
enhancing curriculum accountability and credibility through continuous
evaluation and accreditation.
2) Factors that influence the development of an innovative and adaptive higher
education curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 in Indonesia
are the vision, mission and goals of higher education, the needs and demands
of the world of work and society, the development of science and technology,
government policies and regulations and available resources and facilities.
3) The impact of developing an innovative and adaptive higher education
curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 in Indonesia is to improve
the quality, relevance and impact of higher education for universities,
students, graduates, lecturers, industry, government and society.

6. Recommendations
Based on the conclusions that have been described, the researchers provide the
following recommendations:
1) Universities must continue to innovate and adapt in the development of
higher education curricula, taking into account the challenges and
opportunities that exist in the education 5.0 era, and referring to the quality
standards set by the government, industry and society.
2) Universities must continue to improve cooperation and communication with
industry, government and society, to develop and implement a higher
education curriculum that is by the needs and demands of the world of work
and society, as well as providing benefits and contributions to social, cultural
and economic development.
3) Universities must continue to improve the quality and capacity of lecturers,
both in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values, as well as the role of
lecturers as facilitators, inspirers and true learners who can support, motivate

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and inspire students in the teaching and learning process, research,


community service and self-development.
4) Universities must undergo a continuous evaluation and accreditation process,
both internally and externally, using valid, reliable and accurate instruments
or tools to ensure the quality, relevance and impact of the higher education
curriculum and to make necessary improvements and enhancements.
5) Future researchers interested in conducting research related to this topic can
develop this research using different methods, more informants or broader
variables to get more comprehensive and in-depth results.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 99-117, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.6
Received Feb 21, 2024; Revised Apr 11, 2024; Accepted Apr 17, 2024

Bridging Content and Language in


English-medium Engineering Programs
Jeffrey Dawala Wilang , Thanatcha Ngamchatturat
and Sirinthorn Seepho*
Suranaree University of Technology
Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand

Abstract. English-medium Instruction (EMI) is increasingly being


implemented in diverse educational settings where English is not the
primary language. However, a persistent challenge of EMI
implementation lies in the scarcity of high-quality EMI teaching materials
that effectively enhance both content knowledge and language
acquisition. This study aimed to investigate how language is integrated
with content in EMI lessons and to assess their efficacy. The study
involved three Civil Engineering teachers, three language teachers, and
102 students. Data collection instruments comprised journals kept by
content and language teachers during the EMI materials development
process, pre-tests and post-tests, satisfaction surveys, and semi-
structured interviews. The quantitative results were analyzed using
descriptive statistics and t-tests, while content analysis was used to
analyze qualitative data. Results revealed that students expressed high
satisfaction with the materials, noting increased participation in EMI
classes, enhanced content comprehension, and heightened awareness of
language use in lessons. Nonetheless, the design process of EMI materials
is intricate, non-linear, time-consuming, and demanding of pedagogical
expertise. While collaborative efforts between content and language
teachers have appeared promising in theory, practical implementation in
real contexts has proven to be challenging. It is recommended that the
EMI materials developers possess pedagogical knowledge on content and
language teaching, recognize the iterative and complex nature of the
material design process, and the need for ongoing communication with
the respective to enhance the success of the collaboration.

Keywords: English-medium instruction; engineering; content and


language integrated materials

1. Introduction
In the present globalized world, English has established itself as the predominant
medium of communication. Its influence extends to various domains, including

*
Corresponding author: Sirinthorn Seepho; [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
100

the realm of education - serving as a crucial pathway for individuals to attain their
goals and pursue their desired careers. As English has gained prominence as a
widely accepted language in the world, it has significantly impacted the field of
instruction in non-English speaking countries (see Baker, 2021; Bowles & Murphy;
2020; Chapple, 2015; Galloway et al., 2020; Hultgren et al., 2015). Not limited to
the compulsory education sector, but also kindergarten, vocational, and
professional education, the number of courses integrating content and language
has increased significantly (Coyle, 2007). Moreover, the push for
internationalization in higher education has resulted in an increase in English-
taught programs, especially in engineering and business fields, making
institutions more competitive. Several colleges in many non-native English-
speaking countries use EMI to teach engineering disciplines at the undergraduate
level since English is the language of science and technology in the 21st century
(Crystal, 2012). Moreover, it is undeniable that a sizable portion of teaching
resources and materials used in educational contexts are currently available in
English. Furthermore, careerwise, international engineering companies demand
English-proficient engineers. Such factors support Macaro's (2015) assertion that
EMI is an 'unstoppable train' (p.7) because, theoretically, English's worldwide
dominance pushes its use in education, while practically, institutions see its
competitive advantages as well as the inherent access to resources it provides,
fuelling its growth.

As EMI in higher education is an unstoppable trend, it is crucial to consider how


students perceive, believe in, comprehend, and express satisfaction with this
policy. Students' perspectives on EMI across various countries reveal a complex
blend of appreciation and concern (see Albraki, 2017; Ekoç, 2020; Gu & Ren, 2016;
Kim et al., 2017; Poosinghar & Chaiyasuk, 2022; Pun & Jin, 2021). Students
generally recognize the practical benefits of EMI, such as improved employment
opportunities and enhanced global competitiveness (Albraki, 2017; Kim et al.,
2017). However, they also express challenges, particularly those with lower
English proficiency who face difficulties in understanding technical content and
experience psychological distress (Gu & Ren, 2016; Ekoç, 2020). Despite these
challenges, there is a prevailing belief that EMI should continue, albeit with policy
modifications to better support students' language needs and learning
experiences (Pun & Jin, 2021). This mixed reception highlights the critical need for
balanced EMI approaches that reflect the necessity of collaboration between
content and language teachers.

Meanwhile, teachers' perspectives on EMI reveal diverse views and challenges


(Aguilar, 2017; Almusharaf et al., 2023; Başıbek et al., 2014; Macaro & Han, 2020).
In Turkey, Başıbek et al. (2014) found that lecturers generally view EMI positively,
believing it enhances students' academic and professional prospects, yet they also
recognize the need for improved training and support, especially for those less
proficient in English. Aguilar's study in Spain showed a preference among
instructors for EMI, perceiving it as beneficial for career advancement, though it
also points to a lack of reflection on EMI teaching practices. In South Korea,
Almusharaf et al. (2023) reported high self-confidence among instructors in
delivering EMI courses, suggesting a comfortable and competent approach to

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English-medium teaching. Contrastingly, Macaro and Han's (2020) research in


China highlighted the challenges due to the lack of priority given to EMI
certification and professional development, emphasizing the need for subject-
specific instructional skills in addition to English proficiency. These insights
collectively underscore the complexities involved in EMI implementation and the
importance of addressing the professional development needs of teachers in EMI
environments.

Several authors addressed the challenge of selecting and adapting appropriate


teaching materials from content and language integrated programs (Bovellan,
2014; Nikula, 2008). They stressed the importance of high-quality materials
tailored to local needs and suitable for specific student targets. The adaptation of
materials, such as textbooks, is crucial to avoid misunderstandings of subject
matter and to maximize learning potential. Mahan's (2022) study added depth to
the discussion by examining scaffolding strategies. The study found differences
in how social sciences and natural sciences are taught, with natural sciences
offering more contextual cues and support materials. This suggests the need for
more specialized learning activities and support in disciplines with fewer
available materials.

Arnó-Macià and Mancho-Barés (2015) emphasized the importance of a well-


structured teaching plan that progressively uses English as the medium of
instruction. Their recommendations focus on catering to students' language
proficiency levels, providing language support, and balancing language and
content systematically. They highlighted the need for clear policies on integrating
language and content and developing students' language skills. In terms of EMI
learning materials, Ball (2018) suggested that teaching materials in content and
language integrated contexts should highlight content, cognition, autonomy, and
cooperative learning. Herein, the learners should have the chance to use graphic
organizers as well as information and communication technologies (ICT). Thus
Ball (2018) draws a set of material principles that cater to language as a meaning-
making system that provides learners a chance to become operative in a content
and language integrated learning environment.

Banegas and Busleiman (2021) also claimed that it is important to create teaching
materials developed in a context-responsive manner, considering the specific
news and interests of the learners. The materials also should include activities that
develop learners’ language awareness, not only in terms of specific vocabulary
but also in terms of textual grammar. It is also noteworthy that the materials
accommodate the needs of EMI learners and provide proper scaffolding for both
content learning and language learning. In terms of activities, the materials should
incorporate a focus on tasks and engagement, providing varied and interactive
activities to maximize input and learner participation. In addition to that, the
materials used in the EMI context should promote autonomous learning, allowing
learners to explore and manipulate tools and resources (see Ball, 2018). Learning
materials should be learner-centered and relevant to future contexts. Lastly, the
materials should provide opportunities for detailed feedback on both language
and content aspects and should support collaborative work among learners.

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The design of the EMI Engineering lesson in this study was grounded in the 4C
principles of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): content,
communication, cognition, and culture (Coyle, 2015). The integration of the
language and content of engineering was guided by these principles, which
facilitated effective communication, cognitive engagement, and knowledge
construction. Furthermore, cultural elements were incorporated through group
work-based activities. An interactive learning environment was created by
incorporating tasks that required students to solve problems and apply critical
thinking skills. This promoted active participation and collaborative study among
the students.

The above studies collectively underscore the importance of a holistic approach


to language and content integration in EMI and similar educational models. They
call for thoughtful planning, careful selection and adaptation of materials, and
specific strategies to support students' learning, thereby enhancing the overall
effectiveness of these instructional approaches. This study aimed to delve into
how language and content teachers collaboratively design lesson plans that
effectively integrate language learning with engineering content. The focus would
be on understanding the process developed in this collaborative effort.
Additionally, it gauges how students perceive and respond to newly designed
EMI lessons. Thus, two questions are sought in the study: (1) How are EMI
Engineering lessons designed collaboratively? (2) To what extent is the lesson
effective?

2. Methodology
2.1 Research Design
The research adopted mixed-methods by using convergent parallel design, where
the qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analyzed independently,
but the results were interpreted together (Creswell & Pablo-Clark, 2011; Guest
and Fleming, 2014). The qualitative method was used to answer research question
one and the quantitative method was employed to answer research question two.
Combining qualitative and quantitative results allows researchers to obtain broad
perspectives on the complexity of a phenomenon that may be disregarded when
employing just one research approach (McKim, 2017).

2.2 Participants
The participants included three engineering lecturers, three language teachers,
and 102 engineering students. The three Civil Engineering lecturers (content
teachers) drawn from a Thai EMI context voluntarily participated in this study.
They all taught EMI engineering courses and possessed varied lengths of teaching
experience, ranging from three to seven years. Apart from engineering lecturers,
language teachers and students were also selected to participate. The study
involved three language teacher experts in teaching English as a foreign language
(EFL) and had broad experiences in teaching materials design. They collaborated
closely with engineering lecturers to develop and implement lesson plans that
integrated content and language learning in the EMI engineering classes. In the
case of the student participants, there were 102 engineering undergraduates who

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were currently enrolled in various engineering programs at the Thai university.


Among the total, only thirty students were pursuing EMI courses for Civil
Engineering. The students' English skill levels ranged from A1 to C2, as defined
by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR)
(Council of Europe, 2001).

2.3 Research instruments


Corpus tool
Course teaching materials and related documents about dry friction, such as PDF
lesson files and PowerPoint slides, were analyzed by a corpus tool, namely
AntConc, to gain insights into vocabulary types (e.g., academic terminology,
jargon, general words), as well as information on sentence structures and
grammar frequently encountered in study materials. The result of this corpus
analysis was utilized for developing English-integrated engineering lessons on
dry friction to use in EMI classes. The final word list was confirmed by the content
teachers and engineering students.

EMI Engineering lesson


A two-part EMI engineering lesson entitled “Dry friction” was designed by
content and language teachers. It was composed of four main learning outcomes:
content, communication, cognition, and culture. Each lesson started with pre-
teaching, which aimed to prepare learners with vocabulary knowledge regarding
dry friction. This was followed by teaching which required students to read and
do activities fostering cognition skills in solving content-related problems. Group
work activities were used to encourage students’ collaboration and active
participation. For post teaching, students were asked to solve problems
concerning the content learned. In the materials, figures and illustrations were
used to facilitate content comprehension. Problem-solving tasks were used to
enhance communication and cognition, while language tasks, such as fill in the
blank exercises and word puzzles, were integrated to enhance language
proficiency. This lesson was piloted with engineering students and revised by the
content teachers before using in the real study.

Language and content teacher journals


During the process of corpus-based language and content-integrated material
development, both content and language teachers kept unstructured journals
after each meeting. They were expected to write their experiences and perceptions
relating to the materials development process.

Pre-test and post-test


The pre-test and post-test, consisting of fifteen multiple-choice items, were
developed and verified by content teachers to align with the topics covered in the
EMI engineering lesson (Dry friction). Then, the language used in the test was
checked by the language teachers to ensure accuracy and clarity. The pre-test was
conducted to evaluate students' proficiency in engineering and language, while
the post-test was employed to assess the progress made by students in their
engineering and language skills after completing the EMI engineering lesson.
Both tests were identical.

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Satisfaction survey
A four-point Likert scale satisfaction survey was developed by the researchers. It
composed of nine questions relating to the quality of teaching, the teacher's
expertise and familiarity with the subject matter, the efficacy of the teaching aids,
the appropriateness of the content taught, the level of content learned, the
comprehensibility of the lesson, the opportunity for collaborative work, the use of
English as the medium of instruction, and overall satisfaction. The survey was
verified by the three researchers before distributing to students.

Semi-structured interviews
To follow up the satisfaction survey about the EMI engineering lesson, semi-
structured interviews were conducted to explore deeper insight about students’
experiences and perceptions of the EMI engineering lesson. Five interview
questions were given to three researchers for validation. The interview lasted
about thirty minutes for each participant. They were informed that their responses
were voluntary and would be kept confidential.

2.4 Ethical approval


This study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee. Every
participant was given the informed consent and signed voluntarily. After that,
their information was kept confidential, and they were allowed to withdraw from
the research study if they wanted to.

3. Data collection and data analysis


Table 1 below shows the process of data collection and data analysis based on the
5 main steps of the study.

Table 1: Data collection and analysis


Data collection process Instrument Data analysis
Step 1 Corpus-based analysis of text
- Analyze teaching materials - List of highly frequent - AntConc program
by using AntConc academic words,
terminologies, and
grammatical structures
- Confirm the word list - Final lists of selected - Frequency count
academic words, - Final word
terminologies, and salient selection by content
grammar aspects. teachers and
students
Step 2 Lesson design
- Collaboratively design two - Journals recorded by - Content analysis
lessons language and content
teachers
Step 3 Lesson delivery
-Deliver the lessons Before class: - Descriptive analysis
- Pre-test (Percentage); T-test
After class:
- Post-test after studying
- Satisfaction survey after
studying - Content analysis

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- Semi-structured interview
Step 4 Sharing insights and Joint revision of the lesson
- Discuss the strengths and - Semi-structured interview Content analysis
weaknesses of the lessons with content teachers

The data collection process was divided into four major steps based on the process
of EMI materials development as displayed in Table 1. For data analysis, the
quantitative data from the pretest, post-test, and survey responses were analyzed
by using descriptive statistics and T-tests. In the realm of qualitative analysis,
content analysis was applied to explore insights emerging from the semi-
structured interviews.

4. Results
4.1 Designing EMI engineering lessons collaboratively
Figure 1 presents a systematic approach in collaboratively designing the EMI
Engineering lessons. Language learning and content instruction are integrated,
emphasizing collaboration between language and content teachers (Engineering
lecturers) to enhance the overall educational experience for students.

Step 1
Corpus-based Analysis of Text
(language teahers)

Step 4 Step 2
Sharing Insights and Joint
Revision of the Lesson (content Lesson Design (content and
and language teachers) language teachers)

Step 3
Lesson Delivery (content
teachers)

Figure 1: EMI engineering lesson design process

Figure 1 illustrates a collaborative process between language teachers and content


teachers (Engineering lecturers) in designing a lesson, indicating a step-by-step
interaction between the two roles. This process was verified by content and
language teachers:

Step 1 Corpus-based Analysis of Text – Responsibities of Language Teachers:


The process started with language teachers performing a corpus-based analysis
of the text. This involved examining the language used in the subject material and

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identifying key linguistic features, such as vocabulary, grammar, and usage


patterns, that are relevant to the lesson.

Step 2 Lesson Design – Responsibilities of Language and Content Teachers: Next,


both language teachers and content teachers worked together to define the
objectives of the lesson. These objectives were likely to encompass both content-
related goals and language acquisition targets, ensuring that students not only
grasped the subject matter but also improved their language skills.

Step 3 Lesson Delivery – Responsibilities of Content Teachers: The content


teachers took the lead in delivering the lesson. They used the insights from the
corpus-based analysis to inform their teaching, making sure that the delivery was
tailored to the linguistic level of the students while covering the necessary content.
As the lesson was delivered, both language and content teachers were involved
in monitoring participation. They observed how students interact with the
material and each other, paying attention to both content understanding and
language use.

Step 4 Sharing Insights and Joint Revision of the Lesson – Responsibilities of


Language and Content Teachers: Finally, after the lesson was delivered, both sets
of teachers jointly reviewed and revised the lesson plan. This step ensured that
future lessons were improved based on feedback and observations, further
aligning content delivery with language development goals.

This flowchart suggests a dynamic and iterative process where both sets of
teachers worked closely throughout the instructional cycle, from planning to
delivery to revision, ensuring that content instruction was linguistically
accessible, and that language instruction was content-relevant.

Further findings elicited from the content analysis of journals and teacher
interviews revealed the challenges found during materials designing and
development. During stage 1, which was about the corpus-based analysis of text,
both language and content teachers mentioned that they did not know the
students’ background in both physics content and language proficiency. So, it was
difficult for them to select the appropriate language points. In addition, for this
step, language teachers further reported that most vocabulary and terminologies
were unfamiliar to them and the concepts in the reading texts were complex for
students to understand. As a result, it was rather difficult to design the materials
based on unfamiliar content, so it is unavoidable that language teachers had to
become familiar with the content. Excerpt below is quoted relevance to support
this claim.
“What’s very challenging for me is the technical terminology. When I
read the content teacher’s guide and presentation, I observed that friction
involves technical terms and concepts that can be complex for students to
understand. As a language teacher, I’m not familiar with those technical
terms, thus it’s time consuming to integrate these technical terms
effectively into the lesson plan; it required careful consideration of
students' content and language proficiency levels and finding appropriate

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ways to introduce and explain the vocabulary.” Extract 1 (Language


Teacher Journal)

To cope with the challenges above, the material developers decided to use
AntConc, a corpus tool to make a list of words related to the topics. They then
asked content teachers to primarily screen first, and then ask students to confirm
the unfamiliar words.

During the lesson design process, further data revealed that the content teachers
and language teachers had different viewpoints on the proportion of language
and content needed due to the time constraints of lessons. For instance, the content
teachers thought that (1) group work activities were interesting but they took too
long (2) subject matters were the main content that the students had to acquire at
the end of the class and language was only a by-product (3) they were not sure
about how to integrate language in the lessons and design language activities, and
they did not know how to teach language. Meanwhile, language teachers thought
that (1) there were limited resources available to find examples of well-designed
CLIL lesson plan models with specific requirements, so it was not easy to design
the materials that achieved two goals at the same time (2) the language teachers
did not truly understand the content of engineering (see extract below).
“I faced challenges in combining mathematical equations and language
phrases in my CLIL lesson plan due to my limited familiarity with the
mathematical equations and overall content. As a language teacher,
venturing into unfamiliar territory can be daunting, making it difficult
to integrate complex mathematical concepts seamlessly into the language
instruction. I may have limited exposure to or knowledge of mathematical
equations. This lack of familiarity can hinder my ability to understand the
equations fully, explain clearly, and guide students effectively. In
addition, teaching content subjects like mathematics requires a solid
understanding of the underlying concepts. In this case, not having a
strong background in the content related to the mathematical equations
makes it challenging for me to design meaningful activities or provide
accurate explanations.” Extract 2 (Language Teacher Journal)

Other thoughts included ‘time consuming’ preparation for each process, which
added more pressure and difficulty in setting collaborative meetings because both
parties are busy. In addition, designing a lesson for a mixed proficiency group is
hard. So, activities that required collaboration between the high and low
proficiency students were proposed. Choices of activities were given to the
content teachers so they could choose the ones that were suitable for their teaching
styles as depicted in the excerpt below.
“I have encountered challenges in designing activities for the content and
language integrated lesson plan on friction due to the need to consider the
difficulty of the activities and the students' content and language
proficiency levels. As I supposed, creating activities that strike the right
balance between challenge and appropriateness for students' abilities is
complex for me. It was challenging for me to determine the appropriate
level of difficulty for the activities related to friction. If the activities that
I will create are too easy, students may become disengaged, while overly

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complex activities may discourage and frustrate them. So, it took me a


long time to decide the right balance to ensure optimal learning and
engagement.” Extract 3 (Language Teacher Journal)

However, both teachers agreed that figures and illustrations are important to
include in the lesson when dealing with complex concepts.
“The figure is from the textbook or the concept of the engineering, the real
engineering. So, I mean the context is very hard already and it's
complicated. So, if we find something that the student can see easily in the
classroom …, it's just a simple thing with an explanation that the student
might have experienced already. So, I think it can help them.” Extract 4
(Semi-structured interview)

In terms of assessment, there was not enough time for the lessons when the goals
of language learning were emphasized. Also, it was not easy to create assessments
that accurately measure their understanding and progress.
“The pre-test and post-test should be tailored to their abilities to provide
meaningful data. Also, incorporating appropriate language demands,
such as vocabulary, sentence structure, and comprehension, alongside
assessing their understanding of friction-related concepts, requires my
careful consideration.” Extract 5 (Semi-structured interview)

To solve this problem, consultations with the content teachers were done to check
the mathematical equations which had been integrated with language, so there
would be no problems with the in-class execution regarding these equations. Due
to the diverse proficiency of students, more activities were provided for content
teachers. This way they could select and use extra activities on a supplementary
basis when there was adequate time for some groups of students.

At the delivery stage, the lessons were delivered to students smoothly. The
content teacher followed every step and most of the students actively participated.
Activities included doing pair work, group work, and giving presentations in
front of the class. The content teacher gave feedback to the students, and this
demonstrated that the students understood the lessons. Classes were not silent,
and they enjoyed discussing their tasks with the group. After giving the lessons,
the content teachers admitted that (1) they felt reluctant to use collaborative
activities because they usually lectured rather than doing activities and it took
much time to complete the lesson, (2) content teachers took more time for lesson
preparation and lesson delivery.

At the last stage, the content and language teachers met after the class and
discussed the content of the EMI lessons. They agreed that challenges are caused
by (1) inadequate knowledge about students’ language and content background,
(2) the silent classroom atmosphere, (3) low math or physics background, (4)
inadequate knowledge about how to assess the students’ understanding of
content and specific language use, and (5) limited time allocation for the lesson.
During the process of designing and developing the EMI lessons, conflicts
between language and content teachers were not avoided. Common
disagreements involved the use of definitions of key terms – the content teacher

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thought that giving only definitions does not help with understanding while the
language teacher thought this kind of exercise may help reading and vocabulary
learning and increase exposure to language in use. For example, when talking
about introducing the history of friction, the content teacher felt this was
information the students could find themselves if they were interested. In
contrast, language teachers found that this extra reading passage could help
improve reading skills. Quoted below was the excerpt from teacher interview.
• “To engineer students, the definition is just the term or the sentence, the
phrase of the statement. But if you understand the concept, right, I think
you don't have to remember. …all of the text in that sentence...if you
understand the concept, it can help you” Extract 6 (Semi-structured
interview)

However, despite of some conflicting ideas between the two groups, both the
content and language teachers agreed on the following points: (1) Language
(English) is the barrier to content understanding; (2) Having pre-teaching
activities for language preparation is helpful; (3) Figures and illustrations are
needed to simplify the content difficulty.

4.2 EMI Lesson Effectiveness


The effectiveness of the collaborative EMI lesson design model was sourced from
the (1) Satisfaction survey from the seventy-two students, (2) the Pre- and Post-
tests results, and (3) Semi-structured interviews from the thirty students.

The satisfaction survey shown in Table 2 indicated the nine aspects that were
measured including the quality of teaching, the teacher's expertise and familiarity
with the subject matter, the efficacy of the teaching aids, the appropriateness of
the content taught, the level of content learned, the comprehensibility of the
lesson, the opportunity for collaborative work, the use of English as the medium
of instruction, and overall satisfaction.

Table 2: Satisfaction survey


Aspect Very Dissatisf Satisfied Very M SD
dissatisf ied satisfied
ied
Quality of teaching 3% (2)* 6% (4) 35% (25) 57% (41) 3.46 0.73
Teacher’s level of expertise
and familiarity with the 1% (1) 8% (6) 26% (19) 64% (46) 3.53 0.71
subject matter
Efficacy of the teaching aids
employed in the lesson 0% (0) 11% (8) 50% (36) 39% (28) 3.28 0.65

Appropriateness of the 3.29 0.64


1% (1) 6% (4) 56% (40) 38% (27)
content taught
Appropriateness of the level
of content learned in the 3% (2) 15% (11) 28% (20) 54% (39) 3.33 0.84
lesson

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Comprehensibility of the 2.96 0.78


3% (2) 24% (17) 49% (35) 25% (18)
lesson taught
Opportunity to work 3 0.75
1% (1) 24% (17) 49% (35) 26% (19)
collaboratively with peers
Use of English as the 3.26 0.80
4% (3) 10% (7) 42% (30) 44% (32)
medium of instruction
Overall satisfaction toward 3.33 0.56
0% (0) 4% (3) 58% (42) 38% (27)
the lesson
3.27 0.09
* Number of participants

The results suggested a generally positive reception towards various aspects of


the educational experience. The quality of teaching and the teacher's level of
expertise were particularly well-regarded, with most responses leaning towards
satisfied and very satisfied, indicating strong approval of the instructors'
capabilities and teaching methods. The use of teaching aids and the
appropriateness of the content were also viewed favorably. The level of content
and its comprehensibility present areas with mixed feedback, where a significant
number of respondents express satisfaction, yet there's a noticeable portion that
finds the lesson either too advanced or challenging to understand. This suggests
room for improvement in aligning the content's difficulty with students'
capabilities and in enhancing clarity in teaching. Collaborative opportunities and
the use of English as the instruction medium showed a balanced distribution of
opinions, with a slight inclination towards satisfaction. However, there were a
considerable number of participants who were less enthusiastic about these
aspects, indicating potential challenges in fostering effective group work and in
the implementation of English as the teaching language. Overall satisfaction with
the lesson was predominantly positive, demonstrating that despite certain areas
for enhancement, the educational experience was well-received by the majority.
This general contentment points towards a successful teaching approach,
although areas were identified that could benefit from further attention to elevate
the learning experience.

At the end of the survey, the open-ended question elicited students’ insights about
the lesson. Some students suggested integrating Thai language alongside English
for instruction. The overall sentiment towards the quality of teaching is positive,
with comments like "The quality of teaching is good," "Everything is good," and "This
is a good lesson." A few students indicated areas for improvement in teaching
materials. For instance, there was one suggestion to include 3D models, such as
the Clip 3D model, for enhanced learning. Students also mentioned vocabulary
challenges, indicating that some students may not be familiar with specific words
used during the lessons. While some students did express difficulty with English,
the use of visual aids like pictures helped in understanding the content. One
detailed feedback from a student emphasized the importance of effective teaching
methods. While acknowledging the expertise of many professors, the student
believed that there was room for improvement on how content was conveyed.
They went on to emphasize that visual demonstrations in some subjects are
deemed necessary.

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Table 3: Pre- and post-test results


Item Pre-test (M, SD) Post-test (M, SD)
1 74.29, 0.43 70.00, 0.45
2 5.72, 0.24 14.29, 0.36
3 35.71, 0.49 32.86, 0.48
4 57.14, 0.50 62.86, 0.48
5 75.71, 0.42 84.29, 0.48
6 84.29, 0.34 90.00, 0.26
7 67.14, 0.47 75.71, 0.42
8 55.71, 0.50 80.00, 0.38
9 74.29, 0.43 85.71, 0.32
10 62.86, 0.48 81.43, 0.37
11 37.14, 0.49 30.00, 0.47
12 35.71, 0.49 38.57, 0.49
13 24.29, 0.44 35.71, 0.49
14 22.86, 0.43 41.43, 0.50
15 32.43, 0.47 35.71, 0.49
49.68, 0.44 57.23, 0.40

Results from the pre- and post-tests were presented in Table 3. The table illustrates
an overall trend of improvement from pre-test to post-test across most questions.
Initial scores were lower, and there was a significant increase in post-test scores,
indicating that the subject matter was better understood after intervention or
teaching. A paired-sample t-test was conducted to compare the means of pre- and
post-test and a significant difference in the pre-test (M = 49.68, SD = 0.44) and
post-test (M = 57.23, SD = 0.40); t(14) = 3.3499, p = .00 was found.

From student interviews, students expressed their satisfaction with the


integration of language learning and content mastery, appreciating the use of
instructional media and teacher support to understand new vocabulary. Despite
this, they encountered challenges with unfamiliar words. Still, the use of visual
aids and the focus on both language and subject matter by the same teacher helped
to enhance their EMI learning experience.
“I am satisfied because the teacher used instructional media to make me
understand the topic taught.” Extract 7

“I am satisfied because I study the subject in English and I am able to


learn new vocabulary from the lessons. There are many unfamiliar
words that I don’t know.” Extract 8

“I am satisfied because many specific words are found in the lessons that
are new to me. I can’t translate the words but the teacher helps me to
understand it using figures and illustration.” Extract 9

“I am satisfied because I learn both content and language from the same
teacher.” Extract 10

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5. Discussion
Findings showed that the collaborative design of EMI engineering lessons is a
systematic and iterative process. In this study, language teachers began by
analyzing texts for key linguistic elements, which then informed the joint lesson
design with content teachers. The lessons, delivered by content teachers, were
revised post-delivery through insights shared by both language and content
teachers. Though the content and language integration sounded promising,
training and support are needed as the process of material designing remained
challenging (see Başıbek et al., 2014). During the process of designing the
instructional materials, disagreements between the content and language teachers
arose, but still they worked smoothly until the end. For instance, both groups of
teachers agreed on the usefulness of figures and illustrations for complex
concepts, yet they faced constraints of time and assessment design. Additionally,
they sometimes disagreed on the inclusion of certain content, such as historical
context. Specifically, content teachers usually prioritized subject matter and
content coverage, while language teachers emphasized more on language
proficiency development and pedagogical strategies. Both content teachers and
language teachers had teaching and researching routines and other
responsibilities, therefore they were busy. As a result, it was difficult to devote
sufficient attention to collaborative materials design efforts. Regardless of
difficulties, such collaborative efforts resulted in contextualized teaching
materials (Bovellan, 2014; Nikula, 2008).

It can be implied that when both teachers work together, they could (1) finalize
the list of language and content items to be addressed (2) define the balance
between the two aspects within a limited time frame (3) possess the required
knowledge, as it is necessary for language teachers to grasp the subject matter and
for content teachers to have pedagogical knowledge. Both must have a similar
mindset regarding the learner-centered approach. (4) define the objective and
outcomes of lessons and each step (5) select the appropriate activities that facilitate
students mastery of both language and content (6) assess their understanding
through outcomes.

Further insights from students and teachers reported challenges arising from a
lack of knowledge about students' backgrounds in content and language
proficiency, unfamiliarity with technical vocabulary, and differing views on the
balance of language and content within the lessons. These challenges persist as
seen from the previous literature (Albraki, 2017; Ekoç, 2020; Gu & Ren, 2016; Kim
et al., 2017; Poosinghar & Chaiyasuk, 2022; Pun & Jin, 2021). Despite the
challenges, the satisfaction survey showed positive feedback across several
educational aspects, with the highest commendations for teaching quality and
instructors' subject matter expertise. Teaching aids and content appropriateness
also received favorable ratings, suggesting that the tools and materials used were
largely effective like in previous studies (Albraki, 2017; Ekoç, 2020). These
students recognized the benefits of English-medium instruction. The pre- and
post-test comparisons revealed a significant improvement in students'
understanding post-intervention, evidenced by a statistical analysis showing
higher mean scores in the post-test. However, there are indications that the level

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of content difficulty and the comprehensibility of lessons may require adjustment


to better suit student capabilities, which is in line with Pun and Jin’s (2021)
recommendation.

Perhaps it is important to note that students appreciated the instructional media


and support provided by teachers to navigate new vocabulary and concepts,
despite challenges with unfamiliar terminology. In line with Ball’s (2018) findings,
the use of visual aids was highlighted as beneficial in aiding comprehension and
learning from a content teacher who could seamlessly integrate content and
language instruction was seen as advantageous. The collective data suggested
that the collaborative lesson plan design model was effective in enhancing
students' subject understanding and language skills. To further improve the
model, it may be beneficial to consider integrating native language support,
employing more diverse and interactive teaching materials such as 3D models,
and continuing to refine the balance between language and content instruction.
Additionally, attention should be given to ensuring that the content is
appropriately challenging and comprehensible for all students, potentially
through differentiated instruction strategies.

The need to address the appropriacy of materials was necessary. Thus, when
designing materials, the following were suggested, as the design process was
inherently complex, nonlinear, and time consuming due to several possible
factors.

The first factor that should be taken into consideration is the appropriate and
balanced integration of language and content. Integration of language and content
effectively requires careful consideration of pedagogical knowledge and subject
matter expertise. Thus, designing a task that helps attain two goals within a
limited time for each topic is extremely challenging (Mehisto, 2012). It is iterative
and requires multiple revisions because most decisions to maintain the proportion
of content and language are dependent on ensuring both sets of objectives are
adequately addressed. Thus, the content and language integrated materials
design and development process are time-consuming in practice and this needs
to be acknowledged and accepted. In addition, the lesson should be customized
for different students’ backgrounds. Another point that needs careful
consideration is that the content and language integrated materials were designed
based on the student’s background in both content and language knowledge to
lessen the cognitive burden when dealing with both the content and language
integrated content. Thus, knowing the students’ existing knowledge can decrease
problems in materials selection and activity design and serves the diverse needs
of learners with varying language proficiency levels and subject matter
knowledge. Since exercises should be accessible and engaging for all learners, the
difficulty of content and language use should be carefully graded and choices
should be provided.

In this study, the complexities of integrating content and language instruction


underscored the need for careful planning and collaboration between content and
language teachers. Effective integration requires the careful examination of

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factors, such as curriculum alignment and instructional strategies to foster


proficiency in both language and subject matter. Successful collaboration relies on
clear communication and a shared educational goal, emphasizing the significance
of sustained support systems. To overcome these problems and invest in
comprehensive planning, educational institutions can enhance the overall
educational experience for all students by developing high-quality learning
materials.

6. Conclusion
Since language ability has been claimed to be an important barrier in English
Medium Instruction (EMI) classes, preparing learning materials that have been
adapted with language considerations are considered advantageous. However,
there exists a gap in research regarding the design of such materials.
Consequently, this study pursued two objectives. First, it sought to investigate the
design and development of integrated language and content materials for EMI
engineering classes which were achieved through collaboration between content
and language teachers. Second, it aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of these
materials. The developmental process included four stages: corpus analysis,
lesson design, lesson delivery, and the sharing of insights culminating in joint
revisions. The AntConc corpus analysis tool, content and language teachers’
journals, pre- and post-tests, satisfaction surveys, and semi-structured interviews
were employed to collect data from three content and three language teachers and
102 students. The findings revealed significant differences between the students’
pre-test and post-test scores. Their high satisfaction with the integrated materials
highlighted the efficacy of language preparation for enhancing content
comprehension. Furthermore, the preference for group activities over traditional
lecturing was evident, leading to the learning experience being more engaging.
Respondants also suggested using figures, illustrations, and multimedia
resources to increase the comprehensibility of complex engineering content.
Despite the favourable learning outcomes, the joint design process of content and
language integrated materials reflected several complexities, such as time
constraints, and the balance of content and language modifications to include in
the materials. The study recommends that EMI materials developers possess
extensive pedagogical knowledge on content and language teaching to achieve
the delicate balance between content and language objectives that optimize the
dual learning outcomes. Knowing the students’ background knowledge is also
helpful for content selection. It is crucial to acknowledge these inherent
complexities and manage them from the outset of the process.

Acknowledgment
This work was supported by Suranaree University of Technology (SUT), Thailand
Science Research and Innovation (TSRI), and the National Science, Research and
Innovation Fund (NSRF) (NRIIS number 179263).

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 118-140, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.7
Received Feb 21, 2024; Revised Apr 21, 2024; Accepted Apr 25, 2024

Beyond the Dictionary: Redefining Translation


Education with Artificial Intelligence-Assisted
App Design and Training
Ivan Bakhov
Interregional Academy of Personnel Management
Kyiv, Ukraine

Nataliya Bilous
National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine,
Kyiv, Ukraine

Mykhailo Saiko
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
Kyiv, Ukraine

Svitlana Isaienko
State University of Infrastructure and Technologies
Kyiv, Ukraine

Svitlana Hurinchuk
State University of Infrastructure and Technologies
Kyiv, Ukraine

Oleh Nozhovnik*
State University of Economics and Trade
Kyiv, Ukraine

Abstract. This study addresses researchers’ concerns about the


effectiveness of integrating AI-assisted app design and training into
university-level translation courses. It aims to explore how this
integration influences students’ motivation, reflective practices, academic
performance, and the quality of language translation. Employing a
mixed-methods research approach with a two-group post-test-only
design, the study uncovers the transformative influence of integrating an
AI-based translation assistant. Purposive sampling techniques were
utilised to conduct interventions and focus groups with students

*
Corresponding author: Oleh Nozhovnik, [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
119

majoring in Philology enrolled in the 3 ECTS course in Industry-Specific


Translation at Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. The
findings from the Independent Samples t-test revealed significant
improvements in motivation, reflective practices, academic performance,
and translation quality among students in the experimental group (EG)
compared to the control group (CG). Thematic analysis using the Speak
web-based tool indicated an overall positive sentiment (0.224),
highlighting Positive and Very Positive sentiments. The Neutral category
suggested a balanced perspective, while the combined Slightly Negative
and Negative categories represented less favourable sentiment. This
research contributes valuable insights to the discourse on AI in language
education by addressing gaps in related literature. We suggest avenues
for future research into linguistic nuances and contextual challenges,
advocating ongoing exploration to maximise the benefits of these
technological interventions. Ultimately, this study provides a
comprehensive understanding of the impact of AI integration in language
education and underscores the need for continued exploration and
adaptation in this area.

Keywords: AI-assisted translation; education technology; translation


course; educational impact of AI

1. Introduction
The traditional approaches to translation education, primarily relying on
dictionaries and manual linguistic analysis, have long been foundational methods
for imparting language structures and vocabulary. However, these methods often
fall short of adequately preparing learners for the multifaceted challenges of real-
world translation tasks (Liu, 2013; Muttalib M. Jawad, 2020). Notably, they
struggle to address context-specific nuances, accommodate cultural differences,
and keep pace with the dynamic evolution of language (Zainudin & Awal, 2012;
Zhao, 2023), thus revealing a significant research gap within existing translation
education methodologies. This gap poses a considerable hindrance to learners in
acquiring the necessary skills to meet the demands of contemporary translation
tasks effectively.
The escalating demand for skilled translators in professional settings underscores
the urgency to bridge this gap by equipping learners with adept skills and tools
aligned with modern requirements (Abdel Latif, 2020; Al-Qinai, 2010; Kobyakova
& Shvachko, 2016). Consequently, there is a pressing need for alternative
approaches capable of effectively addressing these shortcomings and better
preparing learners for the challenges posed by modern translation tasks. AI-
assisted app design and training emerge as promising solutions to fill this research
gap within traditional translation education (Chaudhry & Kazim, 2022; Kopp &
Thomsen, 2023). Leveraging the capabilities of Artificial Intelligence, these
applications can analyse extensive linguistic data, including corpora, parallel
texts, and online resources, thereby providing learners with comprehensive and
up-to-date information. By doing so, they address the deficiencies of traditional
approaches and contribute to bridging the identified research gap.

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However, despite the potential of AI-assisted methodologies, including virtual


reality (VR) simulations and machine-learning algorithms to transform
translation education, a need remains for a more comprehensive understanding
of their impact. This study aims to delve deeper into the transformative potential
of AI-assisted methodologies by examining their integration’s feasibility,
relevance, and impact on translation education. Through a thorough exploration
of these methodologies, the study seeks to contribute valuable insights to the
ongoing discourse at the intersection of education, technology, and translation
studies, ultimately aiming to enhance translation education for contemporary
needs.

2. Literature review
Conventional approaches and challenges in translation education methods
The theoretical framework guiding this study is grounded in the exploration of
conventional approaches and challenges in translation education methods, as
delineated in the existing literature. Traditionally, translation education has relied
heavily on established methods such as dictionaries, manual linguistic analysis,
and classroom instruction (Zanettin & Rundle, 2022; Man et al., 2022). These
methods have played pivotal roles in establishing a robust linguistic foundation,
enriching vocabulary, and imparting theoretical knowledge of language
structures (Boulton & De Cock, 2017; Malmkjær, 2017; Abdel Latif, 2020).
Nonetheless, they often fail to sufficiently equip learners for the intricacies of real-
world translation assignments, especially in handling context-specific subtleties,
cultural distinctions, and the evolving nature of language (Marais & Meylaerts,
2018; Stoian & Șimon, 2018).
Industry demands for more agile and innovative approaches to translation
education highlight the imperative for a paradigm shift (Massey, 2018; Wu et al.,
2019). Wang (2023) suggests that integrating technology, particularly artificial
intelligence (AI)-assisted app design and training, holds promise for addressing
these challenges and redefining translation education. Therefore, the theoretical
framework of this study is informed by an acknowledgment of the limitations of
traditional educational methodologies and the potential of AI-assisted
approaches to bridge the gap between theory and practice in translation
education.
Informed by this theoretical perspective, the research questions and methodology
of the study are designed to explore the transformative potential of AI-assisted
app design and training in translation education. By investigating the impact of
AI-assisted methodologies on students’ motivation, reflective practices, academic
performance, and the quality of written translation, the study aims to address the
shortcomings of traditional approaches and contribute to the ongoing discourse
on technology integration in education. Through this lens, the theoretical
framework informs the formulation of research inquiries and guides the selection
of appropriate research methods, emphasising the importance of bridging theory
with practical application in translation education.
In expanding the discussion to relevant empirical studies, it becomes evident that
several investigations have examined the intersection of technology and language
education, shedding light on various aspects of AI’s role in enhancing learning

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outcomes. For instance, Schmidt and Strasser (2022) delve into the potential of AI
in addressing the shortcomings of traditional language teaching methods,
emphasising its adaptive, personalised, and real-world relevance. Similarly, Dai
and Wu (2023) explore the impact of AI-driven language learning applications,
highlighting their capacity to provide tailored content and exercises, leading to
improved language proficiency.
Moreover, Hellmich and Vinall (2021) investigated innovative approaches
integrating AI technologies into translation education, such as translation
exercises augmented by AI feedback and virtual language labs with AI-assisted
simulations. Their findings underscored the potential benefits of these
approaches, including improved student engagement and more dynamic learning
experiences. In contrast, studies by Rebolledo Font de la Vall and González Araya
(2023) highlighted some of the challenges associated with AI-driven language
learning applications, such as the need for careful consideration of user experience
and potential ethical concerns. These empirical studies collectively contribute to
our understanding of the research topic by providing insights into the potential
benefits and challenges of AI integration in language education. While some
studies emphasise the positive impact of AI on learning outcomes and student
engagement, others stress the importance of addressing potential drawbacks and
ethical considerations. Aligned with the objectives of the current study, these
findings emphasise the importance of examining the transformative potential of
AI-assisted methodologies in translation education and provide valuable context
for interpreting the results of this research.
Role of AI in language learning and translation education
The role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in language learning and translation
education has garnered significant attention within the academic literature,
emerging as a transformative force in educational practices (Brenda, 2019; Wang,
2023). Schmidt and Strasser (2022) highlight AI’s potential to address the
limitations of traditional language teaching methods by offering adaptive,
personalised, and real-world relevant learning experiences. AI applications in
language-related contexts, such as machine-translation services and language
learning apps with AI-driven personalised recommendations, leverage vast
linguistic datasets to provide dynamic and effective educational experiences (Dai
& Wu, 2023; Zou et al., 2023).
In the domain of translation education, innovative approaches integrating AI
technologies have been introduced, extending beyond conventional methods
(Hellmich & Vinall, 2021). These approaches incorporate AI-driven tools into the
curriculum, including translation exercises augmented by AI feedback and virtual
language labs with AI-assisted simulations (Zhao & Jiang, 2021). Studies
evaluating these approaches reveal potential benefits alongside challenges that
necessitate careful consideration (Jiang & Lu, 2021).
Existing AI-assisted language learning applications demonstrate promise in
enhancing language proficiency by tailoring content and exercises to individual
learners’ needs and learning styles (Praktika.ai Company, 2023; Woo & Choi,
2021). The ability of AI to provide instant feedback and adaptive challenges
contributes to a more immersive learning experience, leading to improved
language outcomes and increased student engagement.

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A noteworthy aspect of AI in language learning involves training AI models for


translation tasks, where students actively contribute to the process (Popel et al.,
2020). This bi-directional learning process empowers students with a deeper
understanding of language nuances and influences the effectiveness of AI models
in capturing human expression complexities (McKay et al., 2020).
While significant strides have been made in integrating AI into language learning
and translation education, notable gaps exist in the current literature. There is a
need for a comprehensive understanding of how AI impacts various aspects of
translation education, including students’ motivation, reflection, academic
performance, and the overall quality of language translation within educational
settings. These gaps highlight the importance of further research to explore the
implications of AI-assisted methodologies comprehensively and to address any
associated challenges.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the influence of AI-assisted app
design and training on students’ motivation, reflection, academic performance in
translation courses, and the overall quality of language translation within the
translation course. This research also aims to investigate both quantitative and
qualitative aspects of this influence to provide valuable insights into the potential
benefits and challenges of integrating AI technologies in translation education.
The research questions are outlined below:
1. How does the integration of AI-assisted app design and training impact
students’ motivation, reflective practices, academic performance, and the quality
of written translation in the translation course?
2. What are students’ perceptions regarding the integration of an AI-based and
student-trained translation assistant into translation courses?

3. Methodology
3.1. Research design
This study used a mixed-methods research approach employing a two-group
(Experimental and Control Groups) post-test-only design. The investigation
employed a quantitative approach to address the first research question and a
qualitative approach to address the second research question. The integration of
these approaches facilitated the contextualisation of findings, providing richer
detail to the study’s conclusions. The use of qualitative data allowed for the
illustration of quantitative findings (George, 2022). The choice of this study design
was grounded in the advantages of a two-group design, allowing for a direct
comparison between the experimental group receiving AI-assisted training and
the control group following traditional methods. The post-test-only design with
two groups enhanced the ability to infer causality, reducing threats to internal
validity compared to pre-test-post-test designs, thus minimising potential biases
introduced by pre-test sensitisation and enabling a clearer examination of the
immediate effects of the intervention. The visualised outline for the timeline of the
study is presented in Figure 1.

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Preparation and Initial training session by


1. January 2023: Project Selection and confirmation of Initial communication
approval of the an IT professional for
Preparation and Initial participants (second-year and orientation sessions
research design and designing an app using
Training students majoring in Philology). with students.
methodology. Imagica.ai.

2. February 2023: Distribution of learning Explanation of the role of AI-


Introduction of the translation
Commencement of materials and assisted app design and training in
module focusing on specific rules.
Translation Module resources. the translation process.

Integration of
3. February 2023: App Students begin the design of First training session Practical sessions on
translation rules into
Design and First Round of their AI-based translator conducted by an IT generating prompts
the app design
Training assistant using Imagica.ai. professional for app design. for app training.
process.

4. April 2023: Midterm evaluation to Feedback session to Administration of a closed-book translation test to assess
Midterm Evaluation assess the progress of app address any challenges the quality of students' translations that used some rules
and Feedback design and training. and provide guidance. under study.

5. May - June 2023: Students continue Second round of


Collaborative sharing of Administration of a
Collaborative refining and training sessions to
workable prompts within closed-book
Improvement and improving their apps enhance prompt
the group. translation test.
App Refinement based on feedback. generation skills.

6. September 2023: Review sessions on the


Final preparations for the closed-book test to assess the quality of
Preparation for Final translation rules and app
students' translations that used some rules under study.
Evaluation. functionalities.

7. October 2023: Administration of Collection of quantitative data related to Collection of qualitative data
Closed-Book Test a closed-book motivation, reflection, academic through focus group discussions to
and Data Collection. test. performance, and translation quality. gauge student perceptions.

8. November 2023: Compilation of Drafting of the final


Quantitative data analysis Qualitative data analysis for
Data Analysis and results and research report and article
using statistical tools. insights and patterns.
Report Writing. findings. manuscript.

Figure 1. Visualised Outline for the Timeline of the Study

3.2. Research locale and respondents


A purposive sampling technique, commonly employed in mixed-methods
research (van Haute, 2021), was utilised to select 35 second-year students
majoring in Philology from Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv,
Ukraine. The inclusion criteria for participants included being second-year
students majoring in Philology at the university, having a proficiency level in the
English language equivalent to B2 (CEFR), and having no prior exposure to AI-
assisted translation tools or applications. Students who met these criteria were
invited to participate in the study.
The sample comprised 17 students in the experimental group (EG), consisting of
9 males and 8 females aged 18-20, and 18 students in the control group (CG),
including 8 males and 10 females aged 18-21. The groups exhibited homogeneity
based on students’ grade point averages (GPA), ranging from 2.3 (C ECTS) to 3.4
(B+ ECTS). To ensure the representativeness of the sample, additional measures
were taken to control for extraneous variables, including eliciting information
about students’ prior experiences with AI tools, ensuring internet availability
during the training sessions, and minimising external influences from friends and
family outside the university.
The training sessions, designed to deviate from conventional methodologies,
covered various aspects of AI-assisted translation tools and applications, such as
understanding the functionalities of AI translation software, practising translation

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tasks with AI assistance, and receiving feedback on translation quality. The


training spanned two weeks, with sessions held twice a week for two hours each.
During these sessions, students actively engaged in hands-on activities and
discussions to enhance their understanding of AI-assisted translation.
Additionally, to clarify the criteria used to classify students into the experimental
and control groups, as well as the process of selecting students for these groups,
alongside GPA, factors such as language proficiency, prior exposure to AI tools,
and willingness to participate in the study were considered. The purposive
sampling technique was further employed to assemble three focus groups, each
comprising three students representing one optimist, one pessimist, and one critic
in each group. These measures aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding
of the impact of AI-assisted app design and training on students' motivation,
reflection, academic performance, and the quality of language translation within
the translation course.
3.3. Research Instruments
The research employed various data collection instruments to cover both
intervention phases and post-intervention periods, in addition to conducting
focus group discussions. Data regarding motivation and reflective practices were
collected using two researcher-designed tools titled ‘Quick Motivation and
Reflection Scales’ (QMRS) (see Appendix B and Appendix C). These
questionnaires, based on Google Forms, were distributed via Telegram groups
using an URL or QR code.
Both scales comprised 12 Likert agreement-scale statements. The tools underwent
an expert validation process and demonstrated strong face and content validity.
The QMRS for the experimental group (Appendix B) showed an Item-Level
Content Validity Index (IL-CVI) of .916 and a Fleiss’s Kappa coefficient of .533.
The QMRS for the control group (Appendix C) showed an IL-CVI of .903 and a
Fleiss’s Kappa coefficient of .489. These results confirmed the questionnaires’
reliability and suitability for statistical analysis.
Data to monitor other variables, such as academic performance in the translation
course and the quality of students’ written translations, were obtained through
ongoing assessments of students as they completed assignments and three closed-
book translation tests administered in both experimental and control groups at
different phases of the intervention.
Qualitative data were gathered through three focus group discussions moderated
using the guide in Appendix A. These discussions were conducted via the ZOOM
video conferencing platform and recorded using the ZOOM session recording
feature. Subsequently, Kapwing audio transcriber, an AI-powered transcription
tool accessible at: https://www.kapwing.com/tools/audio-to-text, was
employed to transcribe the recorded audios into texts. To ensure precision and
clarity, the transcriptions were carefully reviewed.
3.4. Data Collection Process
a) Intervention phase
The intervention was given to the experimental group of students enrolled in the
3 ECTS course in Industry-Specific Translation delivered at Taras Shevchenko
National University of Kyiv. The focal point of the study was a module dedicated

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to specific translation rules, including the “Translation of


idiomatic/phraseological and stable expressions,” “Transformation of some
idioms in the process of translating,” “Ways of translating participial
constructions/complexes,” and “Ways of conveying the meanings of subjective
modality.” These rules were intended to be practised within the context of specific
language pairs, such as Ukrainian-English, Ukrainian-German, English-German,
French-German, or/and English-French.
Students participated in two training sessions, conducted by an IT professional to
design an app utilising the Imagica.ai web tool, accessible at
https://www.imagica.ai/. This free, no-code AI app development platform was
used because it offers a straightforward method to construct applications for
various tasks. Subsequently, students received two training sessions from an IT
professional to learn how to generate prompts instructing their app assistants in
applying the translation rules emphasised in the module. To assess the quality of
their app-generated translations, students shared functional prompts within the
group, facilitating collaborative improvement and adaptation for diverse app
training objectives.
To mitigate dependency on app assistance and ensure a comprehensive
evaluation based on their understanding and application of the learned material,
the lecturer conducted five closed-book tests. Each test covered the utilisation of
specific translation rules, prohibiting students from referencing external
materials, including their apps or notes.
The AI-assistant apps, developed and trained by EG students, utilised machine
translation algorithms to generate initial translations of text passages provided by
students, facilitating the creation of draft translations that could be refined and
improved based on the app’s feedback. Moreover, students trained the apps to
conduct contextual analysis to comprehend the meaning and context of text
passages, enabling the apps to offer precise and contextually relevant suggestions
for enhancing translations. Additionally, the apps conducted grammar and syntax
checks on students’ translations, identifying and highlighting errors such as
grammatical mistakes, punctuation errors, and syntactical inconsistencies. They
provided suggestions for corrections and explanations for identified errors to aid
students in comprehension and learning.
Furthermore, the AI-assistant apps enriched EG students’ vocabulary by drawing
from an extensive database of vocabulary and language usage patterns. They
proposed suggestions to enhance students’ vocabulary and word choice in their
translations, offering synonyms, antonyms, and alternative phrases to facilitate
more effective expression of ideas. Additionally, the apps featured interactive
learning modules designed to train EG students in specific translation skills and
concepts. These modules covered topics such as idiomatic expressions, cultural
nuances, and language conventions, thereby assisting students in improving their
translation proficiency over time.
Integration into Translation Courses
The integration of AI-based translation assistants, developed and trained by EG
students, into the translation courses was seamlessly executed through structured
training sessions and practical exercises. These sessions included an orientation to

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familiarise EG students with the app’s interface and basic functionalities, guiding
them through app navigation, text input for translation, and feedback
interpretation. Practical exercises involved EG students translating sample
passages using the app and receiving real-time feedback, facilitating a controlled
environment for app usage practice and confidence enhancement. Advanced
training modules, progressively introduced throughout the course, addressed
complex translation scenarios and provided in-depth training on advanced app
features such as contextual analysis, grammar checking, and vocabulary
enhancement.
Development and Utilisation of AI-based Translation Apps
The development and utilisation of AI-based translation apps in this study were
facilitated through a structured approach aimed at engaging all participating
students effectively. Figure 2 presents key components of app design and use.

App Development Process


•EG students collaborate in small groups to design and develop AI-based
translation apps using the Imagica.ai web tool.
•Each group conceptualizes app functionalities aligned with specific translation
rules and course objectives.

App Training Sessions


•All EG students participate in training sessions conducted by an IT professional.
•Training sessions focus on familiarising students with the app development
platform and generating prompts for training apps.

Rotational Engagement
•Students engage in rotational activities to interact with multiple apps developed
by their peers.
•Rotational approach ensures exposure to a wide range of app functionalities and
translation techniques.

Collaborative Feedback and Improvement


•Students provide feedback and suggestions for improving each other's apps
during collaborative feedback sessions.
•Collaborative approach fosters peer learning and continuous improvement of
apps.

Participation and Engagement


•While all EG students have the opportunity to engage with multiple apps during
training, participation may vary based on preferences.
•Rotational engagement approach ensures exposure to diverse app functionalities
and translation techniques.

b) Post-Test Administration
The research procedure entailed actively involving experimental groups in the
design of the AI-based translator assistant and its subsequent training during the
translation course. Conversely, the control group received training through
conventional translation education methods. In this study, the independent
variable was the integration of AI-assisted app design and student training, while
students’ motivation, reflective practices, academic performance in the translation
course, and the quality of written translation were considered dependent

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variables. To assess differences between the groups, the Independent Samples t-


test was employed.
The Independent Samples t-test was selected owing to its capability to compare
outcomes (post-test measures) between the two independent groups—the
experimental group receiving treatment via AI-assisted app design and training
and the control group without this intervention (Ross & Willson, 2017). This test
was deemed appropriate, given the assumption that the dependent variables
(motivation, reflective practices, academic performance in the translation course,
and quality of students’ written translations) were continuous, making the
Independent Samples t-test suitable for analysing mean differences. The
assumption of homogeneity of variances, indicating roughly equal variance
within each group, was verified before conducting the test. Moreover, the
relatively small sample size favoured the use of this t-test.
c) Conducting the Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)
To evaluate students’ perceptions regarding the integration of an AI-based and
student-trained translation assistant into the translation course, a focus group
discussion was conducted with three purposefully selected experimental group
(EG) student cohorts. The FGD was organised following a structured approach
outlined in the Focus Group Discussion Guide (refer to Appendix A). This guide
provided a framework for the moderator to facilitate discussions and ensure that
key topics related to the research objectives were addressed. The FGD sessions
were conducted online using the ZOOM video conferencing platform to
accommodate the participants' schedules and ensure their safety and
convenience. Each session was scheduled for approximately 60-90 minutes to
allow for in-depth discussions while also respecting participants’ time. Before the
FGDs commenced, participants were briefed on the objectives of the discussion
and assured of confidentiality regarding their responses. The moderator
facilitated the discussion by posing open-ended questions and encouraging
participants to express their thoughts freely. During the FGDs, audio recordings
were made to capture all discussions accurately. These recordings served as a
valuable resource for later transcription and analysis. To ensure accuracy in
capturing participants’ responses, the moderator actively listened and
paraphrased key points to confirm understanding. Following the completion of
each FGD, the audio recordings were transcribed into text format using an AI-
powered transcription tool. The transcriptions were then carefully reviewed and
edited to ensure clarity and accuracy before proceeding with data analysis.
3.5. Data Analysis
The outcomes of the two independent groups, encompassing motivation,
reflective practices, academic performance in the translation course, and the
quality of students’ written translations, were subjected to analysis and
comparison using the Independent Samples t-test. Categorical data, specifically
the outcomes from the Quick Motivation and Reflection Scales for the EG and CG,
such as Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, and Strongly Agree,
transformed numerical values for processing through jamovi statistical software
(Version 2.2.5). Similarly, students’ grades in academic performance in the
translation course and the quality of written translations, already in numerical
form, were processed using jamovi statistical software (Version 2.2.5).

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Qualitative research data drawn from focus groups were analysed using the
Speak web-based thematic analysis tool, powered by artificial intelligence and
specifically tailored for the examination of unstructured language data (Speak AI
Inc, 2023). The selection of this tool was deliberate, given its explicit design for the
analysis of data derived from interviews and focus groups. It operates by
transcribing audio files and subsequently conducting an automatic,
comprehensive analysis with features such as extraction, visualisation, and
prompting functions. A thematic analysis involved the identification of emerging
common themes and patterns within the discussion data. Pertinent areas were
systematically coded for further study. The perspectives and experiences of
individuals were subsequently compared to uncover commonalities,
inconsistencies, and contradictions within the qualitative findings.
Ethics Statements
Before focus group discussions, students were briefed on the study’s purpose and
objectives. Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee for the
Board of Academics at Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv.
Participants were assured of voluntary participation and confidentiality. Details
on data use and handling were provided, emphasising research purposes.
Potential risks and benefits were discussed. Contact information of the moderator
was shared for queries. Each participant confirmed voluntary participation and
understanding of study terms.

4. Results
This section unveils the impact of AI-assisted app design and training on students’
motivation, reflective practices, academic performance, and quality of written
translation in the translation course. The results below are derived from the quick
motivation and reflection scales for both the experimental group (EG) and control
group (CG), as well as from the analysis of intervention participants’ academic
performance in the translation course and the quality of their written translations
using the Independent Samples t-test. Students’ perceptions regarding the
integration of an AI-based and student-trained translation assistant into
translation courses are presented through the thematic analysis of data drawn
from the focus groups.
Impact of AI-Assisted Training on the Variables Under Study
The results obtained from the Independent Samples t-test and the assessment of
normality distributions across all variables consistently affirmed the effectiveness
of the intervention in the experimental group (EG). This led to notably elevated
levels of motivation, reflective practices, academic performance, and the quality
of written translation when compared to the control group (CG). The considerable
effect sizes underscore the substantive significance of the observed discrepancies,
implying that the intervention yielded meaningful and substantial effects on the
assessed outcomes. Despite acknowledging concerns regarding normality, the
robust statistical significance and substantial effect sizes across all variables
suggest that the observed differences possess practical significance and are not
solely attributable to deviations from normality. These findings underscore the
potential of AI-assisted training methodologies to positively influence students’
learning experiences and performance within translation courses.

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Table 1. Results Drawn from the Independent Samples T-Test


95%
Mean SE Confidence
Statistic 𝒅𝒇 𝒑 Effect Size
difference difference Interval
Lower Upper
Cohen’s 1.98
Motivation Student’s t 5.85 33.0 < .001 0.587 0.1003 0.383 0.791
𝑑
Cohen’s 6.22
Reflection Student’s t 18.38 33.0 < .001 1.589 0.0864 1.413 1.765
𝑑
Academic Cohen’s
Student’s t 10.98 33.0 < .001 17.141 1.5604 13.966 20.315 3.71
performance 𝑑
Quality of
Cohen’s
written Student’s t 11.57 33.0 < .001 16.846 1.4556 13.885 19.808 3.91
𝑑
translation

As shown in Table 1, the extremely low p-values (< 0.001) in the Independent
Samples T-Test results indicate statistically significant differences between the
two groups for all variables. The relatively large effect sizes (Cohen’s d) suggest
that the observed differences are not only statistically significant but also
practically significant.
For Motivation, the t-test indicates a highly significant difference between the EG
and CG, with a substantial effect size (Cohen’s 𝑑 = 1.98). The positive mean
difference of 0.587 suggests that participants in the EG had significantly higher
motivation levels than the CG. The 95% confidence interval (CI) further supports
this, ranging from 0.383 to 0.791. The potential departure from normality (𝑊 =
0.963, 𝑝 = 0.0273) does not undermine the strength of the significant results.
The t-test for Reflection reveals an extremely significant difference between the
EG and CG, with an exceptionally large effect size (Cohen’s 𝑑 = 6.22). The
positive mean difference of 1.589 indicates that participants in the EG
demonstrated substantially higher reflective practices than those in the CG. The
95% CI (1.413 to 1.765) reinforces the robustness of this finding. Despite the
potential departure from normality (𝑊 = 0.983, 𝑝 = 0.0086), the extremely
significant results and the substantial effect size emphasised the practical
importance of the observed differences in reflective practices, indicating a strong
impact of the intervention.
The t-test for Academic Performance uncovers a highly significant difference
between the EG and CG, with a notable effect size (Cohen’s 𝑑 = 3.71). The
positive mean difference of 17.141 suggests that participants in the EG exhibited
significantly better academic performance in the translation course compared to
the CG. The 95% CI (13.966 to 20.315) reinforces the substantial impact of the
intervention. The potential departure from normality (𝑊 = 0.968, 𝑝 = 0.0391)
does not diminish the strength of the highly significant results.
The t-test for the quality of written translation demonstrates a highly significant
difference between the EG and CG, with a considerable effect size (Cohen’s 𝑑 =
3.91). The positive mean difference of 16.846 indicates that participants in the EG
produced significantly higher-quality written translations than those in the CG.
The 95% CI (13.885 to 19.808) reinforces the substantial impact of the intervention.
Despite the potential departure from normality (𝑊 = 0.960, 𝑝 = 0.0225), the
highly significant results and the substantial effect size highlight the practical

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importance of the observed differences in the quality of written translation,


indicating a significant impact of the intervention.
A Thematic Analysis of Data Drawn from the Focus Groups
The results of the thematic analysis of students’ responses in bulk conducted
through the Speak web-based tool revealed a sentiment value of 0.224. When
interpreting this score on the conventional scale of -1 to 1, the outcome falls within
the positive range, indicating a favourable perception of the intervention and its
outcomes.

3.37%
9.55%

5.62% 45.51%

25.28%

10.67%

Figure 3. Distribution of Sentiment Categories Obtained from Thematic Analysis of


Students’ Responses in Bulk
As can be seen in Figure 3, the analysis identified the prevalence of Positive and
Very Positive sentiment categories, constituting 45.51% and 3.37% respectively.
These findings suggest an overall optimistic outlook among participants,
implying a positive reception of the AI-assisted training approach. Additionally,
the Neutral category, representing 25.28% of responses, signifies a significant
portion of participants who maintained a balanced perspective, refraining from
expressing explicit positive or negative sentiments. This neutrality could arise
from diverse individual experiences or a pragmatic evaluation of the
intervention’s impact. Conversely, the combined responses of Slightly Negative
(5.62%) and Negative (9.55%) categories amount to 15.17%, reflecting a less
favorable sentiment. The presence of negative sentiments highlights the need to
acknowledge diverse viewpoints and potential areas of discontent or concern
among participants. In summary, the thematic analysis indicates an overall
positive sentiment, with a noteworthy portion of participants expressing a neutral
viewpoint and a smaller proportion expressing negative sentiments. This nuanced
understanding contributes to a comprehensive evaluation of participant
perspectives on the AI-assisted training intervention. Some of the most illustrative
students’ quotes were as follows:
Positive Perspective: “Oh, the AI-based translation assistant? It was a game-changer,
seriously. Made the whole learning thing way more exciting and dynamic.”

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Neutral Perspective: “So, the AI tool was pretty user-friendly overall, but I did hit a few
bumps. Those advanced features? A bit tricky to navigate, I won’t lie.”
Critical Perspective: “Eh, it was a bit hit or miss for me. Sometimes it did the trick, other
times, not so much. Kind of kept me on my toes.”
The keyword analysis offers valuable insights into the prevalent themes and focal
points discerned from participants’ comments concerning the AI-assisted
translation intervention. The identification of ten specific themes was facilitated
by examining the frequencies of keywords. These themes encompassed learning
and improvement, effectiveness, the translation process, AI assistant, guidance
and refinement, complexity, usual learning routine, overall comprehension and
coherence, transformative experience, and appropriateness.

Figure 4. Results of the Keyword Analysis Obtained from the Participants’ Comments
Related to the AI-assisted Translation Intervention
As illustrated in Figure 4, the recurrent appearance of terms such as “Learning,”
“Improvement,” and “Training sessions” suggests participants perceived the AI-
assisted translation tool as a contributory factor to their learning experiences and
skill enhancement. The repetition of the term “Effectiveness” three times implies
that participants likely engaged in discussions about the efficacy of the AI tool in
facilitating their translation tasks. The frequent mentions of “Translation,”
“Translation process,” and “Translations” indicate that participants shared
reflections on the tool’s impact on their translation activities. Moreover, the
prominence of terms like “AI assistant” and variations such as “Assistant”
underscores the central role of the AI assistant in participants’ comments.
Expressions like “More guidance” and “Refining prompts” suggest that
participants may have provided feedback on the level of guidance and prompts
offered by the AI tool. Terms like “Complex translation rules” and “Complex
translation tasks” indicate participants’ perceptions of the tool’s ability to handle
intricate translation challenges. The inclusion of “Usual learning routine” implies
a comparison between the AI-assisted approach and participants’ regular learning
methods. Additionally, the terms “Overall comprehension,” “Coherent
translations,” and “Conveying meanings” reflect discussions on how well the AI

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tool supported participants in understanding and conveying intended meanings


in translations. The mention of "Transformative experience" suggests that
participants found the AI-assisted translation to be a significant and impactful
aspect of their learning. Lastly, the occurrences of terms such as “Accurate
translations” and “Appropriate translations” provide insights into participants’
perceptions regarding the accuracy and appropriateness of the AI-generated
translations. The above thematic categories offer a broad range of insights into the
diverse perspectives and experiences of participants with the AI-supported
translation intervention.
Overall, the thematic analysis of students’ responses offers valuable insights into
addressing both research questions. Concerning the first research question, the
identified themes such as “Learning and Improvement,” “Effectiveness,” and
“Transformative Experience” emphasise the pivotal role of AI-assisted training in
bolstering students’ motivation, reflective practices, and academic performance.
These findings suggest that the integration of AI technologies not only enhances
traditional learning methods but also catalyses transformative learning
experiences. Furthermore, themes like “Complexity” and “Usual Learning
Routine” prompt critical reflections on the disruptive potential of AI in
challenging conventional pedagogical approaches, and fostering innovation in
translation education.
Regarding the second research question, themes such as “AI Assistant” and
“Guidance and Refinement” provide nuanced insights into students’ perceptions
of AI-based translation assistants. While participants acknowledged the AI
assistant’s central role and its potential to provide valuable guidance, their
feedback also highlighted areas of improvement, particularly in terms of refining
prompts and enhancing the tool’s adaptability to diverse translation contexts.
Additionally, the theme of “Overall Comprehension and Coherence” underscores
the importance of AI technologies in supporting students’ comprehension and
expression of complex linguistic nuances, thereby enriching the quality of
translation outputs. However, expressions like “Appropriate Translations”
suggest a critical evaluation of the AI-generated translations, hinting at concerns
regarding accuracy and contextual appropriateness.

5. Discussion
The integration of an AI-based translation assistant into a university-level
translation course demonstrated transformative effects on students’ learning
experiences and outcomes, aligning with the research objectives. The study
explored the impact of AI-assisted app design and training on students’
motivation, reflective practices, academic performance, and the quality of written
translation within the translation course. Key findings revealed significant
improvements in motivation, reflective practices, academic performance, and
translation quality among students in the experimental group (EG) compared to
the control group (CG). Robust statistical significance and substantial effect sizes
underscored the transformative impact of AI-assisted training. Thematic analysis
using the Speak web-based tool revealed an overall positive sentiment (0.224),
emphasising Positive and Very Positive sentiments. The Neutral category
suggested a balanced perspective, while the combined Slightly Negative and

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Negative categories represented less favourable sentiment. These results echo


previous studies emphasising the positive influence of AI on language learning,
as evidenced by the systematic review by Zhai and Wibowo (2023) on AI dialogue
systems for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students and the findings of
Chen et al. (2022) on the alignment between educators' expectations and AI
offerings in language education.
The observed improvements in motivation, reflective practices, academic
performance, and translation quality underscore the effectiveness of AI-assisted
training in enhancing students’ learning experiences. The findings suggest that
the AI-based translation assistant facilitated students’ engagement with
translation tasks, leading to increased motivation and reflective thinking.
Moreover, the significant improvements in academic performance and translation
quality indicate the practical benefits of integrating AI technologies into
translation education. These interpretations align with previous research
highlighting the positive impacts of AI on language proficiency and interactive
learning environments, as demonstrated by studies conducted by Rebolledo Font
de la Vall and González Araya (2023) and Rusmiyanto et al. (2023).
The findings of this study have significant implications for language education,
particularly in the context of translation courses. By demonstrating the
effectiveness of AI-assisted training in enhancing student’s learning experiences
and performance, the study highlights the potential of AI technologies to
revolutionise language learning environments. The insights gained from this
research contribute to the body of knowledge by providing a nuanced
understanding of the multifaceted impacts of AI on language education. These
implications emphasise the importance of continued exploration and adaptation
of AI tools to maximise their benefits in language learning contexts. Building upon
the work of Mitra and Banerjee (2023) and Rismanchian and Doroudi (2023), our
research contributes insights into the dynamic intersection of AI and language
education. However, future investigations could delve deeper into specific
linguistic distinctions and contextual challenges, enriching our understanding of
AI tools in language learning environments.
Despite the valuable insights provided by this study, certain limitations must be
acknowledged. The relatively small sample size and the specific context of the
study may limit the generalisability of the findings to broader student populations
or diverse educational settings. Additionally, the subjective nature of the
responses obtained through focus group discussions and self-reported data may
introduce biases that could impact the accuracy of the results. Furthermore, the
study focused primarily on the immediate impact of AI-assisted training, leaving
the long-term effects and sustainability of these benefits unexplored.
To address these limitations and further advance the understanding of AI in
language education, future research could explore the long-term impact of AI
integration on language proficiency and students’ adaptation to technological
interventions over extended periods. Additionally, studies could delve deeper
into specific linguistic nuances and contextual challenges to enrich our
understanding of AI tools in language learning environments. Despite these
limitations, the findings of this research contribute valuable insights into the
evolving landscape of AI in language education and highlight the need for

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continued exploration and adaptation to maximise the benefits of these


technological interventions.
6. Conclusion
This study addressed the transformative impact of integrating an AI-based
translation assistant into a university-level translation course, with a focus on
motivation, reflective practices, academic performance, and translation quality.
Through our research, we contributed insights to the discourse on AI in language
education, uncovering previously unexplored dimensions. Our key findings,
which include innovative student-designed apps, outcomes of the Independent
Samples t-test, and thematic and keyword analyses, collectively underscored the
positive outcomes of the intervention. Thematic analysis revealed an overall
positive sentiment, with ten identified themes providing a nuanced
understanding of participant perspectives. Our findings align with existing
literature, emphasising AI’s positive influence on English language skills for EFL
students. While cautioning against overly broad generalisations due to the
subjective nature of responses, our study underscores the significance of
incorporating AI tools in language education. The positive transformations
observed in handling language elements further underscore the effectiveness of
the AI tool. The study suggests avenues for future research into linguistic nuances
and contextual challenges, urging ongoing exploration to maximise the benefits
of these technological interventions.
Recommendations
Drawing from the insights gained in this study, several recommendations can
guide future researchers and practitioners interested in the integration of AI-
based tools in educational settings. Firstly, researchers should aim for more
extensive and diverse participant samples to enhance the generalisability of
findings across various educational contexts. Exploring the long-term effects of
AI-assisted interventions on learning outcomes could contribute to a more
comprehensive understanding of their sustained impact. Additionally, future
studies could adopt a mixed-methods approach to triangulate quantitative and
qualitative data, providing a more nuanced perspective on the intervention’s
effectiveness. Practitioners should consider providing more detailed tutorials and
support for students navigating advanced features, ensuring a smoother
integration into their learning routines. Furthermore, ongoing training sessions
and refresher courses can help students maximise the benefits of AI tools over
time. Ethical considerations should remain a priority and transparency in
explaining data usage and ensuring participant privacy should be upheld.
Overall, a continuous dialogue between researchers, practitioners, and students
is essential to iteratively refine AI-assisted approaches, fostering an environment
that aligns with the evolving needs and expectations of learners.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank IT professionals for training students and students for their
dedication to this research.

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Appendices
Appendix A. Focus Group Discussion Guide
Introduction:
1. Please share your overall perception of how the integration of the AI-based and
student-trained translation assistant influenced your learning experience in the
translation course.
2. How would you describe your experience in using the AI-based translation
assistant during translation exercises? Was it easy or challenging?

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3. Share your thoughts on the training sessions for developing prompts and using
the AI assistant. How did these sessions contribute to your understanding of
translation rules?
Impact on Learning Outcomes:
4. In what ways do you believe using the AI-based translation assistant improved
your ability to translate idiomatic and phraseological expressions?
4a. Did you find the AI-based translation assistant helpful in transforming
idioms during the translation process? Please provide examples from your
experience.
4b. Share your insights into the effectiveness of the AI assistant in translating
participial constructions/complexes.
4c. How do you think the AI-based translation assistant contributed to a better
understanding of conveying meanings of subjective modality?
Collaboration and Peer Learning:
5. Discuss how sharing prompts within the group facilitated collaborative
learning and improvement of the app-generated translations.
5a. How did peer interaction in designing the app and developing prompts
enhance your learning experience? Share specific instances or examples.
Perceived Challenges:
6. Reflect on any challenges you faced in understanding how to use the AI-based
translation assistant. What aspects were particularly challenging for you?
6a. Discuss your experience in developing prompts for the AI assistant. Was
this task challenging, and why?
Overall Satisfaction:
7. Share your overall satisfaction with the integration of the AI-based translation
assistant into the translation course. What aspects contributed to your satisfaction
or dissatisfaction?
7a. Would you recommend the use of an AI-based translation assistant to
future students in translation courses? Why or why not?
Closing:
8. Is there anything else you would like to add regarding your experience with the
AI-based translation assistant in the translation course?
8a. Do you have any suggestions for improvements or additional features that
could enhance the effectiveness of the AI-based translation assistant in future
courses?

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Appendix B. Quick Motivation and Reflection Scales for the EG


(can be accessed via the link: https://forms.gle/mTeh4wVUmtqsU6ek6)
Agree or disagree (Strongly Disagree; Disagree; Neutral; Agree; Strongly Agree) with the
following statements based on your experience with the AI-assisted app design and
training.
Motivation Scale:
1. The use of the AI-assisted app in translation exercises increased my motivation
to engage with course materials.
2. The AI-assisted app features positively influenced my motivation to learn and
apply translation rules.
3. I found the AI-assisted app engaging, which enhanced my enthusiasm for
translation tasks.
4. The AI-assisted app increased my interest in exploring different language pairs
for translation.
5. I felt a sense of accomplishment when using the AI-assisted app for translation
exercises.
6. The AI-assisted app made the translation course more enjoyable for me.
Reflection Scale:
7. The process of designing prompts for the AI-assisted app encouraged me to
reflect on translation rules.
8. Collaborating with peers to improve app-generated translations facilitated my
reflection on translation strategies.
8. The training sessions on app development promoted a reflective approach to
translation tasks.
10. Discussing app-generated translations with peers deepened my
understanding of translation nuances.
11. The app development process encouraged me to think critically about the
application of translation rules.
12. Using the AI-assisted app prompted me to reflect on alternative approaches to
translation.

Note: 1 = Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neutral; 4 = Agree; and 5 = Strongly


Agree.

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Appendix C. Quick Motivation and Reflection Scales for the CG


(can be accessed via the link: https://forms.gle/cDmvess5S2sw9eyj7)
Agree or disagree (Strongly Disagree; Disagree; Neutral; Agree; Strongly Agree) with the
following statements based on your experience of training you received in the translation
course.
Motivation Scale:
1. The training techniques employed in this translation course effectively
motivated me to actively participate in the learning process.
2. I perceived a clear sense of purpose and relevance in the traditional translation
exercises, fostering my motivation.
3. The instructional methods utilised in this translation course inspired
persistence in tackling and overcoming translation challenges.
4. In general, the training methods employed in the course significantly enhanced
my motivation to delve into the intricacies of translation.
5. The course content consistently stimulated my interest and enthusiasm for
improving translation skills.
6. I found the translation assignments engaging, contributing positively to my
overall motivation and commitment.
Reflection Scale:
1. The instructional approach in this translation course facilitated deep reflection
on the subtleties of language and translation.
2. Actively contemplating and analysing various translation strategies during this
course enriched my understanding of the translation process.
3. The training sessions provided opportunities for valuable self-reflection on the
quality and nuances of my translations.
4. Reflecting on the pen-paper-dictionary exercises offered in the course played a
significant role in refining and enhancing my translation skills.
5. The course structure encouraged continuous introspection, leading to a more
profound understanding of translation complexities.
6. Engaging in reflective practices throughout the course positively impacted the
refinement of my translation techniques.

Note: 1 = Strongly Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neutral; 4 = Agree; and 5 = Strongly


Agree.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 141-160, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.8
Received Feb 20, 2024; Revised Apr 21, 2024; Accepted Apr 25, 2024

Impact of Islamic-Based Services Provided by


Lecturers and Staff on Students' Perceptions of
Religiosity
Mardiah Astuti*
Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training,
Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang, South Sumatera, Indonesia.

Fajri Ismail
Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah
Palembang, South Sumatera, Indonesia

Yunika Triana
Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Mas
Said Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia

Andi Arif Rifa'i


Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Mas
Said Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia

Abstract. This paper aims to determine the relationship between Islamic


values of lecturers and academic staff towards student perceptions on
religiosity. This paper established a regression equation model between
the two and explained the importance of the Islamic values of lecturers
and academic staff to improve student religious behavior and attitude.
This study used a quantitative survey method in the form of a
relationship survey. The total population was 3,194 students at one of
the largest State Islamic Universities in Indonesia. The research sample
was taken randomly. A sample of 750 respondents was obtained from
four study programs. The instrument used was a questionnaire
consisting of 24 statements using a Likert scale. The results of the study
showed that the Islamic-based and the dimensional aspect (Islamic
values) of lecturers and academic staff services, had a significant effects
on student perceptions. The conclusion drawn was that the dimensions
of the Islamic values of lecturers and academic staff had a significant
effect on positive perception aspects. The implication of practice or
policy is that policy makers are required to improve Islamic-based

*
Corresponding author: Mardiah Astuti; E-mail: [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
142

academic and non-academic services in order to change the character


and increase the positive perspective of students.

Keywords: Islamic value; Islamic state universitas; students’ perception;


academic staff; student’s behavior

1. Introduction
Higher education plays a central role in the development of human resources,
serving as a key factor in enhancing individual capacities within society. The
understanding of the significance of higher education has been increasingly
underscored by the contributions of educational innovation to the success and
sustainability of a knowledge-based economy (Dill & Vught, 2010; Zulaiha &
Triana, 2023). Pramesworo (2018) also said the primary objective of higher
education is to equip students with fundamental knowledge and skills sufficient
to face real-world challenges. Therefore, universities function as educational
service providers with the aim of educating students with relevant knowledge
and skills.

The concept of higher education as a service can also be applied from a business
perspective, where institutions of higher learning can be considered as
producers generating the "product" of educated students. In this paradigm,
students are regarded as "customers" who utilize the educational services
provided by the university (Albulescu & Albulescu, 2014; Manea, 2014). The
influence of knowledge, both acquired inside and outside the classroom, is
acknowledged as a key element that shapes student performance (Wang et al.,
2011). Thus, a profound understanding of the dynamics of the relationship
between higher education institutions, educational services, and students as
customers is crucial in comprehending the role of higher education in fostering
human resource development and achieving sustainable economic success.

In Indonesia, there are significant differences between Islamic and non-Islamic


universities across various dimensions. One key distinction lies in the vision and
mission of the personnel serving the students at these universities (Dyer &
Erickson, 2023). Non-Islamic universities generally provide academic and non-
academic services akin to most universities worldwide. These services are
rendered without a particular emphasis on religious values. In contrast, at
Islamic universities, the services encompass not only academic and non-
academic aspects but are also rooted in the delivery of religious values (Rifa’i et
al., 2021; Wulan et al., 2021). This approach aims to cultivate an academic
atmosphere infused with religious nuances, directing students not only towards
worldly concerns but also towards a perspective on the afterlife. The impact of
these differences creates a unique educational environment in both types of
universities (Wigati et al., 2023). In non-Islamic universities, students tend to be
exposed to a more secular and universal framework of thought, with an
emphasis on general academic aspects. On the other hand, in Islamic universities
or in Islamic institution, the religious approach permeates every aspect of
services, fostering an atmosphere where students are not only intellectually
empowered but also provided with moral and spiritual foundations (Jannah &

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Usriyah, 2023). Of course, these differences also reflect the diversity in


educational approaches in Indonesia. Universities, whether Islamic or non-
Islamic, play a crucial role in shaping the character and worldview of students in
alignment with the values upheld by each institution.
Based on the explanation above, higher education institutions generally have a
role in serving students based on quality service principles, but Islamic tertiary
institutions have a challenging and very complex role. Islamic tertiary
institutions have an obligation not only to serve students as customers in a
quality manner but also to become agents of change in students' religious
attitudes, values and behavior. Both faculty and staff were subject to the change.
Therefore, this empirical research describes the effects of the Islamic character of
lecturers and academic staff in influencing student perceptions on religiosity.

2. Literature Review
2.1 Islamic-based Service Quality
In an effort to test the effects of Islamic-based service quality, this research
considers various aspects, one of which is student perceptions (Shahzad et al.,
2021). Customer perception states refer to beliefs regarding the delivery of
services that function as Islamic norms or references used to evaluate
performance in the context of Islamic universities (Zeithaml et al., 2013).
Evaluating service quality involves comparing student perceptions with the
existing reality. Zeithaml et al., (2013) also said that understanding the
expectations of students as customers is considered the initial and most
fundamental step in providing quality, Islamic-based services. A profound
understanding of students' perceptions of these services provides a crucial
foundation for the development and enhancement of service quality aligned
with Islamic values, thereby supporting the achievement of religion-based
educational goals.
Negative student perceptions can lead to losses in a competitive market
(Zeithaml et al., 2013). As a result, resources, time and costs appear to have been
wasted. In other words, customers must feel that they are receiving negative
value for the money and time they spend. Value can mean the benefits of buying
a particular product or service. Today, it's important to sell value or benefits, not
just lower-priced products and services. Value and price show a positive or
negative correlation (Quareshi, 2017), but Islamic values can show positive
perceptions (Hadi, 2023; Rifa'i et al., 2021). From the customer's point of view, in
this case, price is not everything, but the time spent on educational services and
the effort put into obtaining information is a larger non-monetary sacrifice.
Customer expectation is an important point in higher education for customers,
educators, mainstream media, practitioners and researchers (Retnaningsih et al.,
2023). In accordance with Bitner et al., (2010), when student services do not align
with students’ expectations, it gives rise to a Gap. The gap refers to the disparity
between students' expectations or anticipations of student services and what
they actually receive. When there is a mismatch between expectations and
reality, it can lead to feelings of dissatisfaction or mismatch among students.
Consequently, the university is obligated to make efforts to eliminate such gaps.

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Customer expectations must be understood and explored to meet the


requirements of successful university service marketing. Aspects of customer
expectations that will be addressed are types of service expectations standards,
factors that effects customer service expectations, factors that contribute to
changing customer expectations, and how universities can meet or exceed
customer expectations (Zeithaml et al., 2013). Universities that provide quality
educational services to help their students become professionals in their fields,
as well as realize the main vision and mission of Islamic colleges through the
provision of quality services, will have a positive impact on creating a religious
institutional atmosphere. It is expected that quality academic and non-academic
services will influence the character of students to become more religious.

2.2 Impact on Islamic-based Service Quality to students


The Islamic University presents different services in providing for the academic
and non-academic needs of students. Islamic values are taught in the form of
service behavior, such as in class or outside the classroom. In the classroom,
lecturers teach with a religious approach. This is in accordance with previous
research which states that the Islamic value approach is a culture of forming
Islamic character in Islamic universities (Munifah et al., 2020; Rifa’i et al., 2021).
Technological developments in Indonesia cannot be separated from changes in
social and cultural behavior (Hidayati et al., 2023). Therefore, Islamic religious
education needs to be accelerated on campus in the Disruption Era. Islamic
values are religious characters that must be owned by the younger generation in
Indonesia because of the growing and dangerous global challenges such as
cultural conflicts and the decline in students' morals and ethics (Arifin, 2021).
Western culture is a matter of concern to adherents of Islam, because morals
tend to be in conflict with Islamic principles and eastern culture.

For a long time this religious character has developed as social integration
between lecturers and students (Ene & Barna, 2015). This social integration will
create a sense of sensitivity and empathy for lecturers, staff and students. With
religious integration, this strategy is actually character education that is able to
improve religious social pedagogy skills and is able to increase student
discipline at Islamic universities (Ismail et al., 2013). According to them,
education is an important instrument in carrying out an action. Recently there
was a study which stated that a religious workplace can influence the attitude of
lecturers at a tertiary institution (Soliman et al., 2021; Tahmasbipour & Taheri,
2011). Research reveals that a religious workplace can increase engagement,
commitment, workforce agility, trust, and empowerment of lecturers. This
proves that this research is very likely to be developed further which makes
students as research subjects. Like research conducted by Chiang et al., (2020)
which showed that spiritual education in non-religious studies classes can in fact
increase spiritual competence. In addition, in Islamic religious character
education, higher education does not only place lecturers as teachers but also as
good role models and mentors (Jaafar et al., 2012). In this way, students are
expected to be able to increase self-efficacy in integrating Islamic religious
knowledge in everyday life. However, if observed more deeply, the role as a
good role model is not only aimed at lecturers. Higher education as a whole also
has a big role in changing religious attitudes, values and behavior (Hartley III,

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2004; Woessmann et al., 2022). Figure 1 presents students’ perceptions which is


influenced by the Islamic character of lecturers and academic staff.

Islamic-Based Lecturer Services

Students’ Perceptions on
Religiosity
Islamic-Based Lecturer Services

Figure 1. Impact on Islamic-based Services to students’ perceptions on religiousity

Based on the illustration above, it can be deduced that university members,


especially lecturers and academic staff, have the potential to influence the level
of student satisfaction. Satisfaction in this context is described as perceptions
related to the values, character, and behavior of students in their daily lives
(Jaafar et al., 2012). Furthermore, institutionally, the roles of lecturers and
academic staff, who interact directly with students, have a significant impact on
shaping religious attitudes, values, and behaviors of students. Moreover, the
knowledge and experiences gained by students during their time in higher
education institutions can have a greater influence on their dimensions of
religiosity (Frida et al., 2019). This highlights the importance of the active and
positive roles played by university members in shaping the experiences and
perspectives of students, particularly in the context of religious values.

3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design
This study adopts a quantitative survey method as an analytical tool, employing
relationship surveys as its primary form. A category of relationship surveys is
specifically designed to inquire about various aspects of student interactions
with different university components, such as faculty and staff (Cresswell, 2012).
The survey approach is not only comprehensive but also aims to provide a
profound understanding of student interactions with various entities within the
university environment. Through this method, in-depth analyses of the
strengths and weaknesses in their relationships, aiding in the improvement and
development of more effective policies (Zeithaml et al., 2013). This relationship
survey serves as an effective instrument for gaining insights into the dynamics
of interactions between students and university components, with a focus on
elements that may influence the quality of these relationships. Thus, this
research has the potential to make a significant contribution to improving the
quality of relationships among students and various aspects of the university.
More specifically, this research can examine the gap between students'
expectations or anticipations of Islamic-based student services.

3.2 Sample and Data Collection


The population of this study were all students of the Faculty of Educational
Sciences. This faculty offers educational services in education at one of the
largest State Islamic Universities in Indonesia. The total population was 3,194

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students, but only 750 students was randomly selected from all study programs
as the respondents. The study programs included the Madrasah Ibtidaiyah
Teacher Education (PGMI) study program, Arabic Language Education (PBA)
study program, Islamic Religious Education (PAI) study program, and Early
Childhood Islamic Religious Education (PIAUD) study program. The instrument
used was an internal survey. Thus, the questionnaire consisted of 24 statements
using a Likert scale. The five-point Likert scale was divided into Very
Appropriate (5), Appropriate (4), Neutral (3), Inappropriate (2), and Very
Inappropriate (1). The questionnaire consisted of three dimensions, namely the
dimensions of the Islamic-based lecturer services, the Islamic-based academic
staff services, and student perceptions on religiousity. The Islamic character
dimension of the lecturer and academic staff is an aspect that is based on Islamic
values. While the dimensions of student perceptions were based on student
satisfaction. They are presented in table 1.

Table 1. The blueprint of internal survey


Theoretical
Aspect Indicator
Basis
(Jaafar et al.,
X1 The lecturers in Islamic dress.
2012)
The lecturers open the lecture by Islamic (Jaafar et al.,
X2
greeting 2012)
The lecturers associate the material with (Jaafar et al.,
X3
Islamic elements. 2012)
(Jaafar et al.,
X4 The lecturers can read the Koran.
2012)
Islamic-Based
(Jaafar et al.,
Lecturer X5 The lecturers pray prayers on time.
2012)
Services
The lecturers use various methods and (Zeithaml et al.,
X6
learning media. 2013)
The lecturers according to their field of (Zeithaml et al.,
X7
expertise. 2013)
The lecturers provide new learning (Zeithaml et al.,
X8
experiences. 2013)
The lecturers provide teaching material (Zeithaml et al.,
X9
clearly 2013)
Islamic-Based X1 (Jaafar et al.,
The academic staffs in Islamic dress.
Academic Staff 0 2012)
Services X1 The academic staffs open the conversation by (Jaafar et al.,
2 Islamic greeting. 2012)
X1 (Jaafar et al.,
The academic staffs greeted each other.
3 2012)
X1 (Jaafar et al.,
The academic staffs follow prayers on time.
4 2012)
X1 The academic staff assist students when (Zeithaml et al.,
5 facing academic problems. 2013)
X1 The academic staff convey service procedures (Zeithaml et al.,
6 clearly. 2013)
X1 The academic staff responds to students (Zeithaml et al.,
7 quickly. 2013)
X1 The academic staff have discipline in the (Zeithaml et al.,

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Theoretical
Aspect Indicator
Basis
8 workplace. 2013)
Students’ The students have a close engagement with (Soliman et al.,
Y1
perception on the university 2021)
religiosity (Soliman et al.,
Y2 The students are committed to worship well.
2021)
The students are committed to Islamic (Soliman et al.,
Y3
behavior. 2021)
The students know the relationship between (Soliman et al.,
Y4
courses and religiosity 2021)
(Soliman et al.,
Y5 The students can empower knowledge.
2021)
(Soliman et al.,
Y6 The students increasingly trust the university.
2021)
The survey above was converted into a Google Form and then distributed to
students within the timeframe from August 2023 to October 2023.

3.3 Data Analysis


In the data analysis process, specific steps were implemented to ensure the
accuracy and validity of the results. Firstly, data editing was conducted to check
the completeness of the questionnaire, ensure the clarity of the questions, and
evaluate the completeness of the responses within it. Subsequently, in the data
processing stage, answers from the questionnaire were transferred to Microsoft
Excel to be processed into graphs that visualize the data more clearly. The data
cleaning process was carried out through a reexamination activity to detect and
rectify errors that might have occurred during the data collection process.
The survey data collected were analyzed using Microsoft Excel and SPSS 25
Software. The aspect of Islamic-based lecturer services and Islamic-based
academic staff services were the independent variable (X). Aspects of students’
perception on religiousity was the dependent variable (Y). Variable Y is the
effect of the action of variable X. The data were tested for correlation to
determine the relationship among aspects. If the significance value is < 0.05,
there is a correlation. Furthermore, the correlation is seen by the strength of the
correlation.

Table 2. Correlation intensity criteria


Correlation Interpretation

0 – 0.20 The correlation between variables x and y is very


weak (no correlation)

0.20 – 0.40 There is a weak or low correlation

0.40 – 0.60 There is a moderate correlation

0.60 – 0.90 There is a strong and high correlation

0.90 – 1.00 There is a very strong or very high correlation

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If the data has a moderate, strong, or very strong correlation, it is tested for
linearity. The linearity test serves as assumption test. If the deviation from
linearity shows a significance value of > 0.05, the data is linear. The data that is
declared linear is tested using linear regression test to determine whether
Islamic-based lecturer and academic staff services affects the dimension of
students’ perception. If the significance value <0.05, the X variable has a
significant effect on the Y variable. If the significance value is > 0.05, this shows
that the X variable has no effect on the Y variable. If the significance value = 0.05,
t-count is compared to the t-table.

Furthermore, data analysis was performed using following steps. Firstly,


descriptive analysis was employed to elaborate on the data, allowing for deeper
general conclusions. Then, correlation tests were conducted to determine the
relationships among the studied variables/aspects. The next step involved
testing the assumption of linearity to evaluate the extent of the linear
relationships among the variables/aspects. Finally, linear regression tests were
applied as an advanced step to assess the influence of one variable on another,
providing a more profound understanding of the relationships within the data.
All these steps provided a robust foundation for the comprehensive
interpretation of the data analysis results.

4. Results
In this study, the questionnaire responses obtained from 750 respondents were
analyzed statitically. The aim of this analytical process was to provide a
comprehensive overview of the characteristics and response patterns of the
participants. The results of the descriptive analysis, presented in Table 3, offered
clear and structured information regarding the distribution and variability of the
data gathered through the questionnaire. This table serves as the foundation for
evaluating and drawing general conclusions from the respondents' feedback,
facilitating a better understanding of specific aspects investigated in this study.

Table 3. Students' perception on the Islamic-based lecturer and staff services at the
Faculty of Educational Sciences
Description Islamic-Based Islamic-Based Students’
Lecturer Academic Staff Perception
Services Services on
Religiousity

N 750 750 750

Average 3.62 3.57 3.82

Standard Deviation 0.65 0.74 0.73

Variance 0.42 0.55 0.54

Minimum Value 1 1 1

Maximum Value 5 5 5

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Table 3 provides an overview that students, as respondents, gave diverse


responses to the questionnaire. The range of values in the data was from 1,
meaning 'not suitable at all,' to 5, meaning 'highly suitable.' The average for
Islamic-based lecturer services was 3.62, thus categorized as 'suitable.'
Meanwhile, the average for the aspect of student perception on religiousity was
3.82 also categorized as 'suitable.' The average for Islamic-based academic staff
services reached 3.57 indicating that the services can be considered 'suitable.' In
line with this, students' perceptions of the aspects of lecturer and staff services
based on Islam could be classified as 'satisfied,' indicating that the services met
their expectations.

It is important to note that the variation in students' answers in the


questionnaire reflects the diversity of their perceptions of Islamic-based lecturer
services. Despite the variation, the averages reaching the 'suitable' level
indicated that the majority of students are satisfied with the services. Further
analysis of students' perceptions could provide additional insights into
understanding which aspects might require further attention or improvement to
enhance service quality and better meet students' needs. The assessment of
students' perception on the Islamic-based lecturer and staff services at the
Faculty of Educational Sciences consisted of several sub-assessments. Based on
the results of the survey of students' perception on the Islamic-based lecturer
and staff services, the following results were obtained.

4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9

Very Inappropriate Inappropriate Neutral


Appropriate Very Appropriate

Figure 2. Results on Islamic-based lecturer service

Based on the results presented in figure 2, most students considered that Islamic-
based lecturer and service was appropriate. The results indicated that the
Faculty of Educational Sciences has good Islamic-based lecturers services.

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0
X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15 X16 X17 X18

Very Inappropriate Inappropriate Neutral


Appropriate Very Appropriate

Figure 3. Results on the Islamic-based academic staff service

Data shown in figure 3 indicated that, students’ percieved the Islamic-based


academic staff as appropriate. Therefore, the Islamic-based academic staff
service of the Faculty of Educational Sciences is good.

0
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6

Very Unappropriate Unappropriate Neutral


Appropriate Very Appropriate

Figure 4. Students’ perception on religiousity

Figure 4 shows the influence of Islamic-based lecturer and academic staff


services. Based on data above, students’ perceived that the students’ perception
of the Islamic-based lecturer and academic staff services at the Faculty of
Educational Sciences is appropriate, and considered as at good level.

After descriptive analysis, the data were tested for correlation to determine the
relationship among aspects. The first correlation test was between the aspects of
Islamic-based (lecturer and academic staff) services and students’ perception.
Table 4 presents the results of the correlation test between Islamic-based lecturer
services and students’ perceptions.

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Table 4. Correlation test results between the aspects of Islamic-based lecturer services
and students’ perception on religiousity

Islamic-based Students’
lecturer Perception on
services Religiousity

Kendall's tau Correlation


1.000 .655**
Coefficient

Islamic-based Sig. (2-tailed) . .000


lecturer
services N 750 750

Students’ Correlation
.655** 1.000
Perception on Coefficient
religiousity
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .

N 750 750

Spearman's Correlation
1.000 .812**
rho Coefficient

Islamic-based Sig. (2-tailed) . .000


lecturer
services N 750 750

Students’ Correlation
.812** 1.000
Perception on Coefficient
religiousity
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .

N 750 750

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The results of the Spearman's rank correlation test showed a significance value
of 0.00, which was smaller than the significance level of 0.05 or 0.01. This
indicated a correlation between the aspects of Islamic-based lecturer services
and students' perception on religiousity. The correlation coefficient of 0.812
derived from this test suggested a strong or high correlation between the two.
This positive correlation confirmed that there was a unidirectional relationship,
meaning that an improvement in the aspect of Islamic-based lecturer services
was associated with an increase in students' perception on religiousity, and vice
versa. In other words, as the quality of Islamic-based lecturer services improved,
students' perception tends to increase, and conversely.

Furthermore, the results of the linearity assumption test were presented in Table
5. This test aimed to ensure that the relationship between the aspect of Islamic-
based lecturer services and students' perception on religiousity could be
explained linearly. The outcomes of this test provided additional information
about the conformity of the data with the assumption of linearity, which was

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crucial in interpreting the analysis results and understanding whether the


pattern of the relationship between variables was linear or not. Thus, this
analysis established a robust foundation for further understanding the
connection between Islamic-based lecturer services and students' perception on
religiousity.

Table 5. Results of Linearity assumption test

Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square

Students’ Between (Combined) 2866271.634 44 65142.537 37.340 .000


Perception on Groups
religiousity Linearity 2817540.342 1 2817540.342 1615.009 .000

* Islamic- Deviation
based lecturer from 48731.291 43 1133.286 .650 .960
services Linearity

Within Groups 1229941.018 705 1744.597

Total 4096212.652 749

The results presented in table 5 indicated a significant deviation value (sig.


deviation) of 0.960, exceeding the significance threshold of 0.05. This finding
suggested that the data on the aspect of Islamic-based lecturer services and
students' perception on religiousity exhibit a linear pattern, meaning their
relationship could be explained linearly. To measure the extent of its influence,
the linear data was further tested through regression analysis, and the results
can be found in Table 6.

Table 6 presented the results of the linear regression test, providing additional
information on how much the variable of Islamic-based lecturer services can
predict or influence students' perception on religiousity. These results aided in
understanding the significance level and direction of the relationship between
the two variables.

Table 6. Coefficients test results

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients

Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 12.674 8.612 1.472 .142

Islamic-based
lecturer .950 .023 .829 40.598 .000
services

a. Dependent Variable: Students’ perception on religiousity

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In the context of the analysis shown in Table 6, the aspect of Islamic-based


lecturer services acts as the independent variable, while the aspect of students'
perception on religiousity served as the dependent variable. The significance
value reached 0.000, which was smaller than the significance threshold of 0.05 or
0.01, which indicated that the reliability aspect, specifically the Islamic-based
lecturer services, had a significant influence on students' perception on
religiousity. The regression equation Y = 12.674 + 0.95X formed from the
analysis results provided an overview of the relationship between the aspect of
students' perception on religiousity (Y) and the variable of Islamic-based
lecturer services (X). In this equation, 12.674 was the intercept, representing the
value of the aspect of students' perception when the variable of Islamic-based
lecturer services (X) equals zero. The regression coefficient of 0.95 signified that
each increase of one unit in the variable of Islamic-based lecturer services would
result in an increase of 0.95 units in the aspect of students' perception on
religiousity. This information offers a deeper understanding of the extent and
direction of how this relationship unfolds.

The next step in the data analysis involved assessing the relationship between
the reliability aspect, which included Islamic-based academic staff services, and
students' perceptions on religiousity. As an initial step, a correlation test was
conducted as a method to measure the interconnection between these two
aspects. The information related to the results of the correlation test was then
revealed through the presentation of data in table 7, providing an initial
overview of the extent to which there was a connection between service
reliability and students' perceptions.

Table 7 served as a visual container providing a detailed overview of the


correlation test results. This statistical analysis included an assessment of the
significance and strength of the relationship between the reliability variable and
the students' perception variable. The values revealed in table 7 serve as the
basis for evaluating whether there was a connection between Islamic-based
academic staff services and students' perceptions or not.

Table 7. Correlation test results between the aspects of Islamic-based staff services
and students’ perception on religiousity
Islamic- Students’
based perception
staff on
services religiousity
Kendall's Tau Islamic-based staff Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .581**
services Sig. (2-tailed) . .000
N 750 750
Students’ Correlation Coefficient .581** 1.000
perception on Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .
religiousity
N 750 750
Spearman's Islamic-based Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .740**
Rho academic staff Sig. (2-tailed) . .000

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services N 750 750


Students’ Correlation Coefficient .740** 1.000
perception on Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .
religiousity
N 750 750
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Based on the results of the correlation test shown in Table 7, a significance value
of 0.00 was found, which was smaller than the significance threshold of 0.05.
This indicated a correlation between Islamic-based academic staff services and
students' perception on religiousity. The correlation coefficient value of 0.740
indicated a strong or high correlation between the aspects of Islamic-based
academic staff services and students' perception on religiousity. This positive
correlation signifies that the relationship between the two variables is
unidirectional, meaning that an increase in Islamic-based academic staff services
will be followed by an increase in students' perception, and vice versa.

Furthermore, a linearity assumption test was conducted to ensure that the


relationship between the variables could be explained linearly. The results of the
linearity test found in Table 8, provides further insights into the compatibility of
the data with the linearity assumption.

Table 8. Results of Linearity assumption test


Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.

Students’ Between (Combined) 2380062.722 44 54092.335 23.479 .000


perception Groups
on Linearity 2251586.750 1 2251586.750 977.291 .000
religiousity *
Islamic- Deviation
based staff from 128475.971 43 2987.813 1.297 .100
services Linearity

Within Groups 1624253.637 705 2303.906

Total 4004316.359 749

In the data analysis, a significance deviation value of 0.100, which was greater
than the significance threshold of 0.05, indicated that the data regarding the
aspect of Islamic-based academic staff services and students' perception on
religiousity was linear. In other words, the pattern of the relationship between
these two variables could be explained linearly. As a subsequent step, a linear
regression test was employed to assess the extent of the influence of Islamic-
based academic staff services on students' perception on religiousity. The
results of this test were then presented in Table 9, providing detailed
information on the significance level and the impact of this linear relationship.

From the results shown in Table 9, we can comprehend the outcomes of the
linear regression test, offering an overview of how the variable of Islamic-based
academic staff services can predict or influence students' perception on

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religiousity. This information is crucial for interpreting the relationship between


these two variables, enhancing our understanding of the factors that may
influence students' perception on religiousity of academic services based on
Islamic principles.

Table 9. Result of Linear Regression Test


Coefficientsa

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients

Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 74.354 10.083 7.374 .000

Islamic-based acedemic
.849 .027 .750 30.998 .000
staff services

a. Dependent Variable: Students perception on religiousity

The table above provided an overview that the aspect of reliability (Islamic-
based academic staff services) serves as the independent variable, while
students' perception was used as the dependent variable. The significance value
of 0.000, which was less than the 0.05 significance level, indicated that the
reliability aspect, particularly the Islamic-based staff services, has a significant
influence on students' perception on religiousity. This implied that changes in
the reliability aspect have the potential to had a significant impact on how
students perceive the provided services.
The regression equation Y = 74.354 + 0.849X formulated from the analysis results
illustrated the relationship between the aspect of students' perception on
religiousity (Y) and the variable of Islamic-based staff services (X). In this
equation, 74.354 represented the intercept, indicating the value of students'
perception aspect when the variable of Islamic-based academic staff services (X)
was equal to zero. The regression coefficient of 0.849 implied that each one-unit
increase in the variable of Islamic-based staff services will result in an increase of
0.849 units in the aspect of students' perception on religiousity. This information
provided a deeper insight into the extent and direction of the development of
this relationship.

5. Discussion
The findings from the completion of data analysis indicated that Islamic-based
lecturer services had a significant influence on various aspects of student
perception on religiousity. This influence could be quantified through the
regression equation discovered, namely Y = 12.674 + 0.95 X, where Y
represented the variable describing the aspect of student perception, and X
represented the variable reflecting Islamic-based lecturer services. The
regression equation can be interpreted to mean that each increase of one unit in
Islamic-based lecturer services would be followed by an increase of 0.95 units in
the aspect of student perception on religiousity. This demonstrates a positive

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correlation between Islamic-based lecturer services and student perception,


which can be considered a positive impact of the implementation of such
services. Furthermore, the findings also indicated that Islamic-based educational
staff services had a significant influence on the aspect of student perception on
religiousity. The regression equation for this relationship was found to be Y =
74.354 + 0.849, where Y was the variable describing the aspect of student
perception, and X was the variable reflecting Islamic-based educational staff
services.

From the regression equation, it could be concluded that an increase of one unit
in Islamic-based educational staff services would be followed by an increase of
0.849 units in the aspect of student perception. This implies that the
implementation of Islamic-based educational staff services also had a positive
impact on student perception. The results of this research indicated that Islamic-
based lecturer and educational staff services play a crucial role in shaping the
perceptions of both students and pupils. These findings can serve as a
foundation for educational institutions to enhance the quality of Islamic-based
services, aiming to elevate the overall experience and positive perceptions of
both students and pupils.

The correlation data presented depicted a significant association between


variable X, encompassing services provided by Islamic-based lecturers and
academic staff, and variable Y, reflecting students' perceptions. Students'
perceptions were considered as a direct outcome or impact of the actions taken
by academic staff and lecturers grounded in the principles of Islam. A
comprehensive explanation of the relationship between these two variables is
based on the theoretical foundation of changes in Islamic religious attitudes and
the quality of education management (Munifah et al., 2020; Rifa’i et al., 2021).

In detail, this relationship can be elucidated by considering how students hold a


positive view of the Islamic character manifested in both academic and non-
academic services. Survey findings indicate that overall, students perceive that
religious services have the potential to induce changes in their daily behavior
and actions (Aminnuddin, 2020; Astuti et al., 2021). This aligns with the
theoretical basis suggesting that interactions with Islamic-based services can
shape positive changes in students' attitudes and behaviors (Islamic et al., 2024).
The importance of the quality of religious services in an educational context is
evident from how students collectively provide positive assessments of the
Islamic character within the academic and non-academic realms. Surveys
demonstrated that this positive perception permeates throughout students'
behavior, indicating that religious services not only impact their understanding
of religion but also shape their conduct in daily life. Thus, the results of this
research underscore the importance of maintaining and enhancing Islam-based
services to support the holistic development of students. Jaafar et al., (2012)
expounded that Islamic campus services are capable of providing a positive
example for their recipients, forms the foundational understanding concerning
the interaction between students and their academic environment. This is further
reinforced by the observation that students demonstrate a strong engagement
with the character of Islamic values embodied in the vision and mission of

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Islamic universities (Abdulkabir, 2023). The religious character, as highlighted


by the research of (Rifa’i et al., 2021), plays a crucial role in shaping the character
of graduates. In this context, the understanding that graduates from Islamic
universities possess a superior religious character compared to graduates from
general universities becomes a key aspect driving the development of religion-
based education (Sarbini et al., 2021). Lecturers and academic staff, as
representatives of intellectuality and morality on campus, serve as exemplary
and noble figures for students. Their actions on campus not only influence
academic aspects but also impart positive perspectives and behaviors to
students.

Furthermore, students' awareness that life is not just about worldly affairs but
also involves contemplation of the afterlife reflects their commitment to religious
values. This is manifested in the intensity and discipline they exhibit in
practicing worship (Savickaya et al., 2022). The increasing involvement with
worship indicates the positive impact of religious services in the campus
environment, which not only creates an academic setting but also shapes the
spiritual and moral dimensions of students' lives. Thus, it underscores the
importance of the roles of lecturers, academic staff, and religious services in
shaping the character and behavior of students in the Islamic educational
environment.

The importance of integrating students' worldly knowledge with Islamic


principles, as highlighted by Soliman et al., (2021), stands out prominently in the
context of education at Islamic universities. Students feel that the knowledge
they acquire in class is not only related to academic aspects but is also closely
tied to the dimensions of their religious life (Hidayati et al., 2023; Islamic et al.,
2024). This integration creates a crucial balance between worldly scholarship and
Islamic values, providing a holistic learning experience. Furthermore, the
maintenance of service quality and religious character in the interaction between
universities and students becomes a crucial focus. Good service quality here
encompasses not only academic aspects but also involves spiritual and moral
dimensions. Interactions grounded in religious character shape a campus
environment that supports the holistic development of students, integrating
religious values into their daily lives. Moreover, the success of Islamic
universities lies not only in their religious vision and mission but also in
maintaining excellent services. Following (Zeithaml et al., 2013), universities
need to ensure that the services provided reflect realism, empathy,
responsiveness, reliability, and assurance. The results of this research affirm that
the increased loyalty of students to Islamic universities results from a positive
perception of service quality, both in academic and non-academic aspects.
Therefore, maintaining high service standards is a critical component in
supporting the success and appeal of Islamic universities.

6. Conclusion
Islamic universities are considered primary agents in transforming the character
and values of students, as they provide a supportive environment for practicing
and integrating Islamic values into everyday life. Based on the recent research,
Islamic-based lecturer and academic staff services had a considerable influence

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on aspects of student perception. Thus, it can be concluded that the aspect


(Islamic-based lecturer services and Islamic-based academic staff services) had a
significant effect on student perceptions on religiousity. With the presence of
Islamic-based services in the university environment, students have the
opportunity to integrate Islamic values into their everyday behaviors and
actions. Through these services, students have easier access to learning about
Islamic principles, practicing worship, and interacting with the Islamic
community in the university environment. The role of the university in
providing Islamic-based services is crucial in the process of transformation and
character formation of students. The university has a unique opportunity to
shape and influence students, not only in academic matters but also in the
development of moral, ethical, and religious values. Through Islamic-based
services, the university can provide a supportive environment for students to
practice their religious rituals, deepen their understanding of Islam, and
integrate Islamic values into their daily lives. However, this research still had
limitations, which are limited to the university sector in the Faculty of
Educational Sciences which consisted of four study programs. Thus, wider and
larger sampling (across faculties or even across universities) may result in
different data. Apart from that, other research can also be used to uncover
student services based on different religious values, because this research is
believed to be able to contribute to consumer services based on certain contexts.

7. References
Abdulkabir, A. I. (2023). An Appraisal of Reflective Teaching Practice among Secondary
School Islamic Studies Teachers in Ilorin, Kwara State. Journal of Islamic Studies and
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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 161-179, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.9
Received Feb 25, 2024; Revised Apr 15, 2024; Accepted Apr 17, 2024

Education for Sustainable Development:


Mapping Socio-legal and Eco-cultural
Sustainability Topics in English Learning
I Gusti Agung Sri Rwa Jayantini
Universitas Mahasaraswati Denpasar
Bali, Indonesia

Putu Desi Anggerina Hikmaharyanti


Universitas Mahasaraswati Denpasar

I Gst Pt Bagus Suka Arjawa


Universitas Udayana

I Gusti Agung Mas Rwa Jayantiari


Universitas Udayana

Abstract. This research aimed to identify socio-legal and eco-cultural


values through the participatory mapping (PM) of local wisdom in
supporting Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in higher
education, which can potentially be applied to English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) learning. The research involved 14 English students at a
private university in Bali, Indonesia. The participants were selected to
take part in participatory mapping (PM) with community members at a
remote village. The results of this study are documented in two major
findings. First, with their collective knowledge gained from PM, the
English students were able to identify socio-legal and eco-cultural values
and utilize them contextually in their report writing. Second, undertaking
participatory mapping prior to completing writing tasks in their EFL
course could help students to better express their ideas and strengthen
their English writing skills. The insertion of two aspects of sustainability
in the EFL tasks involved incorporating local values into EFL learning.
Through English students experiencing PM prior to completing their
writing task, EFL learning can be conducted more authentically with the
students paying greater attention to the local culture and values. By
exploring socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability as the core activity of
PM in this research, the study contributes to our understanding of the
way in which the integration of local values into EFL activities in
Indonesia makes a tangible contribution to ESD.

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
162

Keywords: Education for Sustainable Development (ESD); Socio-legal


Sustainability; Eco-cultural Sustainability; English Learning; EFL in
Indonesia

1. Introduction
Learning at all levels of education must be directed towards making a continuous
contribution to sustainable life and development. Stakeholders must make the
creation of a beneficial learning design their greatest concern (Jayantini et al.,
2022a; Purandina & Sari, 2022; Suastra et al., 2017). The need to strive towards
sustainable life and development must be brought into every field of study,
including foreign language learning (Choi, 2019; de la Fuente, 2021; Prabawani,
2021). In the case of language learning, opportunities must be given for students
to express critical thinking regarding the socio-cultural phenomena,
environmental issues, and all aspects of life relating to the dynamics of the
community and sustainability (Iakovos, 2011; Vdovina & Gaibisso, 2013). Critical
thinking can help students to increase their participation in society by
communicating more effectively (Vdovina & Gaibisso, 2013). Schools and
universities should focus on providing quality education that takes into account
the students’ backgrounds (Komisi Nasional Indonesia untuk UNESCO [KNIU],
2014). This can be done by integrating learning activities that align with the
knowledge and cultural values of the community, including the aim of living a
sustainable life by seeking to understand the local wisdom on which people’s lives
are based ( Sriartha et al., 2017; Surata et al., 2015).

In EFL learning, the efforts towards integrating sustainable development can be


made by incorporating community values into the teaching materials, topics for
students to discuss or present, and texts to analyse or write. In the Indonesian
context, such integration can be achieved through participatory mapping, by
involving the relevant stakeholders (Surata et al., 2014). To maintain the values of
living sustainably with people from different backgrounds in the archipelago,
lecturers, teachers, and students in Indonesia can work with local communities to
establish a contextual learning atmosphere that results in an analytical study
(Jayantini et al., 2023; Siska et al., 2021). This may be done by selecting particular
topics that promote awareness of the local culture, social life, and the environment.
Within the EFL classroom, all of these issues must be incorporated into English
language learning activities (Nur, 2013; Suwastini et al., 2020). The exploration of
socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability may become an emerging topic that
generates a greater demand for the development of more contextualised and
authentic learning methods. With regard to environmental issues and sustainable
development, integrating various aspects and values of local people’s daily lives
adds potential values and contextual topics that enable language learning to
contribute to ESD (de la Fuente, 2021; Prabawani, 2021; Purnamasari & Hanifah,
2021).

Language learning at the university level must be achieved in a sustainable way


(Maican & Cocoradă, 2021; Makarova, 2020). To date, the learning processes have
been focused on efforts to improve students’ ability to master four important
language elements – namely, speaking, writing, reading and listening – through

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topics that are less contextual and rarely touch upon local values to be raised in a
global context (Jayantini et al., 2022a). In the foreign language classroom, the
introduction of local culture can be a means of incorporating current socio-cultural
contexts so that learning brings added value in supporting character-building,
critical thinking, respect for local wisdom and attention to the environment (Aglasi
& Casta, 2017; Wirahyuni et al., 2021). Authentic topics that are chosen for course
materials may have a positive impact on students’ motivation, depending on each
student's individual motives for learning, as well as the teacher’s classroom
management practices. Although the degree of progress may vary, authentic
materials may motivate EFL students to talk more readily (Hoang, 2022).

Planning for language learning, especially in the EFL classroom, can also consider
the involvement of other fields of studies related to environmental contents,
including the cultural values being respected by the local community, so that the
learning becomes more relevant and supportive of ESD. This concept aligns with
the potential for developing ESD in Indonesia, according to the Indonesian
National Commission for UNESCO, Ministry of Education and Culture (KNIU,
2014). The commission members pointed out several opportunities for the
application of ESD in Indonesia, such as the likelihood of Indonesian students
feeling more immersed in a local culture-based learning model.

EFL learning involves productive skills, reflecting speaking and writing abilities.
These two productive skills are easily recognized in terms of accuracy and fluency.
For accuracy, linguistic competence must be improved, while fluency can be
enhanced by undertaking more practical exercises that explore the students’
knowledge and insights into many different issues. Previous studies have focused
on the integration of local values in English learning and have recommended the
inclusion of local values to increase the value of learning English as the “global”
means of communication (Adawiah & Putri, 2021; Hasyim & Puspita, 2021; Laili,
2017; Purandina & Sari, 2022; Wirahyuni et al., 2021). However, no study to date
has applied participatory mapping to investigate the potential of local values being
utilized as teaching materials that explore the students’ knowledge and critical
thinking. Participatory mapping (PM) is a type of participatory action research
whereby participants collaborate to collect data in a certain place by producing a
map (Rubel et al., 2016); this gives students the opportunity to represent a socially
and culturally distinct understanding. PM can be utilized as a medium for
strengthening a community by spatially mapping themselves in terms of their
landscape and the values they attach to it; such aspects are commonly excluded
from mainstream maps (Lienert, 2019).

As the focus of this study, socio-legal topics explore the connection of legal aspects
with other fields – including sociology, anthropology, history, psychology, and
law – to report on the workings of law in people’s everyday lives (Irianto &
Shidarta, 2011; Irianto, 2012; Wiratraman, 2015). Meanwhile, eco-cultural studies
observe various aspects of the interaction of human beings with nature and their
environment. This study aims to show how socio-legal and eco-cultural
sustainability investigation can be reflected in EFL students’ writing. Writing has
always been a problem from English students, even though this skill is considered

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very important (Zhang et al., 2023). Triangulation methods were used to


convincingly promote the integration of local values in EFL learning by selecting
particular topics to discuss in the context of discourse, linguistically, situationally,
or culturally (Song, 2010). The integration of sustainable values into the EFL
classroom promotes a better learning atmosphere that is beneficial in terms of
fluency skills as well as being character-building for the students (Sukarno, 2012).

2. Literature Review
This section presents an examination of ESD in EFL learning. To clarify, the terms
socio-legal and eco-cultural aspects do not refer to a research design and approach
applied in this study. Instead, the terms are used to connect to the aims of the
study, i.e. mapping socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability topics in English
learning through participatory mapping, which is used as a method for
determining interesting discussion topics to be reported in the EFL writing
activity. Socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability are selected as topics to explore
the understanding of context interpretation in the Discourse Analysis course. The
two values are considered worth exploring for applying ESD to EFL learning since
they represent many aspects that could possibly enhance the students’ awareness
in maintaining social, legal, ecological and cultural values that are internally
connected with the local community to which they belong.

The learning design here takes into account the importance of selecting materials
for integrating ESD in EFL learning so that students can gain a greater benefit in
terms of opening their minds. Linking ESD to foreign language learning, this study
attempts to include several subtopics that can potentially be used to integrate
language learning and ESD. Planning relevant, high quality materials in EFL
learning must be done within a multidisciplinary framework (de la Fuente, 2021).
In order to insert ESD values into EFL learning, participatory mapping has been
widely used as a means of gathering data to encourage students to interpret their
area’s research findings. These results illustrate the participants’ achievements in
describing their perceptions, opinions and responses to various fields, providing
added value to sustainable development and education (Rubel et al., 2016; Surata
et al., 2014). The keyword for the inclusion of ESD in EFL learning is participation.
The learning activities can be designed as an effort to realise a "collaborative" and
"participatory” classroom. The application of these two characteristics is in line
with the utilization of local wisdom to evoke students’ awareness in EFL learning,
namely: (1) conducting a field study; (2) joining a discussion with community
members to gather meaningful data; (3) identifying values; (4) interpreting local
terms through their values; (5) elaborating local values to assess productive skills;
(6) reflecting on the impacts of collaborative work (Jayantini et al., 2022a).

At the global level, this research contributes to the realisation of sustainable


development goals (SDGs) (Choi, 2019), especially in the fields of education and
the environment, increasing participation in the field of environmental
maintenance and the preservation of good social values. On its website, UNESCO
emphasizes that sustainable development is becoming an important part of
education. Quality education must focus on helping students learn and grow in all
areas of their lives (Purnamasari & Hanifah, 2021). It concerns both teaching

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methods and the ways in which students learn. Instruction for ESD gives learners
the information, abilities, values and strategies to address the interconnected
worldwide challenges including climate change, misfortune of biodiversity,
unsustainable utilization of assets, and imbalance in resource management (KNIU,
2014). It also enables learners of all ages to make educated choices and partake in
individual and collective activities to change society and care for the planet
(UNESCO, n.d.). ESD should be a deep-rooted and necessary portion of quality
instruction. Furthermore, ESD improves the cognitive, socio-emotional and
behavioural outcomes of learning and includes learning materials and results,
instructional method and the learning environment itself (KNIU, 2014).

The socio-legal concept in this study adopts the interdisciplinary perspective that
combines social and legal studies, which is now a trend among legal studies. Socio-
legal issues include legal sociology, legal anthropology, legal history, psychology
and law, judicial political science studies, comparative science, and other
disciplines (Irianto & Shidarta, 2011; Irianto, 2012; Wiratraman, 2015). Practically,
the socio-legal term is needed to explain the workings of law in the daily lives of
community members. Socio-legal studies focus on the connection between the
legal and social aspects of human life. This approach considers that it is necessary
to know the contents of legislation and case of regulation implementation.
However, the approach does not provide an understanding of how the law works
in everyday life, or how the law relates to the societal context.

The term eco-culture seems to have been developed in response to the notion of
studying culture and the environment together. The study of eco-culture
investigates relationships between people and the environment, as well as
relationships among people. Additionally, it looks at the ways in which culture
affects these relationships. The eco-cultural approach is important for both
scholars and activists who are interested in understanding how culture and the
environment are connected (Ivakhiv, 1997; Surata, 2014). Because people are
starting to realize that the Earth's ecosystems are facing a significant problem, the
study of the environment has become more important. However, the
environmental problem is not merely a scientific issue. It is also a cultural issue
because it is thought about, talked about, and dealt with by people around the
world in terms of their own culture. Each particular group of people might
imagine and understand the crisis in a different way. A person’s knowledge will
determine how he responds to such a crisis. Cultural studies provide new
approaches to understanding the ways in which power and culture are connected
(Ivakhiv, 1997).

Eco-cultural studies are concerned with the ways in which people have power
over nature as well as the ways in which different cultures interact with the
environment (Ivakhiv, 1997; Surata, et al., 2022). Their focus includes issues such
as working with nature, enjoying nature, studying nature, and examining the
ways in which these interactions are controlled or repressed by politics.
Furthermore, eco-cultural students look at the ways in which ideas about nature
and the environment, the ways in which people interact with the environment,
and environmental politics and action are discussed and debated in different

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cultures (Ivakhiv, 1997). The focus of eco-cultural studies can also be promoted in
the EFL classroom to improve awareness of the ecological and cultural aspects of
life. Taking an eco-cultural approach to learning is similar to taking local wisdom
into English learning with a specific purpose, such as character-building
(Jayantini et al., 2022b). Similarly, it is expected that incorporating eco-cultural
values into EFL learning will be beneficial to the students; for example, by
providing them with meaningful topics that are related to their environment,
giving them an understanding of values and rules regarding cultural and
environmental management, and fostering cultural and environmental awareness
through exploring local values (Sukarno, 2012).

3. Method
3.1 Research Design
The concept of the research was primarily inspired by an exploration on ESD in
Foreign Language Learning (de la Fuente, 2022), which showed that teaching and
learning activities can contribute to authentic learning that fosters a different
atmosphere for EFL students. This was also done with a view to improving the
students’ language skills by presenting the specific topics on their cultural
backgrounds as well as mapping the cultural values that will help them to acquire
a deeper understanding of their culture, and specifically the socio-legal and eco-
cultural aspects. This study is a qualitative research through the triangulation of
methods; namely, the observation of participatory mapping (PM) conducted by
English students and representative community members prior to their writing
activity. This method was combined with content analysis to investigate the local
knowledge and insights that the students could use in their report writing to
identify how context in discourse is comprehended (Song, 2010). In-depth
interview accompanies the two methods for the students to reflect on their feelings
about the PM and the utilization of socio-legal and eco-cultural aspects to support
their understanding of legal and ecological values in their social and cultural
backgrounds.

3.2 Subject and Research Site


The main participants of the research were 14 students from the English
department of one private university, which is located at the centre of the province
of Bali’s capital city, Denpasar. However, the students had to undertake their PM
in a traditional village far from the city. The English students were taking the
Discourse Analysis course in the academic year of 2022-2023. Participants were
selected based on the results of their writing assignment, with the common scoring
rubric of English writing covering writing structure, grammar, terminology, and
content. A further factor in participants’ selection was the students’ performance
in the interview when the research project commenced.

The study was undertaken in a rural area, in a traditional village named Demulih.
The village is located in Susut District, Bangli Regency, Bali Province, which is very
rich in natural resources as a biocultural landscape. To conduct the participatory
mapping, the students acted as “researchers” by implementing the concept of PM,
involving representative community members to identify Balinese local wisdom
values as potential themes to be integrated into their English classroom. In their
participatory mapping, the English students interacted with community figures

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and members of the young generation, called sekeha teruna-teruni in Balinese, in the
village of Demulih, considering the richness of the village with its natural
resources, its sacred hill, religious ceremonies, and agricultural activities.

3.3 Data Collection


This research aimed to create a contextual learning atmosphere by forming a
synergy of lecturers, students and the community in a learning method designed
through a PM approach. This approach can be realized through the participation
of the stakeholders in conducting the research (Salamanca et al., 2015; Campbell
et al., 2019). The research steps in the study design involved a triangulation of
methods, including an observation of the way in which the students conducted
their PM, followed by content analysis and in-depth interviews. All of these steps
were organised in the following stages:
1. Initial Stage
This stage involved making clear the research plan and objectives to the
English department students. Having selected the students who would
participate in the research, they were introduced to the research location
for their PM. In preparation for their field study, the students were
encouraged to learn about Demulih village as their research site by
studying digital and printed documents and by identifying local wisdom
related to socio-legal and eco-cultural activities.

2. Implementation Phase
At this stage, PM was carried out by the English students. The students
had to explore and make a map of the research site before joining the
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with the village leaders and youth
groups. Several PM procedures were undertaken by the students,
namely: (1) preparing for the field study at Demulih village by identifying
socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability efforts to preserve the temple
networks and local wisdom values at the research site; (2) mapping the
borders of the village and checking Google captures of the village to
understand the geographical characteristics of the village; (3) facilitating
discussions with guided questions on the topic to be explored; (4) taking
photographs and video recordings (for documentation) and analysing the
sequences of events found at the research site; and (5) undertaking
interviews with the village leaders and youth group members.

3.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation


The research aimed to contribute to making foreign language learning –
specifically EFL in Indonesia – more authentic and contextual in its processes and
results. There is an urgent need for topics of discussion that encourage social,
legal, cultural, and environmental awareness for sustainability in human life.
Such discussion should be interrelated to aspects of law and sociology in
emphasizing the values and topics of English language learning. This promotes
fluency as the English students need to produce contextual talks and writings
related to the two productive skills of speaking and writing. The specific skill
under focus in this study is writing, which challenges the students to structure
their ideas clearly and use rich vocabulary as well as accurate grammar. The
students were also asked to provide a more critical and “content-driven” piece of

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writing to show their feelings and perspectives on the local values related to
aspects of everyday life; for this study, socio-legal and eco-cultural awareness
were selected. Interpretation of the data was conducted using notes from the
discussions and recorded interviews using ATLAS.ti software. An output from the
software is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.
Word Cloud used to Map the Topics Discussed by the EFL Students

Figure 1 shows the word cloud produced on ATLAS.ti software after the final
reflection. This was compiled by formulating the concept of supplementary
teaching materials for the Discourse Analysis course based on the PM of local
wisdom values. The materials are useful not only to help students to improve their
language skills but also to increase their knowledge. The analysis was performed
through categorization using ATLAS.ti and was hoped to be relevant with the
approach of PM. The mapping emphasizes the active involvement of local
communities in utilizing knowledge about the space in which they live, with the
local values forming part of their natural landscape.

In summary, the results were interpreted in several stages, as follows: (i) observing
the students’ report writing; (ii) highlighting the use of local terms containing
socio-legal and eco-cultural aspects identified by the students; (iii) diving into the
village’s local values in assessing the students’ statements in their writing to evoke
their cultural and environmental awareness; and (iv) cross-checking the results of
the report writing with the in-depth interview to analyse the students’ reflections
on the importance of obeying the local rules and raising eco-cultural awareness.

4. Results and Discussion


The study resulted in two major findings, which were the socio-legal and eco-
cultural aspects. The participatory mapping that students performed as part of
their contextual English learning resulted in the discovery of several important
findings, which were the focus of socio-legal and eco-cultural approaches to world
views.

4.1 Results
It is expected that the results of this research will contribute to the integration of
ESD in EFL learning, which was practically applied through several activities from
performing PM to reflecting on the identified values. By studying the local values,

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including socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability, the topics offered in English


learning can both enhance the fluency of the students’ writing skills and raise their
awareness of social, legal, cultural and environmental issues at the same time. In
order to increase students’ competence and knowledge in foreign language
learning, students must be equipped with theory and practice in the field of
linguistics. Furthermore, they must also be frequently given material outside of
language to enrich their insights into the outside world (Jayantini; 2020; Mahmud,
2019; Oktariyani & Juwita, 2019; Romrome & Ena, 2022).

There are four aspects that show socio-legal values: (1) awig-awig, which is a
traditional law that is grown and respected by traditional communities; (2)
cuntaka, which refers to the existence of an unclean concept in carrying out sacred
activities that are believed in by the community and practiced in life; (3) bukit
(hill), whose sacredness is maintained; and (4) forests, which are also held sacred.
Meanwhile, the aspect of eco-cultural sustainability is contained in the written
report, in which four main terms indicate the relationship between humans and
the environment, which are further developed in the writing. The four terms
representing nature and culture, whose sustainability must be maintained, are: (1)
pura, which is a temple for people as devotees of Balinese Hinduism in Indonesia;
(2) setra, which is a cemetery for traditional communities, the purity and
preservation of which is maintained for holding cremation ceremonies or burials;
(3) ngusaba, which is a ceremony for expressing gratitude, love for nature and
God's work that has been given in human life; (4) srati, who is a person at the focus
of ceremonial activities, who helps to protect nature by regulating the use of
plants and ceremonial needs; and (5) wastra, which is sacred clothing related to
the naming of dances in ceremonies or the need to carry out ceremonies in
temples.

Table 1.
Socio-legal and eco-cultural aspects that show cultural values
Perspective of Local Values Values to be Adopted for
Sustainability ESD

Socio-legal Awig-awig Awig-awig is a customary legal


norm formulated to regulate
the behaviour patterns of
community members in
interacting in order to create
order and peace.

Cuntaka Cuntaka refers to impurity


according to Hinduism.

Sacred Demulih Hill The hill has perfectly


beautiful scenery that is
managed for its sacred values
and people obey the rules
willingly.

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Traditional Forest The forest has been protected


by awig-awig for its purity and
its natural resources.

Eco-cultural Pura Pura is the Indonesian term


for a temple. It is a place of
worship, a centre for Hindu
activities such as community
gatherings, socializing,
developing culture, etc.

Setra A grave or a place to carry out


a temporary process in terms
of death ceremonies for
Hindus.

Ngusaba Ngusaba ceremony is a ritual


procession to remind
humanity to constantly bring
together in synergy various
elements to build the potential
to improve the sources of life
created by God.

Srati People who act as guides in


the making of banten
(offerings).

Wastra Wastra for Hindus is also known


as clothes, busana/pengangge.
Wastra is a colourful cloth that
has its own meaning and symbol.

Table 1 highlights the socio-legal and eco-cultural values discovered following the
PM conducted by the English students. PM is a tool used by a community in the
exploration of a spatial map concerning the landscape and the values with which
people live. Thus, PM is very different from a normal map (Lienert J, 2019). When
utilizing PM in the EFL classroom, it is performed through a field study, with a
discussion involving the students in interviewing the community leaders before
making a map containing areas in the village that have specific rules and customs.
All of these activities are then outlined in their written reports. Content analysis
was particularly applied in analysing the students’ papers, which they had written
following the field study and their interaction with the village elders, traditional
community leaders, as well as the youth groups. To confirm the students’
perceptions on their own awareness of the values existing in the community, in-
depth interview was conducted to assess their comprehension. These activities
combined to make the study a worthwhile research design. The students’
identification of the socio-legal and eco-cultural values was performed based on

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the results of the students' writing and word clouds (see Figure 1). These were
obtained by entering words, phrases, clauses and sentences in the ATLAS.ti, which
is a software used for qualitative research that is relevant to the two sustainability
topics. The students were asked to express their ideas and write a report on the
results of the field study, which was to be categorized in two major topics; namely,
socio-legal sustainability and eco-cultural sustainability for topic development in
EFL learning.

This combination embeds socio-legal and eco-cultural values in English language


learning at the higher education level. In this research, these two values were
applied in writing to assess aspects of language ability that include expressing
ideas through writing structure, linguistic aspects through diction and grammar,
and technical aspects. According to the values shown in Table 1, the students
were able to use those terms and define them in sentences. This was the process
of expressing ideas according to the context of discourse that the students had
studied in Discourse Analysis. The students’ identification of socio-legal and eco-
cultural values through PM can be linked to the values of Discourse in Context
(Song, 2010). In evaluating students' writing, lecturers can ask them to explain and
interpret the linguistic aspects of what they have written by referring to the
linguistic context (for example, grammatical rules, sentence forms, e.g.
imperatives in rules, negative sentences to prohibit and local terms that must be
translated). Moreover, the social context, which tests the students' ability to
provide information that shows the field (subject matter), tenor (involved
participants) and mode (text construction, which is either spoken or written), adds
to the completeness of the assessment. Finally, students must relate the cultural
context to the linguistic context so that it can be accepted logically.

4.1 Socio-legal Sustainability for Topic Development in EFL Learning


The first value categorized as socio-legal was awig-awig. The customary law awig
awig has shared legal strength that binds indigenous people to respect the
regulations that have been set (Ningsihet al., 2021; Yulianingsih et al., 2021) ). As
Balinese customary law used to regulate the lives of indigenous Balinese people
in villages, awig-awig is considered as a means for Balinese people to achieve Tri
Hita Karana. Tri Hita Karana is a local Balinese saying, which literally means "three
sources of happiness." Tri Hita Karana consists of parahyangan, pawongan, and
palemahan. The integration of these values into EFL teaching and lesson planning
requires students to explain this concept when they produce their written report.
In relation to EFL learning, Tri Hita Karana must be explained well in English.
From the language learning standpoint, the students must be able to think of a
way to explain the term and its meaning appropriately. In addition, students must
also use translation methods to convey the concept of a balanced life within the
context of relationships, each of which determines meaningful value, i.e. human
relations with God (parahyangan), human relations with nature or the
environment (palemahan), and human relations with humans (pawongan).

The other values identified in the students’ report writing are cuntaka, sacred hill
and sacred forest. Cuntaka is a state of impurity, according to Balinese Hindus. It
is also known as sebel. People are said to be cuntaka for several reasons, such as the

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death of a family member or close relative, menstruation, or childbirth. The


research site of Demulih village has unique potential and is strongly respected by
the local people for its ancient forest and sacred hill, Demulih Hill. Ancient forests
are sacred to the local community. Participatory mapping and the protection of
natural resources are socio-legal sustainability values that must be learned and
passed on, so that many people from different areas and backgrounds can widen
their perspectives and horizons. The community maintains the purity of the water
at Demulih Hill through special regulations. For example, people are prohibited
from entering Demulih Hill for 12 days after one of the traditional village
residents dies, in order to preserve the village beliefs and customs. This rule is
rigidly enforced, for the benefit of everything and everyone in the village. This is
done to maintain the sanctity of the 11 temples that surround Demulih village. All
of these values are included in Extract 1.

Extract 2 shows the socio-legal values that were identified by the students. In their
report writing, despite the grammatical errors and mechanical mistakes, the
students had to express their views regarding the existence of socio-legal values
in a society that thrives on local wisdom. The socio-legal sustainability of the local
community regarding regulations and awig-awig is the source of learning.
Supporting the socio-legal sustainability of Demulih Hill can be integrated as a
topic chosen for the EFL classroom as an effort to incorporate ESD.

Extract 1 (Student A)
There is a tradition in Demulih, a customary village with its protected and sacred hill.
Women in their period are forbidden to visit the hill that last for 12 days and 12 nights

Extract 2 (Student B)
The village of Demulih also has regulations both for carrying out ceremonies or for the
forest that the people there must obey. Among them are policies regarding ceremonial
facilities for temples, some are made in their respective homes, besides that during feast
day such as Purnama, Tilem, Tumpek and others, they are carried out at their respective
homes.

4.2 Eco-cultural Sustainability for Topic Development in EFL Learning


Two physical pieces of evidence for ecosystem and cultural sustainability,
combined in the term “eco-culture”, can be seen in the buildings and sacred land,
i.e. temple and graveyard. Temples, or pura (s), are constructed in accordance with
the rules and style of Balinese architecture. Most temples are located on the island
of Bali as the majority of devotees are Hindus. This is the island of a thousand
temples. Here, most people practice Hinduism. Many temples can also be found
in other parts of Indonesia, where many Balinese people live. Setra, or sema, is a
grave or a place to carry out a temporary process in terms of death ceremonies for
Hindus. The cremation ceremonies are usually conducted in setra. The temporary
tradition of the nyekar (bringing flowers to the grave) has been eliminated because
the gross body and the subtle body have returned to their original state.

Ngusaba is one of the Hindu religious ceremonies. Ngusaba comes from the word
sabha. In Sanskrit the word sabha means to meet or gather. Thus, the ngusaba
ceremony is a ritual procession to remind humanity to constantly bring together

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various elements to improve the sources of life created by God. Ngusaba desa
(meaning village) is one of the major Hindu ceremonies, which involves the
sacrifice of one buffalo and one goat. Generally, this ceremony is divided into
three parts. The first is Ngusaba Gede, which is performed every fourth full moon
to save the earth and give people the spiritual strength to live according to
philosophical values as well as to maintain the preservation and function of the
elements of Panca Maha Bhuta (five great elements). The second is Ngusaba Alit,
which is held every fifth full moon; the last ceremony is Ngusaba Dalam, which
is held during the fifth month of Anggara Kasih (good Tuesday to conduct
ceremony).

Srati is part of the eco-cultural sustainability values for the role of srati (male or
female) in managing the use of natural resources needed for the ceremony. The
students were able to identify their significant role. The term srati banten (offerings
maker) usually refers to those acting as guides in the making of banten (offerings).
Srati is also needed to assist the pemangku (priest) or sulinggih (high priest) in
handling the banten during the ceremony. Finally, wastra is also known as busana
or pengangge (clothes). Wastra is a colourful cloth with its own meaning and
symbol. For example, the white colour represents purity, red symbolises the
existence of God, and yellow symbolises prosperity. To demonstrate the
identification of eco-cultural values, two extracts from the English students’
writing activity are presented to strengthen the mapping of eco-cultural
sustainability for topic development in EFL learning.

Extract 3 (Student C)
The rice fields in this village are shrinking every year as the land is used for housing,
livestock, and other purposes. As a result, the harvest is solely used for the village, and
owing to the enormous number of people who are not proportional to the harvest in the
village, the harvest must be purchased again from outside the village. In Bali, many
ceremonies are often conducted by the society. The ceremonies are also related to the
maintenance of the subak in this village.

Extract 4 (Student D)
The preservation of the upakara plants found on Demulih Hill is maintained. The
preservation of natural resources in Bukit Demulih can be well maintained until now, of
course, cannot be separated from the role of the village community. Although the people of
Demulih Village often pick leaves from this sacred plant, it does not make the natural
resources of Demulih Hills diminish or disappear. This is because the Demulih village
community takes leaves or plants that are used sparingly and not excessively. In addition,
the people of Demulih Village also cultivate several traditional plants in their yard. The
awareness that the people of Demulih Village have motivate them to continue their
dedication to preserve their culture.

Extracts 3 and 4 underline the importance of preservation and how to deal with
the challenges through the following statements: “The rice fields in this village are
shrinking every year as the land is used for housing, livestock, and other purposes” and
“The preservation of the upakara plants found on Demulih Hill is maintained”. In terms
of eco-cultural sustainability, the physical aspects of the hill and ways in which
people try to preserve the tradition and manage the use of natural resources for

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ceremonies are also good values to learn. The sacred forest, with its unique eco-
culture, including the plants for ceremonies, also illustrates the core points of
sustainability that can be potentially explored as teaching materials, with lessons
to learn and values to respect. The teaching materials can be taken from the results
of PM, which are subject matters that the English students could explore. In order
to convey the local concepts in the local language, i.e. Balinese, the students must
translate and interpret them well. The translation involves methods that need to
be applied as well as understanding the semantic relationships between the
English words, phrases, clauses and sentences, which are used as a means of
conveying meaning. These aspects of integration result in two benefits. On the
one hand, the incorporation of socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability will be
realized by including this as one of the topics to be explored in teaching the four
major language skills, which was specifically writing, in the case of this study. On
the other hand, it is expected that the students could succeed in conveying what
they have learned. The identified values are included in the report text, which
indicates their awareness of the local wisdom, particularly in terms of socio-legal
and eco-cultural sustainability.

5. Discussion
In EFL learning, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) encourages all
stakeholders to be creative in order to provide a better experience and support the
students to gain new knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that will foster a
more sustainable and equitable society for all. In this study, students participated
in participatory mapping in order to experience and explore potential topics
related to the issues of sustainability in line with ESD’s aims, i.e. to empower and
equip current and future generations to meet their needs using a balanced and
integrated approach to various issues, including the economic, social, legal and
environmental dimensions of sustainable development. By incorporating key
sustainable development issues into teaching and learning – for example, the
connection of people with environmental rules for their cultural preservation –
the English department students were able to share ideas, perspectives, and
opinions to develop and demonstrate their communication skills. This study has
illustrated how participatory teaching and learning methods can be applied to
motivate and empower learners to change their behaviour and take action
towards sustainable development. In this way, ESD consequently promotes
competencies such as critical thinking, visualising potential future scenarios and
making decisions collaboratively (University of Plymouth, 2014).

The findings of this study strengthen the argument for incorporating local values
into the EFL classroom. Introducing the element of community to the contextual
materials will provide students with additional values alongside their target of
enhancing the four major language skills. By providing them with various topics
related to many aspects of life that can enrich their knowledge, students are given
the opportunity to learn about sustainable development. In Indonesia, everyone
can work together to map their natural surroundings, including the phenomena
that teach people values. People can work together to map the issues they want to
investigate.

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This should involve all of the stakeholders. In Indonesia, teachers, students, and
experts can work with local communities to create a learning environment that
helps students to understand how to live together in a way that is good for
everyone as well as the environment. This could be done by choosing specific
subjects that will help people learn about culture, social life, and the environment.
When learning English, everything should be related to learning English that
gives added value (Nur, 2013; Suwastini et al., 2020). In this research, the
participants studied the ways in which socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability
issues are relevant in an effort to incorporate contextual learning in the EFL
classroom in tertiary education as the main concept of ESD. This could be done
through participatory mapping when students are working with the community
to map their local values; the lecturer can then utilize the results of the mapping
as the topics for the students’ writing task. An assessment of the writing will then
reflect the knowledge and experience the students have gained. This could help
teachers to develop better ways of teaching that are more practical in real life.
When EFL learners are able to talk about issues outside of the language they are
learning – for instance, the environment and how to keep it safe and healthy – it
is worthwhile including different topics and issues recommended for ESD. The
learning design can help students to learn how to take care of the environment as
part of their education (de la Fuente, 2021; Prabawani, 2021; Purnamasari &
Hanifah, 2021).

Incorporating local values to support ESD in EFL at university level is in line with
the immersion program at the primary level. Immersion can help improve
academic and language development through the use of two languages as well as
developing students' appreciation of their own and other cultures. One of the
important keys to immersive education is knowledge of the language and culture
that could be used as a learning resource (Fortune & Tedick, 2003) so that the
relationship between language and national identity is strong and they are
inseparable from each other (Fishman, 1985). Thus, the students will become
proficient in the language, increasing their cultural awareness as well as achieving
high academic attainment (Supriyono & Dewi, 2017). Education that prioritizes a
local cultural approach, in addition to addressing global issues, must become a
priority for all stakeholders. As a source of learning materials for students, the
environment is perfectly rich, offering learning resources that may include
physical, social and cultural aspects. The environment can act as a learning
medium, but also as an object of study or learning resource. Moreover, children
often enjoy using the environment as a learning resource. Utilizing the
environment can help to develop a number of skills such as observing (with all
the senses), taking notes, formulating questions, hypothesizing, classifying,
writing, and making pictures/diagrams (KNIU, 2014).

6. Conclusion
Participatory mapping was utilized in this study to identify the local knowledge
that can be classified as portraying social-legal and eco-cultural values to support
ESD in various learning activities, including EFL learning in Indonesia. The
results can be useful for designing EFL programs that offer greater benefits to
students and allow them to enjoy contextual and enriching learning. In this

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study, the English department students conducted participatory mapping that


incorporated social, legal, and cultural topics. They identified two important
elements. Societal and environmental values can be used in EFL classroom
activities at the university level. After completing participatory mapping, the
students demonstrated that they had a good attitude towards understanding
local society, with its customs and regulations that are respected in the
community and the relationship between culture and the environment.

This study is expected to contribute to the design of contextual learning that is


aligned with Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) principles. The results
of previous research have provided implications for the development of the topic
of EFL learning in order to enrich students' insights and knowledge. Participatory
mapping in this research resulted in the English students’ ability to understand
the concept of socio-legal and ecological sustainability, which not only helps to
build character as an advantage in learning a foreign language for global interests
but can also maintain local values. Further research should aim to offer further
benefits in deepening the investigation and providing materials regarding local
wisdom-based environmental values for designing contextual learning methods.
Future studies should also highlight the added value that should be inserted into
the course in order to improve EFL students’ four major language skills while at
the same time preserving the social, legal, ecological, cultural and other aspects of
local wisdom.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 180-194, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.10
Received Feb 25, 2024; Revised Apr 15, 2024; Accepted Apr 21, 2024

Using Digital Technologies in Teaching and


Learning of Literature in ESL Classrooms: A
Systematic Literature Review
Irdina Shamimi Mohamad Shamshul , Hanita Hanim Ismail*
and Norazah Mohd Nordin
National University of Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract. The uses of digital technology in the teaching and learning of


literature in ESL classrooms has been accredited as following the global
breakthrough of digitalisation. However, the limitations of digital tools,
readiness, and the potential misuse of the technology, in incorporating
digital technology in the literature of ESL classrooms, might become
challenging. This systematic review analyses the possibilities, challenges
and suggestions linked to the incorporation of digital technologies in the
teaching of literature as part of ESL classrooms. To facilitate the shift to
online learning while preserving consistency in the literature instruction,
the review examines past discussions on the role of technological
resources during the pandemic and how literary instructions in ESL
classrooms are impacted by the digital age. This review offers a thorough
overview of the state of digital technology in literary instruction in ESL
classrooms by combining the findings and perspectives of the previous
research. Using the PRISMA methodology, this review examines the use
of digital technology in the teaching of literature in ESL classrooms. A
total of 10 papers were chosen from 100 as part of the initial consideration;
the studies were conducted between 2016 and 2023, considering both the
inclusion and exclusion criteria. Several databases, such as ScienceDirect,
Google Scholar and Web of Science, were used. The common attributes of
the study findings highlight the significance of adopting a flexible
strategy for integrating technology, recognising the challenges and
seizing the opportunities presented for the advantage of teachers. Thus,
it is empirical and necessary to assist teachers and relevant stakeholders
in navigating the constantly changing landscape of literature instruction.

Keywords: digitalization; Literature in ESL classrooms; Teaching


strategies; Technological approach

1. Introduction
In the ever-evolving realm of education, the infusion of digital technologies has
sparked a revolution, reshaping age-old teaching practices and embarking on new

* Corresponding author: Ismail, H. H., [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
181

frontiers of pedagogical exploration (Hidayat, 2019). Within ESL (English as a


Second Language) classrooms, teachers are increasingly embracing digital tools
to breathe fresh life into the teaching of literature, recognising the profound
impact that it can have on student engagement, the understanding of the literary
themes, and knowledge acquisition (Belmahdi et al., 2022).

Even so, as teachers navigate this digital landscape, they find themselves at a
crossroads, grappling with the need to master these new tools to truly enhance
the learning experience (Kure et al., 2022). It's not just about using technology; it's
about weaving it seamlessly into the fabric of the classroom instruction.
Moreover, recent global events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have accelerated
the adoption of digital education, compelling educational institutions and
instructors to reassess and adapt their approaches to teaching literature (Triasanti
et al., 2022). This rapid transition has brought to the forefront various concerns,
including issues of digital equity, technological infrastructure, and the
development of digital literacy skills, underscoring the evolving dynamics
between conventional and virtual learning environments.

Despite these hurdles, it is imperative to acknowledge the enormous potential that


digital technologies have when it comes to improving the ESL classroom literature
instruction (Kanoksilapatham, 2022). The opportunities for innovation are
endless, ranging from interactive platforms that encourage more involvement to
online forums that facilitate international literary conversations. Through an in-
depth review of the previous research on the use of digital technology in ESL
literature instruction, this paper seeks to address the aforementioned dynamics.
It aims to respond to three important research questions:
(1) What are the types of digital technology implemented in the field of teaching
literature in ESL classrooms?
(2) How far does the ongoing implementation of digital technologies by teachers
contribute to the longevity of the teaching and learning of literature in ESL
classrooms?
(3) What challenges have teachers of literature faced in ESL classrooms during
the COVID-19?

2. Methodology
This review has provided an in-depth investigation into the effects of digital
technology integration and implementation on the teaching and learning of
literature in ESL classrooms, as well as how it affects the course instructions. The
content analysis and article reviews were done by hand by the researchers. Based
on an initial search, there were 100 journal articles which were then filtered in
order to perform the systematic review where 10 research papers were selected
and assessed. This review also systematically included journal publications and
research findings from the last 10 years on digital tools in education such as video
conferencing and blogging related to the teaching and learning of literature in ESL
classrooms from both domestic and international scholars. A variety of databases,
including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Web of Science (WoS), and the
Education Resource and Information Centre (ERIC), were used to find papers on
related issues. Identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion were the four

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steps followed for this paper to be in compliance with the Preferred Reporting
Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach. The
selection process for the selection of the articles according to PRISMA is depicted
in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Article selection process according the PRISMA approach

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2.1 Phase 1: Identification


The existing literature related to the topic was scanned and chosen using a select
number of databases, namely Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, the Education
Resource and Information Centre (ERIC) and Web of Science (WoS). As keywords
are representative of a particular paper to enable researchers to find relevant
papers such as English literature teaching and learning in ESL classrooms,
language, digital technologies, education, and COVID-19, these carefully-put
keywords were developed to characterise the topic of the use of digital
technologies in the teaching and learning of literature in ESL classrooms.

2.2 Phase 2: Screening


Salas-Zapata et al. (2018) indicated that the following criteria are used to screen
articles such as confirming that the keywords searched appear in the title and
abstract and that the article's originality and research questions are designed to
analyse the topic, which in this case is digital technologies and English literature.
As a result, 80 articles were obtained after additional filtering of the original 100
articles. These 80 articles were examined in more detail using the timeline, which
was used to select articles published between 2016 and the present. Articles not in
English were also removed to avoid confusion in translation. The total number of
papers in this study was reduced to 15, with the exception of public materials and
indexed journals. Additionally, Chai et al. (2021) noted that to produce a clear and
accurate methodological syntheses of the research, thorough filtering must be
carried out.

2.3 Phase 3: Eligibility


The present study centres on how digital technologies are used in teaching and
learning English literature. Following the selection process, this paper included
and further analysed 10 articles. The papers selected meet the educational
demands, as demonstrated by Rafiq et al. (2021). For the eligibility stage, 15
articles were gathered and thoroughly assessed to determine the extent that they
fulfilled the criteria for selection. Emphasis was placed on certain studies that
addressed the topics posed. In order to find relevant subjects and related topics,
the abstracts were flicked through initially before proceeding to the entirety of the
articles in question. Content analysis was used as part of the qualitative analysis
engaged in to determine the related topics. Finally, 10 articles made it to the final
inclusion stage, and 5 were excluded.

2.4 Phase 4: Inclusion


The approaches and digital resources utilised for addressing the first research
question were highlighted in the previously selected articles. E-books, blogging,
Google Education tools and video conferencing were included. Regarding the
second research question, the literature review was used to analyse how digital
technologies are being implemented. The third research question pertains to the
challenges outlined in the selected articles. The themes include the scarcity of
resources related to digital technologies, the inadequacy and unpreparedness of
teachers, the lack of training, and the lack of in-person interactions with students.
These three research questions and their conclusions will be covered in the
following section. Articles that were selected are as follows:

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1. Kaur (2016) - "The use of information & communication technology (ICT)


in teaching English literature and language for enhancing the learning
efficiency in students."
2. Gürova (2018) - "How Recent Trends Shape English Literature."
3. Niu (2020) - “Exploration Into College English Teaching Practice During
the Period of Pandemic Prevention and Control.”
4. Rababah (2020) - "ICT Obstacles and Challenges Faced by English
Language Learners During the Coronavirus Outbreak in Jordan."
5. Alakrash & Razak (2022) - "Technology-based language learning:
investigation of digital technology and digital literacy."
6. Bui (2022) - "English teachers’ integration of digital technologies in the
classroom."
7. Meirovitz et al. (2022) - "English as a foreign language teachers’
perceptions regarding their pedagogical-technological knowledge and its
implementation in distance learning during COVID-19."
8. Moorhouse & Wong (2022) - "Blending asynchronous and synchronous
digital technologies and instructional approaches to facilitate remote
learning."
9. Dai (2023) - "An empirical study on English preservice teachers’ digital
competence regarding ICT self-efficacy, collegial collaboration and
infrastructural support."
10. Lo (2023) - "Digital learning and the ESL online classroom in higher
education: teachers’ perspectives."

3. Findings

Overview of the selected articles

Figure 2. Distribution of the selected papers between 2016 to 2023

The distribution of the selected papers published between 2016 and 2023 is shown
in Figure 2, which sheds light on the state of the field of study on the use of digital
technology in ESL literature instruction. Remarkably, there is a noticeable rise in
the quantity of publications released in 2022 and 2023, indicating the expanding

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scholarly curiosity in this field. To look at the state of current research on the use
of digital technologies in ESL literature instruction, how it affects literary teaching,
and the difficulties faced by teachers in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, this
paper conducted a systematic review of 10 key articles stated in the previous
chapter.

3.1 Types of digital technologies implemented in the field of literature in ESL


classrooms
Several insightful digital tools that are implemented in the teaching and learning
of literature in ESL classrooms are found in the previous studies, specifically e-
books and blogging (Gurova, 2018), Google Education tools (Moorhouse & Wong,
2022), and video conferencing (Bui, 2022).

New avenues of digital technology tools in the teaching and learning of literature
in ESL classrooms include the usage of e-books and blogging platforms. Gurova
(2018) described current trends like e-books, blogs and other social networking
platforms as playing a crucial role in the teaching and learning of literature in ESL
classrooms in the digital age. In this sense, teachers now have more means to
encourage students to delve into the literature and express themselves creatively
through these tools. Gurova (2018) also emphasised how new technologies have
the ability to change lives, particularly by improving the students' writing and
reading skills. The results of the research reveal that incorporating blogs and e-
books into lessons greatly enhanced the writing and reading skills of the students.
Furthermore, the students could easily access a variety of literary texts and
interact with them through the use of e-books With the use of e-books, the
students had access to other resources including videos, audio files, and
interactive tests that improved their comprehension and analysis of the texts
(Felvegi & Matthew, 2012). In addition, by using blogs, the students were able to
express their ideas and opinions, engage in active participation in literary debates,
and get feedback from both their teachers and peers. The students' critical
thinking abilities were enhanced and their comprehension of the texts was
deepened by this participatory and team-based method of teaching literature in
ESL classrooms.

Google created Google Education (GE) tools for use as an aid for teachers in
conducting lessons, involving a variety of easy-to-use tools, and also to help
students enhance their skills. In a study done by Moorhouse and Wong (2022),
they pointed out GE tools as being one of the digital technologies used to assist
distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. In recent years, especially after
a sudden shift in the educational field caused by COVID-19, teachers began to
consider GE tools as a medium for teaching and learning. That being said, English
literature teachers are not excluded from making use of GE tools for their lessons,
particularly in the ESL classroom setting. A range of digital materials, including
Google Docs, Google Slides, and Google Classroom, are accessible to teachers
through the usage of GE tools. According to Andrew (2019), these tools can be
used to generate interactive and collaborative assignments, encourage debates,
and provide students with immediate feedback. Additionally, GE features give
students the chance to interact more actively and in an immersive manner with

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the content. Therefore, Moorhouse and Wong (2022) concluded that teaching and
learning English language, particularly literature, with GE tools fosters digital
literacy abilities as students learn how to operate and navigate a variety of digital
platforms. All things considered, there are many benefits to using GE tools in the
teaching and learning of literature in ESL classrooms including improved
teamwork, creativity, and digital literacy. The way literature is taught and learned
in ESL classrooms has also been revolutionised by the use of GE tools (Moorhouse
& Wong, 2022).

Video conferencing platforms have been one of communication mediums used by


people to connect around the world. However, since the upheaval of COVID-19,
platforms such as Zoom, Webex, Google Meet and Teams have become
educational platforms where teachers conduct lessons with the students remotely,
despite not initially being built for educational purpose. In Bui’s (2022) systematic
review paper, she focused on the integration of digital technologies in English
classrooms. In her paper, she mentioned the implementation of digital
technologies by teachers in teaching and the factors that influence teachers to
integrate technology into the English lessons. Through her review, she found that
the implementation of digital technologies in ESL classrooms is mostly teacher-
centred, where there is a lack of interaction between teachers and students. A
study by Sim and Ismail (2023) also mentioned that the information was mostly
presented by teachers via digital technologies such as slideshows and this
procedure was identical to utilising conventional teaching materials like
textbooks or chalkboards. Bui (2022) also concluded that teachers are driven by
their pedagogical beliefs when practising or incorporating digital technologies in
the classroom with a reference to the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM).
According to this model, perceived usefulness and simplicity of use are the two
factors that have the biggest effect on technology behavioural intention (Bui,
2022). This means that people are more likely to use technology that they find
beneficial and simple to use.

Conversely, some scholars contend that a heavy reliance on digital resources


could result from the widespread use of digital tools in literature instruction and
learning (Esa et al., 2021; Nadeem et al., 2018; Livingstone, 2012; Stockwell, 2015).
Conventional teaching techniques, according to those opposed, promote
creativity, human connection, and critical thinking abilities more than ICT-
focused strategies. Additionally, this raises concerns about the students' uneven
access to technology which has the potential to exacerbate rather than close the
digital divide. Furthermore, the students' writing abilities and general academic
performance may suffer from excessive screen time on devices like computers,
tablets, and smartphones. Rather than concentrating only on the integration of
digital technologies, a well-rounded strategy that combines both conventional
techniques and cutting-edge technologies is crucial in order to provide successful
learning results.

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3.2 Implementation status and the longevity usage of digital technologies by


teachers in the teaching and learning of literature in ESL classrooms
The second research question explains the contribution of the implementation of
digital technologies by teachers to ensuring the longevity of the teaching and
learning of literature in ESL classrooms. There were five articles tackling the
contribution of the implementation of digital technologies by teachers, stating that
the teachers' digital competency enhances the teaching and learning of literature
in ESL classrooms. In Kaur’s (2016) study, he highlighted that poetry was the
students’ least favourite literature component. Kaur (2016) suggested that the
teaching and learning of poetry could be made more engaging and interesting
with the incorporation of digital technology, namely projectors and audio-video
poetry approaches. In that sense, this can only be done with the teacher having
familiarity or competence with digital tools as teaching and learning are
complementary to each other. In other words, if the teacher can adapt with the
integration of digital tools well, the students have a better opportunity to learn
literature in ESL classrooms more effectively.

Bui’s (2022) viewpoint is aligned with the aforementioned study. In her study, Bui
(2022) revealed that the English teacher’s competence with digital technologies
acts as one of the factors shaping the implementation of digital technologies in
teaching and learning. With the competence to handle digital tools in the
classroom, the teacher will be able to develop their self-confidence and
manoeuvre the tools while teaching. This will smooth out the whole instructional
process with the students. Even so, in some cases, teachers could feel discouraged
to implement digital tools while teaching due to the fact that the students are more
skilled and adapted to the technology from a young age. That being said, a
teacher's motivation and confidence are crucial in order for them to be able to be
competent at incorporating digital technologies in teaching and learning
specifically for literature in ESL classrooms.

Intending to achieve longevity in the teaching and learning of literature in ESL


classrooms, the integration of digital technologies is vital, especially after the
major changes caused by COVID-19. This is in line with Alakrash and Razak’s
(2022) interview with educators who were involved in distance learning using
digital technologies during the pandemic. One stated that the sudden pedagogical
shift during COVID-19 elevated their overall competence despite their earlier
exposure to digital technology before the lockdowns. Others also mentioned that
they were able to develop lesson plans using digital tools and changed their
teaching methods innovatively, owing to their own digital competency.
Nevertheless, while these changes encouraged educators to create better teaching
materials digitally, some experienced disorientation and were intimidated by the
digital technologies. Alakrash and Razak (2022) revealed that it is rather
challenging for some to deliver lessons while fulfilling their students’ needs
during unfamiliar circumstances. This was echoed by Fhloinn and Fitzmaurice
(2021) who discovered that 72% of lecturers had a hard time adapting to distance
learning during the lockdowns. This could lead to burnout and other concerns
such as depression and an inability to perform the teaching tasks in the classrooms
as usual. Lo (2023) implied that different teachers may have different experiences

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depending on various factors that either increase or decrease their resilience to the
stressors involved with online teaching.

Additionally, Lo (2023) pointed out that a number of teachers agreed that digital
technologies present numerous benefits related to their teaching approaches
where, despite their initial difficulties adjusting to their new virtual environment,
there were plenty of ready-to-use digital tools they could use in their teaching.
The teachers also believed that this lessened the need for them to carefully prepare
their courses, for example, by moving the information into interactive formats for
face-to-face teaching and learning (Lo, 2023). This proves that the teachers' digital
competency plays a huge role in ensuring the sustainability of the teaching and
learning of literature in ESL classrooms. In a recent study by Dai (2023), she
stressed that the teachers’ digital competency is crucial in teaching and learning,
and that it is important to enhance the teachers’ numeracy skills as well as help
them to adjust to cutting-edge technologies at the same time. To facilitate their
future professional growth, teachers ought to offer a set of well-organised,
customised digital competency self-evaluation processes (Dai, 2023).

3.3 Challenges faced by teachers when teaching ESL classrooms during


COVID-19
Since the advent of the COVID-19 crisis was so abrupt and unexpected, it is
evident that teachers encountered challenges and setbacks, accounting for their
discontent. The challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic have been
mentioned in past studies throughout recent years (Bui, 2022; Junaidi et al., 2022;
Ukat & Ismail, 2022; Haden, 2023). Hence, the third research question for this
paper looks at the literature teaching challenges faced by teachers in ESL
classrooms caused by the upheaval of the COVID-19 pandemic. In the study done
by Alakrash and Razak (2022), they highlight the insufficiency of educators’
pedagogical knowledge on digital literacy, as affected the implementation of
digital technologies in the teaching and learning of literature in ESL classrooms.
The lack of knowledge and competency in technological skills holds back teachers
from utilising digital technologies to improve teaching and learning, and also
student participation. Alakrash and Razak (2022) also pointed out that some
teachers felt overwhelmed by the sudden change as they had to swiftly adapt their
entire pedagogical approach. This is because they wanted to ensure that their
students could keep learning, thus they found the situation to be stressful. It is
also important to note that although some teachers had employed technology in
their pre-pandemic instruction, the situation at hand completely changed the way
that they taught, despite their prior knowledge of it (Alakrash & Razak, 2022).

Teachers may find it difficult to successfully incorporate technological resources


and tools into their lesson plans without the right guidance and training. It also
underscores the necessity for thorough teacher preparation programmes that
emphasise digital literacy, as this lack of readiness is not just the fault of teachers.
This issue has been discussed in Meirovitz et al.’s (2022) paper on teacher
perceptions regarding pedagogical-technological knowledge and its
implementation in distance learning during COVID-19. The abrupt shift to online
learning created this problem since many teachers and students were unprepared
to use digital tools for teaching and learning, as well as the need to traverse digital

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platforms. This has caused disruptions in the educational process by making the
learning curve high for both teachers and students (Zarei & Mohammadi, 2021).

Furthermore, Meirovitz et al. (2022) highlighted that the educational institutions’


capabilities to completely embrace and capitalise on the potential of digital
educational resources has been hampered by the absence of digital training
courses. Teachers are therefore having difficulty modifying their pedagogy and
successfully involving students in virtual learning environments. It can be
difficult for teachers to develop interesting online lessons and successfully
support their students’ learning without the right training and assistance.
According to Zarei and Mohammadi (2021), there are additional challenges that
students have had when completing projects, interacting in online forums, and
exploring internet resources. Therefore, comprehensive digital technology
training programmes for teachers must be given top priority by educational
institutions to help them overcome these constraints and address the pressing
situation that exists at the moment (Al-Nuaimi et al., 2021).

COVID-19 has significantly and urgently compelled the education system to


rapidly adapt to digital technologies for the delivery of teaching and learning. As
stated by O’Connor et al. (2023), the absence of face-to-face interactions with
students is one of the main challenges of this transition. This issue has also been
addressed by several scholars, namely Niu (2020) and Du (2023), in their
respective studies. Du (2023) mentioned that the lack of in-person interactions
presents with a number of challenges for teachers and students in the context of
the teaching and learning of literature in ESL classrooms. Although digital
technologies provide an extensive range of tools and platforms for virtual
communication, the lack of physical presence impedes organic interactions,
including nonverbal clues and instant student feedback (O’Connor et al., 2023).
This minimal interaction may influence the students' engagement and overall
learning process. In addition, it is challenging for teachers to assess the students'
knowledge and offer individualised guidance when there are no face-to-face
interactions.

Rababah (2020) noted that practising and evaluating specific elements of English
literature, including speaking skills, might provide challenges. It can also be
difficult for teachers to gauge their student's comprehension of nuanced literary
theories and concepts as well as their capacity for literary text analysis and
evaluation (Niu, 2020). Additionally, the lack of face-to-face interactions and
group activities can also prevent students from participating in important peer-
to-peer learning experiences and cooperative projects, which are crucial for
improving their comprehension and appreciation of literature in ESL classrooms.

Nonetheless, some contend that by utilising online learning platforms and


resources, educators and other stakeholders may overcome these difficulties
(Rahiem, 2020; Mehrpouyan, 2022; Du, 2023). Teachers can successfully convert
their lesson plans to an online format and encourage student participation in a
virtual classroom setting with the correct assistance and training. Additionally,
there is a high chance that technical challenges can be solved, online learning

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environments can improve student engagement, and assessment techniques can


become more adaptable and flexible with the right training. Digital technology
integration proponents may highlight the technology's ability to use creative
strategies to close the gap in education that currently exists, notwithstanding
worries regarding inclusive participation and equitable access. It has also been
shown that when students use digital tools for literary study and discussion, their
motivation levels rise. Additionally, according to Mehrpouyan (2022), digital
technologies facilitate personalised learning experiences, simple access to
resources and information, and collaborative learning opportunities. Effective
online teaching tactics for literature in ESL classrooms might also include the use
of case studies, mini projects, video presentations, educator handouts and notes,
and online discussion forums. Furthermore, a comprehensive grasp of digital
competency and its implications in professional practice and student learning is
necessary for teachers. Teachers can develop creative and engaging learning
experiences that blend the best aspects of in-person and online instruction by
merging digital technologies and pedagogical methodologies. To further improve
their digital literacy abilities and keep them abreast of the most recent technology
developments, educators should have access to continual professional
development opportunities (Batanero et al., 2021).

4. Discussion
A growing trend in the use of digital resources for teaching and learning literature
in ESL classrooms is presented by the review of the literature. On the other hand,
there is a significant research gap when it comes to investigating the greater range
of digital tools and technology that can be used for teaching ESL literature.
Previous research has primarily examined specialised tools such as virtual reality
platforms and online discussion forums, with little attention paid to other possible
digital resources. The emphasis placed on specialised digital tools suggests that a
larger range of accessible technologies should be included in future study
investigations. Additionally, a lack of comprehensive research on the
effectiveness and educational consequences of these technologies points to a
knowledge vacuum about their influence on literature instruction in ESL
classrooms. Further research is necessary in this area, as evidenced by the scant
research on the difficulties that instructors have while integrating digital tools.

The findings from this study underscore the significance of diversifying the scope
of research to include a variety of digital technologies beyond those that are
frequently examined. The more successful incorporation of digital resources in
the teaching and learning of literature in ESL classrooms can result from an
understanding of the pedagogical implications of these technologies and
resolving the difficulties that teachers confront. Furthermore, the dearth of
discussion regarding how digital technology affects student engagement,
motivation, and critical thinking highlights the necessity of more research into
these areas in order to improve the teaching and learning outcomes. Nevertheless,
it is pertinent to note that this review has limitations even if it offers insightful
information about the state of the field. This is because relying only on previously
published works could ignore cutting-edge digital tools and technologies that
haven't been thoroughly investigated in scholarly studies yet. Furthermore, it's

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possible that this review's scope left out important contributions to the area by not
including any relevant papers.

Following this study, researchers should seek to examine an expanded array of


digital technologies for the teaching and learning of literature in ESL classrooms,
such as mobile applications, collaborative writing platforms, online annotation
tools, Google education tools, and multimedia presentation tools. Studies should
also examine the pedagogical approaches that go along with these technologies
and weigh the benefits and drawbacks of using them to teach literature in ESL
classrooms. Further research in these areas may assist shaping effective
pedagogical approaches and lead to a more thorough knowledge of the function
of digital technologies in ESL literature instruction.

5. Limitations
As with the majority of studies, the design of the current study is subject to
limitations. For instance, the examination and analysis of previous research on the
use of digital tools for teaching and studying literature in ESL classrooms is the
primary focus of the present research. Therefore, it might not cover all pertinent
research papers or newly developed digital tools and technologies that haven't
been covered in scholarly publications yet. Additionally, the study may not
adequately reflect recent developments or shifts in the area because it only looked
at material published between 2016 and 2023. Beyond this timeframe, more recent
studies may provide new viewpoints or insights not included in the analysis.

Given how cultural differences, educational environments, and technological


infrastructure may have an impact on the adoption and efficacy of digital
technologies in diverse classrooms, the study's findings and conclusions may not
be generally applicable to all contexts of literature instruction in ESL classrooms.
Furthermore, it's possible that some topics are still undiscovered or
underrepresented in the corpus of research that has been done, despite efforts to
find and fill in these gaps. These gaps may offer chances for more research to
deepen our grasp of the subject.

6. Conclusion
To sum up, this systematic review of the literature clarifies the present status of
research on the use of digital technology in ESL classrooms for the teaching and
learning of literature. While the evaluation notes that there is a growing trend in
the integration of digital tools, it also points out that there is a large research gap
when it comes to investigating a greater range of digital resources and their
potential pedagogical implications. Although the majority of research to date has
concentrated on specialised tools such as virtual reality platforms and online
discussion forums, there is still a scarcity of information regarding the wider
range of technologies that are already accessible and how well they might be used
to improve literature instruction in ESL classrooms.

Furthermore, this review highlights the necessity for additional investigation to


tackle the obstacles encountered by teachers when incorporating digital
technologies and to scrutinise the influence of these tools on student drive,

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involvement, and analytical abilities. To contribute to a more thorough


understanding of the role of digital tools in ESL literature instruction and to
inform effective teaching practices in this area, future research endeavours should
aim to explore a wider range of digital technologies and instructional approaches.
Collaboration among teachers, educational institutions, and the makers of
technology is also essential to address the unique requirements and challenges
associated with the teaching and learning of literature in ESL classrooms.
Together, teachers and other stakeholders like educational institutions and the
ministry can come up with innovative approaches to close the digital gap and
guarantee that every student has equitable access to high-quality instruction in
literature.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 195-216, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.11
Received Feb 25, 2024; Revised Apr 15, 2024; Accepted Apr 21, 2024

An Investigation into whether Applying


Augmented Reality (AR) in Teaching Chemistry
Enhances Chemical Cognitive Ability

Vu Thi Thu Hoai


University of Education – Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam

Pham Ngoc Son*


Hanoi Metropolitan University, Vietnam

Dang Thi Thuan An


University of Education – Hue University, Vietnam

Nguyen Viet Anh


Dao Duy Tu High School, Hanoi, Vietnam

Abstract. Chemical cognitive ability is a fundamental aspect of effective


chemistry education, facilitating students’ understanding of essential
concepts such as substance structure, chemical transformations, and
atomic bonding processes. Augmented reality (AR) technology has
emerged as a promising tool in science education, offering immersive
learning experiences that enhance students’ comprehension of chemical
phenomena. This study explored the utilization of AR applications,
specifically QuimiAR, in the designing of six simulation videos focusing
on chemical bonding processes. These videos were integrated into a
teaching method centered around the topic “Chemical Bonding” and
implemented in a secondary school classroom in Hanoi, Vietnam,
comprising 32 students. Following the AR-enhanced teaching session,
students’ chemistry cognitive ability was evaluated using three methods:
standardized tests assessing five criteria of chemistry cognitive ability
according to the Vietnamese educational curriculum; surveys gauging
students’ interest and knowledge acquisition using AR; and in-depth
interviews. The results indicate that AR usage significantly increased
students’ engagement in learning, enhanced their understanding of
substance composition and chemical bonding processes, and improved
their ability to apply knowledge to solve learning challenges. This research
provides practical guidance for educators in leveraging the advantages of
QuimiAR software to design simulations focusing on chemical bonding,
thereby fostering students’ cognitive ability in chemistry. By expanding
the use of AR technology to create various chemical simulations, teachers

*Corresponding author: Pham Ngoc Son; [email protected]


This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
196

can cultivate students’ cognitive abilities in chemistry, promoting active


learning and facilitating academic success.

Keywords: augmented reality (AR); chemistry cognitive ability; chemical


science; teaching chemistry

1. Introduction
The ability to perceive refers to the mental capacity of an individual to process
information, solve problems, and make decisions. In the context of chemistry
education, cognitive ability plays a vital role in comprehending complex concepts
and applying them to real-world scenarios. Numerous studies have highlighted
the significance of cognitive ability in chemistry learning. The chemical cognitive
ability, which involves understanding and interpreting the language and symbols
of chemistry, is essential to help students comprehend the world around them
and make informed decisions regarding health and environmental issues (Yunita,
2017). Chemical awareness, that is, learning about the natural world from a
chemical perspective, and applying acquired knowledge and skills have been
identified as necessary competencies for students in the General Chemistry
Curriculum (Nha, 2018). In the scope of our study, we are interested in the concept
of chemical cognitive ability. This refers to the individual’s ability to be aware of
basic knowledge about substance structure, chemical processes, chemical
transformations, and some basic chemical reactions. Therefore, developing
chemical cognitive abilities for students is crucial in chemistry education. Various
methods can be employed to develop students’ chemical cognitive abilities,
aiming to promote active learning and critical thinking through hands-on
activities, group discussions, and problem-solving tasks.

Traditional teaching methods in chemistry education often rely on lectures and


rote memorization rather than fostering active learning and critical thinking skills,
which may not develop students’ cognitive abilities effectively. Consequently,
students encounter difficulties in grasping and applying concepts related to
atomic structure, including comprehension gaps, incorrect formula usage,
reliance on teacher-centric instruction, and anxiety when tackling chemistry
questions (Afrianis & Ningsih, 2022). Moreover, the abstract nature of atomic
chemistry compounds these challenges, as students cannot directly observe
atomic structures through conventional means (Wu & Yezierski, 2023).

At the secondary school level, limitations in teaching atomic structure and


chemistry persist due to various factors. These include time constraints, a lack of
emphasis on practical science application, insufficient collaboration between
teachers and students, and inadequate laboratory facilities (Bani, 2020). Students
often struggle with developing a nuanced understanding of atomic processes,
particularly in critiquing models and comprehending complex concepts. To
address these limitations, research has examined how students utilize resources
to enhance their understanding of atomic processes (Kelly et al., 2021). Challenges
persist in the teaching of atomic structure and chemistry at the secondary school
level due to the dominance of symbolic representations, a lack of diverse
representation methods, and the disconnection between some representations
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and textual explanations (Enero Upahi & Ramnarain, 2019). These limitations
hinder students in their ability to fully grasp atomic concepts and hinder their
overall learning experience in chemistry education.

Augmented reality (AR) technology has emerged as a promising tool in science


education, harboring the potential to enhance learning experiences. Numerous
studies have demonstrated the positive impact of AR in science education,
highlighting its effectiveness in improving learning performance and motivation.
Rahmat et al. (2023) found that while teachers are still relatively unfamiliar with
AR technology, they expressed positive perspectives on its potential in science
education (Rahmat et al., 2023). Similarly, Abutayeh et al. (2022) emphasized the
need for more research focusing on teachers’ views and expectations regarding
the use of AR in science and math education (Abutayeh et al., 2022). They found
that using AR simulations on computers and smartphones has led to significant
improvements in students’ learning outcomes compared to traditional teaching
methods. Simulations present visual images of particle behavior, which is not
easily observable in real life. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate how
AR can be utilized as a tool to create interest in learning and assist students in
utilizing simulations to understand the formation of chemical bonds, thereby
gaining a clearer understanding of the particle nature of matter and chemical
transformations.

2. Literature Review
The integration of AR technology into science education brings forth a plethora of
advantages that significantly influence students’ motivation, engagement, and
learning outcomes. Studies by Khan et al. (2019) and Fearn and Hook (2023) have
illustrated that AR applications enhance learning motivation and stimulate
student interest in science, especially at the undergraduate and primary levels.
The immersive nature of AR experiences captures students’ attention, rendering
learning more enjoyable and effective. Particularly in science education, AR offers
visual and interactive representations of abstract scientific concepts, enabling the
comprehension of complex phenomena that are difficult to visualize in traditional
learning settings (Guo et al., 2021). Moreover, research has indicated that
incorporating AR enhances students’ comprehension and retention of scientific
information (Huang et al., 2019).

Innovative teaching methods promoting active learning are pivotal for enhancing
students’ cognitive abilities in chemistry. Technology-driven approaches, such as
virtual experiments, enable learners to simulate intricate phenomena and grasp
fundamental principles (Hoai & Thao, 2021). These experiments instill curiosity,
creativity, and a passion for scientific exploration, fostering cognitive
development among students. Additionally, the utilization of software to create
3D simulations in organic chemistry education aids students in mastering
complex concepts (Hoai et al., 2023). AR technology also fosters the development
of higher order thinking skills by engaging students in problem-solving and
decision-making processes (Moro et al., 2020). These benefits include increased
long-term-memory retention, enhanced content understanding, improved task
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performance, heightened motivation, and better collaboration across educational


levels (Çetin & Türkan, 2021).

The interactive and immersive qualities of AR experiences have the capacity to


captivate students’ attention and enrich their learning enjoyment, as noted by
Kirikkaya and Başgül (2019). AR applications present novel approaches for
delving into scientific concepts, nurturing curiosity and intrinsic motivation
(Damopolii et al., 2022). Through offering visual and interactive depictions of
abstract scientific principles, AR assists students in comprehending and
visualizing intricate phenomena, as demonstrated by Huang et al. (2019).
Research has shown that AR enhances students’ comprehension and retention of
scientific information by allowing them to manipulate virtual objects and observe
dynamic processes, thus facilitating more profound learning experiences
(Rossano et al., 2020). AR involves students actively in hands-on and interactive
experiences, fostering problem-solving skills and decision-making capabilities
(Cai et al., 2022). Through the integration of real-world and virtual components,
AR prompts students to authentically analyze and apply scientific knowledge.
Furthermore, AR has the potential to bolster the development of spatial skills,
which hold great importance in various scientific fields.

The increasing availability of AR technology on electronic devices, particularly


smartphones, has led to its widespread integration into teaching and learning
practices. AR is leveraged to create flexible virtual learning environments,
offering students interactive and engaging educational experiences. Collaborative
AR-enhanced learning environments have been investigated in numerous
studies, revealing their positive impact on student engagement and motivation
(Ahmed & Lataifeh, 2023). Collaboration in AR settings enables students to share
ideas and actively participate in the learning process, fostering deeper
understanding and knowledge construction (Dolmans et al., 2015; Lu et al., 2022).

Overall, collaborative AR-enhanced learning environments promote active


engagement, knowledge sharing, and deeper understanding among students,
thereby enhancing the learning process. However, the implementation of AR in
science education faces challenges, including technical limitations such as the
availability and cost of AR devices, which may hinder widespread adoption
(Fearn & Hook, 2023). Moreover, successful integration of AR into the curriculum
necessitates adequate teacher training and support (Koçak et al., 2019). Despite
these obstacles, the potential benefits of AR in science education underscore its
promise in enhancing teaching and learning experiences, emphasizing the need
to address challenges to maximize its effectiveness.

AR technology has been widely utilized in teaching chemistry to enhance the


learning experience. Studies have indicated that AR is primarily used in chemistry
education for various purposes. AR technology has been employed to create a
virtual chemistry laboratory for 11th Grade students, enhancing chemistry
research projects through interactive virtual experiments using cloud-based
technology (Nechypurenko et al., 2023a). Additionally, AR technology is utilized
to teach organic compound reactions in chemistry, enhancing student
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engagement and understanding (da Costa Coelho et al., 2022). In high school
chemistry education, AR technology allows students to conduct virtual
experiments, observe reactions under a microscope, and comprehend chemical
equilibrium states through interactive AR cards (Tarng et al., 2022). AR
technology has also been utilized in chemistry education through the
development of an accessible AR application, Chemistry Access, aimed at
teaching atomic connections and compound formation to visually impaired
students. Furthermore, AR technology has been used to create a virtual
experiment to teach the principles of the Daniell cell in high school chemistry,
improving academic achievement, particularly for low-performing students
(Tarng et al., 2021).

Although there are numerous applications in education, studies have affirmed the
positive impacts of AR technology in education. However, further research is
needed to explore the specific advantages of AR in chemistry education,
particularly the benefits of AR in enhancing chemical cognition in chemistry
education. Therefore, this study aimed to address the following questions:
1. How is AR used in teaching chemistry?
2. How has AR technology supported the enhancement of students’
chemistry perception skills?

3. Methodology
3.1 Study Overview
Figure 1 presents a flow diagram of the study overview.

Selecting experimental
subjects

Pre-assessment of the
impact

Building simulations
using AR tools

Developing a teaching
plan and implementation

Post-assessment of the
impact

Survey and interviews

Figure 1: Study overview flow diagram

This experimental study was conducted in two classes in Hanoi, Vietnam with
similar proficiency criteria. The classes were designated by the school’s teachers.
We randomly selected one of the two classes as the experimental group, and the
remaining class served as the control group. The experimental group consisted of
200

32 students, including 15 male and 17 female students. The control group


comprised 31 students, consisting of 17 male and 14 female students. Both classes
were taught using the lesson plan designed by us, utilizing the flipped classroom
method, with the experimental group using an AR application and the control
group not using AR technology.

To assess students’ abilities before the intervention, we constructed the first


assessment test. The test comprised 10 objective multiple-choice questions related
to the knowledge students had learned, including atomic structure and the
periodic table of elements. The test was administered within a 15-minute
timeframe by the participating teachers. The scores obtained by students in this
test served as baseline scores for comparison with the results of the post-
intervention test.

To conduct the experiment, we devised two teaching plans for both the
experimental and control group. We employed the flipped classroom method for
both groups, wherein the experimental group received additional simulations of
molecular structures and chemical bond formation created by an AR application.

The post-experiment survey, which employed a Likert scale with six options, from
1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree), focused on four issue groups: “Learning
Attitude”, “Satisfaction when Using AR Applications”, “Knowledge Absorption”,
and “AR Utilization Ability”. This survey was built upon the research of Hwang
and Chang (2011) and references the studies of Chu et al. (2010) and Cai et al.
(2014).

To conduct a qualitative assessment, we randomly selected 15 students. Pre-


prepared cards with “Y” or “N” written on them were used for selection. Students
with “Y” cards were chosen for interviews. In the study by Son (2024), both
teachers and students acknowledged the positive role of AR technology in
enhancing learning outcomes. Therefore, during the interviews, we asked
students about three main issues: their interest in accessing and using AR in
learning; the role of AR in knowledge acquisition; and the direction of AR usage
in the study of other contents. The results of these research steps will be presented
and analyzed in detail in the subsequent section of the study.

3.2 QuimiAR Application


QuimiAR is an AR application developed to help users learn chemistry
engagingly and effectively (Figure 2). This application utilizes AR technology to
create 3D models of chemical molecules, allowing users to interact with them
directly. It is specifically designed to serve the purposes of research, teaching, and
learning about atomic structure, molecular composition, and chemical bonds.
QuimiAR does not require users to have programming or design knowledge. It is
very easy to use, as users only need to select the molecule they want to observe
from the application’s database for observation.
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Figure 2: Interface of the QuimiAR application

Regarding using the QuimiAR application directly in learning, the application can
be downloaded from the App Store or Google Play Store. The interface of
QuimiAR consists of two groups: covalent bonds and ionic bonds. Students select
these groups and then choose the chemical molecules they want to observe.

For the use of pre-built 3D simulations, the research group uses the QuimiAR
application to build some simulations of bond formation in certain molecules. The
stages of simulating bond formation include:
• Describing the structure of the atoms that will form bonds, including
valence electrons.
• Describing the process of bond formation, specifically the process of
giving and receiving electrons to form ion bonds and the process of
sharing electrons to form covalent bonds.
• Describing the molecular structure after bond formation.

A list of molecules along with links to the simulations is provided in Table 1.

Table 1: Simulation catalog


No. Molecule Link
1 Water https://youtu.be/2WREbw5-IyI
2 Ozone https://youtu.be/X4270aptUl8
3 Ethylene https://youtu.be/XvzThTjHU4o
4 Sodium chloride https://youtu.be/4dNRK5Qgouc
5 Mage oxide https://youtu.be/oobWWtx4D44
6 Copper(II) chloride https://youtu.be/LwZzAO-PwDU

3.3 Building a Lesson Plan Using AR to Develop Students’ Cognitive Abilities


We constructed a lesson with the theme “Chemical Bonding” for teaching the
7th Grade students. This study encompassed the following aims:
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1. Illustrating a representation of electron distribution within the atomic


orbitals of select noble gases.
2. Elucidating the process of covalent bond formation based on the concept
of electron sharing for achieving a full electron shell akin to noble gases.
3. Outlining the process of ionic bond formation according to the principle
of electron transfer to attain a complete electron shell similar to noble
gases.
4. Distinguishing various characteristics between ions and covalent
compounds.

The flipped classroom method was utilized in the lesson, where experimental
lessons were supplemented with simulations of chemical bonding and the
QuimiAR application. Students also used additional devices such as computers,
smartphones, tablets, etc. for learning.
The flipped classroom method involved three phases.

3.3.1 Phase 1: online learning


Students performed self-study at home through study materials and worksheets
provided by the teacher. Students planned their self-study and completed
worksheets according to the teacher’s requirements. During this stage, students
familiarized themselves with new information and prepared for classroom
activities. They identified, clarified, or presented events, concepts, or chemical
processes.

3.3.2 Phase 2: face-to-face learning


The teacher organized activities to implement the lesson in the classroom.
Warm-up activities were conducted through guiding questions such as: Why do
atoms “combine” with each other? and: What are the types of “combination”
between atoms? Individual assessments of self-study results were carried out,
where students reported self-study results using worksheets. The teacher
answered students’ questions and summarized the lesson content. Therefore,
classroom time was dedicated to reviewing content from Phase 1, with teachers
actively engaging students through group discussions, collaborative exercises,
and assessments.

3.3.3 Phase 3: online learning


The teacher assigned tasks for students to reinforce and apply their knowledge by
using the concept of chemical bonding to explain phenomena such as: in nature,
table salt is in a solid state, difficult to melt, and difficult to evaporate, while sugar
is easily soluble in water and ice melts at low temperatures, while water
evaporates easily. Figure 3 below presents some images of the experimental
process. Thus, teachers paved the way for deep learning, allowing students to
independently process and reflect on information and apply their knowledge.
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Figure 3: Photographs of the experimental process

3.4 Assessing Students’ Chemical Cognitive Abilities


3.4.1 Quantitative assessment
Identifying components of chemical cognitive abilities. Chemical cognitive abilities
consist of three components: chemical awareness; understanding the natural
world from a chemical perspective; and applying learned knowledge and skills
(Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, 2018). Chemical cognitive abilities
include five criteria:
• Criterion 1 (C1): Recognizing and stating the names of objects, events,
concepts, or chemical processes.
• Criterion 2 (C2): Presenting events, characteristics, roles of objects,
concepts, or chemical processes.
• Criterion 3 (C3): Describing objects using verbal, written, formulaic,
schematic, diagrammatic, and tabular forms.
• Criterion 4 (C4): Comparing, classifying, and selecting objects, concepts,
or chemical processes according to different criteria.
• Criterion 5 (C5): Explaining and reasoning about the relationships
between objects, concepts, or chemical processes (structure – properties,
cause-effect, etc.).

This study identified the chemical cognitive abilities that students need to achieve
in studying chemical bonding. This included students’ recognizing fundamental
knowledge about substance structure, chemical processes, some basic chemical
substances, and chemical transformations. Each criterion was quantified with four
levels of the Thinking Levels Assessment Scale proposed by Boleslaw Niemierko
to determine the level of thinking of chemical cognitive abilities (Level 1: poor;
Level 2: average; Level 3: good; Level 4: excellent) (Gajek, 2019).

Building the test. To assess students’ chemical cognitive abilities, the criteria were
specified to align with the content taught. We conducted an assessment of
students’ chemistry cognitive abilities through evaluating their learning process
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both during online and in-person classes, along with assessments using quizzes,
each consisting of 10 questions. The questions were presented in the form of
objective multiple-choice questions, with the distribution of levels as follows:
Level 1: recall/recognition (40%); Level 2: understanding (30%); Level 3:
application lower level (20%); Level 4: application upper level (10%). All tests
were conducted by students through Google Forms within a 15-minute time
frame.

3.4.2 Qualitative assessment


We randomly selected 15 students from the experimental group with whom to
conduct in-depth interviews after using the AR application to teach the Chemical
Bonding unit. The interview questions focused on three main issues:
1. Understanding students’ interests when accessing and using AR in
learning.
2. Students’ assessment of the role of AR in supporting their learning.
3. Direction for using AR applications in learning.

Depending on the level of collaboration among students, the scope of interview


content can be expanded to gather a comprehensive understanding of students’
experiences with AR technology and its impact on their learning.

4. Results
AR simulations of chemical bond formation provide visual representations,
assisting students in understanding and visualizing the interaction of atoms when
forming ion bonds and covalent bonds. This helps to form the concept of chemical
bonding. As a result, students become interested in learning chemistry and
develop cognitive ability in chemistry. The following assessment results confirm
that students’ chemical cognitive ability is enhanced after teachers use simulations
of chemical bonding designed on the QuimiAR software for student learning.

4.1 Assessment of Chemical Cognitive Abilities through Test Results


Before the experiment, both groups were given Test 1 (pre-test). After the
experiment, both groups were given Test 2 (post-test). The test results were
statistically analyzed using SPSS software and are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 shows that, in the experimental group, the sig. (2-tailed) value is
0 (t = 4.990, p = 0.000). When the p-value is < 0.05, the null hypothesis of no
difference is rejected. This means that the students’ scores after the experiment,
having used the AR tool in learning, are significantly higher than the scores before
the experiment, indicating the impact of the experimental process.
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Table 2: Results of the paired samples t-test


Sig. (2-
Paired differences t df
tailed)
95% confidence
No. Student group Standard Std.
interval of the
Mean deviation error
difference
(SD) mean
Lower Upper
Score (post-
Experim
1 test) – score .91 1.03 .18161 .5358 1.2766 4.990 31 .000
ental
(pre-test)
Score (post-
2 Control test) – score .26 1.46 .26220 -.2774 .7935 .984 30 .333
(pre-test)

4.2 Post-Experiment Survey Results


We used Google Forms to design the questionnaire. The data collection process
was conducted in the experimental class after the lesson under the guidance and
supervision of the teacher, ensuring the reliability of the responses. The survey
tool consisted of four groups of issues: 1) “Learning Attitude”; 2) “Satisfaction
with Software Usage”; 3) “Knowledge Absorption”; and 4) “AR Utilization
Capability”. Thirty questions were designed to survey students on the four
groups of issues, with the thirty-two students from the experimental class
participating in the survey immediately after completing the experimental lesson.
The collected data were processed using SPSS 22.0 software. The analysis of the
Cronbach alpha reliability of the four groups of issues is summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: Summary of the Cronbach alpha values of the issue groups


Variable Number of items Cronbach alpha
Learning Attitude 7 0.989
Satisfaction with Software Usage 14 0.994
Knowledge Absorption 5 0.982
AR Utilization Capability 4 0.975
Overall 30 0.997

The results show that the Cronbach alpha value of the questionnaire is 0.997,
indicating the high reliability of the questionnaire. The Cronbach alpha coefficient
of each issue group is greater than 0.70, demonstrating that each issue group is
consistent and internally reliable. The average scores for each issue group are
summarized in the chart in Figure 4. The results indicate that the “AR Utilization
Capability” group has the highest average value, while the “Learning Attitude”
group has the lowest average value.
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4.7 4.62
4.6
4.5 4.4
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1 4.02 4.05
4
3.9
3.8
3.7
Learning Satisfaction Knowledge AR
Attitude with Software Absorption Utilization
Usage Capability

Figure 4: Average scores of the issue groups

The descriptive statistics for each of the issue groups are presented in tables 4 to
7 and subsequently discussed.

Table 4: Descriptive statistics for the ‘‘Learning Attitude’’ group


Std.
No. Item Mean
deviation
1.1 I find the content chemically linking is very useful 4.19 1.57
1.2 The natural science subject is very interesting 3.76 1.39
1.3 The content related to chemistry is meaningful 4.47 1.16
1.4 I find the content outside the textbook very interesting 4.12 1.41
1.5 I will search for more information related to chemistry
3.59 1.21
on the Internet
1.6 I will seek support from the Internet, teachers, and
3.75 1.29
friends whenever I encounter difficulties
1.7 I think the natural science subject is essential for
4.28 1.51
everyone
Level: strongly disagree = 1; disagree = 2; slightly disagree = 3; slightly agree = 4; agree = 5;
strongly agree = 6

The statistics show that the item “I find the content outside the textbook very
interesting” received the highest rating (M = 4.47, SD = 1.16). This reflects that the
students found the simulations created from the AR application interesting, which
simulations are not found in textbooks or other usual learning materials.
Additionally, the low standard deviation value indicates high consistency in
students’ responses. Conversely, the mean value for “I will search for more
information related to chemistry on the Internet” was the lowest (M = 3.75,
SD = 1.29).
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Table 5: Descriptive statistics for the “Satisfaction with Software Usage” group
Std.
No. Item Mean
deviation
2.1 AR software is very interesting 4.09 1.30
2.2 AR software helps me explore new knowledge 3.91 1.44
2.3 Using AR software allows me to see the microscopic world 4.69 1.23
2.4 I enjoy studying chemistry more when using AR software 4.87 1.10
2.5 AR is very interesting because it’s like a game 3.66 1.41
2.6 I hope many other subjects also use AR 4.06 1.29
2.7 I hope to continue using AR in studying chemistry 4.12 1.58
2.8 I will introduce AR to others 3.97 1.43
2.9 I am interested in other learning tools based on AR 3.66 1.43
2.10 AR is very suitable when studying “Atomic Structure,
3.75 1.29
Chemical Bonding”
2.11 AR allows collaborative learning 3.53 1.22
2.12 The design of the software is beautiful and attractive 4.53 1.27
2.13 AR software is easy to use 3.84 1.46
2.14 I think using AR software to explore the microscopic world
4.00 1.41
is essential
Level: strongly disagree = 1; disagree = 2; slightly disagree = 3; slightly agree = 4; agree = 5;
strongly agree = 6

The summary results indicate that the three highest rated items are: “I enjoy
studying chemistry more when using AR software” (M = 4.87, SD = 1.10); “Using
AR software allows me to see the microscopic world” (M = 4.69, SD = 1.23); and
“The design of the software is beautiful and attractive” (M = 4.53, SD = 1.27). This
suggests that students are more engaged in studying chemistry with the use of
AR applications, considering AR applications are very suitable for learning
content related to the microscopic world that is not visible to the naked eye.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that natural science is a highly practical
subject, with many experiments and practical activities stimulating learning
interest. However, content related to the microscopic world, such as atomic
structure and chemical bonding, cannot be observed with the naked eye, and
simulations built with AR applications can overcome this limitation. Conversely,
the factor “AR allows collaborative learning” received the lowest rating
(M = 3.53). Although group activities are suitable for classroom teaching, with AR
applications and the devices to operate them being easy to use, and most students
being able to use the applications, activities can be carried out individually,
without much emphasis on group learning.
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Table 6: Descriptive statistics for the “Knowledge Absorption” group


Std.
No. Item Mean
deviation
3.1 I believe that AR makes study materials more accessible 4.28 1.61
I think using AR learning tools, like this game, is very
3.2 4.12 1.36
helpful for studying chemistry
AR tools are more effective than any tools I have used
3.3 3.69 1.33
before
3.4 AR helps me understand the essence of chemistry better 4.94 1.11
AR provides me with more space for creativity and
3.5 4.72 1.33
learning
Level: strongly disagree = 1; disagree = 2; slightly disagree = 3; slightly agree = 4; agree = 5;
strongly agree = 6

The statistics reveal that the item “AR helps me understand the essence of
chemistry better” has the highest average value (M = 4.94, SD = 1.11).
Understanding the essence of the subject is crucial in chemistry, as it enables
students to explain various related properties and deduce additional knowledge.
Meanwhile, the factor “AR tools are more effective than any tools I have used
before” has the lowest average value (M = 3.69, SD = 1.33).

Table 7: Descriptive statistics for the “AR Utilization Capability” group


Std.
No. Item Mean
deviation
4.1 AR is easy to use 4.81 1.12
4.2 AR doesn’t require much time and effort 4.09 1.17
4.3 AR operates in an easy-to-understand manner 4.72 1.33
4.4 I learned how to operate AR in a very short time 4.62 1.34
Level: strongly disagree = 1; disagree = 2; slightly disagree = 3; slightly agree = 4; agree = 5;
strongly agree = 6

The summarized results show that the average scores of the items for this
construct are quite high, indicating that the students have a good understanding
of technology. Installing and using applications on smart devices is easy for them.
Among the items in the “AR Utilization Capability” group, “AR is easy to use”
has the highest average value (M = 4.81, SD = 1.12). This can be attributed to the
combination of students’ good IT skills and the simplicity of using the AR
application.

4.3 Interview Results


We conducted interviews immediately after completion of the experimental
lesson, with 15 students randomly selected as interview participants by drawing
lots from the experimental group. To ensure anonymity, we encoded the
participating students from S1 to S15. The interviews were conducted by teachers,
who asked questions, with some students volunteering or being designated to
answer. Responses were recorded for synthesis and analysis. The overall results
show that most of the students had a positive evaluation of using AR in their
studies.
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Regarding the ability of AR to generate interest in learning, S4 stated: “It’s like


playing a video game; it’s very interesting and easy to observe the formation of chemical
bonds.” Four out of five students confirmed that they were very excited about AR
software. It helped them to experience “immersion” and made them feel like the
main character in a virtual space. It also enhanced the fun factor, impressed the
lesson, and made learning more enjoyable. This finding aligns with numerous
research findings indicating that students feel excited and interested when using
AR (Holley & Hobbs, 2019; Rasulova, 2022). However, S2 mentioned not being
particularly enthusiastic about these simulations due to the difficulty of
installation and inconvenience of operating them on a phone, which reduced
interest in AR.

Concerning the ability to absorb lessons, the use of AR in education has been
found to be effective in enhancing learning achievement, particularly appealing
to the younger generation (Ghobadi et al., 2022). S1 remarked: “I easily understand
how covalent bonds and ions are formed after watching the simulation.” Some student
opinions affirmed the effectiveness of 3D simulations in describing the formation
of chemical bonds: “Electron transfer is very clear” (S8); “Using shared electrons is
visually appealing” (S11); “So, the molecular structure of the compounds after bonding is
like that; I never thought of it that way” (S14); “Understanding covalent bonding is easy
when watching simulations of atoms sharing electrons” (S7); and “The simulation helped
me understand the theoretical content in the textbook easily” (S3). However, some
students expressed doubts: “How do we know the number of electrons involved in
bonds?” (S1); and “The simulation only describes the knowledge in the textbook” (S6).

Regarding the use of AR applications in other subjects, opinions suggested that


AR should be used more for other subjects (S1, S4, S14); STEM subjects are very
suitable for AR (S11); chemistry, physics, and biology content related to the micro-
world are suitable for AR (S12); and historical sites that students cannot visit in
person should also use AR (S15). S11, S10, and S7 expressed concerns that
excessive use of AR could harm their eyes, simulation devices are expensive, and
that there are limited molecules or chemicals in the available software. Other
concerns included there being a lack of diverse experimental tools and that
simulations could become boring if observed too frequently. Other studies have
also indicated that AR can be used in various subjects by, for example, illustrating
anatomy content in biology (Guerrero et al., 2018), or visiting historical landmarks
and cultural heritage sites through virtual space (Argiolas et al., 2022).

Overall, despite some concerns, most students interviewed had a positive


evaluation of using AR technology in education. AR simulations helped them to
become more interested and absorb lessons more easily. In the future, AR
technology is likely to continue to be widely used in various subjects and fields of
study.

5. Discussion
This paper explores the use of technological devices and applications as tools to
stimulate learning interest and develop cognitive abilities for students. We argue
that traditional teaching technologies are primarily used as a means of delivering
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information. In contrast, AR technology allows students to interact with learning


content, fostering interest and developing deeper cognitive abilities and
understanding of chemical concepts. Our arguments are entirely consistent with
the assessment results of the participating students’ chemical cognitive abilities
through pre- and post-impact assessments in the experimental and control group.
The average score of students in the experimental group using AR increased by
0.91 points (t = 4.990, p = 0.000), indicating that the difference in scores between
the two assessments (before and after) was due to the impact of using AR in
learning. This result also aligns with studies by Taber and Garcia-Franco (2010),
which asserted that traditional teaching methods in chemistry education may not
effectively develop students’ cognitive abilities.

A survey instrument with four issue groups was used for the experimental group
students to evaluate their chemical cognitive abilities after using AR in learning.
Descriptive statistics for the “Learning Attitude” group show that the item “I find
the content outside the textbook very interesting” received the highest rating
(M = 4.47, SD = 1.16). This reflects that students are fascinated by simulations
created by AR applications, which are not visible in textbooks or other usual
learning materials. Additionally, the low standard deviation value indicates high
similarity in students’ responses. The average result of the “AR Utilization
Capability” group confirms that using AR is very simple and easy for students.
This is demonstrated by the students’ response to the item “AR is easy to use”,
which had the highest average value (M = 4.81, SD = 1.12) (Table 7).

Survey results from the “Knowledge Absorption” group indicate that using AR
has a positive effect on students’ learning. Students believe that AR is suitable for
learning content in the micro-world that is not visible to the naked eye, such as
cleavage and bond formation, electron sharing, or donation, the basis of chemical
transformations. The results in Table 6 show that the item “AR helps me
understand the essence of chemistry better” had the highest average value
(M = 4.94, SD = 1.11). Therefore, when students understand the essence of the
problem, this will help them explain many related properties as well as infer other
knowledge. Moreover, students can observe the detailed process of chemical bond
formation through AR applications. This evaluation result is consistent with the
results of interviews with students after the experimental learning. Participating
students affirmed: “I easily understand covalent bonding when watching simulations of
atoms sharing electrons” (S7); and “The simulation helped me understand the theoretical
content in the textbook easily” (S6). From our perspective, explaining properties and
inferring knowledge are fundamental elements in building chemical cognitive
abilities. Our viewpoint also aligns with that of Radloff and Guzey (2016),
ascertaining the importance of cognitive abilities for students pursuing careers in
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

Survey results from the “Satisfaction with Software Usage” group affirm that
students are more interested in learning when using AR applications, believing
that AR applications are suitable for learning content in the micro-world that is
not visible to the naked eye (Table 5). The item “I find the content outside the
textbook very interesting” had the highest average value (M = 4.47, SD = 1.16),
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reflecting that students are interested in simulations created by AR applications.


Conversely, the item “AR allows collaborative learning” was not highly rated
(M = 3.53). This affirms that AR applications are easy to use and that the devices
are not complicated. Therefore, individuals can use them, without much concern
for group learning.

Survey results on the use of AR applications in teaching the “chemical bonding”


part of natural science show that AR applications stimulated the students’
learning interest. They helped the students to learn the chemistry part easily and
understand it better and are especially suitable for learning content in the micro-
world that is not visible to the naked eye. The interactive nature and ease of use
of AR applications also helped the students access and use this software
conveniently.

Using AR in high school chemistry education enhances students’ chemical


awareness and interest in learning through interactive, visual, and engaging
experiences, an observation also consistent with the study by Abualrob et al.
(2023). AR allows students to manipulate virtual chemical structures and observe
chemical reactions in real time, making abstract concepts tangible. Visualizations
of complex phenomena, such as molecular structures and bonding interactions,
aid in comprehension. The interactive nature of AR, often incorporating
gamification elements and simulations, fosters curiosity and active participation.
This has also been confirmed by Nechypurenko et al. (2023b), that using AR in
high school chemistry enhances cognitive awareness and interest in chemistry by
enabling interactive virtual experiments, ensuring safety, promoting hands-on
learning, and improving understanding of complex topics through chemical
imagery. Additionally, AR adapts to individual learning styles, providing
personalized learning experiences that resonate with students. By contextualizing
chemical concepts within real-world applications, AR illustrates their relevance
and practical implications, increasing student appreciation for the subject.

Overall, we suggest that using computers, smartphones, and AR applications as


cognitive tools can be an effective way to promote cognitive abilities and a deeper
understanding of abstract concepts in natural science education. This method
overcomes the limitations of traditional teaching methods. When using AR in
teaching, interacting with content in meaningful ways allows students to build
better personal knowledge and develop a deeper understanding of complex
concepts such as substance concepts, chemical transformations, and chemical
bonds. Our conclusions about using AR in natural science education are fully
consistent with Bork et al.’s (2020) study on the nature of AR. The interactive and
immersive nature of AR allows students to explore and manipulate virtual objects,
leading to a more profound understanding of complex scientific concepts.

The study also discusses the importance of giving students control over the
learning process when using support technologies. This can be achieved by
allowing students to choose the tools they want to use and to decide how they
want to use them. The opportunity to choose learning support tools empowers
students to self-learn, self-research, and problem-solve. The application of AR in
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teaching, besides positively impacting learning outcomes, also helps enhance


students’ learning motivation.

6. Conclusion
This study investigated the use of AR in teaching natural science subjects through
the theme of “Chemical Bonding”. Three methods were used to assess students’
chemical cognitive abilities when using AR technology in teaching: tests, surveys,
and interviews. All three methods confirmed that using AR in teaching natural
science enhanced students’ chemical cognitive abilities. The interactive and
immersive nature of AR allows students to easily explore scientific concepts.
Through virtual space, students can observe atomic and molecular models as well
as the movement of electrons forming chemical bonds. This will help increase
students’ learning interest, actively engage them in learning activities, and
positively impact their cognition and learning motivation. AR creates a
connection between knowledge and the learning environment, providing
students with opportunities to interact with content in new, realistic,
understandable, rich, and engaging ways. It thereby fosters cognitive thinking
and promotes deeper understanding. Despite the potential benefits, the
implementation of AR in science education also poses challenges. Technical
limitations, such as the availability and cost of AR devices, may hinder
widespread adoption. Additionally, the need for teacher training and support to
integrate AR into the curriculum has been identified as an important factor for
successful implementation.

AR offers visual and interactive depictions of conceptual scientific ideas, aiding


learners in comprehending and picturing intricate phenomena. This enhances
educational engagement, establishing the groundwork for the advancement of
cognitive proficiency in the field of chemistry. Consequently, students develop
natural inquiry abilities from a chemical perspective and the ability to apply
learned knowledge and skills both in academia and real-life scenarios. Based on
available software applications, students can construct AR simulations of atoms,
molecules, and chemical compounds while studying substance structures and
chemical transformations. Through this, understanding and applying AR for
studying chemistry and other natural sciences with abstract, hard-to-observe
concepts in real environments are facilitated. Issues related to nature and abstract
science will be addressed.

In summary, the paper highlights the positive impact of AR technology in


teaching, including enhancing students’ learning activities, improving learning
outcomes, increasing participation interest and learning motivation, and
developing chemical cognitive abilities. However, further research is needed to
address challenges related to AR implementation and to explore its potential in
various scientific fields and educational contexts.

7. Limitations
This study tested only a relatively small number of students. Therefore, full
generalization of the findings regarding the role of AR applications in education
cannot be guaranteed. Currently, there are many AR applications, but this
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research used only QuimiAR, preventing comparison with other AR applications.


Additionally, the study did not address the digital literacy of teachers and
students in Vietnam regarding the use of AR technology. Therefore, more
comprehensive research is needed to maximize the application of AR in
education.

8. Funding
This research is based on work supported by the University of Education –
Vietnam National University for Research, under Grant Number QS.23.09,
awarded to Dr Vu Thi Thu Hoai (PI) in the project “Using Augmented Reality
(AR) technology in teaching substance topic and its transformation (Natural
science 7– Secondary school)”. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or
recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the University of Education – VNU.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 217-233, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.12
Received Feb 21, 2024; Revised Apr 24, 2024; Accepted Apr 30, 2024

A Systematic Review of Research on Gender


Diversity in STEM Education
Huong Le Thi Thu
Thai Nguyen University of Education
Thai Nguyen University, Vietnam

Chuyen Nguyen Thi Hong*


Thai Nguyen University of Education
Thai Nguyen University, Vietnam

Vinh Nguyen Huy


Thai Nguyen University of Education
Thai Nguyen University, Vietnam

Binh Le Thi
Thai Nguyen University of Education
Thai Nguyen University, Vietnam

Abstract. Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)


education research has increased worldwide in recent years. Recognition
of STEM education's importance in producing highly skilled scientists
and technologists and its economic benefits to society are driving this
increase. However, STEM labor force gender representation is a persistent
issue. A meta-analysis using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol and a thorough
literature search assessed STEM gender diversity. A total of 42 STEM
education gender diversity research papers were reviewed using
PRISMA. These Scopus papers provide a database from 2013 to 2023. The
study used text analysis and synthesis to evaluate and highlight the
countries, extract key phrases, identify research issues of interest to
scholars, and suggest future research directions. The research findings
indicate that current publications primarily focus on developing STEM
education programs to attract and provide more opportunities for
women. Additionally, other research areas of interest include proposing
solutions to enhance gender equality in STEM education, women's
awareness, and skills in the STEM field. Furthermore, research gaps have
been identified in course design, learning material development for
STEM education, and establishing a direction for implementing STEM

*
Corresponding author: Chuyen Nguyen Thi Hong, [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
218

education starting from early elementary school, with the optimal period
being before grade 3. These findings can help academics explore STEM
research ideas in new situations. However, the investigation was limited
by using only a Scopus catalog database; disregarding alternative sources
may have led to material being omitted.

Keywords: education; gender gap; PRISMA; review; STEM

1. Introduction
In a world that is becoming increasingly complex, it is vital for those who are
interested in pursuing careers in fields such as artificial intelligence,
biotechnology, and renewable energy, as well as for all citizens to adapt to the
rapid development that is being made in these fields in order to have a good
understanding of STEM subjects. Most of the anticipated increases in job
opportunities are expected to be concentrated in the STEM domains (Dasgupta &
Stout, 2014). Many countries prioritize STEM in education to develop the
important abilities required in the 21st century, including creativity, critical
thinking, cooperation, communication, and problem-solving (Bataineh et al.,
2022).

Although STEM has gained greater significance, there remains a substantial


gender gap in terms of both interest and accomplishment in these subjects. This
disparity is not only a matter of fairness but also has ramifications for fostering
creativity, sustaining competitiveness, and tackling the socioeconomic issues of a
country (Wang & Degol, 2017). The persistent lack of female participation in
STEM fields has been a matter of constant concern for scholars and politicians
alike (Chiang et al., 2023). Gender equality encompasses both the principles of
human rights and the equitable involvement of women across all societal
domains. This inclusion is crucial for promoting economic advancement,
supporting human development, improving regional competitiveness, and
raising productivity (Thomas et al., 2015).

Nevertheless, it is said that women exhibit lower rates of enrollment in these


subjects, namely in disciplines connected to engineering (Vooren et al., 2022).
According to a report by UNESCO, a mere 30% of female students opt for
professions and subjects connected to STEM in higher education, while just 28%
of researchers working in these fields are women. UNESCO also explains the
convincing reasons regarding the perceived alignment of specific STEM areas
with female identity, family responsibilities, and the working environment and
conditions. Although recognizing the significance of these elements in relation to
female involvement in STEM professions, this review specifically concentrates on
schooling and does not delve into these aspects. The second half of this research
presents and analyzes the primary factors that impact the involvement and
achievement of female students in STEM disciplines (Chavatzia, 2017). There is a
possibility that emerging countries have a more significant gender imbalance in
STEM fields (Chiang et al., 2023). Because it is pointed out that the gender STEM
gap starts already around the age of 6, it is essential to encourage girls' interest in

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STEM disciplines from a young age so that they can build the confidence to pursue
careers in these areas (Benavent et al., 2020).

STEM occupations frequently serve as the foundation of a country's economy


because of the influence of scientific knowledge in driving advancements and
technological progress in infrastructure construction (Schmader, 2023). Gaining a
more comprehensive comprehension of the disparities in emotional learning
between genders and how they affect students' educational progress will assist in
resolving gender disparities in the pursuit and continuation of STEM disciplines
(Pelch, 2018). One further incentive for choosing STEM degrees is that technical
and technology professions typically offer the greatest potential for earning
compared to other types of work with the gender wage gap largely attributed to
the underrepresentation of women in these occupations. The World Employment
and Social Outlook report by the International Labor Organization (ILO) in 2018
highlights the fact that women receive lower wages and have fewer job
opportunities. This is despite their significant contributions to the household
economy and their influential role in promoting peace in countries (ILO, 2017).
The issue of gender equality can be seen as a widespread obstacle in the pursuit
of sustainable development goals (Filho et al., 2023).

Increasing the participation of women and underrepresented minority groups in


these disciplines might alleviate labor shortages in specific STEM industries.
Additionally, it will foster increased creativity and guarantee a more extensive
information repository. Addressing the gender disparity in STEM education can
have positive effects on the labor market by reducing obstacles, enhancing
women's employment rates and productivity, and lessening occupational
segregation (EIGE, 2021).

STEM disciplines are intricately linked to our comprehension of the natural world
and the creation of the physical environment that surrounds us. Hence, the
absence of varied viewpoints might result in substantial losses and overlooked
prospects (Schmader, 2023). Multiple international research studies and
evaluations have recorded gender inequalities in the awareness and perception of
STEM fields (Mei et al., 2023). Indeed, the lack of female representation in STEM
occupations is apparent (Schmader, 2023) and gender disparities in STEM
learning are substantial. Gender stereotypes can also hinder women's capacity to
view themselves as appropriate, purpose-driven, and socially compatible in
STEM domains (Schmader, 2023), while cultural prejudices act as impediments to
student engagement in STEM education (Mei et al., 2023). Owing to cultural
influences, women's interest in STEM professions such as computer science and
engineering is relatively low. The barriers they face are, however, more deeply
rooted in systemic and societal cultural factors than in barriers related to
participation and literacy in STEM fields.

Research consistently shows that girls have lower confidence in their math
abilities, lower motivation in math and science subjects, and less interest in
pursuing STEM-related fields (Benavent et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2013). Female
students frequently encounter heightened degrees of nervousness and
apprehension in STEM-related circumstances in contrast to their male

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counterparts (Kans & Claesson, 2022). In consequence, emotional differences


between males and females can potentially influence the persistence of learning
in STEM fields (Pelch, 2018). Self-efficacy discrepancies between men and women
are thought to be a significant element that contributes to the gender gap in STEM
areas, particularly with regard to how individuals evaluate their own capabilities.
Effort, goal-setting, self-regulation, and career choices are all influenced by self-
efficacy beliefs, which is where this phenomenon originates (Sakellariou & Fang,
2021). Women globally do not have enough access to good schooling, especially
in the fields of STEM and in certain specialized jobs. This happens because of the
complicated ways that many social, national, racial, regional, and local factors
interact with one another (Sharma, 2023). The underrepresentation of women in
STEM disciplines perpetuates gender stereotypes, which in turn can cause some
women to regard STEM education as being primarily for men (EIGE, 2021).

The elimination of biases and the enhancement of girls' confidence in STEM


disciplines are of the utmost importance as there is evidence to show that
confidence in STEM subjects plays a significant role in the long-term persistence
of individuals in these fields (Benavent et al., 2020). A variety of outreach
initiatives have been carried out; these involve the participation of children,
families, teachers, and women who have experience in STEM fields. These
activities are carried out through the three primary methods: Family Chat for
Girls4STEM, Professional Chat for Girls4STEM, and an Initial Training Workshop
for Girls4STEM (Benavent et al., 2020). In advancing gender diversity in STEM
education, it is necessary to take a multifaceted approach in order to reform
organizational and educational cultures at the individual and institutional levels
to address these systemic hurdles (Pelch, 2018). The goal of this method is to
reduce the gender gap in interest in STEM fields (Schmader, 2023).

To increase women's interest in STEM areas and eliminate gender imbalances in


STEM knowledge, a comprehensive approach that tackles cultural barriers is
necessary. As such, a crucial endeavor in the realm of gender-responsive STEM
education programs is creating and executing educational programs that are both
accessible and captivating for students of all genders. These programs employ
real-life situations, a variety of exemplary figures, and practical learning
opportunities. A STEM education program that is responsive to gender focuses
on the importance of representation, contextualization, and collaboration in
fostering the interest, achievement, and persistence of individuals in STEM at
every stage (Mei et al., 2023). Implementing evidence-based policies and
programs shows the potential to reduce these obstacles and improve the
involvement of girls and women in STEM disciplines (Dasgupta & Stout, 2014).

Efforts to reduce the disparity between genders should focus on various stages of
growth and progress. Dasgupta and Stout (2014) examined three developmental
stages and identified obstacles within each: (a) childhood and adolescence, (b)
emerging adulthood, and (c) early to middle adulthood (Dasgupta & Stout, 2014).
Furthermore, scholars have examined the attitudes and interests of students
toward STEM, which are associated with their gender perspectives. Additionally,
they have proven that the involvement of family, financial resources from family,

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companions, educators, and personal interests all exert substantial influence on


the development of students' attitudes and enthusiasm for STEM (Suwono et al.,
2019). Gender disparities in self-efficacy play a significant role in the gender
disparity observed in STEM areas, specifically concerning personal proficiency
(Sakellariou & Fang, 2021).

There is a scarcity of comprehensive studies on gender diversity in the STEM area.


Hence, the objective of this work is to tackle the following concerns:
1) What are the trends in research on gender diversity in STEM fields?
2) Which subjects have been examined in relation to gender diversity in STEM?
3) What are the future research directions on gender diversity in STEM?

2. Methodology
The PRISMA technique serves as a definitive guideline and standard for the
execution and documentation of publications pertaining to systematic reviews
and meta-analyses. It offers a methodical and clear-cut technique for conducting
a comprehensive search, choosing, evaluating, and combining studies involving
gender diversity in STEM education (Moher et al., 2010; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2022).

2.1. Data search sources


The document repository was constructed using input information obtained from
Scopus and comprised keyword lists, abstracts, and titles of the documents.
Scopus is an abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature including
scientific journals, books, and conference proceedings. Scopus provides a
comprehensive overview of worldwide research output in the fields of science,
social sciences. For the purpose of doing research in the subject of educational
science, these databases are trusted resources that are regarded to be appropriate
(Moher et al., 2010; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2022).

2.2. Search criteria


In order to include an article in the study’s database, it had to satisfy both of the
following search criteria: The search subject keywords necessitate the presence of
at least one term associated with "STEM" in the article title, abstract, or author
keywords. The search query within the specified parameters requires the presence
of at least one of the following terms: "gender inclusion," "gender diversity," or
"gender gap" in the title, abstract, or keywords of the article. For example, TITLE-
ABS-KEY (["stem" OR "science, technology, engineering, and math"] AND
["gender-inclusive" OR "gender diversity" OR "gender gap"]). In utilizing these
criteria it has been determined that the Scopus database has 928 relevant articles.

2.3. Eligibility assessment


In order to evaluate the suitability of gender diversity publications in the field of
STEM education which were collected from the Scopus database, their titles and
abstracts were analyzed based on the following specified criteria: (a) only papers
from peer-reviewed journals were considered owing to their trustworthiness and
rigorous review procedures; (b) only publications pertaining to gender diversity
in the field of STEM education were chosen with respect to the subjects; (c) all

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chosen articles were written in English and (d) were published between 2013 and
2023.

Figure 1 presents a flowchart that demonstrates the data process involved in the
systematic evaluation according to the PRISMA technique.

Figure 1. PRISMA diagram illustrating the process of selecting analytical papers


The Scopus database had a total of 928 articles of which 788 exclusions were made
through automated screening by eliminating copies that matched the required
titles. From the remaining 190 articles, their titles were evaluated for relevance,
and those with suitable titles were examined for full-text content. The criteria were
developed by experts (Figure 1). Upon careful examination of the article content,
the team of authors proceeded to eliminate articles that had less pertinent
information related to the topic. In conclusion, a total of 42 publications were
incorporated into the analysis.

3. Results and Discussion


3.1. What are the trends in research on gender diversity in STEM fields?

Figure 2. Research trends in gender diversity in STEM education from 2013 to 2023
Figure 2 illustrates the quantity of publications pertaining to gender diversity in
the field of STEM education that were published between 2013 and 2023. The data

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was displayed in chronological order on a timeline. In general, it can be seen that


there has been a consistent increase in the number of articles, reaching its highest
point in 2023. Between 2015 and 2020, there was an increase in the number of
research studies conducted on gender diversity in the STEM area. Nevertheless,
the overall number remained relatively limited. The academics' increased interest
during this period can be linked to the lack of comprehensive examination into
gender diversity in STEM education. Starting in 2021, the research indicated a
significant and swift rise, culminating in 2023 with 14 articles (constituting 33.3%
of the total articles studied).

Due to the anticipated expansion of job opportunities in STEM sectors in the


United States, there has been a high demand for individuals with expertise in
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. American businesses are
actively recruiting skilled individuals in these fields on a worldwide level. This
situation generates apprehensions regarding the readiness of Americans for
STEM occupations, given the limited enrollment of domestic students in these
subjects and the significant attrition rate, commonly known as the "leaky
pipeline", explaining and defining the reasons behind students' departure from
STEM professions for non-STEM ones. However, there does not appear to be a
dynamic perspective on changing college majors (Ma & Xiao, 2021).

Women possess significant untapped potential as a workforce, which has the


ability to enhance the strength of the STEM labor force on account of the fact that
women constitute 50% of the population in the United States (Dasgupta & Stout,
2014). The United States acknowledges the significant contribution of educators
in leveraging the potential of women to enhance the diversity of the current STEM
workforce and establish a fairer society (Lim et al., 2021). The analysis results
indicated that the United States carries out extensive research on gender diversity
in STEM education. This finding aligns with the investigation carried out by Le
Thi Thu et al. Given the United States' prominent position in worldwide STEM
education research, it is unsurprising that there are studies on gender diversity in
the STEM profession within the country. In addition, the United States has
implemented a Civil Rights law that forbids discrimination, including
discrimination based on gender. This act has played a significant role in shaping
the United States as a prominent country in terms of gender equality (Quffa, 2016).
This partially elucidates the reason behind the country’s significant volume of
scholarly articles that delve into the topic of gender diversity in STEM education.

Spain has made a noteworthy contribution to the field of gender diversity in


STEM with six publications, thereby indicating the country's interest and active
involvement in exploring this topic. China has published four papers on the topic
of gender diversity in STEM; while the number may not be as substantial as that
of the United States or certain other nations, it nevertheless indicates the country's
commitment to and advancement in studying gender diversity in STEM.
Additionally, the United Kingdom, South Africa, the Netherlands, and Chile have
twenty-one published works on gender diversity in STEM. While the number of
publications may not be extensive, it does, however, demonstrate the early
interest and endeavors of these countries in fostering study and conversations on
gender diversity as they advance STEM in their individual nations.

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Figure 3. Spatial placement of the authors of the study on gender diversity in STEM
education from 2013 – 2023
One approach to analyze the emerging research themes on gender disparity in
STEM education might be through studying the frequency of specific phrases.
The "word cloud" tool visualizes research publications by displaying keywords in
larger and bolder font size, indicating their higher frequency of occurrence (Dicle
& Dicle, 2018). Figure 4 provides a concise summary of 1791 relevant phrases. The
data from this figure indicated that STEM, gender, learners, women, female
students, education, science, and technology are the most commonly mentioned
phrases in the publications. Furthermore, previous studies have included
additional indexing categories, comprising scientists, careers, motivation,
cognition, and curiosity, which propose prospective areas of investigation for
future scholars.

Figure 4. Word cloud (based on keywords) in the field of gender diversity in STEM
education
In the sector of education, this research has revealed a strong focus on specific
issues in literature reviews. The study identified the most frequently used
keywords in research articles by selected writers globally. Figure 5 depicts the top
10 prevailing keywords found in the collection of articles analyzed in this study.
Aside from the keyword "STEM," which appears 244 times, authors frequently
employ additional terms such as "students" (147 occurrences) and "gender" (110
occurrences) as indexing terms for their works.

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Figure 5. How often keywords are extracted from articles


Figure 5 shows that research on gender diversity in the field of STEM education
focuses heavily on women with interest, confidence or choice to pursue STEM
subjects or careers. In these studies, many authors focus on female learners in
various aspects related to STEM education.

3.2. What content is studied on gender diversity in STEM fields?


Table 2 shows the results obtained after conducting an analysis of 42 articles
concerning gender diversity in STEM disciplines. This was done by systematically
organizing the subjects that were addressed by the studies:

Table 1.
Key Research Issues
Focus Areas References
Conducting research on strategies and initiatives to (Benavent et al.,
promote gender parity in the STEM sector 2020), (García-
Holgado et al.,
2020), (Gweshe &
Chiware, 2023),
(Reinking &
Martin, 2018),
(Rushton & King,
2020)
Interventions targeting the modification of female (Dönmez, 2023)
students' perspectives on STEM jobs
Conducting a study on the differences in confidence, (Chan, 2022)
interest, and goals across genders in the STEM fields,
and investigating how cultural and societal
expectations impact women's participation in STEM

Adapting formal and extracurricular educational (Friedman-Sokuler


programs and STEM courses to attract more genders. & Justman, 2020),
Adapting programs to boost female STEM enrollment (Goreth & Vollmer,
in specific contexts is crucial 2023), (Levine et
al., 2015), (Price et
al., 2019), (Sangar,
2022), (Schilling &
Pinnell, 2018),

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(Sevilla et al., 2023)

Analyzing the influence of STEM educational (Van Wassenaer


programs on students' attitudes et al., 2023)
Conducting research on particular policies that have a (Greider et al.,
strong likelihood of reducing obstacles encountered by 2019)
women in the field of science
Creating and evaluating virtual STEM laboratories (Vergara, 2023)
with the aim of engaging female students

Conducting research on the emotional components of (Pelch, 2018),


learning and students' attitudes toward STEM subjects (Zhou et al.,
2019)
Examining the factors contributing to disparities in (Delaney &
gender representation in STEM fields Devereux, 2019),
(Naukkarinen &
Bairoh, 2020)
Examining the impact of gender and nationality on the (Lim et al., 2021)
experiences of women in STEM fields
Conducting research on women's cognitive abilities, (Chiang et al.,
interests, beliefs, motivation, engagement, advantages, 2023), (Jiang et
and challenges in STEM fields al., 2020), (Kans
& Claesson,
2022), (Kelly et
al., 2019)
Examining obstacles, assistance, and gender (Merayo &
inequalities in STEM education selections among high Ayuso, 2023)
school students
Exploring the correlation between self-efficacy and (Sakellariou &
interest in STEM subjects and the probability of Fang, 2021)
enrolling in STEM programs in college
Examining gender-related variables shaping decisions (Chauke, 2022),
in STEM education (De las Cuevas et
al., 2022),
(Martínez et al.,
2023)
Investigating the impact of environmental factors (Wang et al.,
(such as formal education, informal education, social 2023)
support, and media) on high school students' interest
in STEM careers; the role of STEM self-efficacy and
STEM career awareness as mediators in this
relationship
Analyzing the influence of family on gender equality in (Anaya et al.,
STEM education 2022), (Liu, 2020)
Investigating the establishment of gender-neutral (Rushton & King,
STEM environments via play 2020)

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Examining the influence of ethnicity and gender on the (Friedman-


choice of STEM elective courses Sokuler &
Justman, 2020)
Analyzing factors affecting academic performance in (Daniela et al.,
STEM disciplines among male and female students. 2022)

Researchers globally have shown a significant amount of interest in the research


fields presented in Table 1. These areas are an examination of flexible teaching
programs, including both formal and extracurricular ones, as well as STEM
classes with the goal of promoting gender diversity (Friedman-Sokuler &
Justman, 2020; Goreth & Vollmer, 2023; Levine et al., 2015; Price et al., 2019;
Sangar, 2022; Schilling & Pinnell, 2018; Sevilla et al., 2023) and emphasising the
significance of making program modifications in order to increase the number of
women who participate in STEM fields while taking into account certain
contextual factors (Friedman-Sokuler & Justman, 2020; Goreth & Vollmer, 2023;
Levine et al., 2015; Price et al., 2019; Sangar, 2022; Schilling & Pinnell, 2018; Sevilla
et al., 2023).

There is also a need for the identification of policies and strategies that will
promote gender equality in the STEM fields (Benavent et al., 2020; García-
Holgado et al., 2020; Gweshe & Chiware, 2023; Reinking & Martin, 2018; Rushton
& King, 2020) as well as research to determine the levels of awareness, interest,
confidence, motivation, engagement, advantages, and problems that women face
when working in STEM disciplines (Chiang et al., 2023; Kans & Claesson, 2022),
(Jiang et al., 2020; Kelly et al., 2019). Additionally there is a recognition that gender
is one of the elements that influence the outcomes of STEM learning (Anaya et al.,
2022; Wang et al., 2023), as well as investigation of the influence of external
factors, such as family and environment, on gender equality in STEM education
(Daniela et al., 2022).

3.3. What are the future research directions on gender diversity in STEM?
When carefully evaluating the papers in the collected data, of particular interest
were the research gaps highlighted by the authors in the limitations section or in
the article's conclusion. These can also be used to identify future study directions.
This study further investigated potential areas for future research or unresolved
issues that could be addressed in relation to gender diversity in STEM professions.
The outcomes of this exploration are as follows:

Table 2.
Future Research Directions on Gender Diversity in STEM
Potential future research directions References
Improving girls' access to STEM education by (Chan, 2022)
implementing enriched teaching programs and offering
extracurricular activities to address the gender disparity
in STEM
Promoting girls' self-efficacy in STEM fields and (Chan, 2022)
challenging traditional gender stereotypes among all
students
Formulating strategies to assist women in STEM and in (Corrigan et al.,

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achieving a balance between problem solving and 2023)


preventing unintended outcomes
Developing STEM education programs for students at (Zhou et al., 2019)
different stages of education
Promulgating research policies that promote women's (Lim et al., 2021)
participation in STEM fields
Exploring the opportunities and challenges that girls (Chiang et al.,
may face in robotics competitions and STEM education 2023)
on a broader scale
Conducting research on women's involvement in STEM (Chiang et al.,
disciplines from a range of perspectives and themes and 2023)
considering how their character attributes both
complement and reinforce their abilities
Creating sustainable and cohesive environments where (Birney &
all students can thrive, build confidence and be accepted McNamara, 2023)
in the STEM field.
Proposing ways to develop self-efficacy and interest in (Kans & Claesson,
STEM subjects to close the gender gap 2022), (Sakellariou
& Fang, 2021)
Developing STEM courses and activities to engage (Zhao & Perez-
gender diversity Felkner, 2022)
Integrating research design and using a variety of (Chiang et al.,
research methods on gender diversity in STEM fields 2023), (Price et al.,
2019)
Implementing measures to invite successful women in (Price et al., 2019),
STEM fields to schools to exchange and share to (Wang et al., 2023)
motivate learners interested in STEM fields
Delving deeper into learners' STEM learning (Price et al., 2019),
motivations and preferred modes of learning (Sáiz-Manzanares
et al., 2021)
Studying the impact of siblings, friends, and teachers on (Price et al., 2019)
students' STEM learning
Investigating and creating STEM-integrated curricula (Bataineh et al.,
and courses to be introduced as early as primary school, 2022), (Benavent et
ideally before grade 3, as this is the best opportunity to al., 2020), (Morales
close the gender gap in STEM disciplines et al., 2023), (Stolk
et al., 2021)
Expanding questionnaires to survey learners of gender (Verdugo-Castro et
awareness in STEM fields al., 2022)
Conducting STEM attitudes and preferences (Wang et al., 2023),
intervention research for girls (Zhou et al., 2019)
Investigating measures to close the gender gap in STEM (De las Cuevas et
subjects in schools al., 2022)
Selecting the right context to influence students' parents (Anaya et al., 2022)
in improving students' STEM outcomes

Table 2 offers recommendations for areas of research that can assist researchers in
exploring and making progress toward reducing the disparity between genders
in the STEM profession. An effective strategy to solve the existing gender gap in
STEM is to establish integrated STEM curricula and teaching programs starting
from the primary school level (Bataineh et al., 2022; Benavent et al., 2020; Morales
et al., 2023; Stolk et al., 2021)). In addition, there are studies that discuss the ways

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in which the gender gap can be reduced by cultivating self-efficacy and


enthusiasm in STEM disciplines (Kans & Claesson, 2022; Sakellariou & Fang,
2021). Research that is experimental in nature could investigate the impact of
inviting successful women in STEM disciplines to schools for the purpose of
fostering student interest in STEM fields through interactions and the sharing of
professional experiences (Price et al., 2019) (Wang et al., 2023). At the same time,
there is a significant number of fascinating research avenues that have the
potential to narrow the gender gap in the STEM area. The above analysis results
also suggest a new research direction on gender equality in STEM education in
Vietnam, identifying the reason and proposing solutions to promote gender
equality in primary school students.

4. Conclusion
This article presents an exhaustive analysis of the gender disparities that exist in
the STEM field. Following the extraction and application of a series of preparatory
procedures to data from the Scopus database, a total of 42 articles were selected
for analysis. According to the results, the United States appears to be the leading
country in terms of conducting research on gender equality in STEM fields,
understanding the evolution of instructional programs designed to promote
gender diversity in STEM, and proposing policies and strategies to enhance
gender parity in the field constituted the majority of STEM research. Following an
exhaustive examination of the extant body of literature, a multitude of research
domains have been identified that warrant additional inquiry in subsequent
investigations. An area that requires significant attention is the creation of STEM
curricula specifically designed for elementary school students, given the critical
role that this grade level assumes in reducing gender inequalities within STEM
disciplines. Therefore, the findings of this research can serve as a benchmark for
scholars seeking to identify relevant STEM topics in the current environment.
However, it is imperative to recognize that this research has limitations, as the
analysis was conducted exclusively using the database of materials indexed in
Scopus that commenced from 2013 to 2023; hence the number of articles is limited.
No other sources or studies from earlier years were considered. Therefore, the
generalizability of the research results is not significant.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 234-251, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.13
Received Feb 27, 2024; Revised Apr 15, 2024; Accepted Apr 15, 2024

A VR-based Industrial Robot Platform for


Interactive Teaching Specialized Courses of
Mechatronic Engineering
Huy Tung Le*
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
Hanoi, Viet Nam

Thai-Viet Dang
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
Hanoi, Viet Nam

Thi-Thanh Nguyen
East Asia University of Technology
Bac Ninh Viet Nam

Abstract. The primary objective of Industry 4.0 is to establish seamless


connections between the physical and digital domains. Virtual Reality
technology is widely acknowledged as a revolutionary advancement that
offers significant technical assistance to many different fields including
industry, agriculture and individuals. Since its inception, VR-based
education has not gone out of that trend. The paper outlines a
methodology for developing virtual interactive applications for the
purpose of teaching Mechatronics. Unity software is utilized for creating
a three-dimensional virtual robot and its corresponding environment.
Subsequently, a user-friendly interface for controlling a robot is
constructed. Finally, a lesson plan was developed for the virtual
interactive teaching approach in the industrial robot course for the
undergraduate Mechatronics Engineering program. The integration of a
quantitative evaluation approach, along with the subsequent self-
assessment conducted by students upon completion of the module, has
unequivocally shown enhancements and efficacy across several
competencies with increases ranging from 85 to 92%. The utilization of
virtual reality and interactive learning within virtual environments,
together with the guidance of instructors, has significantly improved the
learning experience and problem-solving abilities of engineering and
technology students, enabling them to fulfill the required performance
criteria.

*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
235

Keywords: engineering; learner-content interaction; virtual reality;


virtual interaction; VR-based education; self-directed learning

1. Introduction
The fundamental aim of Industry 4.0 is to forge integrations between the physical
and digital realms (Dang & Bui, 2023a; Dang et al., 2023). Virtual Reality (VR)
technology, which is widely recognized as a transformative advancement,
provides substantial technical support to a wide range of sectors, such as industry,
agriculture and individuals (Guo et al., 2020). Practice sessions are critical
components of engineering and technology education as they facilitate students'
understanding of theoretical concepts. Practical experience is an indispensable
means through which a learner can cultivate their technical expertise (Pérez et al.,
2022). Web-based and virtual laboratories have the capacity to captivate students
while providing them with an experience comparable to using lab equipment (Gil
et al., 2017). Conversely, conventional instructional approaches demonstrate a
lack of interactivity and neglect to actively engage students in the learning
processes, thus indirectly impacting their effectiveness (Garduño et al., 2021). VR
has the capacity to revolutionize the pedagogical process by facilitating
comprehension of intricate subjects and imparting profound insights, as well as
challenging and pertinent information. With the help of VR, even philosophical
theories can be brought to life (Shaukat, 2023).

Advanced technology learning will dominate classrooms in the twenty-first


century, with VR technology enhancing student engagement and learning. The
VR experience will motivate an entire generation of intelligent young students
who are prepared to innovate and alter the course of history (Shaukat, 2023).
Additionally, VR facilitates universal access to affordable human knowledge. The
following characteristics should define a VR-based education application:
immersion, usability, significance, adaptability, and measurability (Mikropoulos
et al., 1998; Wang et al., 2021). He (2023) highlighted that physical education is
progressively being integrated into the metaverse to overcome the imposed
limitations of practical places. The flexible combination between the training and
education with computer-assisted created inevitable progressions such as VR-
based education. Panrelidis (2009) proposed a ten-step model for VR-based
training and education courses. The components of VR-based education are as
follows: virtual laboratories, tools and learning environments; distance education;
and STEM education (Panrelidis, 2009; Shaukat, 2023). Reeves and Crippen (2021)
examined the use of virtual laboratories in engineering and science courses for
undergraduates. Therefore, additional research is necessary to examine the
influence of personal attributes and history on the observed variability in V-Lab
experiences (Dang & Bui, 2023b). Furthermore, it is imperative to analyze the
potential of design to promote social learning in established instructional
frameworks through the integration of instructors and students. Engineering
students benefit from virtual laboratories, simulation control assessments, and
remote physics experiments as part of VR's educational initiatives. By enabling
interactive operation of the virtual model, both the instructor and the learner can
observe the tangible development of the project as well as the advancement of

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architectural tasks that are intrinsic to it (Solmaz & Gerven, 2020). Hence,
incorporating VR technology into the teaching process introduces a novel
paradigm to the field of engineering education (Duning, 1987).

The paper proposes the process of designing virtual interactive programs in


teaching Mechatronics Engineering programs. Then, Unity software is used for
3D virtual robot and its environment. Next, an interactive robot control interface
is built. Finally, virtual interactive teaching method lesson plan for IR courses in
the Mechatronics Engineering program at undergraduate level. The quantitative
assessment method combined with the results of student self-assessment at the
end of the module demonstrated improvement and effectiveness in many skills
including teamwork, problem-solving ability, thinking ability, ability to acquire
knowledge, ability to concentrate, ability to be confident, ability to interact
increased from 85 to 92%. The VR application major has demonstrated its ability
to enhance the cognitive and application abilities of students majoring in
technology, meeting the output standards of the specialized courses of
Mechatronics Engineering.

2. Literature Review
Interaction in education has been the subject of numerous studies and
classifications, as well as numerous debates concerning these classifications.
Consider the debate between Pittman (1987) as an illustration. Students cannot
learn in a classroom without some kind of interaction between teachers and
students. Nevertheless, learner-instructor interaction (LII), learner-content
interaction (LCI), and learner-learner interaction (LLI) are the three main forms of
interaction in education. In Moore's Interaction Framework, LII refers to the
dynamic between the instructor and the learner. Motivation, instruction and
evaluation are all components. However, students expressed that they
encountered difficulties when acquiring verbal communication skills, specifically
in blended environments where LII interaction takes place. In a blended learning
environment, instructors assume substantial responsibilities in LII pertaining to
verbal communication instruction and learning (Ramalingam, 2023). In online
inquiry, the effectiveness of LCI is contingent on the degree to which students'
cognitive presence can be encouraged. The objective of this research was to
determine how scaffolding support improves cognitive presence during the
online LCI’s process (Igoni & Oluwuo, 2023; Mamun & Lawrie, 2023). LCI and LLI
are predicated on facilitating discussions among students regarding the material's
content as a means of self-education and self-interaction (Igoni & Oluwuo, 2023).

The researchers were particularly interested in LCI for the purposes of this
investigation. The effectiveness and efficiency of contemporary blended learning
systems are heavily reliant on interaction. LCI is the primary factor that
significantly influences the achievement of desired learning outcomes (Kumar et
al., 2021). Lanier et al. (2022) investigated and pointed out that instructors should
curate and present content in a way that engages students to foster good LCI.
Because the intellectual LCI stimulates the learner's understanding, the learners
improve their ability to interact and solve real-life problems. A sizable percentage
of adults also engage in self-directed learning (Confessore Confessore, 1992;

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Murugesan & Inrahim, 2022). Creating an effective LCI will also facilitate the
application of a crucial principle in education: cultivating enduring abilities for
lifetime learning. Formulating and implementing higher education policies can
enhance the development of inclusive and comprehensive frameworks that align
with the requirements and goals of higher education stakeholders (Cronholm,
2022; Tamez, 2014).

As for teaching at the college and university level, virtual worlds facilitate many
forms of interactions, either between users and virtual content or among the users
themselves, by providing the appropriate environment. Virtual worlds refer to 2D
or 3D computer-generated environments depicting aspects of the real world or
fictional landscapes (Mikropoulos et al., 1998; Pantelidis, 2009; Shaukat, 2023).
Specifically, users can engage in various interactions with the content of the
virtual world and other users (He, 2023; Mayne & Green, 2020; Reeves & Crippen.,
2021). These interactions include creating objects, manipulating them, adjusting
the terrain and engaging in synchronous or asynchronous chat. Chats can be
conducted verbally through voice or text chat, or through visual interactions
using avatar gestures and other forms of visual communication within the virtual
world (Dinis et al., 2017). Students gain a comprehensive knowledge of the
mechanical, electrical, electronics, information technology and technology
education employed in virtual simulations. Learners will develop awareness
through interactions and actively engage in learning activities aimed at
developing innovative engineering technicians. Xie et al. (2023) highlighted that
learners' capacity to exert influence, modify, and augment the content of the
virtual environment in which they learn enables them to construct cognitive
strategies and actively engage with the topics they are studying. Consequently,
learning becomes autonomous and focused on the individual student (Tamez,
2014), while educators assume the responsibilities of designing, facilitating and
guiding activities that aim to actively include students (Cronholm, 2022).

3. Explanatory Case Study


First, traditional teaching methods exhibit a deficiency in interactive elements and
fail to actively involve learners in the educational procedures, which consequently
undermines their efficacy. VR possesses the potential to fundamentally transform
the pedagogical process through its ability to enhance understanding of complex
topics, convey profound insights and present challenging and pertinent
information.

Second, concerning the degree to which students engage with the material being
taught, educators frequently encounter obstacles. Utilizing interaction in the
virtual world, which has been adapted to satisfy educational requirements, to
increase LCI and motivation is the central argument of this paper. More
interactivity within the virtual environment enhances learners' motivation to
acquire knowledge and facilitates the attainment of learning objectives. In this
research endeavor, the authors enable concurrent student engagement with
educational materials in both the physical classroom and the virtual environment,
while also identifying stimuli that may be associated with the content being
studied. Consequently, the hypothesis of this study is that if interactive learning

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content is implemented at an advanced level, it will generate elevated levels of


learner motivation, positive interaction with learning content and superior
learning outcomes.

The authors designed a method for developing virtual interactive programs for
use in the instruction of Mechatronics Engineering programs. The quantitative
evaluation approach, in conjunction with student self-assessment outcomes, is
implemented after the module's conclusion. The implementation of interactive
learning in virtual environments, combined with VR, has significantly improved
the students’ problem-solving abilities and the learning experiences of
engineering and technology students. This was achieved under the guidance of
instructors, ultimately assisting the students in meeting the required performance
standards.

3.1 The Design of Virtual Interactive Program (VIP) Process


The research was conducted with two types of control and experimental classes
when studying IR course at Thai Nguyen University of Industry, Vietnam. The
number of students in the sample classes was 40 students taught by the specialist
lecturers like MEng. Thi-Thanh-Thuy Tran and MEng. Trung-Cong Do. There are
also experienced educational experts and lecturers with pedagogical skills.

The design of VIP process included the following steps as shown in Figure 1:
Step 1 - Select the VIP’s object to design a model: Build a
virtual interaction model of an IR arm picking up objects,
full virtual interaction via Oclus Go glasses and virtual
interaction via phone.

Step 2 - Choose a suitable tool to design VIP: Use a


computer with Unity software and other support
installed software.

Step 3 - Choose suitable software to design VIP: Choose


Unity software to design and draw models, which
supports C++ software programs.

Step 4 - Design a VIP scenario on the model: Firstly, draw


the details of the robot arm. Then, control the robot arm
rotation angles with two modes: automatic via sensor
system and control by hand with mouse. Next, control
picking and dropping objects with the robot arm with two
modes: automatic touch point and manual mouse control.
Finally, control the robot arm to interact with the version
on glasses and on the phone.

Step 5 - Construct a VIP model: Firstly, run Unity


software. Then, design and draw models according to
scenario Step 4. Next, save the file you just drew. Figure 1: The flowchart of a
VIP design process.

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Step 6 - 1st Check: Test to run the 3D model designed by Unity and if meeting the
requirements in accordance with the teaching content, continue to move to Step
7. If you see inappropriate joints or joint movements, go back to Step 5.

Step 7 - Code VIP: Use C++ programming language, program and control the
robot arm program according to Step 4’s requirements.

Step 8 - 2nd Check: When checking that the VIP has been programmed, if there is
an error, go back to Step 6 to edit. When the running program is complete, move
on to Step 9.

Step 9 - Apply: Complete the model to run the simulation independently and
include it in the lesson plan. Finally, finish the VIP design process.

3.2. Design Specialized Lessons of IR Course Based VIP


Based on the VIP design process, the researchers chose the specialized courses of
Mechatronics Engineering such as an IR course with three sample lessons as
follows:
Lesson 1: Analog control based on sample displacement. The program exercises
control over the complete IR arm through the operational mechanism of the
displacement robot arm joints. By acquiring a comprehensive understanding of
controlling displacement mechanisms, individuals can logically and rationally
incorporate the entire body of knowledge pertaining to the control of IR arms.

Lesson 2: Inverse kinematics problem with GVS and torsional displacement rules.
The kinematic problem is inverse to the rule of torsional displacement in general
and the kinematic problem with teachers can easily control the moving
mechanism at an angle greater than 1500 through the designed virtual interactive
teaching method. on smartphones, using semi-immersive virtual interactive
teaching methods.

Lesson 3: Multi-axis robot numerical control system. The problem of numerical


control of multi-axis robots can be controlled by the assimilation in the operation
of the robot arm, in which the development of inter-mechanical control will affect
the operating mechanism of the robot arm as well as the power properties.
Structural strength includes coordination between control systems and
mechanical power in controlling heavy lifting. On the other hand, this multi-axis
control system also has a decisive influence on the continuity in axis system
control designed through a full VIP using Oclus Go glasses.

The snapshots in Figure 2 present the VIP-based sample lessons in the IR course.

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Overall
rotation axis

The suture

base

(a) (b)

The 3rd Stage


The 2nd Stage
Rotating joint

Rotating joint

(c) (d)

Rotate 1800
The 4th Stage

Rotating joint

Rotating part

Fixed part
Rotating joint

(e) (f)

The scroll bar


Rotating 3600

The grippers

(g) (h)

(i) (k)

Figure 2: The specialized lessons of IR course based VIP with (a): constructing the 3D
model; (b): the suture base; (c): the 2nd stage; (d): the 3rd stage; (e): the 4th stage; (f): the
ability of rotating 1800; (g): the gripper; (h): calculating the D-H matrix; (i): VIP-based
IR teaching; and (k): VIP-based lesson connecting to mobile phone

In Figure 2a, the students completely construct the 3D model of the IR under
lecturer monitoring. Then, according to Step 6, they tested the 3D model designed
by Unity software. Next, they checked the requirements in accordance with the
teaching content of three VIP-based lessons (see from Figure 2b to Fig 2g). Figure

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2h helped student to define the D-H coordinate system of the IR. Hence, the robot
control programming code ensured the robot’s operation, in Figure 2i. Finally,
Figure 2k shows the interface of a VR’s lesson via mobile phone.

3.3. Results and Discussion


3.3.1 Designing the process of organizing virtual interactive teaching
In Figure 3, the teaching organization process includes three phases as follows:

Phase 1: is the preparation phase to develop an effective virtual interactive


classroom organizational structure in which: During the preparation stage, three
steps need to be carried out. Step 1: design lectures and VIP-based teaching; Step
2: design VIP’s teaching activities; and Step 3: design the VIP’s teaching
environment.

Phase 2: uses virtual interactive teaching based on Phase 1. However, this phase is
heavily influenced by the intuition of teachers and learners. Then, the virtual
interaction device interaction is objectively affected in the experimental practice.
During this stage, three steps need to be carried out. Step 1: theoretical lectures
are conducted experimentally; Step 2: lecturers guide students through the VIP,
instructing them on how to control the sensor system manually as well as by using
the mode buttons in the VIP; Step 3: students interact with the VIP, students can
use Oclus Go glasses for immersive VIP classes and use phones for semi-
immersive VIP classes and start using the VIP.

Phase 3 is the evaluation and improvement. The evaluation and improvement


phase are applied to teaching and learning activities according to the following
steps: Step 1: evaluate teaching and learning activities; Step 2: evaluate the
learning process; and Step 3: evaluate the VIP teaching methods. During this
stage, qualitative and quantitative assessment methods were used based on
students' learning results after the experiment, collecting students' opinions after
studying the experiment, and getting expert opinions.

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Figure 3: The process of organizing virtual interactive teaching

3.3.2 Qualitative and quantitative assessment results


After attending the VIP-based IR course and conventional IR course without VIP,
qualitative assessment results were obtained from the opinions and comments of
teachers participating in observing lessons for three VIP-based teaching lessons in
the two experimental and control classes (see Figure 4). Processing experimental
results: Mathematical statistical data obtained during the experiment were
processed using SPSS and Microsoft Excel software.

Based on feedback received after attending the VIP-based course, the researchers
came to the following conclusions: The implementation of suitable stimulation
techniques unquestionably increases students' interest in learning; Instructional
hours are vibrant; a considerable number of students engage in active and
enthusiastic study during lesson construction; and voices have a discernible
impact on student engagement (see Figure 5).

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Figure 4: Mechatronics classes 1 and 2 attend VIP-based IR course

Figure 5: Lecturer and education experts attend VIP-based IR course.

The frequency of teacher lecturers in the classroom is diminished, and in their


place, students engage in active self-help activities. Classes become natural and
pleasant. The rapport between educators and learners is enhanced, as instructors
can readily discern the cognitive development and academic aptitude of every
student. Conversely, proficient students are afforded the opportunity to
demonstrate their extensive practical expertise.

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Table 1: The score rating

Table 2: The overall academic score

By adhering to the selected virtual interaction, educators are can allocate


additional time and energy toward preparation and self-improvement to enhance
their professional credentials and learn innovative teaching approaches.
Furthermore, to enhance and demonstrate the improvement and effectiveness of
the VIP-based curriculum, the researchers conducted the quantitative assessment.
Students' course completion assessment scores are shown in Tables. 1 and 2. After
completing the VIP-based teaching of IR, the summary chart of the control class
(CC’s) test scores is shown in Figure 6 and the experimental class (EC) is shown
in Figure 7, respectively.

Figure 6: The summary chart of CC’s test scores.

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Figure 7. The summary chart of EC’s test scores

Finally, the comparison process between the learning process score (LPS) and
course completion score (CCS) of the two classes (CC, EC) was conducted to find
differences as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: The comparison between the control and experimental classes with (a): Score
rating of two classes, (b): The comparison chart of LPS, (c): The comparison chart of
completion score, and (d): The comparison chart of overall learning process

In Figure 8a, both LPS and CCS of the two classes (CC, EC) were collected. Then,
the comparison chart is reflected in Figures 8b to 8d to show the better quality of
EC than CC based on the VIP IR course.

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Figure 9: The characteristic curve of students’ score with (a): The frequency curve
converges of the student’s scores Xi and (b): The popular Radar line of the student’s
scores Xi

Moreover, based on the obtained scores, the researchers performed the frequency
curve converges of the student’s scores Xi in Figure 9a and the popular Radar line
of the student’s scores Xi in Figure 9b. Hence, the characteristic curve of students’
score in the EC had a much higher rating than that of students in the CC without
VIP.
Table 3: Comparison table of statistical parameters

In particular, the VIP-based courses led to students obtaining outstanding scores


in EC. To apply the formula to calculate variance X , standard deviation  ,
squared standard deviation  2 and coefficient of variation  (Kawai &
Wittenberg, 2017) for the CC and EC, authors obtain the result is the following
Table 3.

Firstly, use student's rule yielded:


X EC − X CC 7.2 − 6.3 (1)
t= = = 3.2,
 2
 2
1.1 + 2.1
EC
+ CC

N EC N CC 40
where 2EC is squared standard deviation of EC’s score and CC 2
is squared standard
deviation of CC’s score, respectively; X EC is average score of EC and X CC is average
score of CC, respectively.

Then, choosing the level of significance  = 0.05 in the student table. Next,
calculate the factor k in the student table in (2):
k = N EC + N CC − 2 = 40 + 40 − 2 = 78. (2)
As for k = 78, looking up the student relationship table, it yields t student = 2.

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The improvement in the overall academic score of VIP-based courses was better
than conventional courses.
Using Fisher's rule to calculate the F coefficient:
2EC 1.1
F= = = 0.5, (3)
CC
2
2.1
Because the coefficient F  1 proves that the scores of the EC and CC are stably
distributed around the value Xi . with a level of significance  = 0.05, the student
relationship table yields Fstudent = 1.66. Because Fstudent  F, the researchers showed that
the difference between 2EC and CC 2
is acceptable.

Based on Eqs. (1) to (3), in the two frequency graphs in Figure 9, the researchers
illustrated that the number of students scoring Xi or higher in the EC is always
higher than the CC. Hence, the VIP-based course actually supports and helps
students in studying and practicing specialized subjects.
Summing up, the researchers drew the following conclusions:
- The cognitive positivity of students in the EC was aroused and clearly
demonstrated. Lively, convenient hours attract attention and create
constructive debate with the virtual interaction of lectures.
- The quality of mastery, application of knowledge and intellectual
capacity of students in the EC is higher than that of CC, which is shown
by the higher average score of the EC in both lessons than the CC.
- The ability to reason and express the VIP-based course in virtual
interactive language and understanding of the EC is higher than the
CC.

Furthermore, to evaluate the effectiveness of the selected methods for the course
under consideration, in addition to conducting pedagogical experiments as above,
the researchers used another research method to collect students' opinions after
class to evaluate student satisfaction, the development of student skills, self-study
skills, teamwork skills. At the same time the researchers used expert evaluations
to confirm the effectiveness results of VIP-based teaching methods.

Table 4: Evaluation form on student satisfaction

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After completing the class, students surveyed felt 100% interested, the lecture was
attractive 77.2%, the lecture was easy to understand 72.3%, the lecture was
intuitive 90.9%, the lecture was lively 77.2 %, in Table 4.

In Table 5, the increased skills that students have after class were: 91% critical
thinking, 98% observation, 85% memorization, 81% analysis and solution skills,
thinking skills logic 78%, dynamic 93%, creative thinking 93%. For the skills that
students self-assessed would increase, the highest level of agreement is 63% of
opinions completely agreeing about increased dynamic ability and 68% of
opinions agreeing with the ability to move. Creative thinking will increase if
students continue to learn VIP-based courses. Table 6 illustrates the student’s
feeling about the VIP-based IR such as follows: 75% exciting, and 85% interesting.
These results prove its attractiveness and create a happy and comfortable
atmosphere in student learning. Moreover, there were neutral or silent opinions.
Hence, positive student feelings will support their learning abilities. Futhermore,
Table 7 also presents the VRs necessary for the IR course with the following
indices: 52.5% understand; 62.5% practice; 95% observe and analyze; 87.5 %
understand motion and properties. Finally, the VR-based IR course achieved
positive results in training combined with practice in specialized technical
modules at universities and colleges.

Table 5: Evaluation of student skill improvement after studying VIP-based IR course

Table 6: Evaluation of student’s feeling after studying VIP-based IR course.

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Table 7: Evaluation of student: VR’s necessary for IR course.

VR’s support to IR course Opinion Percents

Understand the IR control’s algorithm


Practical practice based VR

Observe and analyze activities

Motion sequences and properties

4. Conclusion
The integration of VR and VIP in virtual environments, under the supervision of
instructors, substantially enhanced engineering and technology students'
problem-solving skills and learning experiences, thereby facilitating the
attainment of the prescribed performance standards. Evaluating the effectiveness
of using VIP-based teaching for the IR course, 83.3% of the experts agreed that VIP
increased teamwork ability; 83.4% agreed that it increased problem-solving
ability; 85% said that it increased thinking ability; 83.3% said that it increased the
ability to acquire knowledge; 80% stated that it increased the ability to
concentrate; 79.9% said that self-control increased. In terms of robot control, 83.4%
said it increased the ability to interact with teachers; 90% said that increased the
ability to interact with digital control devices. From the results of expert
evaluation, we can state that VIP-based classes are effective for the IR course, with
increased learning skills such as increased teamwork ability, increased thinking
ability to acquire knowledge, increased problem-solving ability and increased
logical thinking ability. These are necessary skills for development not only for
acquiring knowledge of a difficult subject but can be used in acquiring knowledge
of any subject.

5. Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to Thai Nguyen University of Industry, the class
Mechatronics Engineering 1 and 2 with the specialized lecturers as MEng. Thi-
Thanh-Thuy Tran and MEng. Trung-Cong Do, and experts of education for
completed experimental teaching and survey.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 252-278, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.14
Received Feb 20, 2024; Revised Apr 26, 2024; Accepted May 2, 2024

Mathematical Proficiency, Scientific Reasoning,


Metacognitive Skills, and Performance of
Learners in Physics: A Mathematical Model
Christzon Pagdawan Pasigon
Ifugao State University – Potia Campus
College of Education
Potia, Alfonso Lista, Ifugao, Philippines

Abstract. This study aims to explore the mathematical proficiency,


scientific reasoning, and metacognitive skills that contribute to the
student’s academic performance in Physics. Data were gathered
quantitatively by administering the Basic Skills Diagnostic Test, Lawson's
Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning, and Metacognitive Awareness
Inventory to Grade 10 students in the selected high schools of District II
of Ifugao Province from January to June 2023. Using the Raosoft
calculator, 369 out of 405 students were randomly selected as participants.
Relationships of the variables were analysed using Structural Equation
Modelling (SEM) where the direct and indirect effect was shown. Based
on the model, mathematics proficiency, scientific reasoning (Formal
Operational, Late and Early Transitional reasoners), and metacognitive
skills (declarative, debugging, and evaluation) had a direct effect on
academic performance in Physics. The scientific reasoning skills – late
transitional directly affect the metacognitive skills – procedural,
conditional, planning, and information. Further, an indirect effect of
mathematics proficiency on scientific reasoning and metacognitive skills,
scientific reasoning to mathematics proficiency and metacognitive skills,
and metacognitive skills on scientific reasoning and mathematics
proficiency, toward academic performance was observed. Conclusively,
a strong foundation in mathematical proficiency with the effective use of
scientific reasoning and metacognitive skills were found to be key
determinants of success in Physics. This suggests that educational
institutions craft Physics curricula considering the development of
students in mathematical proficiency, scientific reasoning skills, and
metacognitive skills, while teachers develop activities that refine the
direct and indirect effects of these variables to target a better academic
performance in Physics.

Keywords: Metacognition; Scientific Reasoning; Mathematics


Proficiency; Physics; Modelling

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
253

1. Introduction
Physics is one of the fundamental sciences that help in understanding the universe
and phenomena using mathematical context (Cleugh, 2018). Despite its
importance, many students find Physics difficult, specifically in grasping the
problem and utilising mathematical concepts (Sartika & Humairah, 2018; Reddy
& Panacharoensawad, 2017; Yusrizal, 2016. Physics teachers fail to measure the
student's ability in higher order thinking skills being exemplified in Physics
(Saepuzaman et al., 2022. One of the major reasons for the students’ perceived
difficulty in grasping the concepts of Physics is the difficulty students have in
connecting the principles of Physics to real-world phenomena (Nordin, 2019)
along with problems with the students themselves, the curriculum, and subject-
related factors (Wangchuk et al., 2023).

Currently, the Philippines faces a problem in science education as evidenced by


the latest result of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) in
2022, in which there was a significant absence of top-performing learners in
Mathematics, with almost none reaching the highest performance levels (Levels 5
or 6), compared to the OECD average of 9%. In terms of science, the Philippines
has one of the lowest scientific performance scores among participating countries
and economies. The mean science score was 356, placing 78th out of 80. Both boys
and girls did poorly in science; with boys placing 79th (349 score) and girls
ranking 77th (363 score). Furthermore, the percentage of low performers in
science, defined as those below competence Level 2, was significantly high, at
77.2%, placing fourth out of 80. Particularly alarming was the large percentage of
low-performing boys in science, which reached 80.5% and ranked third out of 80
(Philippines Student Performance - PISA (2022), 2023). According to several
studies conducted in the Philippines, the majority of students struggle in Physics
for several reasons. Common problems include students' lack of motivation, poor
mathematical abilities, and comprehension, as well as institutional challenges
(Andres et al., 2015; Guido & Orleans, 2021).

Metacognitive skills and scientific reasoning skills predict students' success in


Physics. Yanti et al. (2017) established that students with low metacognitive skills
have difficulties with Physics problems from both easy and challenging questions,
reasoning, solution making, and deducing outcomes, among others. However,
positive metacognitive skills can boost students’ attitudes toward the subject of
Physics, specifically in quantum physics (Dökme & Ünlü, 2019). In terms of
scientific reasoning, Fabby and Koenig (2014) found that learners with higher
scientific reasoning perform well in Physics, specifically on algorithms and
conceptually based problems. Also, Erlina et al. (2018) concluded that high
reasoners outperform low reasoners; however, students’ confidence can lead to
poor scientific reasoning still resulting in low scores in Physics.

While there are studies on the association between characteristics such as


mathematical skill, scientific reasoning, metacognitive ability, and academic
achievement in Physics, research gaps still exist in that most studies examine how
each component affects students' academic success in Physics. However, further
study is needed to investigate the intersectionality of these characteristics to
provide insights for Physics curriculum planners, teachers, and students to

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provide a deeper understanding of how to enhance Physics education. In


providing a more holistic view of what drives the success of students in Physics,
the purpose of this study is to determine the interrelationships as well as the direct
and indirect effects of mathematical proficiency, scientific reasoning, and
metacognitive skills on performance in Physics. Particularly, the study sought to
answer the following questions:
i. What general model can describe the interrelationship of mathematical
proficiency, scientific reasoning, and metacognition to students’
performance in Physics?
ii. What variables directly affect the performance of students in Physics?
iii. What are the variables that indirectly affect the performance of students in
Physics?

2. Literature Review
2.1. Mathematical Proficiency and Performance in Physics
According to Turner (2010), mathematical proficiency includes a range of skills
necessary for applying mathematical knowledge in real-world situations.
Kilpatrick et al. as cited by Brijlall & Ivasen (2022) clarified the competencies to
include conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence,
adaptive thinking, and productive disposition, while Yulian and Wahyudin,
(2018) noted that students' ability to solve problems is greatly impacted by their
mathematical proficiency.

When it comes to Physics achievement, students with good mathematical ability


had a higher mean percentage gain than those with low mathematical
proficiency. The student's success in Physics (Electromagnetism) is influenced by
a combination of mathematics proficiency, instructional tactics, and gender (Ibibo
& Francis 2017). Moreover, a linear relationship between mathematics and physics
achievement supports the premise that mathematical capacity is necessary for
learning Physics efficiently (Chen et al., 2021; Long & Jiar, 2014). The higher the
mathematical competency of the students, the better their scores on Physics tests
as compared with the students with low mathematical competency (Doris, 2019).
Most problems and concerns raised by students studying Physics came from the
application of mathematical concepts and processes in the subject (Mumthas &
Abdulla, 2019).

2.2 Scientific Reasoning and Physics Performance


Scientific reasoning is a rigorous method of problem-solving, critical thinking, and
assessment of available evidence to explain results (Morris et al., 2012; Barz &
Achimaş-Cadariu, 2016). Scientific reasoning also refutes biased and motivated
reasoning, is dedicated to result-based evidence, and insists on impartiality
(Cusimano & Lombrozo, 2021).

Students with a high-level reasoning ability perform at par for both the
algorithmic and concept-based problems, while those with average and low
reasoning abilities perform equally for the concept-based problems. The high
reasoners outperform the average and low reasoners; thus, their reasoning ability
relates to their problem-solving performance. Logically, the latter would indicate
that possessing more formal reasoning patterns would mean that the students do

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better in constructing and applying the complex concepts of problem-solving


(Fabby & Koenig, 2014). In support, there is a strong correlation between Lawson's
Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning (LCTSR) scores and normalised scores on
concept inventories in Physics. The correlation is strongest for content that can be
categorised as mostly theoretical, meaning a lack of directly observable
exemplars, and weakest for content categorised as mostly descriptive, where
directly observable exemplars are abundant (Moore & Rubbo, 2012). This can be
attributed to the fact that the problem-solving method is one of the factors in
developing scientific reasoning among students (Wuriyudani et al., 2018) using
their existing knowledge on the subject (Hejnova et al., 2018). Moreover, in
scientific reasoning tests, the result shows that students’ scientific reasoning is
dominated by competence level; however, claims, arguments, and confidence of
the students in answering the questions are still low. Also reported is false
reasoning and weak conceptualisation when answering Physics problems (Erlina
et al., 2018).

2.3 Metacognitive Skill and Physics Performance


According to Cihanoglu (2012), Rahimi and Katal (2012), Jaleel and
Premachandran (2016), and Mondal (2023), metacognitive skills are the capacity
to reflect on one's thinking and to be aware of one's mental processes; it is also
referred to as metacognitive awareness, and it involves developing self-regulation
and reflecting on one's prior knowledge. These abilities are essential for effective
learning because they help students become more aware of what they do and
comprehend how to apply their learning tactics in various contexts. Acquiring
certain learning strategies is just as important as developing reflective learning
skills to develop metacognitive abilities.

Developing metacognitive skills is essential for enhancing critical thinking and


problem-solving abilities. It is important for a student since it aids in planning,
monitoring, and assessing their abilities (Fauziah et al., 2022). Metacognitive skills
and academic achievement are positively correlated (Mondal, 2023) as with
Physics learning efficiency (Bogdanović et al., 2015).

Students who used metacognitive strategies in learning Physics gained higher


scores than those using traditional strategies (Silitonga et al., 2020). In a study by
Saaidin (2020) using SEM, students' academic performance in Physics was
indirectly affected by metacognition with motivation and commitment as
mediators. Meanwhile, Wider and Wider (2023) proved that monitoring and
evaluation skills, the subcomponents of metacognition, are the main significant
predictors of Physics problem-solving skills. As supported by Rahayu and
Hertanti (2020), there is a positive association between metacognitive awareness
and Physics problem-solving skills, and Ismiyati et al. (2019) found that using a
problem-based learning approach in Physics instruction can enhance students'
metacognitive skills. However, although there is a correlation between the
student’s metacognition and problem-solving skills in Physics, students still have
only a moderate level of metacognition (Anandaraj & Ramesh, 2011). Yanti et al.
(2017) discovered that there is generally a need for improvement because
students' metacognitive skills in answering abstract Physics issues are low.

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Metacognitive skills are rarely used, as is the strategy on how to use them (Rahimi
& Katal, 2012).

3. Methodology
3.1. Research Design
This research employed a quantitative design. Variables were defined, and
correlations between and among the variables were performed through Structural
Equation Modelling. The level of the students' proficiency in each variable and
their academic performance was determined.

The interrelationship of the variables in the study was determined by employing


a correlational approach. Specifically, the Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)
method chosen facilitates the analysis of likely relationships among the selected
variables which include mathematical proficiency, scientific reasoning,
metacognitive skills, and academic performance in physics. The SEM provides a
detailed analysis of the direct and indirect linkages between the variables.

3.2. Sampling Technique


The study involved the Grade 10 students who were currently enrolled for the
School Year (S.Y.) 2022–2023 in public secondary schools in the Second District of
the Schools Division of Ifugao. The sample size that was selected to become a
member of each school was determined by the use of the Raosoft calculator.
Table 1 shows the population and the computed sample size for each school for
each municipality. Simple random sampling was used to enlist the participants
for the study. The names of the students were obtained through the class adviser.
The participants were selected by generating random numbers using Microsoft
Excel.

Table 1: Population and sample size of the student respondents in the study

District (N) (n) Percentage


Alfonso Lista District
School A National High School 30 28 7.59%
School B National High School 58 51 13.82%
School C National High School 70 60 16.26%
Aguinaldo District
School D National High School 22 21 5.69%
School E National High 17 17 4.61%
School F National High School 32 30 8.13%
School G Science High School 20 20 5.42%
Mayoyao District
School H National High School 27 26 7.04%
School I National High School 33 31 8.40%
Banaue District
School J National High School 26 25 6.78%
School K National High School 70 60 16.26%

TOTAL 405 369 100.00%

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3.3. Research Instrument


The tool used for the study was divided into three parts: 1. Measurement of
mathematical proficiency 2. Measurement of scientific reasoning 3. Measurement
of metacognitive skill assessment.

The students began the examination by taking the Basic Skills Diagnostic Test,
which was intended to assess the student's level of mathematical knowledge.
Epstein (1997) designed the BSDT questions in the manner of the learner's
perspective. The BSDT Test was evaluated across institutions and was subjected
to the diversity in the demography of the students. More recently, the BSDT Test
was used by Nye et al. (2018) as a far-transfer test for the likely universal
improvements of mathematical skills. Similarly, Dame et al. (2019) have used this
test to gauge students' learning in Mathematics because the test contains problems
that critically engage the students in appraising fundamental mathematical
matters and employing basic mathematical skills in daily quantitative situations.

The instrument for basic skill diagnostic testing by Epstein (1997)was pilot-tested
with 47 Grade-10 non-participating students and had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.86,
which indicated good internal consistency, as shown in Table 2. In other words,
the items in Epstein's test are highly intercorrelated and measure the same
underlying ability or construct; therefore, all items in the test were retained.

Table 2: Pilot testing of Basic Skill Diagnostic Test on Mathematical Proficiency

Scale Mean if Item Cronbach's Alpha if


Mean Std. Deviation Deleted Item Deleted
Item 1 0.43 0.496 7.122 0.860
Item 2 0.62 0.487 6.935 0.855
Item 3 0.77 0.422 6.783 0.858
Item 4 0.41 0.492 7.144 0.858
Item 5 0.19 0.400 7.361 0.854
Item 6 0.16 0.377 7.389 0.856
Item 7 0.36 0.593 7.190 0.860
Item 8 0.24 0.435 7.310 0.850
Item 9 0.13 0.345 7.421 0.860
Item 10 0.41 0.493 7.139 0.863
Item 11 0.80 0.403 6.755 0.861
Item 12 0.11 0.317 7.446 0.861
Item 13 0.20 0.406 7.353 0.857
Item 14 0.06 0.244 7.495 0.857
Item 15 0.52 0.500 7.030 0.854
Item 16 0.33 0.478 7.217 0.861
Item 17 0.33 0.475 7.226 0.853
Item 18 0.30 0.464 7.253 0.852
Item 19 0.25 0.441 7.299 0.857
Item 20 0.06 0.244 7.495 0.857
Item 21 0.35 0.482 7.207 0.851
Item 22 0.23 0.428 7.321 0.850
Item 23 0.25 0.438 7.304 0.850

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Item 24 0.06 0.232 7.495 0.862


Cronbach 0.86
Alpha

Additionally, to enhance the validation of the instruments, the researcher sought


assistance from both the subject teachers and master teachers to check the
alignment of the tests to the K-12 curriculum. Each item was categorised into the
following Learning Contents:
Topics (Learning Content) Item number
Number and Number Sense 1,2,3,4,5,9,10,
Geometry 6,12,13,
Patterns and Algebra 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,19,20,21,22,23
Statistics and Probability 24
Measurements 7, 8

The second half was the Lawson Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning (LCTSR).
The first ten pairs of questions in the LCTSR followed the standard two-tier
pattern. In this construction, the first of the two questions required the
respondents to determine the outcome of a certain concept while the other
question was to be answered in such a way that the respondents’ answer in the
previous question was explained and rationalised. The last two questions
(questions 23–24) were experimental outcomes to be disproved with given
hypotheses.

This instrument was recently applied by Bao et al. (2018), who determined that
the LCTSR demonstrates good reliability, with Cronbach's alpha values greater
than 0.8 for the individual and pair scoring methods, particularly with the control
of the test length. The findings of this study on reliability through the pilot testing
of LCTSR showed that the instrument had a satisfactory level of internal
consistency.

The results of the pilot testing are presented in Table 3. Cronbach's alpha for 47
respondents was 0.74, indicating that there was an acceptable internal consistency
of the items; hence, all items were retained.

Table 3: Pilot testing result of the Lawson Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning

Scale Mean Cronbach's Alpha if


Mean Std. Deviation if Item Deleted Item Deleted
Item 1 0.605 0.4895 6.54 0.734
Item 2 0.450 0.4981 6.69 0.740
Item 3 0.316 0.4656 6.83 0.726
Item 4 0.300 0.4588 6.84 0.738
Item 5 0.215 0.4116 6.93 0.736
Item 6 0.199 0.3997 6.95 0.733
Item 7 0.199 0.3997 6.95 0.731
Item 8 0.188 0.3913 6.96 0.730

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Item 9 0.191 0.3934 6.95 0.736


Item 10 0.136 0.3435 7.01 0.722
Item 11 0.283 0.4513 6.86 0.732
Item 12 0.226 0.4189 6.92 0.728
Item 13 0.354 0.4789 6.79 0.735
Item 14 0.316 0.4656 6.83 0.733
Item 15 0.172 0.3776 6.97 0.735
Item 16 0.297 0.4576 6.85 0.729
Item 17 0.218 0.4134 6.93 0.733
Item 18 0.147 0.3547 7.00 0.738
Item 19 0.559 0.4972 6.59 0.739
Item 20 0.335 0.4727 6.81 0.737
Item 21 0.199 0.3997 6.95 0.736
Item 22 0.441 0.4972 6.70 0.745
Item 23 0.324 0.4687 6.82 0.737
Item 24 0.474 0.5000 6.67 0.752
Cronbach
0.74
Alpha

The respondents’ answers were checked using a pair-scoring technique with one
point being awarded to each pair of questions. The scores of respondents were
analysed using Piaget’s system of formal operational, early and late transitional,
and concrete operational reasoners, as shown below:

Table 4: Respondents’ scores using Piaget’s system


Range Description Definition
11 to 13 Formal operational Formal operational reasoners possess the
reasoners ability to think logically and systematically
about abstract and hypothetical concepts.
They can engage in deductive reasoning,
manipulate symbols and variables, and
generate hypotheses and theories.
8 to 10 Late transitional The student is almost fully using the new,
reasoners more advanced way of scientific thinking.
They have mostly discarded the old way and
are becoming skilled in new scientific
reasoning.
5 to 7 Early transitional Students display characteristics of both the
reasoners previous and the upcoming cognitive stages.
They are starting to use elements of more
advanced scientific thinking, but they still
rely on some of their old ways of thinking.

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0 to 4 Concrete operational Concrete operational reasoners are


reasoners individuals who exhibit a stage of cognitive
development characterised by logical
thinking based on concrete objects and real-
life situations. However, their thinking is
limited to concrete, tangible experiences and
they may struggle with abstract or
hypothetical situations

The Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) instrument consists of indicators


developed by Schraw and Moshman (1995) and validated by Omprakash et al.
(2021) with an internal consistency of ≥0.9.

In a pilot study, the respondents completed the MAI to determine the internal
consistency of the indicators. Unlike the typical binary response style which
normally generates either disagreement or agreement, the questionnaire adopted
a Likert scale that resulted in a diversity of rating of the responses. The MAI tool
had participants rate the level of awareness of the statements.

A pilot test of 47 participants produced a Cronbach alpha of 0.95 showing that the
items had a strong internal consistency, as indicated in Table 5, hence, all items
were retained. The MAI items covered a wide spectrum of metacognitive
awareness areas, like cognition, understanding, and the ability to influence
thinking. This assessment consisted of 52 items measuring eight scales in which
participants were asked to describe their thinking processes: declarative
knowledge, procedural knowledge, conditional knowledge, planning,
information management strategies, monitoring, debugging strategies, and
evaluation of learning.

Table 5: Pilot testing result on Metacognitive Awareness Inventory

Std. Scale Mean if Item Cronbach's Alpha if Item


Mean Deviation Deleted Deleted
Item 1 2.860 0.8916 139.27 0.954
Item 2 2.700 0.7438 139.43 0.954
Item 3 2.807 0.8989 139.32 0.953
Item 4 2.689 0.8321 139.44 0.954
Item 5 3.053 1.8191 139.07 0.957
Item 6 2.941 0.8575 139.18 0.954
Item 7 2.613 0.8751 139.51 0.954
Item 8 2.686 0.9101 139.44 0.954
Item 9 2.815 0.9053 139.31 0.954
Item 10 2.913 0.8681 139.21 0.954
Item 11 2.692 0.8996 139.43 0.953
Item 12 2.443 1.0140 139.68 0.954
Item 13 2.745 0.8929 139.38 0.953
Item 14 2.706 0.8613 139.42 0.953
Item 15 2.922 0.8991 139.20 0.954

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Item 16 2.496 0.9045 139.63 0.954


Item 17 2.487 1.0266 139.64 0.954
Item 18 2.854 0.8875 139.27 0.953
Item 19 2.843 0.8760 139.28 0.953
Item 20 2.625 0.8308 139.50 0.953
Item 21 2.714 0.9404 139.41 0.953
Item 22 2.695 0.8990 139.43 0.953
Item 23 2.877 0.8718 139.25 0.953
Item 24 2.594 0.9181 139.53 0.953
Item 25 3.014 0.9040 139.11 0.954
Item 26 2.885 0.8681 139.24 0.954
Item 27 2.725 0.8791 139.40 0.953
Item 28 2.683 0.8129 139.44 0.953
Item 29 2.714 0.8723 139.41 0.953
Item 30 2.762 0.8426 139.36 0.953
Item 31 2.616 0.9247 139.51 0.954
Item 32 2.549 0.9337 139.58 0.953
Item 33 2.636 0.9098 139.49 0.953
Item 34 2.560 0.9025 139.57 0.953
Item 35 2.669 0.8693 139.46 0.953
Item 36 2.725 0.9438 139.40 0.953
Item 37 2.415 0.9695 139.71 0.954
Item 38 2.630 0.8824 139.50 0.953
Item 39 2.695 0.8769 139.43 0.953
Item 40 2.734 1.4139 139.39 0.954
Item 41 2.667 0.8369 139.46 0.953
Item 42 2.958 0.9186 139.17 0.954
Item 43 2.790 0.8434 139.34 0.953
Item 44 2.602 0.8924 139.52 0.953
Item 45 2.768 0.9175 139.36 0.953
Item 46 3.090 0.9258 139.04 0.954
Item 47 2.496 0.8888 139.63 0.954
Item 48 2.658 0.8352 139.47 0.953
Item 49 2.810 0.8530 139.32 0.953
Item 50 2.801 0.8428 139.32 0.953
Item 51 2.739 0.9522 139.39 0.954
Item 52 2.964 0.9399 139.16 0.954
Cronbach
0.95
Alpha

Participants were asked to rate their level of awareness for each statement on the
MAI, allowing for a more detailed analysis of their metacognitive processes and
enhancing the instrument's sensitivity to variations in respondents' perceptions.
The respondents evaluated their metacognitive skills using the scale below:
Table 6: Respondents’ evaluation of their metacognitive skills
Scale Description Definition
4 Very highly aware This level indicates an exceptional degree
of 100% metacognitive awareness.
Individuals who are very highly aware
possess a deep understanding of their
cognitive processes, learning strategies,
strengths, and weaknesses.

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3 Highly aware Being highly aware in the Metacognitive


Inventory refers to a significant level of
67% metacognitive awareness.
Individuals at this level have a good
understanding of their cognitive
processes and can recognise their
thinking patterns and strategies.
2 Slightly aware Slightly aware individuals have a
minimal level of 33% metacognitive
awareness. They have a limited
understanding of their cognitive
processes, learning strategies, and the
impact of their thinking on their learning
outcomes. They may lack self-reflection
skills and have little awareness of their
strengths and weaknesses.
1 Not aware The individual is not aware of their own
cognitive process or the learning
strategies that may impact their thinking.

3.4. Ethical Consideration


Ethical considerations were taken into account to safeguard the participants'
privacy and interests. A request letter was sent to the Superintendent of Schools,
requesting permission to carry out the research at the specified schools.
Participants were fully informed of the research aims before the start of the study
and the study's goals were explained to prevent misconceptions. The participants
were assured of anonymity and that personal information would be restricted to
those involved in the research. All participants signed data privacy and informed
consent forms.

3.5. Data Gathering Procedure


Data-gathering took place from January to June 2023 to cover the second grading
period of the students in which Physics topics were discussed. The researcher
personally administered the instruments to the students and read out the
instructions. Once the researchers felt that the students understood the
instructions, the students were asked to answer Part I of the survey form. The
researcher read the guidelines twice for Parts II and III to ensure that students
understood them clearly. Each test duration was set for 1 hour and 30 minutes for
the mathematical proficiency test and the scientific reasoning test using Lawson's
Classroom Scientific Reasoning exam (Parts II and III). The Metacognition
Awareness Inventory was taken in Part IV without a time limit to ensure the
students understood the purpose and value of this section.

Academic achievement was defined as the inclusion of accomplished tasks (Abba,


2018) and the attainment of educational objectives through activities and
discourses (Paudel, 2021) often measured through numerical grades through
various assessments or examinations (Narula & Sindhwani, 2016; Ariza et al.,
2018); hence, the researcher considered academic performance as the student’s
academic grades. The student’s academic performance was the result of various
formative and summative assessments targeting the same competencies of the K-

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12 curriculum under Physics, known in the curriculum as Force, Motion, and


Energy across all public schools in the Philippines. The students’ Physics
academic achievement was obtained through collaboration with the subject
teacher, with the full approval of both the students and the school head. The
subject teacher gave the students’ grades, which were written on the lower left
corner of their sheets.

The interrelationships between and among the variables were intended to be


represented by the Structural Equation Model (SEM) using AMOS software. The
model helped in observing patterns and relationships among the variables, giving
a more detailed understanding of how each factor affected or was affected by
others in the study. After tallying and reviewing the obtained results, the
questionnaires underwent a careful packing and sealing procedure.

4. Results and Discussion


4.1 General Model Showing the Interrelationship of Mathematics Proficiency,
Scientific Reasoning Skills, Metacognitive Skills, and Academic
Performance in Physics
Figure 1 shows the established model for mathematics proficiency, scientific
reasoning skills, metacognitive skills, and academic performance in Physics. As
confirmed in Table 7, the CMIN/DF value of 2.359 together with a P-value of 0.068
confirmed that Figure 1 is the model that best describes the actual conditions of
the variables. Overall, the model is accepted as determined by TLI, GFI, AGFI,
CFI, and RMSEA as indicated by the “good” indicator.

Table 7: Summary of the Goodness Fit Index of the model

Goodness of Fit Index Acceptable Value Model Value Indicator


X2- Chi-Square Smaller Value 2.36 Good
Significance Probability ≥0.05 0.068 Good
CMIN/DF ≤2.00 2.359 Good
GFI ≥0.90 0.934 Good
AGFI ≥0.90 0.916 Good
CFI ≥0.95 0.985 Good
RMSEA ≥0.08 0.061 Good
Tucker-Lewis Index ≥0.95 1.000 Good

Based on the accepted general model in Figure 1, mathematics proficiency was


directly related to academic performance in Physics; three dimensions of the
scientific reasoning skills, particularly formal operational, late transition, and
early transition had a direct effect on the academic performance of students in
Physics. In addition, the metacognitive skills of declarative, evaluation, and
debugging had a direct effect on academic performance.

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Figure 1: Generally Accepted Model Showing the Interrelationship of Mathematics


Proficiency, Scientific Reasoning Skills, Metacognitive Skills, and Academic
Performance in Physics

Moreover, mathematics proficiency influenced the domain of metacognitive skills


such as declarative, planning, and comprehension. In the region of scientific
reasoning skills, the late transitional level influenced the domain of the
metacognitive skills (declarative and debugging) and mathematics proficiency;
scientific reasoning skills - early transitional have an effect on debugging and
evaluation while scientific reasoning skills- Formal Operational directly affects
mathematics proficiency.

According to Utami et al. (2023), promoting metacognitive skills enhances the


problem-solving abilities that can be used in Mathematics and Physics. This
finding is further supported by Djudin (2020), who found that metacognitive
practice with mathematical knowledge improved students' Physics problem-
solving. Furthermore, Cihlár et al. (2020) suggest that scientific reasoning, along
with its sub-categories, such as proportional reasoning, control of variables, and
probability reasoning is associated with the student's mathematical proficiency and
the ability to utilise existing knowledge in their academic subjects. Additionally,
Villena and Caballes (2019) highlight the positive and moderate relationship

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between reasoning skills and metacognitive skills, with scientific reasoning


demonstrating an impact on academic excellence, while Rickey and Stacy (2000)
believe that metacognition refines student ideas about scientific ideas.
4.2. Direct Effect of Mathematics Proficiency, Scientific Reasoning, and
Metacognitive Skills to Academic Performance in Physics
Figure 2 shows that mathematics proficiency, scientific reasoning skills (formal
operational, late transitional, early transitional), and metacognitive skills
(declarative, debugging, and evaluation) had a direct effect on academic
performance in Physics.

Figure 2: A portion of the Accepted Model reflects the direct paths from Mathematics
Proficiency, Scientific Reasoning Skills, and Metacognitive Skills to Academic
Performance in Physics

Table 8 summarises the direct effects of the predictors on academic performance


in Physics. Mathematics proficiency has the greatest influence on academic
performance (E=4.150, p<0.05) followed by metacognitive skill: declarative
(E=1.17, p<0.05), scientific reasoning: formal operational (E=.19, p<0.05), late
transitional (E=0.352, p<0.05), early transitional (E=0.321, p<0.05), while
metacognitive skill: debugging (E= 0.30, p<0.05) and evaluation (E= 0.16,1
p<0.05) has the least effect.

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Table 8. Direct effects of predictors on academic performance in Physics

Estimate C. R. p-value
Academic Performance  Mathematics Proficiency 4.150 2.581 0.01

Academic Performance  Formal Operational 0.910 2.632 0.00


Academic Performance  Late Transitional 0.352 1.835 0.00
Academic Performance  Early Transitional 0.321 2.632 0.04
Academic Performance  Declarative 1.17 2.388 0.03
Academic Performance  Debugging 0.30 2.55 0.02
Academic Performance  Evaluation 0.161 1.629 0.00

Figure 2 and Table 8 provide evidence that mathematics proficiency had the
greatest direct effect on the academic performance of the students, indicating that
the Grade 10 participants have a solid mathematical foundation and can
understand essential algebra concepts. The students' Physics performance was
improved owing to their mathematical skills; students who grasp basic algebraic
expressions and equations can solve physics issues appropriately. The student's
capacity to perform arithmetic in fractions, decimals, and percentages allowed
them to provide accurate answers in Physics. Furthermore, the students can solve
problems in Physics with confidence when they connect the learned mathematical
concepts to their Physics lessons.

Students who understood the important algebraic principles demonstrated more


effective problem-solving skills in Physics which led to increased academic
performance; therefore, the direct effect of Mathematics on academic achievement
in Physics demonstrates that concepts from Mathematics are also used in Physics,
as the two fields are interwoven (Galili, 2018). Moreover, mathematical
proficiency influences students' Physics performance, supporting the importance
of Mathematics in studying Physics (Chen et al., 2021; Tashpulatovich & Qizi,
2021). Doran (2017) revealed that quantification and derivation principles in
Mathematics help in Physics learning by connecting acquired concepts to actual-
life situations.

In scientific reasoning skills, only formal operational, late transitional, and early
transitional reasoners had a direct impact on the academic performance of the
Grade 10 Physics students, indicating that students used critical thinking to
identify problems. Scientific reasoning skills enable them to analyse information,
recognise patterns, and draw conclusions. In addition, they were able to generate
hypotheses based on observation and to construct experiments to test
them. Students capable of scientific reasoning could systematically approach
problems, collect data, and apply appropriate concepts. Such reasoning implied
building models to represent systems in Physics. Meanwhile, students with
strong scientific reasoning skills might approach problems methodically, find
pertinent data, and apply the right principles. The higher reasoning skills of
students enable them to excel in problem-solving and algorithms in Physics
(Fabby & Koenig, 2014). Formal, logical, cognitive thinking is particularly

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required in studying Physics (Saayman, 1991), and students who exhibited critical
thinking, hypothesis formulation, and experimental design skills demonstrated
higher levels of academic achievement.

Only declarative knowledge, debugging strategies, and evaluation aspects of


metacognitive skills were directly related to academic success in Physics. The
students' declarative knowledge means that they could arrange their study
sessions, assign time to the various topics, and set goals. Also, students could
learn by talking and showing, which motivates them to analyse and understand
concepts in Physics, as well as check their understanding of the Physics lesson.
Apart from this, students could notice when a topic was difficult and adjust their
study techniques accordingly. The metacognitive skill of debugging techniques
helped Grade 10 students identify where their understanding of Physics topics
was wrong or incomplete, enabling them to evaluate their mistakes and flaws in
problem-solving and locate the root cause of problems to rectify the wrong
concepts. They were able to change their problem-solving strategies in response
to their mistakes to avoid repeating the same errors. Lastly, of the metacognitive
skills, evaluation had a direct, significant correlation with academic achievement
in Physics, supporting the evidence that students evaluate their comprehension,
re-examine their methods, and learn from their mistakes. Students could also
measure how well they scored on a certain evaluation and judge if their learning
strategies were effective.

In a study by Mondal (2023), metacognitive skill as determined by the student's


metacognitive awareness is associated with their scholastic and academic
achievement. In support, metacognition is found to be one of the predictors of
academic performance (Pucillo & Pérez, 2023). In the context of Physics, Saaidin
(2020) found that the practice of metacognition influences motivation and
commitment, which in turn, affects academic performance. Similarly, Bogdanović
et al. (2015) reveal a positive correlation between metacognitive skills and
academic performance in Physics; however, at a deeper level, students with
metacognitive skills, particularly in declarative knowledge, planning skills, and
evaluation processes showed greater capacity to monitor, regulate, and change
their learning strategies, resulting in higher academic achievement. Content
knowledge in Physics helps students overcome obstacles by deriving solutions to
ill-structured problems (Milbourne & Wiebe, 2017) while reflection on the
concepts gives students a clearer understanding of the Physics topics (Sarwar &
Trumpower, 2015). These findings evidence the importance of developing
metacognitive skills for effective Physics learning and problem-solving.

4.3. Indirect Effect of Mathematics Proficiency, Scientific Reasoning, and


Metacognitive Skills to the Academic Performance in Physics

Table 9 summarises the corresponding indirect effects of each predictor on


academic performance in Physics. As illustrated in Figures 3, 4, and 5, the table
illustrates the estimates and direction of each predictor and academic
performance when mediated through other variables.

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Table 9: The indirect effects of variables on academic performance in Physics


Estimate C. R. p-value
Academic Formal Mathematics 0.872 1.52 0.03
 
Performance Operational proficiency
Academic Mathematics 0.821 1.11 0.02
 Declarative 
Performance proficiency
Academic Mathematics Formal 1.33 1.28 0.00
 
Performance Proficiency Operational
Academic Mathematics Late 0.882 0.82 0.03
 
Performance Proficiency Transitional
Academic 0.617 2.197 0.02
 Early Transitional  Evaluation
Performance
Academic Mathematics 1.73 1.32 0.00
  Planning
Performance Proficiency
Academic 1.52 1.23 0.01
 Early Transitional  Planning
Performance
Academic 0.937 0.95 0.03
 Late Transitional  Declarative
Performance
Academic Mathematics 0.921 1.38 0.00
  Declarative
Performance Proficiency

Scientific reasoning – formal operational and metacognitive skill – declarative had


a positive indirect effect on academic performance in Physics through
mathematics proficiency with estimates of 0.872, p<0.05 and 0.821, p<0.05,
respectively. Furthermore, mathematics proficiency indirectly influenced
academic performance through scientific reasoning: formal operational (E= 1.33,
p <0.05) and late transitional (E=0.882, p<0.05); and with metacognitive skills:
planning (E=1.73, p<0.05) and declarative (E=.921, p<0.05). Scientific reasoning
skills: early transitional, indirectly affected academic performance through
evaluation (E=.617, p<0.05) and planning (E=1.52, p<0.05) while scientific
reasoning: late transitional, had an indirect influence on academic performance
via metacognitive skills: declarative (E=0.937, p<0.05).

Based on Table 9, Figure 3 presents the section of the accepted model depicting
the indirect connections of Mathematics Proficiency on metacognitive skills and
scientific reasoning skills toward Academic Performance in Physics. This means
that metacognitive skills: declarative, and scientific reasoning skills: formal
operational tend to influence the academic performance of the students with the
mediation of mathematics proficiency.

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Figure 3: A portion of the Accepted Model reflecting the Indirect Effects of


Mathematics Proficiency on Scientific Reasoning Skills and Metacognitive Skills
towards Academic Performance in Physics

Thus, mathematical proficiency supplements scientific reasoning in which formal


operational reasoners use abstract thinking, hypothesis formation, critical
analysis, and problem-solving skills very closely related to mathematical
proficiency. The students' scientific thinking abilities enabled them to approach
Physics problems with greater comprehension and more effective problem-
solving strategies. The arithmetic achievement of the students also has a positive
relationship with the concrete operational stage of the learner (Lemoyne &
Favreau, 1981) which proved that good reasoning ability enables students to solve
and explain mathematical problems (Wulandari & Wutsqa, 2019). Furthermore,
evidence showed that students' mathematical competency was one of the
elements in their metacognitive skills, which led to improved academic
achievement in Physics. Mathematically gifted students were more prone to use
analytical thinking in their study methods, problem-solving strategies, and self-
evaluation procedures. Students eventually gained this metacognitive capacity,
declarative, as they applied analytical thinking, strategic planning, logical
reasoning, and error recognition in their Mathematics courses. When

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metacognitive skills were applied in Physics learning, students performed better


in terms of study plan group, understanding assessments, error identification, and
technique adjustment. Metacognitive skill has a significant relationship with
mathematical self-efficacy in solving Mathematics problems (Susilo & Retnawati,
2018; Izzati & Mahmudi, 2018). Also, metacognitive skill is the product of the
evident mathematical abilities of the students in solving a problem (Pathuddin &
Bennu, 2021) where metacognitive skills such as planning are important in solving
Mathematics problems (Noor, 2022). Planning, particularly, accounts for
the distinct different aspects of Mathematics problem-solving, in addition to
influencing the functioning of non-verbal cognitive ability and working memory
(Cai, 2015). In the context of this study, students who improved their
metacognitive skills: declarative performed better academically in Physics.

Figure 4 shows the portion of the accepted model reflecting the indirect
relationships between scientific reasoning skills to Mathematics proficiency and
metacognitive skills toward academic performance in Physics as based on Table 9.
The path implies that the scientific reasoning skills of students: formal and early
transitional, greatly affected the mathematical proficiency of students in achieving
better academic performance in Physics. This suggests that the development of
scientific reasoning skills of Grade 10 students, particularly during the formal and
early transitional stages of cognitive development, could positively influence
students' mathematical proficiency and subsequently contribute to better
academic performance in Physics.

Cihlár et al. (2020) proved that scientific reasoning is correlated with mathematical
proficiency, and Tajudin and Chinnappan (2015) revealed that scientific reasoning
plays an important role in problem-solving in Mathematics while Singley and
Bunge (2014) show a positive relationship between scientific reasoning and
mathematical proficiency, which is evident in childhood. This indicates that
enhancing scientific reasoning is important to achieve mathematics proficiency
and better academic performance in Physics since formal reasoners have been
shown to achieve higher academic performance than transitional reasoners
(Rohaeti et al., 2019).

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Figure 4: A portion of the Accepted Model reflecting the Indirect Effects of Scientific
Reasoning Skills on Mathematics Proficiency and Metacognitive Skills toward
Academic Performance in Physics

On the other hand, the path implies that the scientific reasoning skills of students:
early transitional, greatly affect the metacognitive skills of students in the areas of
debugging and evaluation to perform better academically in Physics. This
suggests that the participants recognised and addressed errors, misconceptions,
or gaps in their thinking or problem-solving processes and these skills were
developed during transitional stage reasoning aided by effective debugging
techniques. Further, students who critically analysed information reflected on
problem-solving strategies and assessed the validity of their work. The emerging
hypothesis testing and analytical thinking in the early transitional stage aligned
with evaluation metacognition; thus, students with early stages of cognitive
transition could increase metacognitive abilities such as debugging and
evaluation, resulting in improved academic performance in Physics.

Based on Table 9, Figure 5 shows the portion of the accepted model reflecting the
indirect effects of metacognitive skills on scientific reasoning skills and
mathematics proficiency toward academic performance in Physics. The path
implies metacognitive skills of students: declarative directly affected the scientific

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reasoning skills of students: early and late transition to attain better mathematical
proficiency of Grade 10 students towards high academic performance in Physics.
This suggests that those students who were informed of their cognitive processes
and strategies were more likely to recognise their thought patterns, areas of
strength, and areas that needed development. These students continued to
improve their capacity for abstract thought and problem-solving. Metacognitive
skills, like declarative, encouraged students to consider their understanding,
identify misunderstandings, and fill in any gaps. A deeper knowledge of
mathematical proficiency was important to achieve high academic performance
in Physics. Moreover, the path implies the skills of students: planning and
evaluation were one of the factors on scientific reasoning skills of students: early
and late transition to attain better mathematical proficiency of Grade 10 students
towards high academic performance in Physics. Those students who set goals,
organised their approaches, allocated resources efficiently, critically analysed
their work, reflected on their understanding, and assessed the quality of their
solutions were those students who developed abstract thinking, systematic
analysis, and hypothesis-testing abilities which led to better performance in
Physics.

Figure 5. A portion of the Accepted Model reflecting the Indirect Effects of


Metacognitive Skills on Scientific Reasoning Skills and Mathematics Proficiency
toward Academic Performance in Physics

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Metacognition and reasoning, also known as meta-reasoning, comprise self–


management strategies that are linked together (Fletcher & Carruthers, 2012) since
metacognition enhances reasoning through differentiated pedagogies (Kosior et
al., 2019). There is also a moderate relationship between scientific reasoning skills
to mathematics performance which indicates that scientific reasoning assists in
mathematical problem-solving (Tajudin & Chinnappan, 2015). In the context of
this study, variables such as mathematics proficiency enhanced scientific
reasoning and metacognitive skills, while the development of scientific reasoning
and metacognitive skills positively influenced each other, resulting in a mutually
beneficial impact on student achievement in learning Physics.

5. Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations


This study provided new insights into the relationship between mathematical
proficiency, scientific reasoning skills, metacognitive skills, and their impact on
academic achievement in Physics among Grade 10 students. The key findings
emphasized the direct impact of mathematics proficiency, particular aspects of
scientific reasoning skills (formal operational, late transitional, and early
transitional), and metacognitive skills (declarative, debugging, and evaluation) on
student achievement in Physics. These findings indicate the significance of
developing a comprehensive skill set that includes mathematical proficiency,
scientific reasoning abilities, and metacognitive capabilities to improve
students' academic achievement in physics.

This research implies that effective teaching and learning in Physics requires
heightened integration of mathematical competence, scientific reasoning ability,
and metacognitive skills within the teaching-learning process. Hence, Physics
curriculum planners need to consider the level of mathematical proficiency,
scientific reasoning skills, and metacognitive skills of the students in crafting the
Physics curriculum. Also, educators can develop interventions where these
competencies are enhanced; teachers can provide activities that are aimed at
enhancing scientific reasoning skills, integrating tasks to build metacognitive
abilities, and incorporating mathematical concepts into Physics instruction such
as game-based instruction. Lastly, the students need to learn strategies that can
enhance their mathematical proficiency, metacognitive skills, and scientific
reasoning skills as these can help them attain better Physics academic
performance. Students need to connect mathematical principles in learning
physics, analyse information, patterns, and data to further understand Physics,
and reflect on their learning process to gain more effective strategies in learning
Physics.

6. Scope and Limitations


This study focused on the interrelationship of mathematical proficiency, scientific
reasoning skills, metacognitive skills, and academic performance in Physics of the
Grade 10 students enrolled in public schools in District 2 of Ifugao Province,
Philippines for the School Year 2022–2023. However, the study acknowledges
certain limitations. Firstly, the scope was limited to Grade 10 students in a certain
geographical area, restricting the generalisability of the findings in a broader
context. Secondly, the analysis focuses only on mathematical proficiency,

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scientific reasoning, and metacognitive skills although other factors can


potentially affect students’ academic performance in Physics. Further, the
academic performance of the students in Physics was based on their academic
grades in Physics taken during the second grading period of the Grade 10 students
with diverse subject teachers from different schools. Although each school
followed the same learning competency in Physics, other factors can affect their
academic performance. Lastly, other demographics and external factors are not
directly examined, despite their potential influence.

7. Acknowledgement
This research is funded by the Commission on Higher Education – Staff and
Instructors Knowledge Advancement Programme (SIKAP) Grant and was
monitored and supported by the Nueva Vizcaya State University (NVSU) –
Graduate School and Ifugao State University (IFSU)- Potia Campus. Therefore,
grateful appreciation is extended to the CHED-SIKAP team, NVSU, and IFSU.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 279-297, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.15
Received Feb 25, 2024; Revised Apr 18, 2024; Accepted Apr 21, 2024

Microlearning and Nanolearning in Higher


Education: A Bibliometric Review to Identify
Thematic Prevalence in the
COVID-19 Pandemic and Post-Pandemic Context
Omar Chamorro-Atalaya , Carlos Hernán Flores-Velásquez , Soledad
Olivares-Zegarra , Carlos Dávila-Ignacio , Richard Flores-Cáceres
Facultad de Ingeniería y Gestión,
Universidad Nacional Tecnológica de Lima Sur, Perú*

José Antonio Arévalo-Tuesta


Facultad de Ciencias Económicas,
Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal, Perú

Yreneo Cruz-Telada
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud,
Universidad Norbert Wiener, Perú

Raul Suarez-Bazalar
Facultad de Ciencias Administrativas,
Universidad Nacional del Callao, Perú

Abstract. The COVID-19 pandemic led to a significant shift towards


more innovative teaching methods, highlighting the need for continuous
and flexible learning approaches. Thus, it is relevant to explore the
casuistry of the various applications of microlearning and nanolearning
in higher education, and identify the thematic trends and topics little
explored in the pandemic and post-pandemic scenario. In this sense, the
purpose of this study is to carry out a bibliometric review under a
quantitative approach and at an exploratory-descriptive level, on the
existing literature in the Scopus database. As a result, it was possible to
identify that the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced scientific
production in the application of microlearning in higher education to a
greater extent with respect to nanolearning. Furthermore, the prevalent
themes identified in the existing literature are the effectiveness and
adaptation of microlearning in different areas of higher education, such
as medicine and engineering, the development of competencies and
skills through microlearning in university students and the evaluation of

*
Corresponding author: Omar Chamorro-Atalaya, [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
280

the impact of innovative teaching strategies such as microlearning in


higher education. Therefore, it is concluded that, in the current post-
pandemic context, a clear focus on the application, integration and
evaluation of the impact of microlearning in higher education prevails;
however, a significant gap is identified in the adoption of nanolearning,
which is in an emerging phase of development.

Keywords: microlearning; nanolearning; higher education; bibliometric


review

1. Introduction
The COVID-19 health crisis forced a rapid adoption of virtual teaching in many
educational institutions (Mendoza, 2020). Despite the growing interest in
educational technologies such as e-Learning, M-Learning and B-Learning,
universities had not, however, foreseen a complete transition towards a virtual
pedagogical model (Mejía-Flores et al., 2020). Although some universities had a
long tradition of distance learning, the vast majority of institutions were
characterised by a marked tradition of face-to-face teaching (Álvarez-Herrero,
2020). Under this scenario, various challenges were evident in guaranteeing an
optimal online teaching-learning process (Avendaño et al., 2021). As such, the
greatest challenge was to link teaching practice with emerging technological
tools, which, in some cases, were very alien to teachers and students;
nevertheless, little by little, they became allies to enable the educational process
to continue (Cipagauta, 2021). Consequently, technology and educational needs
led to generating new forms of student-teacher interaction, with smartphones,
tablets and laptops being the technological devices that contributed the most
(Cerezo et al., 2023).

Already placing ourselves in the post-pandemic context, the growth of mobile


technologies expanding the range of possibilities for learning is evident, also the
understanding that smartphones and tablets are the two mobile devices with
the greatest use of the Internet (Mondragón, 2022; Valencia-Arias et al., 2023).
Given the above, mobile learning (M-learning) takes on great relevance since it
allows students to review educational content unlimitedly and understand it in a
better way, since it is organised and structured (Torres, 2023). This creates a
scenario to build new educational resources more adapted to the needs of
students and technological development (Herrera & Moreno, 2023).
Consequently, the relevance of didactic mediation with these tools focuses in
many cases on the combination of M-Learning with microlearning or
nanolearning, strategies that enhance innovation and transformation of teaching,
highlighted for their agility and focus on the brief and specific (Cervantes &
Álvarez, 2021).

Microlearning and nanolearning address the need for methods that do not
cognitively overload the student (Ugalde & González-Cabrera, 2022; Velastegui,
2023), offering concise but complete audiovisual materials, for clear and specific
learning objectives (Gómez & Simón-Medina, 2022; Nivela-Cornejo et al., 2021).
Microlearning generates educational experiences with a modular structure and
short duration, such as webinars, workshops and seminars, focused on the

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development of specific skills (Moreno, 2023). On the other hand, nanolearning


has the same objective as microlearning in that it seeks for students to learn
certain content in small units (Lucero & Maldonado, 2022; Padilla, 2019).
However, here the videos are shorter, with many of them created on social
networks such as TikTok (Careaga, 2022).

The importance of these learning methodologies is that the student works with
techniques that are conducive and suitable for each of them, and which can be
used within class and their own homes, achieving learning through autonomy
and independence (Sanchez, 2023). That is, the student does not necessarily have
to be in the classroom, whether in synchronous or asynchronous classes, in face-
to-face processes or digitally, which is different from the concept of virtuality
(Pineda, 2022). This also facilitates training and improves knowledge retention,
since it is based on the assumption that short and dynamic content captures and
retains users' attention much better than traditional content, such as written texts
(Moreno, 2023). It also supports teachers in improving teaching practice in terms
of both methods and content (Hernández & Talavera, 2021). Among the
important factors in the design of these teaching strategies is the production of
digital content, particularly video (Leal, 2021). With duration being a very
significant indicator, it has been shown that a greater learning commitment is
achieved in students in videos of six to nine minutes in length (Yausen, 2022),
while nanolearning is based on the use of brief content with a duration of less
than five minutes (Núñez, 2023). That is to say, the secret lies in the use of short
portions of content (Filippi et al., 2023), the management of which is limited by
the capacity of the device used and the availability of the user's time, hence the
importance of synthesis to have an impact on the design and presentation of
information (Matute, 2022).

However, teaching strategies based on information and communication


technologies (ICT) are effective only if they are used as support in various
subjects, benefiting both teaching and learning (Lora, 2022). In addition to
design options, the effectiveness of microlearning depends on several aspects
related to the student, such as their roles, time availability, habits and
motivation, while the available technological infrastructure and the learning
environment are also crucial for its success (Salas-Díaz & González-Bello, 2023).
In short, it is important to highlight that students not only need to know how to
understand and use the various technological options they encounter, but they
must also learn to use them with all possible ethical sense (Martínez, 2022).

From the above, the objective of this study is to explore and describe the
prevalence of thematic contents referring to scientific production developed
through microlearning and nanolearning in higher education, in the COVID-19
pandemic and post-pandemic context. The study is developed under the
bibliometric review method, on studies published in the Scopus database from
2020 to the present. Through this study, we seek to contribute to the
identification of predominant trends in the field of study in question, as well as
the identification of gaps and research opportunities in particularly less attended
sub-areas; representing this information is useful to guide future research that

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contributes to the current state of the art on microlearning and nanolearning.


Based on the above, the research questions (RQ) for this study are:
• RQ1: How has the COVID-19 pandemic influenced scientific production in
the application of microlearning and nanolearning in higher education?
• RQ2: Which bibliographic sources and which researchers contribute to the
greatest extent in the publication of studies regarding the application of
microlearning and nanolearning in higher education in the COVID-19
pandemic and post-pandemic context?
• RQ3: What topics are the most prevalent in the existing literature on
microlearning and nanolearning in higher education in the COVID-19
pandemic and post-pandemic context?

2. Methodology
2.1 Research approach
This study adopted a quantitative approach, based on the use of bibliometric
indicators, to describe and analyse scientific production related to microlearning
and nanolearning in higher education, in the COVID-19 pandemic and post-
pandemic context. In this way, an objective and systematic evaluation of the
bibliographic data will be carried out, appropriate to answer the research
questions posed. This approach is supported in some cases by the analysis of
secondary data, which were statistically examined, to identify results (Acosta,
2023; Huamán et al., 2021).

2.2 Scope of the investigation


This study has an exploratory-descriptive scope, as it seeks to discover and map
trends and patterns regarding scientific production on microlearning and
nanolearning in higher education, and in the COVID-19 pandemic and post-
pandemic context. It provides a detailed and current description of bibliometric
data that allows establishing thematic prevalence in the existing literature. In
this regard, Ramos (2020) points out that research has an exploratory scope
because it allows an initial exploration of a specific area of study; it is the starting
point for carrying out any research. Likewise, Arias and Covinos (2021) point
out that studies with descriptive scope mainly focus on detailing the properties
of a particular phenomenon or group that is being investigated, providing
insight into its characteristics within a particular context.

2.3 Data collection process


To collect the data, that is, the scientific publications that were part of the
bibliometric review study, it was first considered to define the search equation
based on the keywords linked to microlearning and nanolearning in higher
education, and in the COVID-19 pandemic and post-pandemic context. From
this consideration, the following search equation was obtained for the
compilation of publications from the Scopus database: (TITLE-ABS-KEY
("microlearning" OR "micro-learning" OR "nanolearning" OR "nano-learning”)
AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“education” OR “teaching”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY
(“university” OR “Higher Education”)). The Scopus database was used because
it stores a range of scientific studies from various disciplines, which includes
scientific publications on microlearning and nanolearning in higher education

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and which have been rigorously evaluated under various criteria such as blind
peer review. This helps the study ensure that the information extracted is
reliable and relevant to the study. In this regard, Codina et al. (2020) state that
the Scopus database is used by the international scientific community because it
has vast coverage in all areas of knowledge. Furthermore, Auza-Santiváñez et al.
(2020) highlight that Scopus is established as the most extensive database of
global scientific literature, mainly made up of academic publications and
conference proceedings, these journals having been rigorously evaluated with
academic standards, particularly the peer review process.

Another important aspect to highlight in the data collection process was the
method used, which is an adaptation of the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) methodology and validated by the
scientific publication developed by Chamorro-Atalaya et al. (2023). This method
consists of three stages that lead to the selection of publications for the analysis
of bibliometric indicators. Initially, the topic to be investigated was defined, this
being microlearning and nanolearning in higher education. In this first stage, 135
publications were identified, as a result of applying the search equation in the
Scopus database, that is, without considering the publication period of the
studies during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The second stage consisted of
a screening of the manuscripts identified in the first stage, in which specific
criteria were applied such as the scope of the cases addressed in the studies must
be in higher education, and not in initial, primary or secondary education.
Another aspect was that the publications be open access in all their content; in
addition, it was also limited to publications during the years 2020 to 2024. In this
second stage, 94 publications were identified. Finally, in the third stage, a review
of the summaries and complete content of each publication selected in the
previous phase was carried out. In this way, we sought to determine that the
publications included in this final stage were suitable and consistent with the
topic under study, minimising the possible biases present in the research. At this
stage, 90 scientific publications were identified. Figure 1 shows in detail the
process of collecting scientific publications at each stage.

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Figure 1. Data collection process

2.4 Data processing and analysis


For the processing and analysis of the collected data, two specialised and widely
used software for bibliometric analysis were used, VOSviewer and Bibliometrix.
These software contributed to the generation of reports on scientific production
by year of publication, bibliographic sources and authors with the highest
number of citations, representations of co-occurrence and grouping networks, by
which it was possible to identify the prevalent themes and gaps in the field of
study on microlearning and nanolearning in higher education. In this regard,
George and Avallo-Martínez (2021) point out that the VOSviewer software is a
widely used tool to perform bibliometric analysis. Furthermore, Pedraja-Rejas
and Rodríguez-Ponce (2021) state that Bibliometrix is a tool designed for
quantitative research in scientometrics and bibliometrics, which facilitates the
description and monitoring of publications to identify trends in various areas of
study.

3. Results and discussion


3.1 How has the COVID-19 pandemic influenced scientific production in the
application of microlearning and nanolearning in higher education?
Although the study focused on analysing bibliometric indicators regarding
scientific production in the application of microlearning and nanolearning in
higher education in the pandemic and post-pandemic context, to answer this
first question it was also necessary to include information regarding the studies
published in the pre-pandemic scenario, with the purpose of identifying the
impact and at the same time establishing the influence of the pandemic on
scientific production in this field of study. In this sense, it was possible to

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identify that, before the pandemic and taking 2014 as the initial year of the
analysis, an increasing trend was observed in the number of publications, going
from one publication in 2014 to thirteen in 2019, thus evidencing that the annual
increase is relatively moderate, with an average annual number of publications
of 6.5. However, during the pandemic period, a significant increase in the
number of publications is observed from 12 publications in 2020 to 26
publications in 2022, thus reaching an annual average of 18.67. This shows
greater interest in research into learning methodologies as a response by higher
education institutions to the need to adapt to the challenges that have arisen as a
result of the COVID-19 pandemic, such as migrating towards online teaching
modalities online and remote. In the post-pandemic period, the upward trend
continues with a production of 33 publications in 2023 and so far in 2024 there is
already one publication, reaching an annual average of 17. Figure 2 shows the
annual scientific production in the pre-pandemic, pandemic and post-pandemic
scenarios of COVID-19. Focusing strictly on the pandemic and post-pandemic
period, a growing and sustained interest is evident, to a greater extent in the
application of microlearning than with respect to nanolearning, given its
effectiveness as a methodology in higher education. In addition to this impact
and positive influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on scientific production, it can
also be added that this increasing number of publications has been influenced by
the widespread use of mobile devices, greater access to the Internet and the
advancement of ICT.

35 33

30
26
25
20 18

15 13 12
10 7 6 6 6
5
1 1
0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Pre pandemic Pandemic Post
Pandemic

Figure 2. Scientific production, in the pre-pandemic, pandemic and post-pandemic


scenarios of COVID-19

These factors have contributed to developing and adopting new teaching


strategies that align with the requirements of education 4.0, characterised by
being more digital, interactive and adapted to students. However, it is perceived
that scientific production focuses more on the field of microlearning than
nanolearning. Of the 90 publications included in this review study, 88
publications correspond to microlearning and only two correspond to
nanolearning, both of which were in the last two years. This is possibly because

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that, while microlearning has been a more immediate option and has already
shown evidence of its effectiveness in learning to address educational
challenges during the pandemic, nanolearning is only now beginning to gain
attention as a valuable focus on the continued evolution of higher education in a
post-pandemic context, seen as a complement to microlearning. Figure 3 shows
the annual scientific production by field of study between microlearning and
nanolearning.
35 32

30 26
25
18
20
15 12
10
5 1 0
0
0 0 1
0
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024

Microlearing Nanolearning

Figure 3. Annual scientific production, by field of study between microlearning and


nanolearning

In this regard, Betancur-Chicué and Muñoz-Repiso (2023), in their review study


on the use of microlearning in the educational field, show that, after a search
process in the Scopus and Web of Science databases, they identified a total of 34
publications, determining greater scientific production during the years 2020 to
2022 (pandemic context), compared to the years 2018 and 2019 (pre-pandemic
context). They also identified that microlearning is closely linked to concepts
such as virtual education and the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Durán and
Escudero (2023) used the Science Direct, ERIC, Scielo and Redalyc databases to
extract their publications for the development of their review study, and
selected 14 studies of which seven were identified between 2018 and 2019,
while, during the years 2020 to 2021, they also identified the same number of
publications. They also established that trends and advances in educational
technology experienced an exponential acceleration due to the situation created
by COVID-19 in classrooms worldwide. This scenario is what drove the
adoption and interest in microlearning as an innovative and effective approach
in education. Likewise, Al-Nasheri and Alhalafawy (2023), in their research on
microlearning in education in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, point out
that microlearning proved to be particularly effective during this scenario as a
strategy to provide continuity to the teaching-learning process. This
effectiveness underlines the importance of its study in understanding
educational strategies during the post-COVID-19 phase, so as to adapt and
improve educational processes in a global context. Finally, with respect to the
application of nanolearning, Chanyawudhiwan and Mingsiritham (2023) point
out that the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of distance

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education adapting to unforeseen learning circumstances, which is why


nanolearning turns out to be a methodology that takes advantage of
contemporary information technologies to address the personalised and
individual learning that the student requires.

3.2 What bibliographic sources and what researchers contribute to the


greatest extent in the publication of studies regarding the application of
microlearning and nanolearning in higher education, in the COVID-19
pandemic and post-pandemic context?
In relation to the bibliographic sources that have contributed to the greatest
extent to the publication of studies on the application of microlearning and
nanolearning in higher education, in the COVID-19 pandemic and post-
pandemic context, a total of 43 sources were identified bibliographically, of
which 36 are scientific journals and seven are conference proceedings.
Furthermore, when analysing the number of publications (NP) in this period of
time, it was identified that, of the total bibliographic sources, 42 only have one
publication on the topic under study, while only one bibliographic source,
specifically a scientific journal, has published five studies. This journal with the
highest number of contributions is Education and Information Technologies
having a total number of citations (TC) equal to 67, evidencing its high impact
and contribution to the existing literature. Furthermore, when analysing the h-
index of this scientific journal according to Scientific Journal Rankings (SJR), it
was identified that it has a value of 61, which places it in the Q1 quartile. Table 1
shows the ten best bibliographic sources with the greatest contribution in the
field of study. This classification is not only focused on the total number of
publications but also on the total number of citations generated by said
publication, specifying the year in which the document was cited for the first
time (PY_start). As can be seen, there are various scientific journals with a high
number of citations and in the Q1 quartile, which demonstrates the high impact
and interest of the academic scientific community in studies on the application
of microlearning and nanolearning in higher education, in the context of
COVID-19.

Table 1. The 10 best bibliographic sources with the greatest contribution in the field
of study
Quartile
Source NP TC PY_start h_index according
to SJR
Education and Information
5 67 2021 61 Q1
Technologies
Multimedia Tools and
1 45 2021 93 Q1
Applications
It was No
Journal of Work-Applied
1 40 2021 not assigned
Management
found quartile
Applied Sciences (Switzerland) 1 20 2020 101 Q2
Journal of Computing in
1 19 2020 47 Q1
Higher Education
Sustainability (Switzerland) 1 17 2021 136 Q1

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Communications in Computer
1 15 2022 62 Q4
and Information Science
Proceedings of 2020 IEEE
International Conference on It was No
Teaching, Assessment, and 1 13 2020 not assigned
Learning for Engineering, found quartile
TALE 2020
No
Education in the Knowledge
1 11 2020 18 assigned
Society
quartile
Asian Association of Open
1 10 2021 13 Q2
Universities Journal

Furthermore, when analysing the most relevant author who contributes the most
to the field of study based on the impact of his scientific work, it was identified
to be Aguilera-Hermida et al. (2021) and their study entitled “Comparison of
students’ use and acceptance of emergency online learning due to COVID-19 in
the USA, Mexico, Peru, and Turkey”. Likewise, the second author whose study
has the greatest impact is that of Redondo et al. (2021), whose publication is
titled “Integrating micro-learning content in traditional e-learning platforms”.
Another aspect that was identified in these studies is the metric called
“Normalized Global Citations” (NGC), which represents the total number of
citations that a scientific publication has with respect to the average citations of
all publications published in the field of study. This metric is used to compare
the impact of different publications across disciplinary barriers. In this way, the
study developed by Aguilera-Hermida et al. (2021) presents an NGC of 5.29, that
is, this study has been cited 5.29 times more than the average number of citations
in its field, thus reflecting a highly relevant and significant impact in the study
area. Table 2 shows the 10 authors whose publication have the highest number
of citations, with respect to the field under study.

Table 2. The 10 authors whose publications have the highest number of citations, with
respect to the field of study
Author Published document TC NGC
Comparison of students’ use and
Aguilera-Hermida et acceptance of emergency online
57 5.29
al. (2021) learning due to COVID-19 in the
USA, Mexico, Peru, and Turkey
Integrating micro-learning content
Redondo et al. (2021) 45 4.18
in traditional e-learning platforms
A review of the trend of
Leong et al. (2021) 40 3.71
microlearning
Automated Assessment and
Microlearning Units as Predictors
Skalka and Drlik
of At-Risk Students and Students’ 20 2.93
(2020)
Outcomes in the Introductory
Programming Courses
Using digital badges as goal-
Cheng et al. (2020) setting facilitators: a multiple case 19 2.78
study

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Conceptual Framework for


Programming Skills Development
Based on Microlearning and
Skalka et al. (2021) 17 1.58
Automated Source Code
Evaluation in Virtual Learning
Environment
Metaverse and Posthuman
Animated Avatars for Teaching-
Alam and Mohanty
Learning Process: Interperception 15 7.80
(2022)
in Virtual Universe for
Educational Transformation
The Future of Teaching Post-
Gill et al. (2020) COVID-19: Microlearning in 13 1.90
Product Design Education
Learning Pills for the
Improvement of University
Miguel and Laserma Education: the Case of the Degree
11 1.61
(2020) Thesis in the Degree of Linguistics
and Applied Languages of
University of Cadiz
Trialling micro-learning design to
Kossen and Chia-Yi
increase engagement in online 10 0.93
(2021)
courses

From the results obtained, it is evident that there is no scientific journal that
particularly presents a high number of studies on the application of
microlearning or nanolearning in higher education, in the COVID-19 pandemic
and post-pandemic context. Only the scientific journal Education and Information
Technologies presents five publications in the field of study, while the others have
only published one study. This result shows that there is a need to undertake
further studies concerning the topic in question, highlighting that the studies
reviewed show a high level of impact. In this regard, Gallent (2022) points out
that microlearning is acquiring greater importance in the university
environment, and, although this methodology is not entirely new, its application
in supporting students is still in its early stages, he specifies that he has not
identified experiences in other universities comparable to his study.

Likewise, along those same lines, Gill et al. (2020) point out that microlearning
represents an innovation that is booming and that contributed to addressing the
challenges in the teaching and learning process during the development of
online class sessions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Consistent with the need
to address more studies on microlearning and nanolearning, Chen et al. (2022)
point out that these educational strategies, although not very novel, were
emphasised due to the considerations caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Likewise Wang et al. (2020) state that, following the outbreak of COVID-19,
there has been greater exploration into the widespread adoption of
microlearning in various educational institutions. Abrego et al. (2021) point out
that, currently, studies on microlearning in higher education are relevant since
they will allow evaluating its impact in the university educational field,
recognising that educational innovation is crucial in modern times.

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3.3 What topics are the most prevalent in the existing literature on
microlearning and nanolearning in higher education, since the beginning
of the COVID-19 pandemic?
Prior to identifying the prevalent themes in the existing literature on
microlearning and nanolearning in higher education, the co-occurrence network
of keywords was generated through the VOSviewer software, with the purpose
of identifying the terms related to the field of study. In this way, it was possible
to identify, based on the nodes (terms or keywords) and their corresponding
sizes, that terms such as “e-learning”, “micro-learning”, “microlearning”,
“higher education”, “students”, “teaching”, “engineering education” and
“curriculum” present a level of occurrence greater than or equal to 10. Thus, the
three terms with the highest number of occurrences are “microlearning” with 38
occurrences, “e-learning” with 27 occurrences, and “micro-learning” with 20
occurrences. Figure 4 shows the co-occurrence network of terms or keywords on
microlearning and nanolearning in higher education, taking into account
publications from the Scopus database, during the pandemic and post-pandemic
period. It can be seen that the link strengths with greater intensity represent how
related the terms or key words are to each other. In this sense, the term “e-
learning” can be identified, showing a link strength of 89, “micro-learning” a
link strength of 74, “microlearning” a link strength of 59, as well as “students”,
while teaching presents a link strength of 58 and “engineering education”
presents a link strength of 57; these being the keywords with the greatest link
strength.

Figure 4. Network of co-occurrences of terms or keywords about microlearning and


nanolearning in higher education

Another aspect analysed was the density network generated from the
VOSviewer software, in which the brightest and warmest points in the network
indicate the areas of greatest thematic concentration. In this way, it is possible to

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identify that the points corresponding to the terms “e-learning”, “micro-


learning”, “higher education” and “COVID-19” are focal points, which suggests
that these topics are highly prevalent in the literature related to the field of
study. Furthermore, if we focus on the proximity and intensity of the terms
“micro-learning” and “e-learning”, it is observed that these are close and have a
high colour density, so it can be stated that these topics are closely related linked
in the scientific publications analysed. Likewise, the visibility of the term
COVID-19 in relation to “higher education” and “microlearning” represents that
the pandemic has had a substantial impact on how these topics have been
addressed in that particular context. On the other hand, the analysis leads us to
establish that terms related to “computer aided instruction”, “learning systems”,
“engineering education”, “curriculum”, “teaching”, “learning”, “students”,
“education”, “ humans”, and “human” have been discussed in conjunction with
microlearning, which implies a wide range of applications in educational
settings in which this methodology has been applied since the COVID-19
pandemic and post-pandemic. Finally, it can be considered that an emerging
area that is currently being less addressed is the application of gamification as an
innovative element as part of microlearning and nanolearning strategies in
higher education, which implies that particular attention should be paid to this
for future studies research. Figure 5 shows the network of keyword densities
about microlearning and nanolearning in higher education.

Figure 5. Network of keyword densities on microlearning and nanolearning in higher


education

Based on the results, the prevalent themes are “effectiveness and adaptation of
microlearning in different areas of higher education, such as medicine and

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engineering”, “development of competencies and skills through microlearning


in university students”, and “evaluation of the impact of innovative teaching
strategies such as microlearning in higher education”. In this regard, Betancur-
Chicué and Muñoz-Repiso (2023) point out that the prevalent fields of study on
microlearning are research in the field of health, education and engineering.
Along the same lines, Dahiya and Bernard (2021), in their study on the
implementation of microlearning in medical education, point out that the
pandemic scenario has clearly shown the urgency of incorporating
microlearning into education with short videos, with a running time less than
sixty minutes. On the other hand, in relation to the fact that one of the prevalent
topics is the Development of competencies and skills, Santos and Bastos (2020),
in their study on the use of microlearning in teaching practice, points out that it
was identified that 82% of the respondents totally agrees that the microlearning
methodology can provide some type of skills outside the discipline developed
by the teacher, such as diversification and learning digital tools. While in
relation to the fact that one of the prevalent topics is the Evaluation of the impact
of innovative teaching strategies such as microlearning in Higher Education,
Qian et al. (2021) points out that using microlearning showed an increase in
effectiveness in both the acquisition and conservation of knowledge, without
requiring additional time or greater effort on the part of the teacher. This
resulted in a favorable attitude among medical students. Similarly, Rodríguez
and Ramírez (2020) in their study of microlearning in Higher Education
obtained that by applying this methodology, the participants in the workshops
fully satisfied their expectations; the majority of students expressed a clear
interest and curiosity in the use of microlearning.

4. Conclusion
From the bibliometric review on the topic under study, it was possible to
identify that the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced scientific production in the
application of microlearning in higher education to a greater extent than with
respect to the application or use of nanolearning. This is because, as a result of
the pandemic, many universities found themselves having to adapt to online
and remote teaching modalities, which was also associated with the widespread
use of mobile devices, greater access to the Internet and the advancement of
information and communications technologies. Likewise, it was also identified
that there is no scientific journal that has published a high number of studies on
the application of microlearning or nanolearning in higher education, in the
pandemic and post-pandemic context. Only the scientific journal Education and
Information Technologies presents five publications, while the others have only
one publication. This result shows that there is a need to undertake further
studies concerning the topic in question. On the other hand, it was identified
that the most prevalent themes in the existing literature on microlearning and
nanolearning in higher education, in the COVID-19 pandemic and post-
pandemic context, are effectiveness and adaptation of microlearning in different
areas of higher education, such as medicine and engineering, development of
competencies and skills through microlearning in university students, and
evaluation of the impact of innovative teaching strategies such as microlearning
in higher education. Finally, it is concluded that, in the post-pandemic context, a

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clear focus on the application, integration and evaluation of the impact of


microlearning in higher education prevails; however, a significant gap is
identified in the adoption of nanolearning, which is in an emerging phase of
development. Future studies could also address how gamification contributes to
increasing participation and retention in microlearning.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 298-319, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.16
Received Feb 10, 2024; Revised Apr 22, 2024; Accepted Apr 24, 2024

Perspectives of Peers as a Microsystem for Supporting


Deaf Students in Inclusive Elementary Schools
Betya Sahara
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Mumpuniarti Mumpuniarti , Suwarjo Suwarjo and


Muhammad Syamsuri
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Abstract. Peers play a crucial role in facilitating student participation,


fostering interaction and unlocking the potential for development,
thereby providing an experiential glimpse into living within inclusive or
diverse societal settings. This study delves into the perspectives of peers
regarding the inclusion of their hearing-impaired counterparts within
the classroom microsystem. Focused on the relatively unexplored terrain
of typical peers' viewpoints on the presence of hearing-impaired
students, this research engages one hundred and twenty-one peers from
students with hearing impairments at regular elementary school levels
in Banjarbaru City, Indonesia, and their teachers from six classes across
different schools. The recruitment process utilized purposive sampling
for interviews and a questionnaire, with the gathered data subjected to
thematic analysis. Employing the Miles & Huberman model, the data
analysis follows a three-fold path encompassing data reduction,
presentation, and conclusion/verification. The study underscores the
significance of peer management within the microsystem, highlighting
its role in aiding the development of proximal zones in the classroom for
students with hearing impairments. Drawing from the findings, the
study recommends two key interventions. Firstly, teachers are
encouraged to foster understanding among peers about hearing-
impaired students through targeted learning activities, thereby
transforming the microsystem into a supportive environment. Secondly,
within the classroom microsystem, both teachers and peers are urged to
establish a common language applicable to all elements of the class. This
concerted effort aims to enhance communication and interaction,
fostering an inclusive and supportive learning environment for all
students.

Keywords: Peers Inclusion; Inclusive Education; Hearing-Impaired


Students; Classroom Microsystem; Thematic Analysis

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
299

1. Introduction
In today's educational landscape, inclusivity stands as a cornerstone principle,
heralding a paradigm shift towards environments that honor the diverse needs
of all learners. With a growing recognition of the importance of diversity and
inclusion, educational institutions are increasingly embracing inclusive practices
to create equitable learning opportunities. Inclusive education settings play a
crucial role in fostering an environment where individuals with hearing
impairments can thrive socially, emotionally and academically (Jungjohann &
Gebhardt, 2023). The challenges faced by deaf individuals extend beyond
communication and psychological aspects, often leading to social withdrawal
behaviors (Quirke & McGuckin, 2024). Researchers have highlighted the
multifaceted difficulties that deaf individuals encounter, emphasizing the need
for comprehensive support (Khasawneh et al., 2024). The impact of hearing
impairment on communication skills is profound, making interactions
challenging for those with hearing difficulties (Aguis, 2024). Moreover, the
psychological implications can contribute to feelings of isolation and hinder
overall well-being. Social withdrawal behaviors become apparent as a coping
mechanism, as individuals may find it challenging to navigate social situations
effectively (Nguyen et al., 2024). Recognizing the significance of inclusive
education, researchers like Masi et al. (2023) emphasize the pivotal role of peer
support in facilitating positive behavioral changes among hearing-impaired
individuals. Peer support in inclusive settings acts as a catalyst for personal
growth, allowing everyone to contribute to and benefit from the learning
environment (Fong et al., 2023).

Simultaneously, inclusive education, with a focus on peer support, creates a


space where hearing-impaired individuals can engage with their peers in a
meaningful way (Kamran & Bano, 2023). Peers become core agents in the
transformative process, influencing positive changes in behavior and fostering a
sense of belonging (Iacono et al., 2023). The supportive relationships formed in
these settings contribute not only to academic success but also to the
development of crucial social skills. Hearing peers, through their understanding
and assistance, become vital allies for their hearing-impaired counterparts
(Snoddon & Murray, 2023). They serve as bridges, facilitating effective
communication and breaking down barriers. This inclusive model promotes
empathy, awareness, and shared responsibility for creating an environment
where everyone feels valued (Rocha et al., 2023). Research also shows that
individuals with hearing impairments often face formidable challenges in
honing their communication skills, which subsequently affect their overall
ability to interact effectively (Snoddon & Murray, 2023). The multifaceted nature
of these challenges extends beyond the realms of communication and
encompasses psychological difficulties coupled with observable social
withdrawal behaviors among deaf children (Nelis et al., 2023). The intricate
interplay of these challenges underscores the critical need for the support of
hearing peers in inclusive educational settings.

Moreover, inclusive education, as a cornerstone in addressing diverse learning


needs, recognizes the importance of fostering an environment where every

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student can experience holistic growth (Chow et al., 2023). In this context, peer
support emerges as an inclusive model that not only accommodates the unique
needs of students with hearing impairments but also creates a space for the
collective development of all individuals involved. In this context, the role of
peers, as delineated by Rrofiah et al. (2023), is pivotal, acting as a core agent
capable of instigating transformative changes in a child's behavior. Hence, it
needs to be given due consideration in scientific inquiry. In addition,
Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory provides a theoretical framework to
understand the depth of peer influence within a child's environment (Navarro &
Tudge, 2023). Peers are conceptualized as a microsystem, a layer of influence
characterized by its intimacy, intensity, longevity, and profound impact on a
child's development across various domains, ranging from language and
nutrition to safety, health, trust, and social and emotional aspects (Nolan &
Owen, 2024).

This influence extends beyond mere academic realms; it permeates the intricate
fabric of emotional learning within a child's environment (Aguis, 2024). The
relationships formed between children and their classmates, according to this
perspective, hold the potential to shape and influence the proximal domains in a
child's developmental trajectory (Al-Rahmi et al., 2020). Simultaneously, these
relationships serve as catalysts for the enhancement of communication skills and
cognitive development, particularly in areas such as perspective-taking (Akrami,
2022). Research also shows that peer support within this microsystem operates
on the principles of respect, shared responsibility, and mutual agreement on
what is beneficial (Alamri et al., 2021). Within this framework, the study seeks to
unfold the layers of the peer perspective, exploring its depth and potential to
serve as a support system for students with hearing impairments. The
overarching goal is to elucidate the various dimensions of peer influence and
leverage this understanding to optimize the learning environment for students
with hearing impairments.

Furthermore, inclusive education, as a philosophy, strives to integrate students


with diverse needs seamlessly into mainstream classrooms (Arifah & Marzuki,
2021). Peers in such inclusive settings play a significant role in providing
expansive opportunities for students with hearing impairments to engage in
social interactions, ultimately impacting their language development barriers
(Fadda et al., 2022). Communication, particularly between hearing and hearing-
impaired partners, establishes a shared language experience that contributes
significantly to vocabulary acquisition (Almashhadani & Almashhadani, 2023).
This is particularly crucial as much of a child's vocabulary knowledge is
acquired indirectly through daily interactions with adults, siblings, and peers
during conversations about routines, games, nursery rhymes, songs, and activity
readings (Atinaf et al., 2023).

Additionally, promoting social interaction between children with hearing


impairments and their peers within the microsystem is imperative for the
creation of positive relationships (Arias-Pérez & Vélez-Jaramillo, 2022). Positive
peer contact during free play has been identified as a key influencer, shaping

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positive views and acceptance of peers with disabilities (Jun, 2020). This
acceptance perspective triggers reciprocal relationships, functioning as a
microsystem for children with hearing impairments, subsequently impacting the
development of their proximal zone abilities (Rasheed et al., 2023). The
significance of peer relationships extends beyond the immediate social context.
These relationships contribute valuable experiences that go beyond the realm of
social interaction, offering opportunities for critical thinking, self-confidence,
creativity, academic ability, and motivation among peers (Kim et al., 2022). The
study positions itself to examine these intricate dynamics and their cumulative
impact on the developmental trajectory of students with hearing impairments.
The ultimate objective is to discern how positive peer relationships can serve as
catalysts for fostering a supportive microsystem within the classroom setting.
Hence, the current study aims to: (1) Investigate the nuanced impact of peer
support as a microsystem on the multifaceted development of students with
hearing impairments; (2) Delve into the intricate dimensions of the peer
perspective, aiming to understand its influence and potential within the
inclusive educational framework; (3) Identify and articulate effective strategies
to enhance social interactions within the classroom, creating positive
microsystems that actively support the development of abilities in children with
hearing impairments.

By addressing these objectives, the study aspires to contribute substantively to


the existing body of knowledge in inclusive education and provide practical
insights for educators, policymakers, and stakeholders invested in creating
inclusive learning environments conducive to the optimal development of all
students, including those with hearing impairments.

2. Literature Review
This study focuses on the multifaceted aspects of peer support within inclusive
education, particularly in the context of students with hearing impairments. This
comprehensive review spans various dimensions, including the role of peers in
inclusive settings, the impact of hearing impairments on social interactions, and
the potential of microsystems in facilitating the development of students with
hearing impairments. The review draws from a range of scholarly works to
provide a robust foundation for understanding the dynamics at play within the
inclusive classroom microsystem.

2.1 Inclusive Education and Peer Support


Inclusive education is a transformative philosophy that endeavors to seamlessly
integrate students with diverse needs into mainstream classrooms, fostering an
environment that accommodates and actively supports their unique
requirements (Hajisoteriou & Sorkos, 2023). Central to the success of inclusive
education is the fundamental concept of peer support, which plays a pivotal role
in creating a microsystem within the classroom that is inherently supportive and
conducive to the growth of all students, including those with disabilities such as
hearing impairments (Kilag et al., 2023). The concept of peer support is
grounded in the belief that students with disabilities, including hearing
impairments, derive significant benefits from meaningful and substantial

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contributions to the overall growth and development of their classmates with


disabilities.

Annahar et al. (2023) elaborate on the importance of peers as active participants


in fostering an inclusive environment, emphasizing that the collaborative efforts
of all students contribute to a richer learning experience for everyone involved.
Pratama and Christiani's (2023) research underscores the positive impact of
inclusive education models, particularly in the realm of peer interactions.
Integrating students with hearing impairments into regular classrooms exposes
them to age-appropriate academic content and facilitates social interactions that
are crucial for their holistic development (Sunandar, 2023). These social
interactions extend beyond acquiring academic knowledge, encompassing the
cultivation of social skills, emotional intelligence, and a sense of belonging
within the larger school community (Alam & Mohanty, 2023).

The literature consistently supports the idea that inclusive education models,
bolstered by peer support, create an environment where students with hearing
impairments can thrive academically and socially (Grájeda et al., 2024). This
holistic approach to education not only addresses the academic needs of
students but also recognizes the importance of social interactions in shaping
well-rounded individuals (Liang et al., 2023). As the present study delves into
the perspectives of typical peers regarding the presence of hearing-impaired
students within the classroom microsystem, it builds upon this foundational
understanding of the symbiotic relationship between inclusive education, peer
support, and the overall development of students with diverse needs.

2.2 Social Interactions and Communication Challenges for Hearing-Impaired


Students
The challenges confronted by students with hearing impairments extend far
beyond the realm of academic pursuits, permeating the intricate nuances of
social interactions (Quirke & McGuckin, 2024). Communication, a linchpin of
social engagement, assumes heightened significance for individuals with
hearing impairments, becoming a formidable hurdle in their path to effective
interaction (Efthymiou & Katsarou, 2024). Greenhalgh et al. (2023) illuminate the
landscape of communication and psychological difficulties faced by deaf
children, underscoring the pervasive impact of these challenges on their social
interactions. For students grappling with hearing impairments, communication
barriers often manifest as social withdrawal behaviors (Rocha et al., 2023).

The intricate dance of social dynamics becomes challenging when individuals


face hurdles in effective communication. The need for tailored and effective
communication strategies is paramount and, within the inclusive classroom
microsystem, the role of peers emerges as a critical factor in facilitating these
interactions (Quirke & McGuckin, 2024). Understanding the specific challenges
encountered by students with hearing impairments is imperative for designing
and implementing targeted interventions that not only address their unique
needs but also foster inclusivity and positive social interactions within the
microsystem of the classroom (Snoddon & Murray, 2023). By gaining insight into
the experiences of these students, educators and peers alike, it can contribute

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meaningfully to creating an environment that not only accommodates but


actively supports the social development of students with hearing impairments
(Jungjohann & Gebhardt, 2023).

This knowledge serves as the cornerstone for the present study, which seeks to
explore the perspectives of typical peers regarding the presence of hearing-
impaired students within the classroom microsystem (Kamran & Bano, 2023). In
delving into these perspectives, the study aspires to uncover nuanced insights
that can inform practical strategies to enhance inclusivity and positive social
interactions, thereby contributing to the overall well-being and development of
students with hearing impairments within the inclusive classroom setting

2.3 Peers as a Microsystem


Within a child's environment, Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory intricately
explores the depth of peer influence, offering a conceptual framework of
substantial value (Veiga et al., 2023). Within this theoretical perspective, peers
are conceptualized as a microsystem, an influential layer characterized by
intimacy, intensity, and profound impact (Nolan & Owen, 2024). This
microsystem, situated within the inclusive classroom, serves as a dynamic space
where the development of students with hearing impairments is intricately
interwoven with the attitudes and behaviors of their peers. Navarro and Tudge
(2023) further elaborate on the profound impact of this microsystem by
emphasizing the emotional learning facilitated through relationships between
children and their classmates. Positive and supportive relationships within this
microsystem significantly contribute to the development of proximal domains in
a child (Goering et al., 2022). This is particularly crucial for hearing-impaired
students, where the microsystem of peers becomes a pivotal determinant in
shaping not only their communication skills but also their cognitive
development and overall social competence.

The microsystem, as per Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory, operates as an


immediate, intense, and influential layer of a child's environment. In the context
of inclusive education, this microsystem is marked by the coexistence and
interaction of students with diverse abilities, including those with hearing
impairments (Maguvhe & Mutambo, 2023). The attitudes and behaviors of
typically developing peers within this microsystem play a fundamental role in
shaping the developmental trajectory of their hearing-impaired counterparts
(White et al., 2023). Positive peer relationships within the microsystem
contribute to emotional learning, providing a supportive backdrop for the social
and cognitive development of students with hearing impairments (Cederbaum
et al., 2023). As peers engage in positive and inclusive interactions, they
contribute not only to the academic well-being of their hearing-impaired
counterparts but also foster a sense of belonging, self-esteem, and overall
positive self-concept (Barath et al., 2023). Importantly, the microsystem of peers
becomes a dynamic agent in shaping communication skills for hearing-impaired
students. Effective communication involves not only the conveyance of
information but also the nuances of understanding, empathy, and shared
experiences (Al-Rahmi et al., 2020). In a positive microsystem, peers contribute

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to creating an environment that encourages effective communication, allowing


hearing-impaired students to overcome the barriers they may face in social
interactions. Cognitive development within this microsystem extends beyond
the academic realm, encompassing the cultivation of perspective-taking skills
and a deeper understanding of diverse abilities (Leung et al., 2024). Positive peer
relationships encourage collaborative learning, where students with hearing
impairments not only benefit academically but also contribute meaningfully to
the overall cognitive development of the entire microsystem.

Furthermore, the social competence of hearing-impaired students is intricately


linked to the supportive microsystem of peers. Positive interactions contribute to
the development of social skills, emotional intelligence, and adaptive behaviors,
fostering an inclusive environment that recognizes and values the unique
strengths of each student (Sirem & Çatal, 2023). Hence, Bronfenbrenner's
ecological theory, coupled with insights from Hur and Testerman, illuminates
the pivotal role of the microsystem of peers in the inclusive classroom. For
students with hearing impairments, this microsystem becomes a dynamic and
influential force shaping their development across various domains. From
communication skills and cognitive development to overall social competence,
the positive interactions within the microsystem contribute to the holistic well-
being of hearing-impaired students within the inclusive educational setting. This
study seeks to delve into the perspectives of typical peers within this
microsystem, aiming to understand how their attitudes and behaviors influence
the developmental trajectory of students. Through this exploration, the study
endeavors to inform strategies that enhance the positive impact of the
microsystem, fostering an inclusive and supportive environment for students

2.4 Peer Perspectives on Hearing-Impaired Peers


Amidst the extensive body of research exploring the experiences of students
with disabilities in inclusive settings, there remains a conspicuous gap in the
literature concerning the perspectives of typical peers regarding the presence of
hearing-impaired students within the classroom. This dearth of exploration
necessitates focused attention, given that the attitudes and perceptions of peers
wield substantial influence over the microsystem dynamics inherent in inclusive
educational environments (Aguis, 2024; Armstrong et al., 2023; Chow et al.,
2023). Iacono et al. (2023) underscore the significance of positive peer contact,
particularly during free play, as a determinant in shaping favorable views and
fostering acceptance of peers with disabilities. This emphasis on positive
interactions reflects the pivotal role that typical peers play in influencing the
microsystem dynamics within inclusive classrooms. Understanding how these
peers perceive and interact with their hearing-impaired counterparts becomes
vital, laying the groundwork for devising strategies that actively promote
positive microsystems within the inclusive educational setting (Efthymiou &
Katsarou, 2024). The existing literature predominantly leans toward
investigating the experiences and challenges faced by students with disabilities,
with a notable focus on their academic progress, social integration, and overall
well-being within inclusive classrooms (Rrofiah et al., 2023).

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Typical peers form an integral part of the inclusive microsystem, shaping the
socio-emotional landscape within the classroom: their attitudes, behaviors, and
interactions carry significant weight in influencing the overall experiences of
students with hearing impairments (Kamran & Bano, 2023). Thus, the need to
comprehensively understand and address the dynamics of typical peer
perceptions arises as a crucial aspect of fostering an inclusive environment. The
emphasis on positive peer contact aligns with the broader principles of
inclusion, emphasizing the creation of environments where students with
diverse abilities are not just present but actively engaged and accepted by their
peers (Efthymiou & Katsarou, 2024). Positive interactions during free play
periods not only contribute to breaking down barriers but also lay the
foundation for building meaningful relationships that extend beyond the
academic realm (Rocha et al., 2023). The study's focus on understanding how
typical peers perceive and interact with their hearing-impaired counterparts is
pivotal for several reasons. Firstly, it provides an opportunity to uncover any
existing misconceptions or stereotypes that might influence peer dynamics.
Secondly, gaining insights into the attitudes of typical peers can inform targeted
interventions aimed at fostering inclusivity and positive microsystem
development. Thirdly, understanding the perspectives of peers contributes to a
more holistic understanding of the social dynamics within inclusive classrooms.
Hence, the limited exploration of typical peer perspectives within the inclusive
classroom setting highlights a crucial gap in the existing literature. The study at
hand endeavors to bridge this gap by delving into the nuanced attitudes and
interactions of typical peers with their hearing-impaired counterparts.

3. Methods
This study utilized a mixed method approach to delve into the nuanced
perspectives of peers toward their hearing-impaired counterparts within
inclusive classroom settings. The chosen method involved distributing
questionnaires with open-ended questions, allowing for an in-depth exploration
of the rich tapestry of views and experiences of typical peers in their interactions
with students with hearing impairments. The participants in this study
comprised 121 students, reflecting the same age as their fellow students with
hearing impairments at regular elementary school levels in Banjarbaru City. This
sample included peers from six classes across five different elementary schools,
purposefully selected from learning classes where students with hearing
impairments were integrated. This intentional selection aimed to capture a
diverse and representative range of perspectives from peers actively engaged
with hearing-impaired students within the classroom environment. A
meticulously designed questionnaire consisting of open-ended questions served
as the primary tool for data collection. The questionnaire aimed to provide a
detailed understanding of peer perspectives on their hearing-impaired
counterparts, aligning with the research objectives. The questions were
structured based on a model considering various factors influencing peer
assessments of students with special needs in their class. The questionnaire, a
vital tool in collecting primary data, encompasses a total of 16 open-ended
question items. These questions utilize a combination of scales and subjective
inquiries to comprehensively explore various facets of the participants'

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perspectives. The questionnaires were distributed during designated study


hours, accompanied by explicit instructions from the researcher regarding the
purpose of the questions. Participants were encouraged to provide
comprehensive answers and offer explanations where necessary. To ensure
clarity, participants who faced difficulties in understanding the questions were
provided with detailed directions and the opportunity to seek clarification.

The collected data were categorized into primary and secondary sources.
Primary data, obtained directly through the questionnaires, were complemented
by secondary data derived from observations and interviews. The questionnaire,
comprising 16 open-ended questions, was structured around five thematic areas:
peer perspectives on hearing-impaired peers in the class. The design of the
questionnaire is rooted in specific themes, such as age (1 item), gender (1 item),
self-esteem (3 items), academic ability (3 items), physical ability (2 items),
communication skills (4 items), communication style (2 items), and
understanding of special needs (2 items). This structured approach ensures a
systematic and thorough examination of the subjects' viewpoints. The
questionnaire incorporated a scale and subjective questions, delving into the
reasons behind the participants' responses. Each item was strategically designed
to capture a comprehensive view of the multifaceted factors influencing peer
perspectives. Furthermore, an interview protocol was implemented to
triangulate the qualitative data and enhance the quantitative findings derived
from the questionnaire.

The data collection process spanned a period from 1st April, 2023 to 31st
December, 2023, to ensure comprehensive coverage and representation of
various contextual factors. This timeline encompassed the distribution of
questionnaires, the collection of responses, and the subsequent phase of
interviews and observations. This research adhered to ethical standards,
ensuring participant confidentiality, informed consent, and respectful treatment
throughout the study. Ethical approval was obtained from the authors'
Institutional Review Board to guarantee the ethical integrity of the research
process. Several challenges were encountered during data collection, including
variations in participants' comprehension of certain questions and potential
biases in self-reporting. To address these challenges, additional explanatory
sessions were conducted, and participants were assured of the anonymity of
their responses. These measures aimed to enhance the accuracy and reliability of
the collected data. In-depth interviews were conducted with a subset of
participants, selected purposefully to provide deeper insights into specific
themes emerging from the questionnaire responses. A semi-structured interview
format allowed for probing questions and a more nuanced exploration of
participants' perspectives. Interviews were audio-recorded with participants'
consent and transcribed for further analysis. Thematic analysis was employed to
identify patterns, recurring themes, and outliers within the collected data. To
enhance the depth and breadth of the study, an interview protocol was
employed as a complementary method to triangulate qualitative data and enrich
the quantitative insights gathered through the questionnaire. The formulation of
interview questions was guided by a sociocultural framework, allowing for a

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more nuanced exploration of the social and cultural influences that may shape
the participants' perspectives on hearing-impaired peers in the educational
context. This dual-method approach not only facilitates a comprehensive
analysis but also ensures the validity and reliability of the findings by cross-
verifying information obtained through different channels.

4. Analysis and Discussion


The analysis process involved coding responses, categorizing themes, and
iteratively refining codes to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the data.
Data saturation was achieved when no new themes emerged, signifying a robust
analysis capturing the depth of peer perspectives. The triangulation of data from
questionnaires, interviews, and observations enhanced the validity and
reliability of the study findings. Comparative analysis across different data
sources allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted
dynamics influencing peer perspectives within inclusive classrooms.

4.1. Findings
This finding identifies the peer perspective as part of the microsystem of
students with hearing impairments in the classroom. The peer perspective on
students with hearing impairments is described in a questionnaire with four
indicator themes, namely: (1) understanding of the special needs of their peers,
(2) age, gender, self-esteem (self-efficacy), (3) academic and sports abilities, (4)
communication skills and style, (5) promoting empathy and emotional
intelligence.

Table 1: Thematic Analysis Results: Peer Perspectives in Inclusive Classrooms

Theme Key Finding

Understanding of 1. 90% of peers demonstrate awareness of learning barriers faced


Special Needs by hearing-impaired classmates.
2. Recognition of communication difficulties is coupled with an
understanding of effective communication strategies.
Age, Gender, and 1. 89% of respondents cite gender equality as a reason for
Self-Esteem wanting to befriend hearing-impaired peers.
2. High self-esteem among peers contributes to confidence in
forming meaningful connections.
Intellectual and 1. 84% of peers perceive hearing-impaired counterparts as not
Physical Abilities facing disruptive academic barriers.
2. Intellectual and physical-motor abilities are not considered
hindrances in peer relationships.
Communication 1. 93% of respondents express a high desire for communication
Skills and Style with hearing-impaired colleagues.
2. 68% of peers actively use sign language for communication.
3. Both peers and hearing-impaired students consistently employ
agreed-upon forms of communication.
4. Peer interactions contribute to the development of empathy
and emotional intelligence among all students.

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Promoting 1. 86% of respondents expressed favorable responses toward


Empathy and promoting empathy and emotional intelligence among hearing-
Emotional impaired colleagues.
Intelligence 2. Inclusive classrooms provide a conducive environment for
fostering empathy and emotional intelligence among peers.
3. Shared experiences and understanding contribute to the
emotional growth of all students.

Table 2: Survey Result


No Questions / Statements Results
In accordance Don't know Not in accordance
with

1 I am friends with my hearing-impaired 91 % 0% 2%


counterpart because we are of the same gender

2 I am friends with my hearing-impaired 71% 2% 37%


colleagues because they need my help
3 I am friends with my hearing-impaired 82% 4% 14%
colleagues because they are nice to me
4 I am friends with my hearing-impaired 76% 9% 5%
colleagues because they often provide
assistance when I need it
5 I know that my hearing-impaired colleagues 89% 8% 3%
have the same academic ability as me
6 I want to help my hearing-impaired colleagues 89% 1% 0%
in their studies, if they need help
7 I know that my hearing impaired partner excels 84% 8% 8%
in certain subjects
8 I know that my hearing-impaired colleagues 90% 4% 0%
have the same ability in sports subjects
9 I know that my hearing-impaired partner has 88% 2% 1%
the same physical motor abilities as me
10 I want to communicate with my hearing- 92% 1% 6%
impaired partner in class
11 I often use signs when communicating with my 68% 1% 31%
hearing-impaired colleagues in class
12 I understand what my hearing impaired partner 89% 2% 9%
is telling me
13 My hearing-impaired colleague had no trouble 78% 9% 13%
understanding what I was saying
14 My hearing-impaired partner prefers to use 78% 3% 19%
signs when communicating with me and other
classmates
15 My hearing-impaired partner uses any form of 87% 1% 7%
communication to convey messages to me and
others in the class (Not always with Signs)

16 My hearing-impaired colleague has no 84% 6% 10%


particular difficulty during the lesson

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17 I want to learn a language that can be used to 91% 5% 4%


communicate with my hearing-impaired
counterparts in the classroom
*Rounding percentage results

4.2. Discussion
4.2.1 Understanding of Special Needs
The thematic analysis illuminates the depth of awareness among peers
concerning the learning barriers encountered by their hearing-impaired
classmates. This heightened awareness, exemplified by an overwhelming 90% of
respondents, represents a pivotal stride toward fostering inclusivity within the
classroom microsystem. The significance of this finding cannot be overstated, as
it lays the foundation for a supportive and empathetic environment, challenging
preconceived notions and fostering a community where differences are not only
acknowledged but actively accommodated (Sirem & Çatal, 2023).

Simultaneously, placing hearing-impaired children in regular classes with


listening partners does not automatically facilitate meaningful social interaction,
peer acceptance, and/or improvement in children's social communication skills
(Rocha et al., 2023). The microsystem arrangement of students with hearing
impairment through peers who hear will influence each other through the
perspective of the interaction between the two. Interaction can refer to any
attempt to get attention by communicating with each other through linguistic
and/or non-linguistic ways (Snoddon & Murray, 2023). Hence, good peer
support should strive to think creatively, harmoniously and nonjudgmentally
about the way individuals live and create meaning in life. To get all forms of
involvement support, peer acceptance of their hearing-impaired peers must be
formed. Peer acceptance of hearing-impaired colleagues who have special needs
is influenced by an understanding of their special needs (Rrofiah et al., 2023). An
understanding of the barriers and needs of their deaf colleagues can be formed
through teacher initiation in learning. Providing collaborative activities in
solving problems from the material provided by the teacher is a good way to
place children with hearing impairments and their peers to understand each
other and create relationships in the microsystems needed so that mutual
understanding arises (Rocha et al., 2023).

Moreover, the recognition of communication difficulties among hearing-


impaired peers goes beyond a mere acknowledgment of challenges. Peers, as
revealed by the thematic analysis, exhibit a sophisticated understanding of
effective communication strategies (Atasoy et al., 2022). This nuanced
comprehension suggests that peers are not content to be passive observers of the
communication barriers faced by their hearing-impaired counterparts
(Wasserman et al., 2023). Instead, they actively seek ways to bridge these gaps,
displaying a commitment to inclusivity that extends beyond a superficial level.
This finding underscores the transformative potential of peer relationships
within inclusive classrooms, positioning peers as active agents in creating an
environment that accommodates diverse communication needs. The
demonstrated understanding of effective communication strategies within the
peer group is crucial to creating an inclusive learning environment (Ali et al.,

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2022). This extends beyond the immediate classroom setting, shaping a broader
culture of acceptance and support within the educational community (Al-Rahmi
et al., 2020). By actively engaging with and addressing communication
challenges, peers contribute to the creation of an environment where every
student, regardless of their hearing abilities, feels valued and heard.
Furthermore, the finding underscores the importance of educators fostering an
environment that encourages open communication about diversity and unique
learning needs. By recognizing and celebrating differences, educators can
contribute to the development of a positive microsystem within the classroom,
where students are empowered to support each other's growth and
development.

In this study, peer acceptance of their hearing-impaired peers was found to be


very high due to their understanding of the needs and barriers that their peers
have, so that their hearing-impaired colleagues do not experience difficulties,
both in socialization and learning in class. Researchers observed this through
observational data. Children with hearing impairments do not experience
problems playing with their peers (Junod Perron et al., 2013): their interactions
are as good as their listening peers. Children with hearing impairments can
adjust to group activities just as well as their hearing counterparts but are not,
however, experienced in initiating these activities (Setiawan et al., 2023). Hence,
the thematic analysis results related to the understanding of special needs
highlight the proactive role peers play in creating an inclusive microsystem. The
heightened awareness and sophisticated comprehension of communication
challenges not only signify a positive step toward inclusivity within the
classroom but also set the stage for meaningful interactions and support.

4.2.2 Age, Gender, and Self-Esteem


The exploration of age, gender, and self-esteem within the peer perspectives of
inclusive classrooms unravels critical insights into the factors influencing social
dynamics. The resounding endorsement of gender equality, cited by an
emphatic 89% of respondents, emerges as a beacon for fostering genuine
connections beyond traditional societal norms. This finding indicates a collective
desire among peers to transcend conventional gender-based barriers, fostering
an inclusive microsystem where friendships are formed based on shared
interests rather than prescribed gender roles. Previous research also endorsed
that the community of children with the same gender makes it easier for them to
understand one another (Nelis et al., 2023). Children learn by imitation and
reinforcement mechanisms to behave in gender-appropriate ways, such as
playing with certain toys and not others (Rocha et al., 2023). Gender stereotypes
have a long-term impact on children's development. For example, stereotypes
about masculinity prevent boys from playing with toys that foster the feminine
side of their upbringing and develop socio-cognitive skills, placing them at risk
of future emotional dissonance (Efthymiou & Katsarou, 2024). This confirms the
findings in this study that one of the reasons they want to be friends with their
hearing-impaired peers is because of gender equality.

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Moreover, in a class setting, the level of education has become an absolute rule
in placing students in the class. This is to facilitate teaching in accordance with
their developmental milestones. Moreover, the negligible consideration of age as
a significant factor in peer relationships, attributed to predetermined grade-level
groupings, aligns seamlessly with the principles of inclusive education. In
classrooms where students are grouped based on academic levels rather than
age, the barriers traditionally associated with age-related differences diminish,
creating an environment conducive to diverse peer interactions. This aspect of
the findings underscores the importance of structural considerations within
educational institutions that consciously promote inclusivity, enabling students
to form connections based on shared academic experiences rather than age-
related stereotypes (Quirke & McGuckin, 2024).

Additionally, the high levels of self-esteem reported by peers represent a


cornerstone in the development of positive microsystems. The confidence of 89%
of respondents in their ability to form meaningful connections with hearing-
impaired peers contributes significantly to establishing an inclusive culture. Self-
esteem as a prerequisite for creating interaction is very important, because
enhancing and protecting self-esteem is a basic human need. Interaction in a
relationship will be directly related to self-esteem. Self- and teacher-reported
peer acceptance results in increased self-esteem in mid and late childhood
(Mustapa et al., 2020). Peers, as part of the microsystem, have been shown to
effectively build reciprocal relationships that have benefits for a child's social-
emotional abilities. Self-esteem influences children's social interaction
relationships which, in turn, affect all stages of positive development in their life
(Ahmed et al., 2020). When students possess a positive self-perception, they are
more likely to approach relationships with empathy, openness, and a
willingness to learn from one another. This self-assurance not only fosters
positive peer relationships within the microsystem but also sets the stage for
collaborative learning experiences that transcend perceived differences.

4.2.3 Intellectual and Physical Abilities


The examination of peers' perspectives on the intellectual and physical abilities
of their hearing-impaired counterparts unveils encouraging insights into the
changing dynamics of inclusive classrooms. Notably, 84% of peers perceive their
hearing-impaired classmates as not encountering disruptive academic barriers.
These findings challenge long-standing stereotypes surrounding hearing
impairments and academic performance, indicating a positive shift in peers'
attitudes toward recognizing the diverse abilities of their classmates. Peers are
motivated to form communities and relationships based on attractiveness
intellectual and physical abilities. This motivation has an influence on peer
perspectives on the abilities of their deaf colleagues who have the abilities they
have or have superior abilities in certain fields that will help them. Perceived
beliefs of others influence the expectations and value placed on achieving
success, which is a direct determinant of achievement behavior (Snoddon &
Murray, 2023). This is also caused by children who, in their environment, like to
compare themselves with their peers in all ways of characteristics, abilities, and
beliefs. These social comparisons ultimately influence how a person interacts

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with other people, who they befriend, and how they think and feel about
themselves.

The inclusive considerations expressed by peers further underscore a broad


acknowledgment that hearing impairments do not inherently limit intellectual
or physical-motor abilities. This shift in perception is crucial for dismantling
preconceived notions and fostering an environment where every student,
regardless of their hearing abilities, is recognized for their unique talents and
contributions (Greenhalgh et al., 2023). Such positive perceptions contribute to
the development of a microsystem within the classroom that promotes diversity,
inclusion, and collaborative learning experiences. Moreover, the findings
highlight the importance of dispelling misconceptions and fostering a culture of
understanding regarding diverse abilities within educational settings. Educators
and stakeholders can leverage these insights to design interventions that not
only address academic barriers but also promote an inclusive ethos that
recognizes and celebrates the diverse intellectual and physical-motor abilities of
all students (Nolan & Owen, 2024). Hence, the thematic analysis results related
to intellectual and physical abilities underscore the transformative potential of
peers in shaping positive microsystems within inclusive classrooms. The
positive perceptions observed among peers not only challenge stereotypes but
also lay the groundwork for an environment where diverse abilities are
acknowledged, respected, and celebrated.

4.2.4 Communication Skills and Style


The examination of communication skills and styles within the peer perspectives
of inclusive classrooms unravels a tapestry of insights into the dynamics of
interpersonal connections. The robust desire for communication, expressed by
an impressive 93% of respondents, signifies a collective eagerness among peers
to engage meaningfully with their hearing-impaired counterparts. This
eagerness forms a cornerstone for the development of positive microsystems
within the inclusive classroom, where open communication is not only
encouraged but actively embraced. The active use of sign language by 68% of
peers emerges as a powerful manifestation of adaptability and commitment to
inclusive communication styles. This finding reflects a conscious effort among
peers to bridge communication gaps, fostering an environment where diverse
forms of communication are not only accepted but integrated into daily
interactions. The acknowledgment that both peers and hearing-impaired
students consistently use agreed-upon forms of communication underscores the
importance of establishing shared norms, promoting mutual understanding and
effective communication.

Furthermore, the findings emphasize the significance of incorporating


communication skill-building activities within educational curricula. Educators
can leverage these insights to design interventions that not only enhance
communication skills but also cultivate an environment where students,
regardless of their hearing abilities, feel confident and empowered to express
themselves (Ali et al., 2022). This proactive approach to communication skill
development contributes to the creation of a microsystem within the classroom

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that prioritizes inclusivity, respect, and shared understanding. Hence, the


thematic analysis results related to communication skills and styles highlight the
pivotal role of peers in fostering positive microsystems within inclusive
classrooms (Al-Rahmi et al., 2020). The collective desire for communication,
active use of sign language, and consistent adherence to agreed-upon
communication forms collectively contribute to an environment where effective
communication becomes a shared responsibility.

4.2.5 Promoting Empathy and Emotional Intelligence


An integral facet of the microsystem within inclusive classrooms is the deliberate
cultivation of empathy and emotional intelligence among peers. The study's
findings illuminate the profound significance of these qualities in fostering
meaningful connections and creating an environment conducive to the
emotional well-being of all students, including those with hearing impairments.
Empathy, the ability to understand and share the feelings of another, plays a
pivotal role in shaping positive peer relationships within the microsystem
(Setiawan et al., 2023). As peers extend empathy toward their hearing-impaired
counterparts, it becomes a cornerstone for building bridges of understanding.
The microsystem, rather than being a mere coexistence of students, transforms
into a space where emotional well-being is not only acknowledged but
prioritized.

Moreover, the cultivation of emotional intelligence among peers is essential for


creating a supportive microsystem. Emotional intelligence encompasses a range
of skills, including recognizing and managing one's own emotions,
understanding the emotions of others, and navigating social interactions
effectively. In the context of inclusive education, emotional intelligence becomes
a key driver in building positive relationships, fostering a climate of acceptance,
and nurturing an inclusive learning environment (Hajisoteriou & Sorkos, 2023).
The significance of empathy and emotional intelligence within the microsystem
is twofold. Firstly, it creates a sense of belonging for students with hearing
impairments, reassuring them that their emotional experiences are understood
and valued (Armstrong et al., 2023). This acknowledgment contributes to the
development of a positive self-concept, crucial for overall well-being and
academic success. Secondly, fostering empathy and emotional intelligence
among typically developing peers promotes an inclusive culture within the
microsystem. Peers actively engaging with and understanding the emotions of
their hearing-impaired counterparts contribute to a harmonious classroom
dynamic (Maguvhe & Mutambo, 2023). This, in turn, has a ripple effect on the
broader school culture, fostering an ethos of acceptance, understanding, and
celebration of diversity.

Educators and school administrators play a pivotal role in facilitating the


development of empathy and emotional intelligence within the microsystem.
Implementing targeted interventions and educational programs that promote
empathy, perspective-taking, and emotional regulation can contribute
significantly to the emotional well-being of all students. Classroom activities that
encourage open discussions about emotions, differences, and shared experiences

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can foster a sense of empathy and understanding among peers. Additionally,


educators can model and reinforce positive emotional intelligence through their
interactions with students. By creating a classroom environment where emotions
are acknowledged, expressed, and respected, educators contribute to the overall
emotional climate of the microsystem (Chow et al., 2023). This not only benefits
students with hearing impairments but enriches the overall educational
experience for every student.

5. Implications of the Study


The findings of this study carry profound implications for the field of inclusive
education, emphasizing the critical role of the microsystem formed by peer
interactions in shaping the experiences of students with hearing impairments.
Understanding and addressing these implications is vital for educators,
policymakers, and practitioners committed to fostering inclusive environments.
The study underscores the importance of fostering inclusive microsystems
within classrooms. Educators play a central role in initiating activities that
promote collaborative problem-solving and mutual understanding among
students. Creating an environment where learning barriers are acknowledged
and actively addressed is essential. As such, strategies that encourage positive
peer interactions should be integrated into educational practices, ensuring that
the microsystem becomes a dynamic space for inclusivity. The theme of gender
equality and age-related dynamics within peer groups highlights the impact of
societal norms on the formation of microsystems. Recognizing and addressing
these norms is crucial for promoting equitable relationships within classrooms.
Educational interventions should aim to challenge stereotypes, fostering an
environment where students are valued for their unique qualities and abilities
rather than conforming to societal expectations.

The study reaffirms the role of self-esteem as a fundamental factor in successful


peer interactions. Educators should implement strategies that enhance and
protect self-esteem among students, creating a positive feedback loop that
contributes to social and emotional development. Peer relationships within the
microsystem become a vehicle for boosting self-esteem, emphasizing the need
for a holistic approach to education that goes beyond academic achievements.
Intellectual and physical abilities significantly influence peer relationships
within the microsystem. Recognizing and celebrating diverse abilities is essential
for creating an inclusive environment where every student feels valued. Thus,
educational institutions should implement initiatives that highlight and
appreciate the unique strengths of students with hearing impairments, fostering
a culture that celebrates diversity and promotes a positive learning atmosphere.

Furthermore, the communication challenges faced by students with hearing


impairments underscore the need for enhanced communication strategies within
the microsystem. Educators should collaborate with students to establish
effective communication methods that accommodate diverse needs. This may
involve integrating sign language into the curriculum or providing resources
that facilitate communication, ensuring that the microsystem becomes a space
where barriers are actively dismantled. Additionally, the study emphasizes the

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crucial role of educators in shaping inclusive microsystems. Professional


development programs should be designed to equip teachers with the
knowledge and skills necessary to foster inclusive environments. Training
should focus on understanding the unique needs of students with hearing
impairments, implementing effective communication strategies, and promoting
positive peer interactions. A well-prepared teaching staff is essential for creating
microsystems that support the overall development of every student. Finally,
creating an inclusive microsystem requires collaboration among various
stakeholders, including educators, parents, policymakers, and community
members. Schools should actively engage with parents to ensure that the
principles of inclusivity are reinforced at home. Policymakers play a vital role in
shaping educational policies that support inclusive practices, and community
involvement fosters a broader understanding of the importance of inclusive
education.

6. Conclusion
This research is expected to contribute to students with hearing impairments by
presenting a rich and detailed picture of their peers' views of their presence in
the classroom. Peer perspective will form a microsystem that can influence
students' abilities. The level of potential development of a person's ability to
complete tasks and solve problems can be supported through adult guidance or
when collaborating with more competent peers (Downes et al., 2021). Peer
perspective can also be used to maximize learning activities in the classroom as
well as in collaborative classroom settings (Fu et al., 2022). This research can
provide a reference for teachers to make the best classroom arrangements that
are suitable for hearing-impaired students with their peers. Based on the
findings, peers have an important role in supporting the participation of
students with hearing impairments in learning in inclusive schools. However,
further research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness of
the recommendations in enhancing the learning participation support of
students with hearing impairments in the classroom.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 320-340, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.17
Received Jan 27, 2024; Revised Mar 14, 2024; Accepted Mar 24, 2024

Enhancing Educational Practices during a


Pandemic: Examining Teachers' Journey with
Blended Learning in Rural High Schools
Sakyiwaa Boateng* and Siziwe Marwanqana
Walter Sisulu University
South Africa

Abstract. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, schools and


institutions all over the world utilised blended learning during the
mandatory lockdowns that were imposed by their respective
governments. This acted as a spur for educational reform. This study
investigated teachers’ experiences with the implementation of blended
learning in rural high schools during the COVID-19 era in one
educational district in South Africa. The social constructivism theory
served as the theoretical lens for this study. This study employed the
qualitative case study design. Purposeful and convenience sampling
were used to select participants for the study. The data were collected
using semi-structured interviews. The interviews were recorded,
transcribed, and analysed using a thematic analysis approach. This
study found that teachers perceived blended learning as easy to use,
simple, user-friendly, straightforward to navigate, and offering creative
modes of instruction. This study further found that teachers developed a
positive perception of blended learning and its potential use in teaching
and learning in the post-COVID-19 era, as blended learning promoted
students’ independence and engagement in the teaching-learning
process. However, the participants also experienced challenges, such as
a lack of pedagogical knowledge on the use of blended learning, in their
respective subjects, connectivity issues, electricity cuts, and network and
internet issues. This study suggests that schools implement blended
learning in the post-COVID-19 era to evaluate its impact on the teaching
and learning process.

Keywords: Blended learning; COVID-19 era; high school;


implementation of blended learning

1. Introduction
In early 2020, the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2020) proposed school
closures as one of the first non-pharmaceutical ways to minimise COVID-19
infections and transmission. Simultaneously, governments and educational
institutions from around the world initiated policy initiatives to keep educating

*
Corresponding author: Sakyiwaa Boateng, [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
321

the citizenry. However, questions and disagreements persisted about the content
to be taught, how it should be taught, and implications for educational equity
(Zhang et al., 2020). Nonetheless, national initiatives on technology-enabled
remote, distance, and online learning programmes emerged and evolved rapidly
during the COVID-19 era. However, the literature underlines difficulties
including online education infrastructure, teachers’ lack of technological
knowledge, and the complexity of the home-based environment (Murgatroyd,
2021). Nevertheless, despite these constraints, action was needed to protect
student education.

From a global perspective, China implemented the “Suspending Classes


Without Stopping Learning policy” to protect instructional time and to support
student education (Zhang et al., 2020). To do this, students and teachers received
standardised home-based teaching and learning tools and online teacher
training to assist students with online learning (Huang et al., 2020). In Indonesia,
the Ministry of Education published a Letter of Circular No. 4 of 2020 on
COVID-19 emergency education regulations, and Blended Learning (BL) was
progressively introduced into institutions (Pujilestari, 2020). In Africa, there was
a general acceptance of the need for strict measures in the education sector to
prevent the spread of the virus (Hub, 2020). In Ghana, considering the level of
preparedness of basic schoolteachers to fully teach online, Aboagye (2020)
argues that it was difficult for most basic schools in Ghana to fully transition to
BL. In South Africa, the President declared that the national lockdown would
begin on March 27, 2020. As a result of this decision, all modes of instruction
were required to be delivered online which constituted remote teaching and
learning in which the internet was used to deliver the content (Marcus et al.,
2020). Therefore, numerous training sessions on how to transition to this format
were conducted for both schoolteachers and lecturers from higher education
institutions.

Blended Learning (BL) is defined as the combination of traditional face-to-face


and online learning (Picciano, 2009). BL grew in popularity as a mode of
delivery in both basic and higher education institutions during the pandemic
and has facilitated improvements in pedagogical practices that provide students
with access to high-quality educational opportunities while meeting institutional
imperatives for productivity and social responsibility (Garrison & Vaughan,
2008). In particular, a BL environment can facilitate "a superior environment" for
students' intellectual development and competencies through "multiple
opportunities for reinforcing learning" (Dziuban et al., 2013, p. 326). However,
without technology readiness, the benefits of BL would not be reaped and the
probability of failure in adopting BL would be high. Therefore, this study sought
to investigate South African rural high school teachers’ experiences when
implementing BL to deliver quality education in their classrooms during the
pandemic. This study also suggests pedagogical approaches to learning and
teaching at the high school level to improve the academic performance of
learners.

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A convergence of related studies has indicated that BL has remained a


significant pedagogical concept as its focus is aligned with providing the most
effective teaching and learning experience (Saboowala & Mishra, 2021; Wang et
al., 2021). However, little research has been published on the implementation of
BL in South African rural secondary schools (Mahaye, 2020) and, particularly,
none of these studies have focused on the experiences of rural high school
teachers in the implementation of BL during the pandemic. Against this
background, the purpose of this study was to address a knowledge gap by
investigating the experiences of rural high school teachers on the
implementation of BL in schools during the COVID-19 era. The following
questions guided the study:
1. How do teachers implement BL in their classrooms during the COVID-19
era?
2. What do teachers perceive as their experiences with BL in their
classrooms during the COVID-19 era?
3. What are the challenges experienced by teachers with the
implementation of BL in their classrooms during the COVID-19 era?

2. Literature Review
2.1 Blended Learning in Education
In the last few years of the COVID-19 pandemic, basic education and higher
education institutions have increasingly employed the term “Blended Learning”
(BL) (Nikolopoulou, 2022). BL is a combination of face-to-face and computer-
mediated instruction. BL is an educational method that integrates (or merges)
online learning with traditional classroom methods (face-to-face learning)
(Saboowala & Mishra, 2021). Various models of blended learning have been
identified (for example, flex, online lab, self-blended, etc.), each offering unique
benefits and strategies for implementation. One prevalent model is the flipped
classroom model, where students engage with online materials before in-person
classes, allowing for more interactive face-to-face sessions (Nida et al., 2020).
Another common model is the station rotation model, where students rotate
between different learning stations, including online activities and teacher-led
instructions (Nida et al., 2020). The fundamental principle is that face-to-face and
online components are optimally integrated so that the strengths of each are
blended to create a unique learning experience that is consistent with the context
and intended educational purpose (Larkin, 2010). By integrating delivery
modalities, BL aims to provide the most efficient and effective learning
experience. Therefore, in integrated learning environments, students and
teachers collaborate to provide realistic opportunities for independent, useful,
sustainable, and ever-expanding learning (Graham, 2005; 2016). According to
Garrison and Kanuka (2004), the facilitation of a community of inquiry makes
integrated learning particularly effective. This implies that the community
provides a platform for collaborative activities between teachers and students
through interactive sessions, which increase student satisfaction and academic
achievement (Khan et al., 2012). This implies that BL provides time flexibility for
online learning, which gives students access to information at all times.

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Several models of BL may be integrated into different levels of the educational


system (Graham, 2005). These models offer teachers a set of shared features that
distinguish BL classes from traditional face-to-face classrooms. In the traditional
model of BL, activities may be created to enhance students' learning,
interactions, and cooperation with both their peers and the teacher. These
activities may include presentations, working with groups, and engaging in
conversations on topics that have arisen from their online learning.
Kudryashova et al. (2016) state that the in-person aspect allows teachers to
provide instruction covering much of the curriculum, while giving a lengthier
task to be completed online. Conversely, under the online model, the teacher
delivers all information and teaching via an internet-based platform, and
students carry out their tasks from a distance (Staker, 2011). Dix (2007) and
Trucano (2005) argue that students who have access to computers and the
internet at home are more likely to achieve mastery in their learning compared
to those who do not. This is because they can complete their assignments and
engage in extensive practice.

Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, this strategy has shown to be highly beneficial
as it was deemed the most effective means of fulfilling students' educational
requirements (Wahyuningsih & Afandi, 2023). A convergence of the literature
demonstrates that BL transforms pedagogy and has been linked to heightened
learning motivation in elementary school learners due to the provision of
autonomous learning opportunities and access to global learning resources
(Azizan, 2010; Hanum & Sari, 2022). Assessment is one of the most important
learning and instructional instruments during the pandemic. BL enables teachers
to deliver lessons and assess students' learning using creative and innovative
methods through online assessment platforms (Elmahdi et al., 2018; Khan et al.,
2012).

2.2 Teachers’ perceptions of implementing blended learning


Teachers' perceptions of BL are crucial for the successful implementation and
effectiveness of this educational approach. Various studies have explored
teachers' attitudes towards and readiness for BL. Zhang (2023) indicates that
there may be differences in perceptions between teachers and students
regarding the effectiveness of BL environments. This highlights the importance
of considering teachers' viewpoints to ensure a cohesive learning experience.
Studies by Masadeh (2021) and Wang et al. (2022) have demonstrated that both
students and teachers generally have positive attitudes towards BL, which can
influence the adoption and successful integration of BL models in educational
settings. Additionally, the study by Ye et al. (2022) emphasises that teachers'
attitudes directly impact their use of BL. Positive attitudes towards BL can
mediate the relationship between factors, such as ICT self-efficacy and
organisational support, ultimately influencing the effective implementation of
BL practices. Moreover, research by Alconis (2023) reveals that teachers exhibit
high self-efficacy towards BL and generally hold favourable attitudes towards
this approach, which can contribute to their motivation and willingness to adapt
to BL methodologies.

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2.3 Challenges of blended learning implementation


A recent study by Janse van Rensburg and Oguttu (2022) suggests that the
integration of BL into education poses many challenges for students, teachers,
and institutions. According to Waha and Davis (2014), successfully
implementing BL can be challenging, especially when the objective is to bring
about educational reform rather than just adding to existing practices. Powell et
al. (2015) identify the following challenges to the implementation of BL: (i)
barriers related to technology; (ii) a lack of universally adaptable data that
teachers can use to develop BL; (iii) difficulty in constructing appropriate
learning systems to support students; (iv) proficiency-based grading and
instruction; and (v) multiple forms of student evidence.

Barriers to the implementation of BL in rural schools include access to the


internet and teachers’ lack of sufficient resources or training to proficiently
employ the most effective strategies of BL (Burnham, 2021; Echazarra &
Radinger, 2019; Rasmitadila et al., 2020). According to a study conducted by
Prinsloo and Van Rooyen (2007) on how second-year accounting students from
an institution in South Africa approach BL and their experiences with it, the
inaccessibility of online material, due to a lack of internet connectivity, was
identified as one of the barriers to the adoption of BL. In similar studies,
students' readiness to learn in a blended environment (Sirisakpanich, 2022),
teachers' commitment and ability to effectively teach through blended
approaches (Alvarez, 2020), and teachers' competency (Rasheed et al., 2020) are
some of the challenges of implementing BL.

3. Theoretical Framework
3.1 Social Constructivism Theory
This paper is framed according to Vygotsky's (1978) Social Constructivism
Theory of learning. Social constructivism emphasises the collaborative nature of
learning, where knowledge is constructed through social interactions and shared
experiences (Al-Qaysi et al., 2018). In the context of BL, this theory highlights the
importance of learners actively engaging with online materials and participating
in collaborative activities facilitated by teachers (Varthis & Anderson, 2016). The
integration of social constructivism theory in BL environments encourages self-
regulated learning and emphasises the role of learners as active participants in
the learning process (Varthis & Anderson, 2016). This approach aligns with the
principles of constructivism, which posit that learners build their understanding
of concepts through interactions with their peers and teachers (Al-Qaysi et al.,
2018). By incorporating social constructivist principles into BL models, teachers
can create a dynamic and interactive learning environment that promotes
knowledge construction through collaboration and discussion (Marzouki et al.,
2017). Furthermore, the application of social constructivism theory in blended
learning can enhance student engagement and foster a sense of community
among learners (Sokout & Usagawa, 2021). By encouraging collaborative
learning activities and providing opportunities for students to interact and share
their perspectives, teachers can create a supportive learning environment that
aligns with the principles of social constructivism (Marzouki et al., 2017). This

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approach not only enhances the learning experience but also promotes critical
thinking and active participation among students (Wei-yi et al., 2023).

The relationship between teacher implementation of BL, teacher perception,


experiences, and challenges of BL in a constructivist classroom can be
synthesised to form a conceptual framework. The synthesis of these studies
suggests that the conceptual framework for the relationship between teacher
implementation of BL, teacher perception, experiences, and challenges in a
constructivist classroom should consider the impact of professional
development, technological challenges, student motivation, and the changing
role of teachers and students in a BL classroom. Figure 1 illustrates the
interaction between key concepts in the study.

Figure 1: Conceptual framework of exploring teachers' implementation of BL in a


constructivist classroom

4. Methods
4.1 The research approach
In this study, a qualitative research method was employed to guide the research
process. According to Creswell and Plano Clark (2018), qualitative research
allows the researcher to examine people's actions and report them in narrative
and descriptive ways. This study considered the opinions and experiences of the
participants and was conducted in a natural context. The qualitative research
method was deemed suitable for this study for two reasons: firstly, the objective
of the qualitative research method is "to better understand human behaviour
and experience" (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007, p. 43) which aligns with the goals of
this study, which was to investigate teachers’ perceptions of their experiences of
the implementation of BL. Secondly, the qualitative approach allowed the
researcher to examine teachers' experiences of implementing BL in a "holistic"
manner rather than in a "reductionist" fashion. Therefore, utilising qualitative
methods allowed multiple perspectives on reality and participants’ subjective
accounts of their personal experiences with the implementation of BL in their
classrooms during the COVID-19 era in a social context.

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4.2 The research design


In this study, a multiple case study (Yin, 2018) design was the most appropriate
for describing teachers' experiences with the BL environment, within one
educational district in South Africa, from the perspectives of teachers from
different high schools. The researchers considered each school a case, and the
analysis for each case was focused on the perceptions of the teachers in the
school as they implemented BL. The same information was collected from each
case and analysed across the multiple cases.

4.3 Sampling and sampling procedures


Three rural high schools that adopted BL were selected based on their
accessibility and proximity. Farrugia (2019) explains that purposive sampling is
a conscious and intentional selection of a sample that the researcher deems to be
the most useful in addressing the research topic. The researchers reached out to
grade 12 teachers, requesting their participation in the study. The study focused
on grade 12 teachers as they were responsible for preparing learners for the
matric examinations. Nine teachers, three from each sampled school, were
purposefully and conveniently selected from the list of teachers who
implemented BL during the COVID-19 era. This selection was made to prioritise
in-depth analysis rather than broad coverage (Farrugia, 2019). Nevertheless,
these teachers exhibited diversity regarding gender, age, years of teaching
experience, specialised subject area, and varying levels of technology utilisation.
In addition, these teachers were selected because they were the only teachers in
the selected schools who implemented BL. The others were not selected because
they used WhatsApp as a means of communication with their learners and did
not implement BL during COVID-19.

4.4 Research instruments


The primary tool for data gathering in this study was through interviews.
Seidman (2019) argues that interviews are highly effective because they allow
the interviewer to address specific concerns and generate valuable suggestions.
Additionally, interviews provide a deep understanding of participants' real-life
experiences and their interpretations and development of ideas related to a
particular phenomenon. Therefore, the semi-structured interviews enabled the
collection of qualitative data that explored teachers' firsthand experiences with
the integration of BL in high school classrooms.

4.5 Data collection


The researchers began data collection by approaching the three high schools and
requesting the teachers to participate in the study. With the permission letter
granting permission to conduct the study from the Eastern Cape Department of
Education, a researcher visited the selected schools and built a positive
relationship with the school administrators and the teachers. This was done by
explaining the aim, nature, and criteria of the study and encouraging them to
participate if they fit the requirements. An informed consent form was sent with
this invitation letter. Based on responses to this invitation, interested
participants who indicated that they implemented BL during COVID-19
participated in 60-minute face-to-face interviews, which were scheduled at a
time convenient for the participants. A protocol for open-ended semi-structured

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teacher interviews was created. Open-ended questions regarding experiences


and perspectives allowed participants to share their experiences (Seidman,
2019).

4.6 Establishment of trustworthiness


The interviews were recorded in audio format with explicit consent from every
participant. By audio-recording the interviews, the researchers were able to
enhance their presence throughout the interview by concentrating on the
ongoing topic. The researchers recorded all data-gathering operations in a study
diary. Keeping a record of all data-gathering operations establishes the
reliability of qualitative data (Remenyi, 2022). To establish the trustworthiness of
this study, member checking was employed to verify that the researchers'
interpretations authentically represented the viewpoints of the participants
(Johnson & Christensen, 2019). All participants verified and submitted their
interview transcripts and expressed their willingness to examine the study's
findings. This study included comprehensive information on the study site, and
the duration of data-collecting sessions to ensure the transferability of the data.

4.7 Data analysis


Thematic analysis was employed to examine the qualitative data and identify
recurring patterns, significant themes, and underlying meanings that arose from
the data (Yin, 2018). The objective of thematic analysis is to detect and categorise
recurring themes. The interviews were recorded on audio and transcribed
verbatim. The researchers conducted independent analyses of the data and
subsequently combined their codes. The next step was to gain familiarity with
the obtained data by extensively reviewing the voice recordings and transcripts.
Subsequently, each case was meticulously transcribed and compiled into a
comprehensive master file. By repeatedly examining the data, the researchers
successfully encoded noteworthy characteristics of the data methodically
throughout the whole dataset to identify recurring patterns. The researchers
established and designated the themes, both within individual cases and across
several cases. The researchers aimed to ascertain the precise content of the
themes and their interconnections with each other and the primary topics of the
study (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Subsequently, the researchers concluded by
thoroughly examining each issue in conjunction with the existing literature.

4.8 Ethical considerations


The researchers applied to the Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of
Education of one university in rural South Africa, for ethical clearance to
conduct the study. Ethics approval was granted with an ethics approval
certificate (FEDSREC3005-05-23). After being granted ethical clearance by the
university, the researchers then sought permission from the O.R. Tambo Coastal
District office for ethical approval to conduct the study in the three selected rural
high schools under their jurisdiction. Permission to conduct the study at the
schools was granted.

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5. Results
5.1 Biographical information of participants
Table 1: Participants’ Background Profiles
Teacher's Teacher's Gender Qualifications Teaching Subjects taught
school code Experience
HSA HSAT1 Male B.Ed (majoring in 6 years Mathematics and
Mathematics and Physical Science
Physical Sciences)
HSAT2 Female B.Ed (majoring in 8 years Mathematics and
Mathematics and Physical Science
Physical Sciences)
HSAT3 Female B.Ed (majoring in 10 years Mathematics and
Mathematics and Physical Science
Physical Sciences)
HSB HSBT1 Female B.Ed (majoring in 4 years Mathematics and
Mathematics and Physical Science
Physical Sciences)
HSBT2 Male B.Ed (majoring in 6 years Accounting and
Economics, Business Studies
Management
Science [EMS]).
HSBT3 Male B.Ed (majoring in 3 years Accounting and
Economics, Business Studies
Management
Science [EMS]).
HSC HSCT1 Female B.Ed (majoring in 19 years Accounting and
Economics, Business Studies
Management
Science [EMS]).
HSCT2 Male B.Ed (majoring in 8 years Accounting and
Economics, Economics
Management
Science [EMS]).
HSCT3 Female B.Ed (majoring in 10 years Economics and
Economics, Business Studies
Management
Science [EMS]).

Table 1 presents the background information of the participants. Out of the nine
sampled teachers, four have a B.Ed (majoring in Mathematics and Physical
Sciences) degree. Five possess a B.Ed (majoring in Economics, Management
Science [EMS]). Concerning experience, there were two participants with fewer
than five years of experience as teachers. The other seven participants had more
than six years of teaching experience. Concerning their major subjects, four
sampled participants majored in physical sciences and mathematics, while the
other five majored in EMS. There were four males and five females. Five
participants were in Post Level 1 (PL1) and four in senior posts (PL2). All
participants indicated they received some professional training on BL.
Participants were given pseudonyms as follows: HSAT1, HSAT2, HSAT3,

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HSBT1, HSBT2, HSBT3, HSCT1, HSCT2 and HSCT3. Table 2 presents the themes
and sub-themes that were generated from the data.

5.2 Themes and sub-themes from the interview


Table 2: Themes and sub-themes generated from the data

Research questions Generated themes Generated sub-themes

1. How do teachers Theme 1: Implementation of Preparation for blended learning


implement blended blended learning before class.
learning in their Access to digital tools for blended
classrooms during the learning.
COVID-19 era? The models of blended learning
implementation.
Frequency of implementation of
blended learning.
2. What do teachers Theme 2: Teachers’ perceived The teacher perceived the definition of
perceive as their experiences of blended blended learning. Ease of use of
experiences with learning blended learning. Promoting student
blended learning in their independence. Sustenance of learners'
classrooms during the learning and engagement.
COVID-19 era?

3. What are the Theme 3: Challenges with the Student-related challenges.


challenges experienced implementation of blended Teacher-related challenges.
by teachers with the learning School-related challenges
implementation of
blended learning in their
classrooms during the
COVID-19 era?

5.2.1 Theme 1: Implementation of blended learning


Preparation for blended learning before class
When the participants were asked about how they prepare for BL, there were
responses prioritising flexibility and adaptability in their teaching methods to
prepare for BL during the pandemic. Two participants commented:
“I carefully organised my online and in-person components before each
lesson during the epidemic. I usually upload the required content to the
Microsoft Teams application in an organised and easily accessible way. I
thoroughly researched effective online teaching practices and became
familiar with key technological tools to smoothly move between virtual
and physical learning settings.” (HST6)

“I revised my lesson plans to include online and offline activities,


ensuring a mix of synchronous and asynchronous learning. I dedicated
time to improving my skills using digital technologies such as
interactive whiteboards, video conferencing platforms, and collaborative
online spaces. I developed comprehensive tutorials to help students
efficiently navigate the online components. Consistent evaluation and
adjustment were crucial as I saw student participation and modified my
techniques accordingly.” (HST9)

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This implies that participants engaged with their learners using virtual
discussion forums, and pre-recorded lessons to ensure accessibility using
various formats for materials.

Access to digital tools for blended learning


When participants were asked about digital tools that were available for them to
use during COVID-19, all participants indicated they had a variety of digital
tools for themselves and their learners. They indicated that they had access to a
vast array of BL technological tools, online learning platforms like Microsoft
Teams and learning management systems such as Google Classroom. One
participant narrated:
“The Department of Education issued us with laptops and tablets for
our learners. Data bundles were purchased for both the teachers and the
learners, of which we used to teach online. I received training on how to
use online platforms like Teams and Google Classroom.” (HST4)

This finding shows that teachers were equipped with digital tools to implement
the online component of BL during the lockdown in the COVID-19 era.

The models of blended learning implementation


The face-to-face model
Most of the participants indicated they often utilised the face-to-face model to
implement BL. They described the face-to-face model as classroom-based
instruction using both traditional teacher-centred instruction and learner
instruction. One teacher explained:
“I delivered a face-to-face lesson using class demonstrations,
illustrations, and discussions and then I assigned independent
assignments or class activities to the students. Mostly, I prepare my
lessons using PowerPoint presentations and I emphasised my points
using blackboard illustrations during the COVID-19 era. Although I
had the online component, I spent more time with my learners using the
face-to-face model.” (HST6)

The online model


Four out of the nine participants responded that they often employed the online
component to facilitate independent student learning and whole-class learning.
Their responses indicated that they encouraged students to complete specific
online exercises, and frequently required learners to enter the online learning
programme to practice and watch video lessons and respond to class activities.
These participants added that they observed learners completing work and
submitting online and engaging in the forum discussion. One young teacher
who knows more about the online platforms explained:
“For me, I design the online component of blended learning often,
because of the pandemic. I didn’t want to be infected with the virus. I
posted all class activities and practice activities on the online platform
for learners to complete as individuals.” (HST2)

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The second strategy the four participants employed was to encourage their
learners to utilise online learning components by introducing them to the
significance of online learning and informing them of the available online tools
and software. They indicated that they posted many video lessons and audio
recordings of their lessons.

Frequency of implementation of blended learning


Most of the participants believed that the online and face-to-face environments
were consistent with their comprehension of BL implementation. However, a
few participants indicated that they did not often implement BL because they
felt very comfortable with the face-to-face component of BL.

5.2.2 Theme 2: Teachers’ perceived experiences of blended learning


Teachers perceived definition of Blended learning
When teachers were asked to define BL, most of the participants defined BL as a
combination of in-person and online instruction. Four of the nine participants
indicated familiarity with the term BL. One teacher asked:
"Ah, is that a rhetorical question? Of course, I am familiar with this
term. It is the combination of in-person and online instruction." (HST7)

Three teachers thought that the term BL referred to online learning and thought
that some universities had implemented it before COVID-19. However, they
indicated that they learnt more about it in high schools during the COVID-19
era. These results indicate a need to assist teachers in gaining a more
comprehensive understanding of BL and be able to distinguish BL from general
computer-assisted learning.

Perceptions of teachers' experiences of the implementation of blended


learning
When the participants were asked about their perceptions of their experiences
with the implementation of BL, most of them indicated they implemented BL to
conform to COVID-19 regulations. Otherwise, they were not ready to use an
alternative means of instruction in their classrooms. However, a few participants
responded that they implemented BL "every day" whereas others felt that they
were forced into BL implementation and decided to reach their learners for
lessons by using alternative forms such as WhatsApp voice notes and voice-over
PowerPoint presentation slides. All respondents indicated that they acquired
knowledge and skills to navigate the online space informally from the internet,
their families, and their colleagues.
Ease of use of blended learning
When asked about the perceived ease of use of BL during COVID-19, most
participants perceived BL to be simple, and user-friendly. One teacher
maintained:
"The online component of blended learning is easy to use if you have an
idea on how to use it or if you receive training on how to use it.
Otherwise, to me, it is easy to use since I can easily navigate through the
online platform, and it is also user-friendly and manageable for my
learners." (HST1)

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The majority of the participants agreed with HST1 that BL is simple, user-
friendly, straightforward, and offers a creative mode of instruction.

Promoting student independence


The responses from most of the participants were that BL provides learners with
independence and autonomy, which is beneficial. Participants believed that their
learners could engage in learning and complete readings and assignments at
their own pace and time. The responses from the teachers indicated that BL is
effective when technological tools permit learners to work at their own pace.
Moreover, learners can engage in independent learning using the platforms
provided as they interact with the learning resources. One teacher highlighted:
"I assign my learners to individual assignments as well as group
assignments, which they can independently and collaboratively complete
after engaging with video lessons posted to Teams.” (HST9)

Using these online platforms alongside face-to-face instruction enables learners


to have access to lesson content and to complete online assignments
independently in their own time.

Sustenance of learners' learning and engagement


Most of the participants indicated that BL is beneficial for cultivating and
sustaining student interest and encouraging student engagement. One
participant asserted:
"Blended learning keeps my learners engaged in the lesson as they find
the content to be more interesting when I post reading stuff online for
them to access and respond by commenting on the video on the content
for everyone to see. This allows for greater learner participation in class
discussion online." (HST2)

The participants maintained that BL sustains their learners’ interest in the


subject and expands their learning. They believed that BL extends learners'
learning by helping them develop 21st-century skills and connecting them with
real-world experiences.

5.2.3 Theme 3: Challenges with the implementation of blended learning


Student-related challenges
All nine participants articulated that they experienced challenges with the
implementation of BL in their classrooms. Most of the participants believed that
many students lacked the motivation to study the content being taught online.
As a result, the students had no interest in learning the online component of BL
of their subjects. For instance, participant HST8 narrated:
“Well, for me, most of my students do not show much interest in
learning physical sciences on the online platform. They neither attend
the live online lessons nor do and submit work online. I attempted to
encourage them, but they have remained unbothered."

Most of the participants reported that some students do not even attempt to
complete online class activities and would rather ask their peers to complete
their online assignments for them. In addition, the participants indicated that

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some students who attempted to log in online simply selected the answers
without performing the exercises themselves. Furthermore, most of the teachers
indicated the students’ lack of access to digital tools. They were of the view that
students had limited access to internet connectivity at their homes which may be
far away from the schools or difficult to reach. For that reason, their students
had a negative attitude towards the online component of BL. HST5 reported:
“To me, I can see that my students do not have access to their tablets
and computers to study online whenever they desire. Most of the tablets
they received from DBE were mugged by thieves on their way home. So
they no longer have access to these digital tools.”

This implies that the participants viewed students’ lack of motivation and lack
of access as the most significant student-related challenges.

Teacher-related challenges
It emerged from the responses that most teachers lacked knowledge about
possible applications of a BL environment in teaching. Some teachers struggled
with the use of technology in teaching online despite the training they received
from the subject advisors during the COVID-19 era. Some participants cited
insufficient knowledge of technological tools as a factor that influenced the
implementation of BL in their classrooms. HST6 explained:
“Although I receive some training on online learning, I still experience a
lack of complete understanding of how to use a specific app and that has
prevented me from utilising some online tools for BL after the pandemic.
Going back to the online component of blended is a no-goal area for me
[laughs].”

These respondents believed that teachers' limited technological knowledge and


skills prevented them from maximising the BL environment.

School related challenges


Other school-related challenges mentioned by the respondents were: a lack of
access to internet data; load-shedding of electricity; poor networks;
infrastructural restrictions; resource constraints; socio-economic inequities; and
community participation concerns. Some participants noted that insufficient
infrastructure for dependable internet connection and the limited availability of
technological items, such as PCs and tablets, are challenges schools face in
implementing BL. HST9 shared her experience:
“Well, as you can see, our school is a rural school and often face
financial constraints, with smaller budgets and less resources in
comparison to metropolitan schools. Rural schools often have financial
constraints, with smaller budgets and less resources in comparison to
metropolitan schools. Acquiring and upkeeping technological
equipment, software licences, and online learning platforms can be
costly for small institutions. Moreover, there might be a lack of skilled
personnel available to offer technical assistance and training to teachers
and students.”

There were responses concerning challenges experienced by rural schools

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with transportation, scheduling, and facility upkeep. Arranging dependable


transportation for learners to visit internet hotspots or off-site learning
centres was difficult in remote areas. Furthermore, the upkeep and
modernisation of technological infrastructure in remote school facilities
require certain skills and resources.

This implies that there is a need to approach these challenges effectively by


devising a comprehensive strategy, and investing in infrastructure,
resources, professional training, community involvement, and policy
backing. Collaboration among government agencies, educational
institutions, non-profit organisations, and local communities is crucial to
address challenges and provide fair access to high-quality education
through BL in rural schools.

6. Discussion
The discussion is structured around three prominent themes and their
corresponding sub-themes, which emerged from the data. These themes are
explored in light of the relevant literature, with a specific emphasis on framing
the discourse within the social constructivism theory. Social constructivism
emphasises the collaborative nature of learning, where knowledge is constructed
through social interactions and shared experiences (Al-Qaysi et al., 2018). In the
context of BL, this theory highlights the importance of learners actively engaging
with online materials and participating in collaborative activities facilitated by
teachers (Varthis & Anderson, 2016). This approach aligns with the principles of
constructivism, which posit that learners build their understanding of concepts
through interactions with their peers and teachers (Al-Qaysi et al., 2018).

The first theme addressed teachers’ implementation of BL in their classrooms


during COVID-19. The findings from the interviews suggest that all the teachers
understood what BL pedagogy is and implemented it successfully in their
classrooms. Within this theme, four sub-themes were identified: teacher
preparation for blended learning before class; access to digital tools for blended
learning; the models of blended learning implementation; and
frequency of implementation of blended learning. The study revealed that
teachers implemented the face-to-face and online components of BL differently.
According to the findings, some participants implemented BL using the face-to-
face model, while others utilised the online model. This finding is consistent
with the claim made by Kudryashova et al. (2016), who state that the face-to-face
component enables teachers to deliver instruction spanning the majority of the
curriculum while assigning an extended online assignment. This finding
suggests that the teachers' understanding of instructional delivery in BL is
primarily focused on in-class instruction. They appeared to view the online
learning component as a way to supplement face-to-face instruction with
additional exercises and practices, rather than as a way to make more effective
and efficient use of class time. Therefore, the frequency of BL's online
component implementation was drastically reduced to a minimum.

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The second theme addressed teachers' perceived experiences with BL in their


classrooms during COVID-19. The findings from the interviews suggest that all
the teachers perceived BL as beneficial for its ease of use and for its enhancement
of student engagement in the lesson. Within this theme, four sub-themes were
identified: the teacher perceived definition of blended learning; ease of use of
blended learning; promoting student independence; and the sustenance of
learners' learning and engagement. The study found that the teachers indicated
divergent knowledge of the term BL. However, no teacher referred to the
pedagogical aspects of such employment. These results indicate a need to assist
teachers in gaining a more comprehensive understanding of BL and its
applications to their core subjects. The study further found that teachers
perceived BL as beneficial since it enhances the collaborative engagement of
students and expands their learning in the subject. This finding corroborates
with the assertion that BL promotes student interest and engagement in lesson
content (Ndlovu & Mostert, 2018). In addition, the study found that BL enables
teachers to assess students' learning as they engage in extended learning while
accomplishing assigned tasks. According to Elmahdi et al. (2018), technological
tools improve teachers' capacity to evaluate students’ learning during BL
instruction. Dix (2007) and Trucano (2005) contend that the majority of students
who have access to computers and the internet at home, which promote student
independence, have a greater chance of mastering their learning than those who
do not. Following Vygotsky's (1978) constructivist theory that experience is the
source of knowledge and learning success, students construct their knowledge
as they engage with the available resources. In addition, students with limited
computer literacy were anxious to learn more about computer fundamentals.
This finding is consistent with aspects of Vygotsky's (1978) Zone of Proximal
Development, in which students are encouraged to study far in advance of their
knowledge and to progress from the known to the unknown.

The third theme addressed teachers' challenges and experiences when


implementing BL in their classrooms during COVID-19. The findings from the
interviews suggest that all the teachers experienced challenges with
loadshedding, a lack of access to digital tools for their students, teachers’
technological pedagogical knowledge, and a lack of access to the internet.
Within this theme, three sub-themes were identified: student-related challenges;
teacher-related challenges; and school-related challenges. This finding verifies
Rasheed et al.'s (2020) assertion that teachers face challenges when
implementing BL due to a lack of technological competencies. This suggests that
it is difficult to implement BL without having the necessary skills or preparation.

In addition, the study revealed that teachers believed that students encounter
challenges relating to their desire to learn online, their lack of proficiency with
technological tools, and their difficulties navigating the online space due to the
urgency of the transition to the online platform during COVID-19. This implies
that students did not receive any formal training on the use of technology for
learning. According to Trucano (2005), the use of technology varies by school
and subject, and there is evidence that students are still in the initial
developmental phase. However, Vygotsky (1978) asserts that learning in

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multiple perspectives and presentations is effective in supporting students in


making meaning. Therefore, the non-use of these technologies has a negative
impact on students' abilities to utilise these tools, if they were available.

In addition, the study found that both teachers and students faced limited
resources at the school level, such as a lack of internet access, power outages,
and insufficient computers and data. This result is consistent with Rasmitadila et
al.'s (2020) study, which identified the absence of internet access as a barrier to
BL. Despite improvements over the years, Echazarra and Radinger (2019) assert
that internet access remains a significant obstacle to the education of students in
rural school districts.

7. Conclusion
This interpretivist qualitative study set out to explore the experiences of rural
high school teachers’ implementation of BL during COVID-19 lockdowns in
their schools. In particular, the focus was on their experiences with BL. Using
social constructivism as a framework, this study has revealed that there were
attempts at the rural schools to make BL work during the COVID-19 era.
Teachers' perceptions of the ease of use impacts their implementation of BL in
their daily instruction, with the majority implementing it every day. The
findings confirmed that teachers consider BL useful in providing feedback on
student learning, giving students quick feedback, remediation, enrichment, and
engaging students in the learning process. However, the findings confirmed
that teacher technology competence and a lack of resources, internet access and
technology tools are barriers to the implementation of BL. In particular, the
study provided insights into the positive role played by BL during COVID-19
lockdowns by revealing the experiences of teachers with the implementation of
BL at the selected schools.

8. Recommendations
This study examined the implementation of BL by teachers during the COVID-
19 era. Therefore, the study recommends that schools implement BL in the post-
COVID-19 era to determine its teaching and learning benefits. According to this
study, the majority of teachers implemented the face-to-face component of BL
more than the online component. This study therefore recommends comparative
research using various BL models to determine which model is the most
effective for implementing BL in high school classroom instruction. In addition,
this study was limited to secondary school teachers in rural areas. Consequently,
the collection of data was restricted to the experiences of these teachers at the
selected schools. Hence, this study recommends that teachers' perceptions of BL
at all grade levels, from grade 1 to grade 12, be the subject of future research.

The study recommends that the Department of Basic Education increases the
supply of technological resources (computers, internet access, and Wi-Fi) to all
schools and provides teachers with professional training on BL so that they can
implement BL competently. The study recommends that teachers equip
themselves with relevant skills that include: computer literacy, techniques,

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methods, theories, strategies, and approaches that facilitate the incorporation of


technologies for learning and teaching.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 341-353, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.18
Received Jan 10, 2024; Revised Apr 8, 2024; Accepted Apr 22, 2024

Development of Early Childhood Education


Teachers in Information and Communication
Technologies for Literacy or Pedagogy
Lydia Mavuru
University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Alice Kuyayama
University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe

Joe Phaeton Mukaro


University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe

Abstract. This study aimed to establish how teachers were capacitated to


integrate Information, Communication and Technologies (ICT) towards
development of 21st century skills among Early Childhood Education
level learners, in the Zimbabwean primary schools. This is in the face of a
conglomerate of limitations based on teacher capacity, school culture and
access to the ICT resources. The study employed an explanatory
sequential mixed methods research design. Quantitative data was
collected using questionnaires administered to 126 Early Childhood
Development teachers drawn from 230 primary schools, followed by
qualitative data collection through analysis of documents, focus group
interviews and lesson observations with selected teachers. From analysis
of quantitative and qualitative data through SPSS and ATLAS.ti
respectively, it was found that teacher training colleges were strong in
developing ICT literacy. However, they lacked the capacity to empower
the teachers to integrate ICTs for instructional purposes. Such findings
retard the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development
Goals and the Zimbabwe Vision 2030. These goals regard ICTs as a
cornerstone in the production of knowledgeable workers and qualified
human resources for development of 21st skills among learners. Thus, the
study recommends adoption of a model characterised by an institutional
organisational context with organised internal and external support
systems that facilitate sustainable provision of balanced technological,
pedagogical and content knowledge for successful ICT integration in line
with the national vision and global trends.

Keywords: Early childhood education; information and communication


technologies; pedagogical practices; 21st century skills

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
342

1. Introduction
The need for integration of Information, Communication and Technology (ICT)
in the curriculum the world over cannot be overemphasised. Any serious
engagement aimed at developing the twenty-first century skills would be
incomplete without the use of ICT. Technology is now the channel through which
knowledge is transferred in most countries. Grabe (2007) asserts that technology
has transformed societies in terms of the way they interact, produce goods and
services as well as their ways thinking. Educational institutions, therefore, are
obliged to adjust the way they interact with learners and integrate ICT as much as
possible in order to meet the demands of the new world order.

The Zimbabwean education system, teacher training colleges (TTCs) included,


has embraced the integration of ICTs as a cornerstone towards development of
twenty-first century skills among learners, in line with the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goal Number 4. However, as with other educational
institutions in Zimbabwe, integration of ICTs in the teacher training programme
in colleges, is implemented in an environment with some challenges relating to
the capacity of teacher educators, access to ICTs and culture of TTCs among
others. The ECE level is the foundation of all learning. It must, therefore, provide
a strong base for development, learning abilities, lifelong learning and well-being
for children. According to research, the success or failure of ICT integration for
literacy and pedagogy lies in the teacher (Douglas et al., 2020; Masoumi, 2021).
Therefore, this study set out to establish the extent to which the Zimbabwean early
childhood education (ECE) teachers (teachers of pre-primary classes dubbed ECD
A and B classes) are developed and supported to integrate ICTs for literacy and
pedagogy (teaching and learning). Findings of this study were intended to offer a
deeper insight into the current situation in Zimbabwe’s teacher training and
support programmes for the ECE level; to facilitate solid investment in ECE and
craft intervention measures towards realisation of the United Nations (UN)
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially goal number 1. The study
therefore sought to answer the following research questions:
1. What provisions are available in the Zimbabwe teacher development
programme to drive the ICTs integration agenda?
2. How do ECE teachers integrate ICTs in the primary school curriculum in
Harare Metropolitan Province?
3. How are ECE teachers supported to enhance integration of ICTs in the
primary school curriculum in Harare Metropolitan Province?

2. Literature Review
According to Khan et al. (2012), integrating technology in the curriculum is
dependent on availability of the ICT tools, the level of technical expertise and an
understanding of how children learn. In the same vein, Du Toit (2015) advocates
for pedagogical training in using ICT in the classrooms. This means teacher
professional development should equip pre-service teachers with skills to use
applications and meaningfully engage learners. Curricula changes related to the
use of ICT (including changes in instructional design) should also be realised. Pre-
service teachers (or student teachers) should also be conversant with different
technology tools and changes in teachers’ role when ICTs are integrated in

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learning and instruction (Jamieson-Proctor et al., 2013). Türel and Johnson (2012)
assert that technical problems cause serious challenges to such integration. Issues
like low connectivity, virus attacks and lack of printers will impede the
development of skills. These should be addressed in pre-service teacher
development programme and built on and enhanced by in-service teacher
professional development. This diverts ICT teacher development focus from ICT
literacy (instrumental skills) to using ICTs as instructional tools (pedagogical
function) (Khan, et al., 2012; Bhalla, 2014).

According to Agbo (2015), professional development of teachers is at the centre of


successful integration of technology in education programmes. In concurrence
with Agbo (2015), Ra et al. (2016) found that professional development of teachers
has a significant influence on how effectively ICTs are integrated in the school
curriculum. As such, Prasad et al. (2015) state that research on the integration of
ICTs in different educational settings identified the inability of teachers to
understand why they should use ICTs and how exactly they can use ICTs for
learners to learn better. Unfortunately, most teacher training in ICTs are heavy on
‘teaching the tools’ and light on ‘using the tools to teach’ (Musarurwa, 2011). This
is supported by Hennessy et al. (2010) who found that when technology was
introduced into teacher education programmes, the emphasis was often on
teaching about technology instead of teaching with and through technology.

This study was predominantly underpinned by the Technological Pedagogical


Content Knowledge (TPACK) model (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). The organisation
aspect of the Technology-Organisation-Environment (T-O-E) model has been
adopted to complement the TPACK model in guiding this study. According to the
TPACK model, successful integration of ICTs in the classroom requires a balance
of pedagogical, content and technological knowledge, which cumulate to facilitate
learner optimal experiences (Ling et al. 2014), Technological Knowledge (TK) is
difficult to delineate because of the changing dynamics of the ICTs accessible to
the teachers and learners. In this study, this entails ICTs being available in the
TTCs, and ECE classes in schools, to determine how they can be productively
integrated. This concurs with Baker’s (2012) assertion that ICTs at the educational
institutions are central in determining the scope and pace of integration.
Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) refers to the way in which the educator and/or
teacher selects effective teaching and learning strategies, and how the content can
be organised logically (Shulman ,1987). This aspect has assisted the researchers to
investigate the PK which teachers are exposed to during pre- and in-service
training programmes. Content Knowledge (CK) means the teachers’ ICT literacy
levels (instrumental skills) and actual knowledge about or expertise in the ECE
curriculum. Drawn from the T-O-E model (technological context, organisational
context, and environmental context that influence the implementation of a
technological innovation) is the organisational context which denotes
characteristics of an organisation (herein the school); such as its size, resources,
degree of centralisation and managerial structure (Oliveira & Martins, 2011;
Tornatzky & Fleisher, 1990 in Baker, 2012). This has motivated researchers to
explore the impact of the following on ICT integration: teacher training
programmes, the resources (material, financial and human) needed, and type of

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the school (government, mission, council, and trust); which informs the
managerial structure (staff responsibilities, internal communication structure and
internal and external partners).

3. Methodology
This study employed the exploratory mixed methods research design (Creswell,
2014), following pragmatism as the paradigm.

3.1 Selection of participants


It is important to note that ECD A and B (pre-primary classes in Zimbabwe) are
part and parcel of the primary schools. From the total population of seven districts
in Harare Metropolitan Province, a sample of 230 schools was selected to
participate in the study. This was done through stratified random sampling, so
that identified types of schools (government, council, mission, and trust) were
represented in the same proportion in which they exist in the population. The 126
qualified ECE teachers from the selected schools were purposefully selected for
participation as they were deemed rich sources of data (Silverman, 2013) by virtue
of having ICT at their schools and using them for learning and instruction.

3.2 Data collection


First, a questionnaire was designed to collect information on teachers’ perceptions
of what motivates and compels them to integrate ICTs in teaching and learning.
The questionnaire was then administered to the 126 selected teachers. Through
responses from questionnaires, teachers found with ICTs at their schools (rich
sources of data), were targeted for involvement in focus group interviews,
document analysis and observations. A focus group interview schedule was used
to solicit data from 40 teachers selected in proportion to their representation
(government, council, mission and trust schools). The focus group interviews
allowed the researchers to probe for evidence, at the same time getting clues from
the participants’ body language with regard to integration of ICTs. To verify
responses from the questionnaires and focus group interviews, a document
analysis schedule was used to analyse school records (teachers’ work books, staff
meeting minutes, workshop reports and class inventories) of 12 teachers
(randomly and proportionally selected from the sampled 40), on indicators of
availability and use of ICTs; as well technical support to teachers on ICT literacy
and pedagogy. Information obtained through the questionnaire, focus group
interviews and document analysis was further verified through observation of the
same 12 teachers teaching, whilst taking note of ICT tools used and those available
in the classroom, methods employed and engagement of learners.

3.3 Data analysis


Quantitative data collected using questionnaires administered to 126 ECE
teachers was analysed using SPSS version 26. Descriptive statistics were run and
results revealed the teachers’ perceptions about their ICT competences.
Qualitative data collected using interviews, analysis of documents, and lesson
observations were subjected to a combination of deductive and thematic analysis
(Blum et al., 2020). Patterns and themes emerged.

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3.4 Reliability and validity


Employing questionnaires, focus group interviews, document analysis and lesson
observations facilitated triangulation of data collection methods and instruments.
This enhanced the integrity of the findings.

3.5 Ethical issues


Prior to the research, an ethical clearance certificate was obtained from the
institution where the research was conducted. Informed consent (Cargill, 2019)
was sought from the teachers to ensure voluntary participation in the study.

4. Results
It was critical for the study to solicit evidence on the following: the extent of
integration of ICTs in the teacher training programme and primary school
curriculum at ECE level, teachers’ competencies to integrate ICTs in the school
curriculum, and as well as technical support availed to teachers in primary
schools to enhance integration of ICTs.

4.1 Pre-service teacher training and integration of ICTs


In the questionnaire, teachers were requested to indicate specific ICT knowledge
and skills they would have acquired during pre-service training (Figure 1).

120
100
100
78.3
80 68.2 70
% Skills

60

40 30
21.7 18.2 20
15 16.7
20 10 9.111.4 10 8.3 8.3
0
Government Council Mission Trust
Computer literacy skills
Using ICTs as instructional tools in Applied Subjects
Production of ICT models in professional studies
Using ICTs as media

Figure 1: Responses of teachers on ICT knowledge and skills


Figure 1 reveals that 78.3% government, 68.2% council, 70% mission and all
selected trust schoolteachers acquired computer literacy (computer operational
skills) during pre-service training. These results showed that most of the teachers
across government, council and mission schools were computer literate. All
teachers from trust schools had technical skills to manipulate computers. This was

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confirmed by school staff profiles and interviews with the ECE teachers. The
following were some teachers’ remarks during focus group interviews:

Mission schoolteacher: I have done a computer studies course. I can source information from
the internet, do word processing and make a PowerPoint presentation.
But using these skills in teaching and learning different subjects, hey…I
can’t.
Government schoolteacher: It is critical for me to become ICT literate; given that I am supposed
to use ICTs in teaching across subjects. I know how to operate
computers and several other ICTs. The challenge is to use these
operational skills to enable child-centred learning. We have to learn
these skills.

Figure 1 also indicates that very few teachers were trained to use ICTs as
instructional tools in Applied Subjects (subjects taught in all the primary schools)
regardless of the school type. These included Mathematics and Science, Physical
Education and Mass Displays, Family and Heritage Studies, Visual and
Performing Arts (Expressive Arts), Languages and Information Communication
Technology. The results showed that during pre-service training, most of the
teachers were not trained to use ICTs in teaching and learning. This was
confirmed in face-to-face interviews with the ECE teachers as depicted in the
following response:

Council schoolteacher: My pre-service training helped me learn about computers. I most often
use ICTs for routine tasks such as record keeping, lesson plan
development, information presentation and basic information searches
on the internet. I cannot use ICTs to engage learners.

The figure also shows that a low average of 10% of teachers were exposed to
production of ICT models in professional studies. Professional Studies is a course
where student teachers are exposed to classroom practices that include the
different methods to teaching different subjects at ECE level. These results
showed that during pre-service training, not much was covered on application of
ICT skills in the production of teaching and learning media. Analysis of
documents and interview data also confirmed the teachers’ lack of skills in
production of ICT-based teaching and learning media.

Similarly, very few teachers used ICTs as instructional tools during teaching
practice (work-related learning) in all the school types. Teachers gave different
reasons for the limited use of ICT tools which ranged from scarcity of
technological tools to teachers’ lack of digital skills to effectively use the ICTs as
instructional tools. This was captured in the following responses during
interviews:

Mission schoolteacher: I cannot be just using the computer in my teaching. I have heard about
the projector, interactive board and digital camera but these gadgets are
not available at our school. During pre-service training, I was never
exposed to an ICT gadget other than the computer.

Trust schoolteacher: There is a problem of teacher training colleges producing teachers who
can’t use ICTs in teaching and learning when deployed at primary

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schools, whose ICT resources are better than the ones at college. I have
mentored such a student teacher who had never seen a digital projector,
interactive board and modem.

It emerged that the pre-service training of teachers was skewed towards computer
literacy not ICTs in teaching and learning (ICT pedagogy). It was also observed
that ICT tools available in ECE classes at school level, were not available at some
TTCs.

4.2 ECE Teachers’ ICT competencies


Using questionnaires, the researchers sought evidence on teacher ICT
competencies in specific teaching and learning activities. These activities were
reading, listening, watching a video, watching a demonstration and designing a
presentation. The activities were as specified in the Education Management
System Report (Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education [MoPSE], 2020).
Figure 2 shows teachers’ responses regarding their competencies in using ICT
tools in teaching and learning of specific class activities.

120
100 100 100 100
100
83.3
% Responses

80
Government
60
36.6 38.6 Council
40 33.3 30 30
25
20 18.3
20 10 106.810 Mission
6.8
1.7 0
0 Trust

Figure 2: Responses from teachers on their ICT competencies

Figure 2 shows that trust schoolteachers were more competent to use ICTs in the
different classroom activities (83.3-100%). This was however a complete opposite
of what happened in the other schools which have quite low percentages (below
40%).

Through focus group interviews the researchers solicited information on how


teachers from trust schools and the few from GCM schools obtained the
competencies to use ICTs in specific class activities. The following were some of
the responses:

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Trust schoolteachers: We can engage our learners in reading and listening tasks. They can
practise pronunciation using on-line audio dictionary. They can make a
recording of their own pronunciation. This whole learning process is
exciting. We learnt how to engage learners in such tasks during in-
service training funded by our school. We however perfected these skills
through assistance from more competent colleagues at this school.

Council schoolteacher: At our school, we enrolled at a private college to improve our ICT skills
so as to remain comparable to colleagues who are competent in using
ICTs in their teaching. We succumbed to peer-pressure. This has
transformed our teaching. We can use ICTs in some of our lessons.

Government schoolteacher: ICTs are excellent teaching tools. I got tuition from YouTube by
myself. I have also been assisted by a friend, who teaches at this school.
Now I integrate ICT tools in most of my lessons.

From these results it was found that in some schools (trust schools), the school
management made provision for teacher skills development so that they could be
competent in teaching twenty-first century learners. Such in-service teacher
development was important as pre-service teacher development failed to equip
teachers with the necessary skills sets. In certain instances, teachers sought to seek
development opportuinities themselves without the help of the school.

4.3 Availability of technical support to enhance integration of ICTs


ICTs are continuously evolving technologies such that even the most ICT
proficient teachers need to continuously upgrade their skills and keep pace with
the latest developments and best practices (Bhalla, 2014). As such technical
support in both ICT literacy and pedagogy is crucial as this reduces anxieties
associated with using ICTs in teaching and learning. According to the MoPSE
(2015), teachers receive technical support from a specialist computer studies
teacher stationed at every school to help learners acquire ICT skills; as well as a
technician to help with computer hardware and software operations, and on-site
maintenance of ICT equipment. The researchers analysed the school documents
to establish if such technical support was available at the different primary
schools. It was noted that the MoPSE had deployed one specialist computer
teacher at each individual school to take up the computer lessons across ECE and
junior classes. This, to an extent, helped to equip the learners with computer skills
but some individual ECE class teachers (especially teachers based at government
schools) encountered challenges in helping learners apply the acquired digital
skills in learning different subjects.

Inversely, the specialist computer teachers lacked ECE pedagogy to adequately


assist the ECE teachers to use ICTs in teaching different subjects other than
computer studies. It also emerged that most trust schools had technicians but in
some other school types, no technicians were employed. These results were
corroborated by the responses from focus group interviews with teachers as
depicted in Table 1.

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Table 1: Responses of teachers on technical support


ECE Teacher From: Response
Council School We do not have an ICT technician in post at our school.
Government Our computers are old. They break down quite often yet we can’t
school afford hiring a technician.
Trust school I benefit so much from the ICT technician. I can handle basic technical
problems.
Another Council I wish I could train to handle some technical problems. The colleges
School that train these skills are expensive. I cannot afford … my school
cannot sponsor me either.
Mission School I cannot fix computers that break down. The school has also challenges
to access cash to pay technicians for the job.
Trust School We have frequent formal and informal on-site support from our school
technician. I am not scared to use ICTs in most of my lessons.
Another Council We have a specialist computer teacher at our school. She only teaches
School computer studies lessons across the school. She is not an ECE teacher.
So it is difficult for her to assist me with appropriate methods to teach
my class using ICTs.
Another The computers at my school sometimes break down during lesson
Government delivery. I don’t know what to do. My lessons are disrupted. So, each
School time I plan a lesson using ICTs I must have a backup plan. This is not
practical. As a result, I don’t use the computers at all for fear that one
or two might breakdown before I finish my lesson.

Overall, teachers in the different types of schools concurred that technical support
assisted them to confidently use ICTs in teaching and learning. However, teachers
bemoaned the lack of technical support which undermined the effective use of
ICTs in teaching and learning. Such a problem was attributed to failure by teacher
training colleges to equip teachers with technical skills to use ICTs in classroom
instruction and basic maintenance skills. This meant that a technician on-site was
a priority. However, teachers at trust schools regularly received technical support
at their schools.

5. Discussion
This research found that the pre-service teacher training programme was skewed
towards ICT literacy rather than ICT pedagogy, which compromised the
integration of ICTs during teaching and learning in the ECE classes at primary
schools. This finding confirmed previous research in Zimbabwe which revealed
that the pre-service teacher training programmes had shortcomings in developing
teachers to integrate ICTs in teaching and learning (Konyana & Konyana, 2013;
Mukwananzi, 2016). Thus, integration of ICTs requires a substantial pedagogical
component in the Zimbabwe teacher training programme. Teaching ICT as an
isolated discipline at TTCs, resulted in incompetent teachers when it came to
integrating ICTs in teaching and learning of primary school ECE level learners.

It was noted that trust schools invested in empowering their teachers to use ICTs
in teaching and learning. This was done through providing ICT tools as well as
financing in-service training of teachers and teacher exchange programmes. This
went a long way in ensuring the integration of ICTs in teaching and learning.
Similarly, Muhammad et al. (2015) recommend that training programmes for
teachers should take on board ICT pedagogical practices to acquaint teachers with

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modalities on how to use ICTs in teaching and learning. The study found that the
majority of ECE teachers stationed at GCM schools lacked ICT pedagogy.
According to Ra et al. (2016), ECE being the foundation of all levels of education,
should be handled by teachers who have sound ICT PK. Though the ECE teachers
could manipulate computers, projectors and televisions among others, they could
not facilitate learner-interaction with these ICT tools to grasp concepts and skills
in different subjects. As a result, integration of ICTs for pedagogical purposes was
undermined. This confirms the TPACK model which indicates that if teachers lack
capacity, the implementation process suffers (Ling et al., 2014).

Some schools lacked ICT resources whereas others had resources, yet teachers
were not equipped to use the ICT tools effectively. Previous researchers e.g.
Tusiime et al. (2019) argue that ICT teacher pre- and in-service development
programmes should be aligned with existing ICT resources at school level. The
strategy adopted by trust schools to create an enabling environment for acquiring
ITC skills is consistent with the T-O-E model (Li &Jerry, 2020) which underscores
the relationship between ICT integration and the school’s organisational context
(resources and managerial structure).

In some schools, teachers did not receive in-service training on the use of ICTs in
teaching and learning. This finding was a setback in the realisation of the
Zimbabwe Government Vision 2030. This situation at these schools confirms
Mlitwa and Koranteng’s (2013) argument that the success of educational
innovations depends largely on the mechanisms put in place to assist teachers
sharpen their knowledge and skills in the execution of their duties. Similarly,
Bordbar (2010) argues that teachers’ pedagogical technology competence is a
major predictor of integration of ICTs in teaching and learning. Overall, the
Zimbabwe TTCs failed to facilitate provision for equal opportunities for learners
enrolled in different schools, in terms of integration of ICTs in teaching and
learning. This was contrary to the Zimbabwe Education Act (1987) as amended
(2020) and SDG 1 which emphasises access and equity to education for all
learners.

The study also found that some schools did not have technicians in post to provide
technical support to teachers. Technical support includes technical skills to use
ICTs in classroom instruction, basic maintenance and upgrading of ICT hardware
and software. The technical skills could be acquired through regular intra- and
inter-school and national staff-development workshops/programmes. According
to Karimi (2011), technical support to teachers should be on-going as ICTs
continuously develop such that teachers can be outpaced by the dynamism of the
technologies. This is affirmed by Tusiime et al. (2019) who state that successful
integration of ICTs in education depends on the continuous professional
development of teachers. This demonstrates the need to strike a balance between
ICT literacy and pedagogy as advocated by the TPACK model (Baker, 2012)
during both pre- and in-service training of ECE teachers.

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6. Conclusions and Recommendations


The findings of this study showed that development of ECE teachers in ICTs
integration was skewed towards ICT literacy rather than pedagogy. When ECE
teachers were deployed to primary schools after training, they found themselves
relatively incompetent to engage learners in ICT-based learning experiences. This
is contrary to the UN SDG 1 and Zimbabwe Vision 2030 specifications, where ICT
is the cornerstone for learners’ acquisition of 21st century skills.

It is important to note that the ECE level lays the foundation for the future
education of learners. The teacher training programme should ensure that
teachers develop competencies to facilitate ECE learners’ acquisition of twenty-
first century skills. More so, the ICT provisions at TTCs should match those
available in the primary schools.

The researchers recommend the adoption of a combination of the organisational


context of T-O-E model and the TPACK to produce the Organisational Context-
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (OC-TPACK) model as shown in
Figure 3.

Figure 3: Proposed OC-TPACK model for ICT integration

Therefore, there is need to transform both the pre- and in-service teacher training
programmes for ECE teachers, to strike a balance between ICT literacy and

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pedagogy as advocated by the TPACK model. The government should create an


enabling environment to ensure equal and equitable access to ICTs, including the
emerging technologies to bridge the digital divide among the different school
types. Likewise, schools should transform their organisational context (T-O-E
model), so that they have sustainable internal and external support systems to
ensure integration of ICTs, as is the case at trust schools. The internal support
systems could include income-generation projects and school-community
partnerships to systematically fund provision of ICTs, upgrade and repair of ICTs,
and teacher capacity building. The external support systems could include
partners from local industry, individual entrepreneurs and international
organisations.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 354-375, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.19
Received Feb 23, 2024; Revised Apr 8, 2024; Accepted Apr 23, 2024

Effects of Facilitating Condition, Social Influence


and Self-Efficacy on Science Teachers’
Integration of Digital Technology in South
Africa: A Regression-Based Approach

Samuel Jere* and Mamotena Mpeta


Department of Professional and Curriculum Studies, University of Venda
Thohoyandou, South Africa

Abstract. The ongoing failure to raise academic achievement in certain


science subjects across rural areas of South Africa necessitates the
consideration of technology-enhanced instructional approaches, as such
strategies can augment learners’ understanding. Therefore, this study
aimed to investigate the integration of digital technologies in teaching
sciences in a rural district of South Africa. The study was guided by the
unified theory of acceptance and use of technology as the theoretical
framework. A cross-sectional survey was used to collect quantitative
data. The research instrument was a questionnaire related to science
teachers’ integration of digital technology. The sample size was 158
participants, who were selected using convenience sampling. Data were
analysed using descriptive statistics and stepwise multiple linear
regression. The study found that science teachers’ integration of digital
technology was moderate. Stepwise multiple linear regression revealed
that facilitating condition (β = 0.446, t = 6.088, p < .05) was the most
important predictor of teachers’ integration of digital technology,
followed by self-efficacy (β = 0.295, t = 4.857, p < .05) and social influence
(β = 0.160, t = 2.213, p < .05). The study offers insights to policymakers and
educators on improving the integration of digital technology in science
education. Suggestions for accelerating the integration of digital
technology in economically disadvantaged rural communities are
presented. The implications of the study are that improving facilitating
conditions, self-efficacy, and social influence can enhance science
teachers’ integration of digital technology. Future research is required to
determine changes over time in the teachers’ integration of digital
technology through longitudinal studies.

Keywords: Digital technology; Facilitating condition; Self-efficacy;


Science; Social influence; Rural communities

*
Corresponding author: Samuel Jere, [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
355

1. Introduction
The adoption and integration of digital technologies (IDT) in science education
have been proven to improve the quality of teaching and learning through their
influence on conceptual understanding, learner engagement, motivation, interest,
and attitudes toward science (Olugbade et al., 2024). However, teachers in rural
communities encounter various obstacles in integrating digital technologies into
their lessons. As a result, the extent of IDT differs from school to school within the
same community and even from teacher to teacher within the same school
(Phillips, 2015). Some teachers utilise various digital technologies extensively,
while others hardly use any form of technology at all.

Despite common acceptance that digital technologies play a critical role in


improving the quality of teaching and influencing academic outcomes, barriers
continue to prevent its widespread adoption. Ertmer (1999) classified these
barriers as first-order and second-order barriers. First-order barriers include
limited availability of hardware and software and technical support, while
second-order barriers involve teachers’ beliefs regarding their own abilities and
the value of technology in instruction (Makki et al., 2018). Certain aspects of first-
order barriers, such as the availability of technological resources, have also been
referred to as facilitating condition (Wang & Chu, 2023). However, facilitating
condition goes beyond the mere availability of physical resources to encompass
policies that promote IDT in teaching (Venkatesh et al., 2003). Facilitating
condition may partly be addressed by providing the necessary resources and
developing policies that support technology integration in teaching.

Although the provision of digital resources impacts their integration in teaching,


not all teachers use these resources despite their availability (Lomos et al., 2023).
Teachers’ beliefs in their own ability to use digital tools and in the value of digital
tools in teaching ultimately play a critical role in determining whether the teacher
uses the available digital resources (Rubach & Lazarides, 2021). Second-order
barriers, such as teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs about their ability to use digital
technology, are pivotal in influencing teachers’ technology integration (Kim et al.,
2013). While teachers continue to encounter challenges to the IDT, these
technologies continue to evolve.

Digital technologies are advancing rapidly, bringing far-reaching educational


transformations worldwide (Jere & Mpeta, 2024). For example, an empirical study
found that integrating artificial intelligence (AI) using ChatGPT significantly
improved learning outcomes compared to traditional instruction (Alneyadi &
Wardat, 2024). Furthermore, AI can enhance personalised and interactive learning
by using prompts in formative assessment (AlAli & Wardat, 2024). Among other
innovative teaching approaches, researchers are also utilising Augmented Reality
(AR) designs such as marker-less AR, marker-based AR, and project-based AR to
support the learning of sciences (Hidayat & Wardat, 2023). Immersive virtual
reality has also been empirically found to raise learners' academic achievement
and motivation (Liu et al., 2022). Therefore, there is a pressing need to accelerate
the IDT in teaching, even in resource-constrained rural areas.

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In poor communities, low levels of IDT in teaching are caused by teachers’ lack of
digital competence (Lucas et al., 2021); lack of digital resources (Akram et al.,
2022); lack of professional development and technical support (Lomos et al., 2023);
absence of or poor implementation of policies on digital technology integration
(Lomos et al., 2023); and teachers’ resistance to the adoption of digital technologies
due to beliefs that are not in line with current knowledge of how children learn
(Tondeur et al., 2017). Despite the ever-increasing availability of digital resources
such as personal smartphones in communities, these resources have not yet been
widely adopted for the purpose of teaching in South African schools. For example,
it has been demonstrated that smart mobile devices, such as smartphones, smart
pads and tablet computers, have great potential for improving learning outcomes
(Leem & Sung, 2019). Nevertheless, it is disturbing to note that a study by
Mwapwele et al. (2019) revealed that in South Africa, teachers are resistant to
allowing learners to use personal smartphones in schools, despite their potential
for advancing learning.

Efforts have been ongoing to improve internet connectivity and increase the
availability of digital resources, such as tablets and computers, focusing on rural
communities in South Africa (Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, 2016). It
can therefore be expected that such efforts would increase teachers’ IDT in
teaching. In addition, the Professional Development Framework for Digital
Learning, a policy document, provides direction for teachers’ IDT in South Africa
(Department of Basic Education, 2019). Yet despite these efforts, the acceptance
and use of technology in teaching and learning remains inconsistent. Thus, it is
hoped that the findings of this study will provide both theoretical and practical
contributions to research on IDT in the teaching and learning of sciences. They are
intended to shed light on the factors that influence science teachers’ IDT.
Furthermore, this study has practical significance in enabling policymakers to
make informed decisions for improving learning outcomes. Hence, it is essential
to determine the extent to which science teachers are integrating digital
technologies and the factors that influence this.

To date, the extent to which teachers are integrating digital technologies in their
teaching and the factors influencing their decisions in this matter have remained
obscure (Fernández-Sánchez et al., 2022; Peng et al., 2023). There has been a
paucity of empirical studies to explore the combined effects of such variables as
self-efficacy, facilitating conditions or information and communication
technology (ICT) infrastructure on the IDT in teaching (Kundu et al., 2021).
Moreover, little empirical research has been conducted in South Africa on the IDT
in science teaching (Mwapwele et al., 2019). Therefore, this study is intended to
fill this gap by examining the extent of IDT and the effects of facilitating
conditions, social influence, and teachers’ self-efficacy on the IDT in science
teaching. To this end, the study sought to answer the following research
questions: To what extent are science teachers in rural communities integrating
digital technology into their teaching? What are the effects of facilitating
conditions, social influence, and self-efficacy on teachers’ IDT? The Unified
Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) guided the study.

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2. Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology


The UTAUT proposes four factors as the determinants of a teacher’s acceptance
and IDT in teaching. These factors are facilitating condition, social influence,
performance expectancy, and effort expectancy (Venkatesh et al., 2003). In this
theory, self-efficacy influences technology acceptance in a mediatory role under
certain conditions. This study focuses on the influence of facilitating condition,
social influence, and self-efficacy on teachers’ IDT in their teaching. In line with
this theory, self-efficacy influences the IDT by mediating the influence of
facilitating condition.

Figure 1. Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (Venkatesh et al.,


2003)

Although the outcome variable in the UTAUT is behavioural intention or use


behaviour, previous studies have equated behavioural intention to actual use
because these constructs are highly correlated (Leow et al., 2021). Therefore, this
study makes no distinction between behavioural intention and the actual IDT in
teaching. Our focus is limited to two of the constructs in the UTAUT: social
influence and facilitating condition. Facilitating condition is critical in situations
of limited availability of digital resources in education, particularly in developing
educational contexts (Lomos et al., 2023).

3. Integration of Digital Technology in Science Teaching


Rehmat and Bailey (2014) describe the IDT in science teaching as the suitable
adoption and use of technology within a science lesson to enable or augment the
learning of science content. In the same vein, Hennessy et al. (2007) describe the
integration of digital technology in science teaching as the exploitation of
computer-based technology in supporting science learning. Integrating digital
technology in science teaching should encompass all essential aspects of teaching,
such as record keeping, lesson planning, lesson delivery and communication.

In science teaching, IDT occurs when the teacher selects and uses appropriate
digital technologies within the various phases of instruction. Learning in science
occurs when learners conduct scientific investigations, collect data, interpret
evidence, and develop explanations, models, and arguments (Hand et al., 2021;
Manz et al., 2020). This implies that science learning is enhanced by such enquiry

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activities as designing and carrying out experiments, formulating and testing


hypotheses, interpreting collected data, and using it to draw conclusions (Inkinen
et al., 2020). Facilitating the learning of enquiry skills requires a shift from
traditional instruction, which focuses on transmitting information from the
teachers to the learners and relies on rote memorisation and regurgitation of this
information in tests (Bawaneh & Moumene, 2020). It is well documented that
meaningful learning occurs through the active construction of knowledge by the
learner and that the role of the teacher is as a facilitator of learning (Owens et al.,
2020).

Teaching strategies that foster active learning include the use of digital tools such
as interactive simulations, virtual laboratories, virtual reality, augmented reality,
animations, and other multimedia such as static or dynamic visualisations
(Fernandes et al., 2020). Teachers are recommended to use interactive digital
resources that create an engaging classroom environment in which learners
participate in discussion, reasoning, interpretation, reflection, and argumentation,
as these processes are essential in constructing scientific knowledge (Hand et al.,
2021). Moreover, teachers should select the teaching strategies depending on the
objectives of the lesson. When incorporating digital resources can help to achieve
the lesson’s objectives, teachers must consider integrating digital technologies
into their teaching. The presence of facilitating conditions in the school creates an
environment in which teachers can succeed in integrating digital technologies.

4. Facilitating Condition
The term facilitating condition refers to
“the degree to which an individual believes that an organisational and
technical infrastructure exists to support the use of the system.”
(Venkatesh et al., 2003, p.453).
Facilitating condition, therefore, refers to the teacher's belief that the conditions
within the school are conducive to the IDT in teaching. Teachers should have
access to computer hardware, software, and the internet. However, the literature
suggests that teachers working in rural communities often have insufficient access
to these digital resources (Habibi et al., 2020). In addition, such teachers may
suffer from a lack of technical support.

Schools should have technical support structures to catalyse the effective use of
hardware and software facilities (Teo et al., 2012). Unfortunately, insufficient
support has been provided to teachers, especially those working in schools that
are in rural areas (Habibi et al., 2020). Teachers require ongoing technical support
as well as professional development opportunities to develop their competence
and confidence in using digital technology for pedagogical purposes (Mannila et
al., 2018). Facilitating condition includes access to training programmes,
workshops, and mentorship opportunities that empower teachers to leverage
digital tools to enhance the teaching and learning within their classrooms.

Numerous studies have explored the effects of facilitating condition on ICT use in
teaching, producing contradictory results that justify the need for further
research. For example, Cabellos et al. (2024) found that improving facilitating

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condition increases the use of digital resources in teaching, and Teo et al. (2012)
found that facilitating condition indirectly affects technology acceptance. In
another study, Teo (2011) found that facilitating condition directly impacted
behavioural intention to use technology. It can therefore be expected that a lack of
facilitating condition would lead to diminished intention to use technology in
teaching. Based on the UTAUT, this study hypothesises that increased facilitating
condition increases the IDT in teaching (Venkatesh et al., 2003). In addition to
facilitating condition, self-efficacy plays a vital role in teachers’ decisions
regarding digital tools.

5. Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to individuals’ judgements of their ability to perform necessary
actions effectively (Bandura, 1982). Teachers who perceive themselves as being
capable of integrating digital technologies into their teaching are more likely to
persist and ultimately succeed in integrating digital technology. Moreover, a
teacher with high self-efficacy exerts more effort when facing obstacles, which
determines resilience, persistence and perseverance (Mannila et al., 2018;
Pearman et al., 2021). Thus, even when faced with barriers to integrating digital
technologies, teachers with high self-efficacy tend not to abandon their efforts.
High self-efficacy is required for teachers to explore novel pedagogies in teaching
with technology as new software becomes available.

Several empirical studies have investigated the effects of self-efficacy on teachers’


IDT. These studies have produced mixed findings, with some showing that self-
efficacy directly affects IDT (Kwon et al., 2019), while others have indicated that
self-efficacy influences technology integration only by playing a mediatory role.
Wong et al. (2020) found that self-efficacy has both direct and mediatory effects
on integrating interactive whiteboards as a technological tool in teaching.
However, according to Venkatesh et al. (2003), self-efficacy does not directly
influence the intention to use digital technology. This is supported by a study by
Peng et al. (2023), which found that self-efficacy influences IDT by mediating the
effects of facilitating condition, such as digital tools. Hence, in this study, it was
hypothesised that self-efficacy influences the IDT through the mediation of
facilitating condition; furthermore, we also attempted to determine whether self-
efficacy had any direct effects on the IDT.

6. Social Influence
Social influence, in this study, refers to the teacher's belief that their significant
others, such as the school principal, school management team and colleagues,
expect them to integrate digital technology into their teaching (Chávez et al.,
2023). If other teachers are integrating digital technology into their lessons, it is
deemed to be more likely that the teacher will follow suit. Venkatesh et al. (2003)
posit that a person’s behaviour is influenced by their belief of how others will
perceive them due to their use of technology.

If teachers feel that the school managers and other teachers value the use of
technology, then the IDT in teaching will be enhanced (Ifinedo & Kankaanranta,
2021). Studies have shown that support from school leadership and teacher

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collaboration increases the IDT (Xue et al., 2023). Therefore, this study
hypothesises that increased social influence will positively affect teachers’ IDT in
teaching.

7. Proposed Theoretical Model


Based on the reviewed literature and the theoretical framework, a model of the
effects of social influence, self-efficacy and facilitating condition on teachers’ IDT
was proposed (Figure 2). The following hypotheses are illustrated in the proposed
model:
H1: Teachers’ self-efficacy has a positive significant effect on teachers’ IDT in
teaching.
H2: Facilitating condition positively and significantly influences teachers’ IDT in
teaching.
H3: The relationship between facilitating condition and IDT is mediated by self-
efficacy.
H4: Social influence significantly affects teachers’ IDT.

Figure 2 A theoretical model of the effects of SI, SE and FC on teachers’ IDT

8. Method
8.1 Research Design
The study used a cross-sectional survey design. A cross-sectional study is an
observational study that allows researchers to collect and analyse data from a
population at a particular point in time (Wang & Cheng, 2020). In this research, a
cross-sectional study was used as it is less time-consuming and inexpensive, as
the researchers were constrained by limitations on both financial resources and
time. This enabled us to study the associations between the outcome variable and
the predictor variables (Wang & Cheng, 2020).

8.2 Sampling
The study was conducted in a rural education district in Limpopo Province of
South Africa. The population was comprised of teachers who teach natural
sciences at the primary level (grades 1 to 7) or natural science, life sciences, or
physical sciences at the secondary school level (grades 8 to 12). Ethical clearance
was provided by the university ethics committee, while permission to conduct the
study was granted by the Limpopo Department of Education. Participants were
selected using convenience sampling, which is a non-probability sampling
technique. Convenience sampling was chosen as it enabled us to select
participants based on their availability and willingness to participate (Wang &

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Cheng, 2020). Researchers had no control over the selection of participants, due to
both practical and ethical considerations. Hence, random sampling could not be
employed.

There were 158 participants, of whom 53% were male and 47% were female. In
terms of their teaching qualifications, 20.2% had a diploma, 77.3% had a bachelor’s
degree, 1.9% had a master’s degree, and 0.6% had a doctoral degree. The
percentage of teachers with ten years’ experience or less was 52.5%, while 47.5%
had more than ten years’ teaching experience.

8.3 Data Collection


Data were collected using the Questionnaire of Science Teachers’ Integration of
Digital Technology in Teaching (Appendix 1). The questionnaire was created
using Google Forms. The link to the questionnaire was sent to an official
responsible for teaching science subjects in the Department of Basic Education,
who transmitted the link to science teachers through their official communication
channels. The questionnaire was comprised of two sections, the first of which
described the purpose of the study. Participants were informed that the study was
to be conducted for academic purposes only and that their responses would be
confidential and anonymous. Respondents were asked to indicate their consent if
they opted to participate. Furthermore, they were informed that they could
withdraw their participation at any time without any adverse effects. The second
section presented the questions on the four scales of the questionnaire.

8.4 Data Collection Instrument


The scales in the Questionnaire of Science Teachers’ Integration of Digital
Technology in Teaching (Appendix 1) were developed by adapting validated
scales from instruments that have been used in previous studies. All of the items
in the sub-scales on the IDT were adapted from Vannatta and Banister (2009).
Items on self-efficacy and facilitating condition were adapted from Wang and Chu
(2023), while the items on social influence were adapted from Venkatesh et al.
(2003). A panel of four experts reviewed the questionnaire for validity and
suggested changes in the wording of some items to improve clarity; these
recommendations were then incorporated. An instrument is considered to have
an acceptable level of reliability if its Cronbach’s alpha value is between 0.70 and
0.95 (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011). The Cronbach’s alpha values for the scales in the
questionnaire, shown in Table 1, suggest that the instrument had acceptable
reliability.

Table 1. Reliability of the Questionnaire


Scale N Cronbach’s Alpha
SI 4 0.888
SE 5 0.829
FC 6 0.811
IDT 10 0.907

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All items were based on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly
disagree/never (1) to strongly agree/always (5). Self-efficacy had five items,
facilitating condition had six, and social influence had four. IDT had ten items.

8.5 Data Analysis


The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 28 was used for all data
analyses. The extent of the IDT in science teaching was assessed using descriptive
statistics. Descriptive statistics were also used to present the results of the
teachers’ responses on social influence, self-efficacy, and facilitating condition. In
the presentation of descriptive statistics, weighted mean values were interpreted
following the suggestion of Pimentel and Pimentel (2019), as shown in Table 2.
The relationships between social influence, self-efficacy and facilitating condition
as predictor variables and IDT as the response variable were assessed using
stepwise multiple linear regression.

Table 2. Interpretation of Weighted Mean Values


Rating Weighted Mean Interpretation
Scale Range IDT SE, SI, FC
1 1-1.79 never strongly disagree
2 1.8-2.59 rarely disagree
3 2.60-3.39 sometimes moderately agree
4 3.40-4.19 often agree
5 4.20-5.00 always strongly agree

9. Results
9.1 Extent of Integration of Digital Technology in Science Teaching
The extent to which teachers integrated digital technology in their teaching was
determined by analysing their responses to the items on the IDT scale on the
questionnaire. The items' responses included never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3),
often (4), and always (5). The findings are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Items on the Integration of Digital Technology


Item N M SD Interpretation
Overall weighted mean 3.07 sometimes
IDT1 158 3.94 1.187 often
IDT2 158 3.63 1.244 often
IDT3 158 3.46 1.348 often
IDT4 158 3.42 1.459 often
IDT5 158 3.01 1.321 sometimes
IDT6 158 2.87 1.312 sometimes
IDT7 158 2.68 1.360 sometimes
IDT8 158 2.68 1.373 sometimes
IDT9 158 2.56 1.356 sometimes
IDT10 158 2.47 1.324 rarely
N = Sample size; M = Weighted mean; SD = Standard deviation

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The overall mean of 3.07 for IDT implies that the science teachers’ IDT is only
implemented sometimes. There is no evidence that the teachers often use
technology in their science teaching. This indicates that the integration of digital
technology in teaching is at a moderate level. The teachers’ use of technology for
lesson planning, the creation of instructional materials and assessment was above
average, while their use of technology in presenting information to learners, using
content-specific educational software, simulations and gamification and creating
electronic templates to guide learners in using computers was below average.

9.2 Facilitating Conditions, Social Influence and Self-Efficacy


Descriptive statistics of the teachers' responses on facilitating condition, social
influence, and self-efficacy are displayed in Table 4. The mean for facilitating
condition is 2.81, below the overall mean of 2.94, implying that the science
teachers moderately agreed that schools had adequate facilitating conditions.
Similarly, the teachers moderately agreed that policies were available for enhancing
digital competence at the country or district level (FC1, M = 3.09). They also
moderately agreed about the availability of such policies at the school level (FC2, M
= 2.70). The teachers agreed that professional development opportunities were
available (FC3, M = 3.58). In addition, they moderately agreed about the availability
of digital resources (FC4, M = 2.86) and facilities such as the internet, computer
tablets and interactive whiteboards (FC5, M = 2.72). However, they disagreed that
educational software, such as Moodle or Google Classroom, was available for
them at school (FC6, M = 1.92). In summary, facilitating condition was moderately
available in schools.

Social influence had a mean of 2.94, which aligns with the overall mean. This
implies that the teachers believed that social influence was significant in their IDT.
The teachers moderately agreed that they used digital technology because other
teachers used it (SI1, M = 2.77). They also moderately agreed that the school's senior
managers supported them in integrating technology (SI2, M = 2.80), that the senior
staff members were very supportive of the use of digital technology (SI3, M =
3.23), and that their school supported the use of digital technology in teaching
(SI4, M = 2.96).

SE had a mean of 3.85, which was above the overall mean of 2.94. This implies that
the teachers believed that they could integrate digital technology into their
teaching. The respondents agreed that they could acquire digital technology skills
(SE1, M = 4.16), use digital technology effectively in their teaching (SE2, M = 4.09),
and overcome the difficulties of using digital technology in their teaching (SE3, M
= 3.49). They also believed they would overcome the difficulties of IDT with
assistance (SE4, M = 3.80). The participants agreed they could respond to various
digital technology uses in their teaching (SE5, M =3.75). Therefore, it was
concluded that the science teachers had high self-efficacy beliefs.

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Table 4. Ratings of Facilitating Conditions, Social Influence and Self-efficacy


Item N M SD Interpretation
Overall weighted mean 158 2.94 moderately agree
Facilitating Conditions (FC) 158 2.81 moderately agree
FC1 158 3.09 1.281 moderately agree
FC2 158 2.70 1.324 moderately agree
FC3 158 3.58 1.327 agree
FC4 158 2.86 1.416 moderately agree
FC5 158 2.72 1.409 moderately agree
FC6 158 1.92 1.224 disagree
Social Influence (SI) 158 2.94 moderately agree
SI1 158 2.77 1.346 moderately agree
SI2 158 2.80 1.430 moderately agree
SI3 158 3.23 1.382 moderately agree
SI4 158 2.96 1.411 moderately agree
Self-efficacy (SE) 158 3.85 agree
SE1 158 4.16 1.105 agree
SE2 158 4.09 1.175 agree
SE3 158 3.46 1.399 agree
SE4 158 3.80 1.245 agree
SE5 158 3.75 1.231 agree
N = Sample size; M = Mean; SD = Standard deviation

9.3 Effects of Facilitating Conditions, Social Influence and Self-efficacy on the


Integration of Digital Technology
Stepwise multiple linear regression was used to assess the influence of facilitating
conditions, social influence, and self-efficiency on the science teachers’ integration
of digital technology. The data were assessed to determine whether the
assumptions of multiple linear regression were not violated. The assumptions
assessed were linearity, homoscedasticity, normality of errors, and independence
of errors (Flatt & Jacobs, 2019).

The independence of error terms was assessed using the Durban-Watson


coefficient, which was found to be 2.056, a value greater than one but less than
three, confirming that the error terms were independent (Flatt & Jacobs, 2019). We
then ascertained whether the errors were normally distributed through a visual
inspection of the histogram of standardised residuals. As can be seen in Figure 3,
the error terms were approximately normally distributed.

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Figure 3. Histogram of Standardised Residuals

The assumption of homogeneity of variance (homoscedasticity) and linearity was


checked through a visual inspection of the scatterplots of residuals versus
predicted values (Figure 4). As most of the points on the scatterplot had an
approximately rectangular shape, with most of the points being concentrated
around zero, it was assumed that homogeneity of variance had been met. Figure
4 also shows a random scattering of points around the standardised residual = 0
line with no systematic pattern or curvature in scatterplots; this shows that the
linearity assumption was satisfied.

Figure 4. Relationships between Standardised Predicted Value and Regression


Standardised Residual

After checking that the assumptions of multiple linear regression were not
violated, we used stepwise multiple linear regression to determine the
relationship between the predicted variable (integration of digital technology)
and the three predictor variables - facilitating conditions, social influence and self-
efficacy. We ran the multiple linear regression and used the Casewise diagnostic

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function in SPSS to identify outliers. One outlier was identified and deleted,
reducing the sample size from 159 to 158. Then, we reran the regression. The
results are displayed in Table 5.

Table 5. Final Model of Predictive Effects of FC, SE and SI on IDT


Item B Std Error β t p
Intercept 0.229 0.226 0.990 0.324
FC 0.458 0.075 0.446 6.088 < .05
SE 0.304 0.063 0.295 4.857 < .05
SI 0.131 0.059 0.160 2.213 < .05
R2 = 0.567 Adj R2 = 0.558 F(1.154) = 4.895; p < .05

The final regression model included all three predictor variables. The analysis
results indicate that 55.8% of the variance in teachers’ IDT is collectively
accounted for by facilitating conditions, self-efficacy and social influence. In
addition, the results reveal that facilitating conditions were a significant positive
predictor of the teachers’ IDT in teaching (β = 0.446, t = 6.088, p < .05). Based on
this, H1 was accepted. Self-efficacy was also found to be a positive significant
predictor of the teachers’ IDT (β = 0.295, t = 4.857, p < .05). Based on this, H2 was
accepted. Similarly, social influence was found to be a positive significant
predictor of the teachers’ IDT in science teaching (β = 0.160, t = 2.213, p < .05).
Hence, H3 was accepted.

The facilitating condition was the most critical predictor of teachers' IDT, as an
increase of ten units in facilitating condition was found to increase the teachers’
IDT by 4.46 units. In other words, improving facilitating conditions improves the
teachers’ IDT. Self-efficacy was the second most crucial predictor, as increasing
the teachers’ self-efficacy by ten units increases their IDT by almost three units.
This implies that it is essential to implement measures that improve the teachers’
digital self-efficacy in order to improve the IDT in science teaching. The least
significant predictor of the teachers’ IDT was found to be social influence, with a
β value of 0.160; this indicates that that increasing social influence by ten units
increases the IDT by only 1.6 units.

In order to test the fourth hypothesis that self-efficacy mediates the effect of
facilitating conditions on the teachers’ IDT, a moderation analysis was performed
using PROCESS SPSS macro (Hayes, 2022). In performing this regression, the
variables were centred, and unstandardised B coefficients were produced. As in
the previous regression, self-efficacy (B = 0.0341, t = 5.187, p < .05) and facilitating
condition (B = 0.548, t = 8.586, p < .05) were found to be positive significant
predictors of the teachers’ IDT. However, the interaction effect (p = 0.653) was not
found to be a statistically significant predictor of the teachers’ IDT (Table 6). Based
on this, H4 was rejected. We found no evidence that self-efficacy is a significant
moderator of the relationship between facilitating condition and the teachers’ IDT
in teaching science.

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Table 6. SE as a Moderator of FC and IDT


B Std t p 95% CI
Error Low High
Intercept 3.063 0.057 53.416 0.000 2.949 3.175
FC (A) 0.548 0.064 8.586 0.000 0.422 0.675
SE (B) 0.341 0.066 5.187 0.000 0.211 0.470
AXB 0.025 0.055 0.450 0.653 -0.84 0.134
R = 0.554; F(3.154) = 63.681; p < .05
2

The results suggest that social influence, self-efficacy, and facilitating conditions
significantly positively affect teachers’ IDT in teaching. The relationship between
facilitating conditions and the IDT is not mediated by self-efficacy.

10. Discussion
The study revealed that the extent of digital technology integration in rural
communities in science teaching is moderate, as the participants did not integrate
digital technology frequently. In line with previous studies (Valverde-Berrocoso
et al., 2021), the teachers reported that they used technology in lesson preparation
to gather information, in the creation of instructional and assessment handouts
and in record keeping, as well as using Microsoft Word for various purposes. The
study showed that there was a low frequency of technology use in terms of the
presentation of information to learners, the adaptation of activities to learners’
individual needs, and the integration of multimedia, simulations, and games in
instruction. This also supports the study by Guillén-Gámez et al. (2021), which
revealed that teachers have an excellent knowledge of digital tools, but that their
use in teaching is low.

The low levels of integration of multimedia, simulations and gamification


revealed in this study have severe ramifications and contribute to the failure to
raise academic achievement in sciences in rural areas. Particularly in science
subjects, concepts are both abstract and complex, requiring visualisation to make
them accessible to learners (Liu et al., 2022). Therefore, teachers in rural schools
should use visual digital tools in lesson presentations more frequently to raise
academic achievement.

The multiple linear regression analysis results revealed that self-efficacy has a
positive, significant effect on teachers’ integration of digital technology. This
finding supports the results of Peng et al. (2023), who found that self-efficacy
influences pre-service teachers’ ICT integration (β = 2.00, p < .05). However, in
addition to self-efficacy having a direct effect on ICT integration, Peng et al. (2023)
also found that self-efficacy was a mediator of ICT integration through attitudes,
digital competence, and digital tool utilisation. Our study did not support the
hypothesis that self-efficacy mediated the effects of facilitating conditions on the
teachers’ integration of digital technology.

The results of this study support the findings of Cabellos et al. (2024) that
facilitating condition has a significant positive effect on teachers’ integration of
digital technology. However, Teo (2010) found that facilitating conditions did not

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directly affect pre-service teachers’ intention to use digital technology. Our results
support the findings made by Teo (2011) and Sharma and Saini (2022) that
facilitating conditions directly impact teachers’ intention and actual use of digital
technology in teaching. In addition, we found that social influence significantly
impacts teachers' integration of digital technology, which aligns with the results
of Buraimoh et al. (2023). Improving facilitating conditions, self-efficacy, and
social influence will likely lead to enhanced integration of digital technology by
science teachers.

11. Implications of the Study and Recommendations for Future Research


A critical finding of this study was that the facilitating conditions in schools, in
terms of the availability of the necessary resources and support, were deemed to
be moderate. School policies allowing learners to utilise personal digital devices
such as smartphones and laptops at school would improve facilitating conditions
(Mwapwele et al., 2019). Although the teachers moderately agreed regarding the
availability of some digital resources, they disagreed that they had access to
educational software including Learning Management Systems (LMS) such as
Moodle, Google Classroom and Canvas. LMS are e-learning systems that enable
learners to access content, assignments and assessments from their teachers
anywhere and at any time, as long as they are connected to the internet (Ifliadi et
al., 2024). Hence, schools and the education department should prioritise the
acquisition of software that supports teachers using digital resources to improve
educational outcomes. The level of social influence was found to be moderate. The
teachers believed that people who were significant to them, such as principals and
district officials, valued and expected them to use digital technology in their
teaching. Therefore, education leaders and policymakers should leverage this by
employing influential teachers to champion the integration of digital technology
to encourage their peers. The study found that science teachers had high self-
efficacy. Therefore, education leaders should reinforce teachers' professional
development efforts to maintain high levels of self-efficacy. In summary, teacher
training, ICT infrastructure development, the provision of quality digital content,
the development of policies that support IDT, and financial resources (Ifliadi et
al., 2024) are the critical requirements for enhancing the IDT in science teaching.

We recommend that prospective studies examine the long-term effects of


integrating digital technology on learning outcomes through longitudinal studies.
Such studies can consider other variables, such as the classroom’s emotional
climate, in rural resource-constrained environments while integrating digital
technology. The use of other research designs to investigate teachers’ integration
of digital technology, such as longitudinal, qualitative, and mixed methods
approaches, will advance a more comprehensive understanding of teachers’
integration of digital technology in science teaching in developing nations.

12. Conclusion
The extent to which science teachers are integrating digital technology in teaching
was found to be moderate. Facilitating condition, self-efficacy, and social
influence were found to be positively and significantly correlated with the
teachers’ IDT. Facilitating condition was the most critical predictor of IDT,

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followed by self-efficacy, with social influence being the least significant. Teachers
indicated that facilitating conditions were moderately available, indicating that it
is imperative to improve the provision of facilitating conditions in rural areas of
South Africa. Governments should invest in improving schools’ ICT
infrastructure, work with parents to equip learners with personal computing
devices and find ways to subsidise learners' acquisition of such devices.
Additionally, governments must implement initiatives to improve connectivity
and the availability of computing devices for learners to accelerate the transition
from physical classrooms centred on traditional knowledge transmission to
digital classrooms. Furthermore, in poor rural communities, support through
continuous professional development would help teachers to update their skills
and raise their levels of self-efficacy.

Limitations existed in this study in relation to the population of science teachers


studied, the sampling method techniques and research design. Therefore, this
affected the generalisability of the results to the entire population. The sampling
could have included other critical educational stakeholders such as principals,
education officials, and pupils to expand the scope of the study and obtain a more
nuanced understanding. Also, the results may not be generalised to all teachers
as the study was based only on science teachers in rural communities. Moreover,
the study relied on self-reporting, and the teachers’ actual integration of digital
technology may differ from their reported use of digital technology.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the participants for the contributions they made, the
University of Venda Research Ethics Committee for providing ethical clearance
and the Limpopo Department of Education for granting permission to conduct
the study.

Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that no conflict of interest exists.

Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all of the participants involved in the study.

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Appendix 1: Questionnaire of Science Teachers’ Integration of Digital


Technology in Teaching

Rate the statements in Sections 1, 2, and 3 from Strongly disagree (1), Disagree
(2), Neither agree nor disagree (3), Agree (4) to Strongly agree (5)
1. Social Influence (Venkatesh et al., 2003)
SI1. I use digital technology because many other teachers use it.
SI2. The senior management of the school (principal and school management
team) has been helpful in the use of digital technology for teaching.
SI3. My supervisor (principal/deputy principal/HOD) is very supportive of the
use of digital technology in my teaching.
SI4. The school, circuit, and district have generally supported using digital
technology in teaching.

2. Self-Efficacy (Wang and Chu, 2023)


SE1. I can obtain digital technology skills if I try hard enough.
SE2. I can use digital technology in teaching effectively if I have enough time.
SE3. I can overcome the difficulties of using digital technology in teaching if no
one is around to tell me what to do as I go.
SE4. I can overcome the difficulties of using digital technology in teaching by
asking someone for help.
SE5. No matter what happens, I can easily respond to various situations that use
digital technology in teaching.

3. Facilitating Conditions (Wang and Chu, 2023)


FC1. There are policies for enhancing teachers’ digital competence in my
country/province/district to support teachers’ integration of digital technologies
in teaching.
FC2. My school has related policies to encourage teachers to use digital technology
effectively.
FC3. I can access professional development training opportunities on digital
competence enhancement from my school/circuit/district/province.
FC4. My school has provided good support for my free access to digital resources.
FC5. My school has adequate digital facilities e.g. the Internet, computers, tablets,
and interactive whiteboards.
FC6. There is adequate software for digital teaching in my school, such as online
teaching software e.g. Nearpod, Moodle, or Google Classroom.
Rate the statements in Section 4 from Never (1), Rarely (2), Sometimes (3), Often
(4), to Always (5)

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4. Integration of Digital Technology in Teaching (Vannatta and Banister,


2009)
IDT1. I use the internet to gather information for lesson planning.
IDT2. I use the computer to create instructional handouts or assessments for
learners.
IDT3. I use a spreadsheet (or a grading scheme) to record marks and/or
attendance.
IDT4. I use word processors such as Microsoft Word for lesson planning,
preparation of assessment tasks, and other teaching/learning materials.
IDT5. I use technology to present information to learners.
IDT6. I use technology to adapt an activity to learners’ individual needs.
IDT7. I use content-specific software/applications such as YouTube and Khan
Academy Videos for concept reinforcement.
IDT8. I integrate multimedia that use digital images, videos, and audio in teaching
to enhance conceptual understanding.
IDT9. I use simulations/gaming software to teach learners to visualise scientific
concepts.
IDT10. I create electronic templates to guide the learner in using the computer.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 376-393, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.20
Received Feb 14, 2024; Revised Apr 24, 2024; Accepted Apr 27, 2024

Enhancing Elementary Students’ Oral Reading


Fluency Through Repeated Reading and Big
Books
Peter Paul Canuto* , Yuvimin Lumidao , Alize Ballagan ,
Peter Calya-en Jr. , Richelle Kathe Laoyan , Arnold Oplas
Ifugao State University – Tinoc Campus, Philippines

Abstract. Reading is crucial for learning across all disciplines and to


develop an understanding of the ever-changing world. Recently, reading
activities in schools have been hampered due to modular and distance
learning effected by the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to
address students’ oral reading fluency (ORF) and contribute to their
reading development in the English language by employing repeated
reading and Big Books interventions. Words correct per minute (WCPM)
and accuracy rates were the main ORF components measured in this
study. The sample involved 21 students in the Grade 4 level at Tinoc
Central School (TCS), Tinoc, Ifugao, Philippines. The study employed an
action research design and the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy
Skills − Oral Reading Fluency (DIBELS – ORF or DORF) assessment over
three periods. The participants’ ORF and the effect of employing repeated
reading and Big Books as interventions were quantitatively analyzed.
Results indicate that most participants had ORF WCPM and accuracy
rates below the Grade 4 benchmark goals for English reading, indicating
that they were at risk of reading difficulties. Some participants even
attained ORF WCPM and accuracy rates below their grade level.
Conclusively, there were positive improvements in the participants’ ORF
across the interventions, signifying the impact of repeated reading using
Big Books on their reading fluency. Improved ORF fosters a deeper
understanding of textual content and enhances communication skills,
preparing students for better academic achievements and successful
social interactions. Considering the study’s findings, using repeated
reading and Big Books to support students’ English reading achievement
is highly suggested for elementary reading enhancement.

Keywords: Big Books; elementary students; oral reading fluency; reading


fluency; repeated reading

*
Corresponding author: Peter Paul Canuto, [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
377

1. Introduction
Reading is one of the fundamental basic skills every student must possess. It
involves recognizing letters, improving literacy, enhancing comprehension,
refining communication skills, stimulating imagination and creativity, and
contributing to cognitive development and writing skills. It causes an expansion
in the knowledge of the reader, hence providing an avenue for the individual’s
growth and understanding of the ever-changing world (Nalantha et al., 2018;
Ningsih, 2017; van Erp, 2021).

Reading refers to the interactive process in which the reader utilizes effective
strategies to construct a meaningful text representation (Pourhosein Gilakjani &
Sabouri, 2016). Every student starts at elementary school, taking their first stage
of formal education. Hence, inscribing students with reading skills at an early
stage is crucial (Patpatga & Ersoy, 2016). Acquiring reading skills is relevant as it
results in understanding information (Ningsih, 2017) and instils a sense of
achievement among the students (van Erp, 2021). By reinforcing reading
capabilities, students will have more significant progress in all areas of learning,
since most disciplines involve reading (Nalantha et al., 2018).

Reading learning processes include fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary


acquisition (van Erp, 2021). If the student is fluent in reading, it will ensure their
comprehension and understanding of the information being read (Almutairi,
2018). Fluency, often referred to as oral reading fluency (ORF), is the skill to read
a text at a fast speed, in a way that it is correct in all details and with proper
expression (Paige, 2020). ORF is a significant phase in the reading process (Cotter,
2012). With fluency, struggling readers can create meaning and decipher the
information and texts they read (DeWaard, 2021). As implied, a student must be
fluent in reading to understand and decode words more easily (Gedik & Akyol,
2022). Accordingly, reading fluently without adversity lets students focus on
relevant and irrelevant information to understand the passage context (Cotter,
2012).

The most recent results of the Program for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2022, conducted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), determined that students from the Philippines garnered
347 points in overall reading literacy. This is a mere seven-point increase from the
340 points in 2018. It shows that the Philippines lags essentially globally, as do its
neighboring Asian countries. These scores indicate that 24% of the students have
basic reading proficiency skills. This further implies that only one out of four
Filipino students can identify the main idea of a moderately long text and
comprehend its meaning and purpose (Chi, 2023; OECD, 2023).

During the onslaught of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, modular and


distance learning was employed, restricting interactions between and among
teachers and students. These conditions greatly affected how reading is taught by
the teachers and the development of students’ reading skills. As such, the
pandemic significantly caused a sharp decline in reading achievement (Ludewig
et al., 2022). There has been an indication that some elementary school students

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were disconnected from learning during the pandemic, implying that their
reading fluency needs to be assessed. If no action is taken, long-term damage is
highly possible. Nevertheless, this need not be the case, since many children learn
to read upon returning to school. It is then the role of the school to promptly
identify effective techniques to alleviate reading skill issues (Domingue et al.,
2022).

1.1 Research Gap


Developing reading skills among elementary students is crucial. It includes
enhancing the students’ reading fluency so that they understand the passage they
are reading (Almutairi, 2018; Cotter, 2012; DeWaard, 2021; Gedik & Akyol, 2022;
Paige, 2020; van Erp, 2021). The indicated low level of reading skills (Chi, 2023;
OECD, 2023), decrease in proficiency in oral reading, and the decline of the
reading development of students as affected by the pandemic (Ludewig et al.,
2022) has created the need to employ solutions to respond to these issues
(Domingue et al., 2022; Nalantha et al., 2018). There is a contextual gap in the use
of repeated reading and Big Books interventions as supporting solutions to
enhance the reading skills of the students affected by the pandemic as they return
to regular classroom settings.

1.2 Research Aim and Questions


This study aimed to address reading fluency and contribute to students’ reading
development in English. Specifically, this study aimed to determine students’ oral
fluency in reading and the effect of repeated reading using Big Books as
interventions on their reading skills. The following questions guided the study:
1. What are students’ ORF statuses regarding WCPM and accuracy rate
across three assessment periods?
2. Are there significant differences in students’ ORF WCPM and accuracy
rate after employing repeated reading and Big Books interventions?

1.3 Research Significance


A study on improving students’ ORF is crucial as it associates directly with their
overall academic success and language proficiency. Enhanced ORF signifies a
student’s ability to read with speed, accuracy, and proper expression and is a
strong predictor of whether their English reading skills are appropriate for their
grade level. Research in this area may inform global educators about effective
strategies and interventions, such as repeated reading and Big Books, facilitating
the development of evidence-based educational approaches. Improved ORF
fosters a deeper understanding of textual content and enhances communication
skills, thereby preparing students for academic achievements and successful
social interactions.

2. Literature Review
2.1 Theoretical Framework
The Philippines is a culturally diverse nation, with at least 110 ethnolinguistic
groups and over 150 unique languages (United Nations Development
Programme, 2013). Aside from the mother tongue, it is undeniable that the English
language has been a vital part of the country’s education. Essentially, the
country’s constitution decreed Filipino and English as co-official languages,

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shaping the languages used in teaching. Henceforth, English is considered one of


the country’s secondary languages.

Using English as a second language is associated with second language


acquisition (SLA) theory. According to SLA theory, a foreign language can be
learned through either acquired or learned systems. In the acquired system or
acquisition, a foreign language is a product of a subconscious process that requires
meaningful interaction in the target language through natural communication.
Conversely, in the learned system or learning, learning a foreign language results
from formal education (Schutz, 2019). The use of the mother tongue as first
language (L1) as the medium of teaching in the elementary level, mainly grades 1
to 3, and then shifting to English as second language (L2) in the intermediate level,
mainly grades 4 to 6, underscores SLA in the Philippines’ K to 12 Basic Education
Program (Department of Education, 2016). The integration of English in the later
years may affect students’ ability to acquire L2 foundational reading skills in
addition to L1 as the language of teaching. There is an observed association
between students’ reading achievement and language complexity. It presents that
the more complex L1 is, the lower the reading achievement in L2, and probably
the third language (L3) (Brunette et al., 2019).

Reading fluency is supported by the automaticity theory, which focuses on word


recognition. In this theory, reading fluency is the ability to simultaneously decode
and comprehend a text (Samuels, 2007). It suggests that fluent readers can decode
the text automatically without comprehending it. It indicates that decoding,
comprehension, and attention are the three basic processes in students’ reading
(Samuels, 2007). Interestingly, when students give more attention to decoding,
their attention to comprehension declines, and vice versa (Aldhanhani & Abu-
Ayyash, 2020). Automaticity theory helps to identify individuals with reading
problems (Pikulski & Chard, 2005). It believes that rather than indicating lack of
memory, reading problems are indicative of the lack of attention given to texts.
Automaticity theory suggests using simple texts with students to develop their
reading skills automatically to solve this problem (Samuels, 1979). However,
rubrics or assessments are highly suggested to monitor students’ reading progress
(Samuels, 2007).

2.2 Assessing Oral Reading Fluency


One way to determine students’ reading fluency is by assessing their ORF. It is a
standardized measure administered individually, indicating accuracy and
fluency with the connected text (University of Oregon, 2020). It is a highly
recommended skill to be integrated into English reading programs (Aldhanhani
& Abu-Ayyash, 2020). ORF may indicate if a student has sufficient reading skills
and help identify if they can read a more complex text at more proficient levels
(Hudson et al., 2020). As the student advances in grade level, their average
reading fluency rates increase.

To assess ORF, the student must read an unpracticed passage within a specified
timeframe (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017). One component to measure ORF is the
measurement metrics of words correct per minute (WCPM). It is calculated based

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on the total reading rate or the number of words read subtracted by reading
miscues or mispronounced, skipped, and inserted words for one minute (Paige,
2020). ORF WCPM measures the student’s speed and fluency in reading texts. A
higher ORF WCPM score indicates that the student can read more words
accurately per minute, suggesting that they have better overall reading fluency.
Customarily, the ORF WCPM score is compared to specific benchmarks per grade
level to determine the reading fluency performance of the student (Hasbrouck &
Tindal, 2017; University of Oregon, 2020).

Another component used to measure ORF is the accuracy rate. The accuracy rate
measures the percentage of words the student reads correctly in a specified
timeframe. A higher ORF accuracy score indicates that the student can decode and
recognize words and has better reading accuracy skills. It is also compared to
specific benchmarks per grade level to describe the reading accuracy skills of the
student. Though WCPM and accuracy rate are vital components to determine a
student’s ORF, these components must be treated separately depending on the
purpose of the ORF assessment. It must also be noted that other factors, such as
comprehension, may affect the student’s ORF (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017;
University of Oregon, 2020).

Interpreting the ORF results depends on its purposes, that is, screening and
progress monitoring of students’ reading skills. During the screening process, the
teacher can compare the student’s ORF scores to that of their peers and identify
students at risk of reading failure. In monitoring, the ORF scores are used to
determine if the student is making expected progress or if the teaching supports
improving the student’s reading skills. For monitoring, ORF assessments must be
done frequently, such as weekly or bimonthly (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017). ORF
evaluations are based on the benchmarks indicated and measured three times a
year, beginning (fall/autumn), middle (winter), and end (spring) (Hasbrouck &
Tindal, 2017; University of Oregon, 2020).

Benchmark goals are used to measure the student’s achievements against specific
grade-level standards. Specifically, reading benchmarks indicate the reading
progress of students and are often focused on fluency, accuracy, and
comprehension (University of Oregon, 2020). For instance, the obtained WCPM
scores can be compared to the benchmarks and interpreted if the student is at risk
or has negligible reading risk. The students who are identified as being
significantly below the benchmark are the ones who are possibly at risk of having
reading difficulties (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017). Hence, these benchmarks may be
used to identify students who need intervention. With these outcomes, the teacher
can decide if there is a need to modify teaching methods or make a new decision
and integrate new approaches to catalyze students’ interest and motivation in
reading (Aldhanhani & Abu-Ayyash, 2020).

2.3 Repeated Reading and Big Books as Academic Interventions


An effective intervention for increasing students’ reading fluency is repeated
reading, anchored in automaticity theory. Repeated reading helps establish
reading fluency by letting students recognize high-frequency words. This method

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consists of rereading a short and meaningful text until a satisfactory level of


understanding is attained (Samuels, 1979). For instance, some students may need
help understanding the words of a passage during the first reading. However, by
revisiting and skimming the passage multiple times, they will become more
familiar with the pronunciation of words, allowing them to read fluently (Berg &
Lyke, 2012; Nurhidayah, 2013; Roberts, 2011). Repeated readings can be done
independently, with partners, or facilitated by tutors or adults (Samuels, 1979). In
selecting the text of passages for repeated readings, it is essential to consider the
appropriate text for the student’s grade level (Fields, 2019).

Repeated readings can engage students when the passages are contained in Big
Books. Big Books contain specific themes in teaching, such as animals, plants, and
activities. Big Books have at least 10 to 15 pages and are composed of short stories
with simple yet engaging storylines, big pictures or illustrations, rhyming word
patterns, repetitive phrases, and vocabularies (Karges-Bone, 1992, as cited in
Colville‐Hall & O’Connor, 2006). Using Big Books with colorful illustrations can
increase students’ motivation. Students can learn through the texts while relating
them to the images. It has also been noted that big pictures combined with words
are adequate for reading accuracy and elevate superior word reading, reading
comprehension, spelling, basic decoding skills, and phonemic awareness
(Agustina, 2018; Kuşdemir & Bulut, 2018).

Big Books can significantly improve students’ reading achievement. This can be
seen from the increasing reading ability of the student from the beginning to the
end of reading learning (Nurani & Mahendra, 2019). There are no disadvantages
to Big Books but significant advantages across various literacy measures,
suggesting that utilizing it as a tool for literacy education is highly beneficial, with
few notable drawbacks. This balanced approach could be a model for finding
more effective ways to teach literacy to disadvantaged children who need it the
most (Tse & Nicholson, 2014).

3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design
The study employed action research, a research design commonly intended for
educators to solve problems and improve classroom practices. It comprises
systematic observations and data gathering that the researcher can use to reflect
on, decide, and develop better classroom strategies (Gedzune, 2014). The study
mainly used practical action research to address the circumstances surrounding
students’ ORF in English. This design solves specific problems through four
stages: planning, acting, developing, and reflecting (Mertler, 2021; Tekin &
Kotaman, 2013).

The study’s planning stage involved determining the participating students’


English reading fluency level through ORF WCPM and accuracy rate. This stage
was employed at the beginning and served as the screening to determine their
ORF strengths and weaknesses. The results then provided evidence for us to
identify the words or phrases in the passage that the students were struggling
with (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017). This served as the basis for devising the action

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plan, including designing the intervention to match the teaching approach


effectively with the students’ ORF. Based on the DIBELS benchmark cut-off
scores, students scoring below the ORF benchmark were also identified for
intensive and individualized intervention. Those students who performed at or
above the benchmark received the same intervention but with less guidance.

In the acting stage, we implemented repeated reading using Big Books


interventions. Afterward, the ORF assessment was conducted as a middle-period
assessment to monitor students’ progress (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017). The results
were analyzed to determine the students’ ORF status after the intervention.
During the developing stage, results from the middle period were used to enhance
the intervention materials, including the size of the Big Books, font size of the
passages, and vitality of the illustrations. After enhancement, the intervention
process continued with improved reading materials. Finally, the end assessment
was done during the reflecting stage to determine the students’ progress. The
results were used to determine the effectiveness of repeated reading using Big
Books interventions to impact students’ ORF. The study was conducted from
March to May during the school year 2022 – 2023. Each assessment period was
conducted after three weeks.

3.2 Participants
The study involved a Grade 4 class section at Tinoc Central School (TCS), Tinoc,
Ifugao, Philippines. TCS is one of the rural elementary schools in the Tinoc
District. Notably, the class involved 21 elementary students aged 9 to 11 years old,
with 10 (47.62%) being male and 11 (52.38%) female. The small number of
involved students was reflected in the small student population of the school. The
selection of only one class section allowed us to direct and focus the intervention
and monitoring of students’ reading progress. Moreover, the Grade 4 level
selection was based on the transition of the language of teaching at the elementary
level. The Philippine educational system allows the primary use of the mother
tongue as teaching medium, except in teaching Filipino and English subjects, in
grades 1 to 3. The primary use of English as a teaching medium to teach almost
all subjects starts at the Grade 4 level. This significant change in the use of
languages affects the students’ language proficiency and their English reading
skills.

3.3 Instrument
The data gathering instrument used in this study was the DIBELS 8th edition
Benchmark Goals ORF (DORF) test. This test was developed and published by the
University of Oregon (2020) and is one of the subtests used in DIBELS with its
own specific administering and scoring rules. It uses passages that must be read
aloud and are appropriate for each grade level. It is administered individually,
and its results are used to measure the fluency and accuracy of the reader with the
connected text. To determine the results, DORF uses two scores. The first score
measures the student’s reading speed and fluency, expressed as WCPM. The
second score measures comprehension, decoding skills, and reading accuracy as
determined by an accuracy rate based on dividing the WCPM by the total number
of words and multiplying it by 100.

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Data were collected for each student through use of a scoring sheet on which the
passage to be read was printed. The passage used in the DORF assessment is titled
“The Moth and the Flame”. This passage was adapted from the teacher’s English
module for the Grade 4 level. The same passage was used during the three
assessment periods, but not during the intervention. The passage was printed in
letter size (8.5 x 11 inches) and on bond paper. As suggested by DORF, the passage
font size was 14 points for the Grade 4 level. The font style of the passage was
Times New Roman, since it is one of the styles the students were more familiar
with (University of Oregon, 2020).

3.4 Procedure
Following an action research design and using the DIBELS − ORF assessment
procedures and guidelines, the planning stage began by assessing the students’
ORF WCPM and accuracy rates as pre-assessment screening to measure their
reading fluency. Based on the screening results, an action plan and designing of
Big Books and repeated reading interventions followed. This involved selecting
the appropriate passages and designing the reading materials graphically. The
students classified as performing below the ORF benchmark cut-off scores were
selected to undergo intensive and individualized interventions. The remaining
students who performed at or above the benchmarks underwent the same
intervention but with less guidance. After planning, we implemented a repeated
reading and Big Books intervention in the acting stage. After three weeks, the
middle assessment was done to evaluate students’ ORF skills development
through the intervention.

The reading materials were enhanced in the developing stage based on the results
from the middle assessment. The students were then reclassified; some students
continued to undergo individualized interventions, and others with less
guidance. The final assessment was done during the reflecting stage in order to
determine students’ reading fluency progress and development. In the middle
and end assessments, the same passage that was used in the beginning as
screening was used. Aside from providing feedback among the students, the
results were also used to evaluate the effectiveness of the Big Books and repeated
reading interventions.

For the interventions, the study implemented repeated reading using four Big
Books designed and produced by the researchers. The short stories used in
making the four books include The Carabao and the Cow, The Tortoise that Wanted to
Fly, The Three Little Wolves and the Big Bad Pigs, and When I Grow Up. These stories
were included as appropriate reading materials for the Grade 4 level and were
copied from the class adviser’s English teaching modules. The Big Books’ size was
formatted at 40 x 30 cm (approximately 16 x 12 inches), with large, colorful
illustrations (Tse & Nicholson, 2014). The books were 10 to 15 pages each and
utilized a font size of 32 points. Two of the books used the Berlin Sans FB font
style, while the other two used Comics Sans FB (University of Oregon, 2020). The
intervention lasted six weeks, with the middle and end assessments done after
three-week intervals.

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Parents’ consent was solicited to allow their child or ward to participate in the
study. To maintain anonymity and confidentiality, number codes were assigned
for the participating students and their assessment results were kept and stored
securely. The intervention was executed in the students’ classroom during class
breaks. It was conducted one-on-one for students with below-average ORF, and
in groups for those who fell under the at risk or some risk benchmarks (Samuels,
1979). Each session of the repeated reading lasted for about 20 to 30 minutes, as
Grade 4 students are expected to experience a change from “building the knowledge
to read, to reading for knowledge” (Scholastic Parents Staff, 2022). All results along
the three assessment periods were then gathered, tabulated, and analyzed to draw
conclusions and recommendations.

3.5 Data Analysis


The students’ ORF results were categorized based on the cut-off scores indicated
on the DIBELS 8th edition Benchmarks Goals assessment (University of Oregon,
2020). The cut-off scores for the ORF WCPM are shown in Table 1, with the cut-
off scores along the beginning, middle, and end periods varying.

Table 1: Cut-off scores for Grade 4 DIBELS − ORF in terms of WCPM

Cut-off scores Benchmark


Risk category
Beginning Middle End goal
131 and 159 and 159 and Above
Negligible risk
above above above benchmark
87 – 130 121 − 158 125 − 158 Minimal risk At benchmark
62 – 86 98 – 120 99 − 124 Some risk Below
61 and below 97 and below 98 and below At risk benchmark

Table 2 shows the cut-off scores for ORF accuracy. The cut-off scores for ORF
accuracy were the same across the three periods. Moreover, the cut-off scores
allow the determination of the students’ ORF risk category and benchmark goal
or level.

Table 2: Cut-off scores for Grade 4 DIBELS − ORF in terms of accuracy rate

Cut-off scores Risk category Benchmark goal


96% and above Low risk At or above benchmark
91% − 95% Some risk
Below benchmark
90% and below At risk

Students whose ORF WCPM score is at or above the benchmark have minimal or
negligible risk in reading and are performing significantly along the grade-level
expectations regarding speed and fluency. These students have low reading risk
and can read with a relatively high level of accuracy, have strong decoding skills,
and can accurately read and comprehend text for the expected grade level. Those
below the benchmark are at risk or some risk in reading and are at significant risk
for reading difficulties. These students read significantly below the grade-level
expectations regarding speed and fluency.

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The data gathered along the three assessments using the DORF were analyzed
quantitatively. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the
significant difference in the ORF accuracy of the students during the three
assessment periods. To determine the impact of the reading intervention, the
effect size for the difference between the students’ three mean ORF accuracy
scores was calculated using the partial eta-squared (η2).

4. Results
The participating Grade 4 students’ WCPM results during the beginning, middle,
and end assessment periods are shown in Table 3. The total number of words read
per minute (TWPM) by each student are also presented. The students were
arbitrarily assigned numbers from S1 to S21. Results show that almost all students,
except for one, had a noticeable progressive increase in their WCPM across the
periods. The WCPM of S5 decreased from the beginning to the middle period but
increased later at the end of the assessment.

Table 3: The DIBELS − ORF results of the students along the three assessment periods

Beginning Middle End


Student
WCPM TWPM WCPM TWPM WCPM TWPM
S1 11 29 15 24 28 39
S2 141 141 157 157 197 197
S3 5 18 29 39 46 58
S4 54 56 76 78 87 88
S5 16 31 10 17 18 25
S6 34 40 38 45 44 49
S7 51 58 69 81 78 85
S8 78 81 111 120 125 129
S9 61 62 69 73 105 105
S10 59 62 82 83 107 107
S11 80 84 92 95 117 118
S12 74 79 82 87 134 134
S13 143 144 155 158 188 188
S14 66 67 71 77 92 94
S15 77 80 90 94 119 119
S16 84 87 110 110 116 117
S17 60 78 77 85 78 81
S18 93 99 104 107 132 132
S19 59 61 69 73 95 96
S20 152 152 174 174 184 184
S21 74 76 86 90 105 105
Note: WCPM = words correct per minute; TWPM = total words read per minute

Table 4 shows the individual risk categories of the students based on their ORF
WCPM score. Results indicate that across the three assessment periods, most

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students performed continually below the benchmark, at both at risk and some
risk categories. This is despite undergoing intensive and individualized teaching
through repeated reading and Big Books interventions during the middle and end
periods. Notably, a more significant proportion of the students achieved WCPM
results that were below the benchmark.

Table 4: Risk categories of the students based on their ORF WCPM score along the
three assessment periods
Beginning Middle End
Student Risk Risk Risk
WCPM WCPM WCPM
category category category
S1 11 At risk 15 At risk 28 At risk
Negligible Minimal Negligible
S2 141 157 197
risk risk risk
S3 5 At risk 29 At risk 46 At risk
S4 54 At risk 76 At risk 87 At risk
S5 16 At risk 10 At risk 18 At risk
S6 34 At risk 38 At risk 44 At risk
S7 51 At risk 69 At risk 78 At risk
Minimal
S8 78 Some risk 111 Some risk 125
risk
S9 61 At risk 69 At risk 105 Some risk
S10 59 At risk 82 At risk 107 Some risk
S11 80 Some risk 92 At risk 117 Some risk
Minimal
S12 74 Some risk 82 At risk 134
risk
Negligible Minimal Negligible
S13 143 155 188
risk risk risk
S14 66 Some risk 71 At risk 92 At risk
S15 77 Some risk 90 At risk 119 Some risk
S16 84 Some risk 110 Some risk 116 Some risk
S17 60 At risk 77 At risk 78 At risk
Minimal Minimal
S18 93 104 Some risk 132
risk risk
S19 59 At risk 69 At risk 95 At risk
Negligible Negligible Negligible
S20 152 174 184
risk risk risk
S21 74 Some risk 86 At risk 105 Some risk
Note: WCPM = words correct per minute; negligible risk = above benchmark; minimal
risk = at benchmark; some risk and at risk = below benchmark

Table 5 shows the risk categories of the students based on their ORF accuracy
during the three periods, noting that the cut-off scores for ORF accuracy during
the three periods were the same. Results show a noticeable increase in most
students’ ORF accuracy over the three periods.

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Table 5: Risk categories of the students based on their ORF accuracy along the three
assessment periods
Beginning Middle End
Student Accuracy Risk Accuracy Risk Accuracy Risk
(%) category (%) category (%) category
S1 37.93 At risk 62.50 At risk 71.79 At risk
S2 100.00 Low risk 100.00 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
S3 27.78 At risk 74.36 At risk 79.31 At risk
S4 96.43 Low risk 97.44 Low risk 98.86 Low risk
S5 51.61 At risk 58.82 At risk 72.00 At risk
S6 85.00 At risk 84.44 At risk 89.80 At risk
S7 87.93 At risk 85.19 At risk 91.76 Some risk
Some
S8 96.30 Low risk 92.50 96.90 Low risk
risk
Some
S9 98.39 Low risk 94.52 100.00 Low risk
risk
Some
S10 95.16 98.80 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
risk
Some
S11 95.24 96.84 Low risk 99.15 Low risk
risk
Some Some
S12 93.67 94.25 100.00 Low risk
risk risk
S13 99.31 Low risk 98.10 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
Some
S14 98.51 Low risk 92.21 97.87 Low risk
risk
S15 96.25 Low risk 95.74 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
S16 96.55 Low risk 100.00 Low risk 99.15 Low risk
Some
S17 76.92 At risk 90.59 96.30 Low risk
risk
Some
S18 93.94 97.20 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
risk
Some
S19 96.72 Low risk 94.52 98.96 Low risk
risk
S20 100.00 Low risk 100.00 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
S21 97.37 Low risk 95.56 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
Some
Mean 86.72 At risk 90.65 94.85 Some risk
risk
Note: At risk = below benchmark; some risk = below benchmark; low risk = at or
above benchmark

Table 6 indicates the ANOVA results comparing the students’ ORF accuracy along
the three assessment periods. As seen in the table, the means of the ORF accuracy
scores of the students were significant along the beginning, middle, and end
assessments. These results indicate a significant improvement in the ORF
accuracy scores obtained during the three periods after students had undergone
the interventions. Furthermore, the results show a large effect size for the

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difference between the mean ORF accuracy scores of the students. The results
indicate a substantial improvement in ORF accuracy along the beginning, middle,
and end assessments.

Table 6: Analysis of variance comparing the students’ ORF accuracy along the three
assessment periods

Partial eta-
Source of Sum of Mean Computed Tabular F
df squared
variation squares square F (.05,2,40)
(η2)
Assessment 2 695.16 347.58
6.493* 3.232 .245
Error 40 2141.37 53.534
Note: df = degree of freedom; * = significant (F-computed > F-tabulated); η2 = .01 is
small effect; η2 = .06 is medium effect; η2 = .14 is large effect

5. Discussion
Considering that ORF is a vital component of the reading process, results indicate
that most of the participating Grade 4 students performed significantly below the
DIBELS benchmark goals, indicating that they were at risk in their English reading
skills. Conversely, only a few students were performing at or above the
benchmarks. The students’ ORF scores reflect the country’s minimum proficiency
in reading literacy as evaluated by PISA in 2018 and 2022, as reported by Chi
(2023) and OECD (2023). Below-benchmark scores imply that these students were
at risk regarding understanding and decoding words, affecting their
apprehension of the passage, as identified by Cotter (2012), DeWaard (2021), and
Gedik and Akyol (2022). They could not automatically decode the words and
struggled to read, as noted by Pikulski and Chard (2005) and Samuels (2007)
relative to the reading automaticity theory. This indicates that the students lacked
the proper reading skills for their grade level. This below-benchmark performance
may also indicate that the students have reading skills below their current Grade 4
level, based on the categorization of Hasbrouck and Tindal (2017).

Looking at the WCPM results from the beginning assessment, some students had
WCPM falling under the Grade 3 benchmark goals of at least 105 correct words
compared to the suggested ORF WCPM of 131 words by the University of Oregon
(2020). Some even had WCPM indicated for the Grade 2 level of at least 85 correct
words. Even more shocking, there were students with WCPM of at least 35 words,
indicating their ORF ability at the Grade 1 level. Not much changed during the
end period regarding the students’ WCPM grade-level benchmark. Some students
were still categorized at Grade 1, attaining at least 76 correct words; at Grade 2,
with at least 128 correct words; and at Grade 3, with at least 136 words. Only a
few were classified at their Grade 4 level during the beginning assessment, with
at least 131 correct words, and by the end period, they had at least 159 correct
words. Nonetheless, though some of the students’ ORF was still below the Grade
4 level, results indicate that their WCPM increased along the three assessments
due to the interventions.

Results of the ORF WCPM show that numerous students were at risk or had some
risk in reading. This signifies that most of the students had low English reading

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fluency skills. They could only read fewer words in the passage for a minute. They
could also not achieve the number of words indicated by the DIBELS benchmark
goals for their grade level. However, it is noticeable that the WCPM of all the
students progressed positively despite failure to attain the appropriate WCPM for
some of the students.

Regarding ORF accuracy, almost half of the students were at low risk compared
to those at risk or some risk during the beginning. It was observed that the
students’ accuracy improved optimistically during the middle and end periods,
although some were still at risk in these periods. The progressive results of the
students’ accuracy level show that their ability to read words precisely improved
(University of Oregon, 2020). The students were able to decode and recognize
words and had better reading accuracy skills at the end of the intervention.
Nonetheless, it must be remembered that even if WCPM and accuracy rate are
time-efficient ways to determine students’ reading fluency, it does not entirely
measure students’ overall reading skills, as Hasbrouck (2023) and the University
of Oregon (2020) emphasized.

One factor that possibly affected the below-benchmark ORF of the participating
students may be their late exposure to the English language. Notably, the
transition from the use of the native mother tongue to the English language as one
of the primary teaching mediums occurs in this grade level, based on the
curriculum of the Department of Education (2016). As such, these students may
still be experiencing or adapting to the language change. This reflects Brunette et
al.’s (2019) suggestion that Grade 4 students may progress in learning and
acquiring the English language, reflecting SLA. The effect of the pandemic may
also be considered to affect students’ ORF performance, considering the studies
of Domingue et al. (2022) and Ludewig et al. (2022). The pandemic affected regular
classes, causing a shift to distance and modular approaches, affecting reading
skills. Teachers could not involve themselves directly; students thus had to
depend on their family members. Though some of the students were able to learn
at home, there is still a noticeable decline in their reading achievement and
literacy. Other factors affecting the students’ ORF may include their other reading
skills, such as comprehension, vocabulary, sight words, and sound recognition, as
Hasbrouck (2023) suggested.

Repeated reading using Big Books was utilized to help address the decline in
students’ reading skills. The students’ reading accuracy was shown to have been
considerably impacted by these interventions. The interventions significantly
increased students’ ORF accuracy throughout the three periods, according to the
large effect size of the interventions. These findings demonstrate that repeated
reading using Big Books helped the students become more fluent readers in
English. The illustrations in the Big Books may also account for the impact on the
students’ reading. While reading the stories, students can relate the meaning to
the pictures presented, keeping them engaged until the end of the story, as
pointed out by Agustina (2018), Colville‐Hall and O’Connor (2006), and Kuşdemir
and Bulut (2018). Based on the suggestions of Colville‐Hall and O’Connor (2006),

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the stories also contain interesting plotlines that immerse the students throughout
the story.

The repeated reading process also contributed substantially to increasing the


students’ ORF. This allowed for the identification of the words students were
struggling with. Once identified, we first read and pronounced the word, with the
student imitating the word. Reading the word and the story was repeated until
the students were familiar with the pronunciation and had attained a satisfactory
reading level, applying Samuels’ (1979) approach. Repeated reading also allowed
the students to decode the words automatically, following Samuels’ (2007) work.
Definitively, these interventions caused the students’ ORF skills in English to
improve. It helped students to read words correctly at a faster pace, have better
reading accuracy, and decipher the meaning of the words.

6. Conclusions, Implications, and Limitations


Reading is an essential tool to educate children to become productive members of
society. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the learning process of reading among
students was disrupted, causing a decline in students’ reading performance. This
study aimed to address reading fluency and contribute to students’ reading
development in English. Specifically, it aimed to determine Grade 4 students’ oral
fluency in reading and the effect of repeated reading using Big Books
interventions on their reading skills as they returned to regular classes. Findings
indicate that most of the students had reading fluency skills below their grade
level. Most students were at risk of reading difficulties and performed below the
ORF benchmark based on the DIBELS benchmark goals. To address students’
reading difficulties, we utilized repeated reading and prepared Big Books as
interventions. The students’ ORF scores significantly improved at the end of the
assessment period. Conclusively, the interventions helped the participating
Grade 4 students to become fluent readers in English. Considering the study’s
findings, using repeated reading and Big Books to support students’ English
reading achievement is highly suggested among elementary school teachers. It is
a practical, direct approach that greatly supports teaching and learning and helps
students get on track with reading. It will help develop competent readers,
affecting their cognition in all areas of learning.

Although the employment of repeated reading using Big Books produces


significant results, this study had limitations. The middle and end DORF
monitoring assessments in this study were conducted within three weeks each.
This is notably shorter than the DIBELS assessment frequency to be done at the
beginning, in the middle, and at the end of the school year. Therefore, the results
were collected briefly throughout the interventions. In addition, the study only
focused on two reading fluency components: WCPM and accuracy rate. Hence, it
does not describe the students’ overall English reading skills. In addition, the
sample size of the students involved was relatively small, which may limit
generalization to a larger population. For future studies, it is suggested that longer
intervals be observed within the three assessments in employing repeated reading
and Big Books interventions. It is also suggested that more passages and stories
be used to maintain motivation and foster a positive attitude toward reading

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among students. Future studies may include other reading elements such as
comprehension, vocabulary, phonological awareness, and prosody to assess
students’ overall reading capability. Overall, this study underscores the reading
fluency and accuracy of students and the significant effect of employing repeated
reading using Big Books to improve their English reading achievements. We hope
that this study will stimulate further exploration and prompt positive changes in
reading among elementary school students.

Author Contributions
All authors contributed to the review-editing, literature review writing, and the
conduct of the research. All authors contributed to data collection, acquisition,
and analysis. All authors have read and approved the final version of the article.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to the TCS Grade 4 students for their participation, and
to their parents for their support in the conduct of the study.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 394-408, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.21
Received Jan 16, 2024; Revised Apr 8, 2024; Accepted Apr 27, 2024

Islamic Teachers’ Implementation of the


Merdeka Curriculum in Senior High Schools: A
Systematic Review

Jasiah* , Mazrur , Zainap Hartati , Abd. Rahman ,


Mariah Kibtiyah , Fimeir Liadi and Fahmi
IAIN Palangkaraya, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

Abstract. In response to the evolving educational landscape in Indonesia,


this systematic review explores the implementation of the Merdeka
Curriculum at the senior high school level, with a specific focus on the
dynamic interplay between Islamic teachers and the curriculum. The study
aims to shed light on the pivotal roles played by Islamic teachers in
shaping the educational experience within the framework of increased
school autonomy. As these teachers navigate the autonomy granted by the
curriculum, they serve as key agents in imparting knowledge and instilling
Islamic values in students. The research objectives center on investigating
the challenges faced by Islamic teachers, particularly concerning the
delicate balance between religious education and a broader curriculum.
Simultaneously, the study identifies opportunities for innovative and
culturally relevant teaching practices within the Merdeka framework.
Employing a comprehensive literature review, the research contributes
valuable insights for policymakers, administrators, and educators seeking
to enhance the integration of Islamic values in Indonesian senior high
schools. In terms of key findings, the study reveals nuanced challenges in
balancing religious education with broader curricular goals. However, it
also identifies promising opportunities for innovative teaching practices
that align with cultural nuances within the Merdeka Curriculum. These
findings underscore the significance of navigating school autonomy
effectively, especially in the context of Islamic education. In addition, they
emphasize the need for tailored approaches to ensure a harmonious
integration of Islamic values in the evolving landscape of senior high
schools in Indonesia.

Keywords: autonomy; character development; implementation; Islamic


teachers; Merdeka Curriculum

*
Corresponding author: Jasiah; jasiah@iai -palangkaraya.ac.id

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
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1. Introduction
The educational landscape in Indonesia is rapidly evolving, marked by the
implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in senior high schools. This
curriculum was introduced by the government through the Ministry of Education
and Culture in 2013. It aims to enhance the previous curriculum by providing
schools with increased autonomy, allowing for a more flexible and locally relevant
educational approach (Maipita et al., 2021; Marlina et al., 2023). The Merdeka
Curriculum is designed to foster a campus culture that is autonomous, not
bureaucratic, and an innovative learning system based on the interests and
guidance of the industrial world (Maipita et al., 2021). As such, it is crucial to
explore the dynamic interplay between Islamic teachers and the Merdeka
Curriculum, as the teachers play a pivotal role in shaping the educational
experience and imparting knowledge and Islamic values to students (Junaidi
et al., 2023; Kamila & Agus RM, 2023; Marlina et al., 2023). This research aims to
investigate the implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in integrated Islamic
schools and its impact on educational quality. It ultimately aims to contribute
valuable insights for policymakers, administrators, and educators seeking to
enhance the integration of Islamic values within the ever-evolving landscape of
Indonesian senior high schools.

The Merdeka Curriculum represents a significant shift in the education system,


aiming to provide schools with increased autonomy and flexibility, while
promoting locally relevant educational approaches (Maipita et al., 2021; Marlina
et al., 2023). The curriculum is designed to create a campus culture that is
autonomous and innovative, based on the interests and guidance of the industrial
world, thereby fostering a more dynamic and responsive educational
environment (Daga, 2022; Maipita et al., 2021). The implementation of the
Merdeka Curriculum in integrated Islamic schools has not only offered new
learning experiences to teachers but also demonstrated the potential to unify
divisions within the educational system (Marlina et al., 2023; Zendrato & Agatha,
2023). As such, the Merdeka Curriculum presents a unique opportunity to explore
the intersection of increased school autonomy, local relevance, and the integration
of Islamic values, particularly in the context of senior high schools in Indonesia.
Understanding the overarching goals and principles of the Merdeka Curriculum
is essential to comprehensively examine its impact on the educational landscape
and the specific roles of Islamic teachers within this framework.

The significance of the senior high school level in the context of the Merdeka
Curriculum and the integration of Islamic values is paramount, as it serves as a
critical stage for student preparation to meet diverse educational and societal
needs (Davenport Huyer et al., 2020). Senior high schools play a pivotal role in
developing quality education. They focus on the overall development of students
and their transition into Merdeka citizens, making it an opportune stage to explore
the impact of the Merdeka Curriculum on student preparation and the fulfillment
of diverse educational needs (Arwitaningsih et al., 2023; Iskandar et al., 2023;
Kusumawardani et al., 2022). Additionally, research has indicated that high
school students, including those in senior high schools, have the capability to
engage in rigorous programs and cutting-edge research, highlighting the

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importance of understanding how the Merdeka Curriculum can cater to the


diverse needs of students at this level (Kusmaryono et al., 2021). Therefore,
investigating the implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in senior high
schools, particularly in relation to Islamic education, is essential to
comprehensively address the unique educational and developmental
requirements of students at this critical stage.

Islamic teachers play a crucial role in the implementation of the Merdeka


Curriculum in senior high schools, particularly in imparting knowledge and
instilling Islamic values in students (Amin et al., 2022; Asyafah, 2014; Marlina
et al., 2023). Research has indicated that Islamic education is regarded as a subject
whose function is to develop and instill positive values in students through
appropriate instruction (Asyafah, 2014). Therefore, it is essential to explore the
dynamic interplay between Islamic teachers and the Merdeka Curriculum,
including the challenges they face, such as the delicate balance between religious
education and a broader curriculum (Almarisi, 2023; Amin et al., 2022).
Additionally, the study of innovative and culturally relevant teaching practices
within the Merdeka framework can offer valuable insights for policymakers,
administrators, and educators seeking to enhance the integration of Islamic values
in the ever-evolving landscape of Indonesian senior high schools (Asyafah, 2014).
Understanding the specific roles of Islamic teachers within the Merdeka
Curriculum is essential to comprehensively examine its impact on the educational
landscape and for the fulfillment of diverse educational needs (Amin et al., 2022;
Popp, 2019).

This research faces both challenges and opportunities in exploring the role of
Islamic teachers in implementing the Merdeka Curriculum in senior high schools.
Challenges include the delicate balance between religious education and a
broader curriculum, as well as the need for increased autonomy and flexibility for
schools to adapt the curriculum to local needs (Fitra & Tiarina, 2023; Yuhastina
et al., 2020). Opportunities arise from the Merdeka Curriculum’s emphasis on
innovation and locally relevant teaching practices, which can be harnessed to
integrate Islamic values in a culturally relevant manner (High School Moms,
2021). By addressing these challenges and seizing the opportunities, this research
aims to provide valuable insights for policymakers, administrators, and educators
in enhancing the integration of Islamic values in the ever-evolving landscape of
Indonesian senior high schools.

The research was conducted using a systematic review methodology, employing


both qualitative and quantitative research methods to analyze the existing
literature on the topic (Dissertation Center, 2024). By addressing the research
questions and identifying the central phenomenon being studied, this systematic
review will contribute to a better understanding of the role of Islamic teachers in
shaping the educational experience and fostering the development of Islamic
values in students.

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2. Literature Review
The implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in senior high schools in
Indonesia has presented unique challenges and opportunities for Islamic
education. The Merdeka Curriculum emphasizes educational autonomy and
curriculum flexibility, providing schools with increased autonomy and
promoting a more flexible and locally relevant educational approach (Ndari et al.,
2023; Nuridayanti et al., 2023). However, the delicate balance between religious
education and a broader curriculum remains a challenge, as does the need for
increased autonomy and flexibility for schools to adapt the curriculum to local
needs (Rahayu et al., 2021). Islamic teachers play a pivotal role in shaping the
educational experience and imparting knowledge and Islamic values to students
(Amin et al., 2022; Marlina et al., 2023; Rifa’i et al., 2022). According to research,
Islamic education is regarded as a subject whose function is to develop and instill
positive values in students through appropriate instruction (Rindayati et al., 2022;
Septiani, 2022). Innovative teaching and learning techniques that are enjoyable
and culturally relevant are essential for developing such qualities (Wannesia et al.,
2022).

The challenges and opportunities presented by the Merdeka Curriculum in


integrated Islamic schools require pedagogical innovation and a critical review of
the curriculum’s implementation to ensure that it meets the diverse educational
needs of students (Widiyono et al., 2021; Widiyono & Millati, 2021). Senior high
schools play a pivotal role in developing quality education. They focus on the
overall development of students and their transition into independent citizens,
making it an opportune stage to explore the impact of the Merdeka Curriculum
on student preparation and the fulfillment of diverse educational needs.
Literature reveals that the implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in senior
high schools has been the subject of several studies, including evaluations of its
implementation and challenges. However, there is a need for further research on
the integration of the curriculum with local contexts, the role of Islamic pedagogy,
and the impact on character development.

By addressing these gaps in the literature, this research aims to provide valuable
insights for policymakers, administrators, and educators in enhancing the
integration of Islamic values in the ever-evolving landscape of Indonesian senior
high schools.

3. Methodology
The systematic review methodology followed a structured process, detailed as
follows:
1. Literature search
Conducting a thorough literature search using the Mendeley database and
other relevant sources, a comprehensive exploration identified studies
centering on Merdeka Curriculum implementation in integrated Islamic
schools, particularly at the senior high school level. Keywords such as
“Merdeka Curriculum”, “Islamic education”, “senior high school”,
“curriculum integration”, and “student preparation” guided the search.

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2. Article selection
Two independent researchers scrutinized titles and abstracts, applying the
inclusion criteria:
• Studies focusing on Merdeka Curriculum implementation in integrated
Islamic schools, particularly at senior high schools.
• Studies addressing challenges and opportunities encountered by Islamic
teachers in implementing the Merdeka Curriculum.
• Studies exploring the Merdeka Curriculum’s impact on student
preparation and diverse educational needs.

3. Data extraction
Thorough analysis of selected studies led to extraction of pertinent data,
including research design, findings, and conclusions. A standardized data
extraction form ensured consistency and reliability in information retrieval.

4. Data synthesis
Applying a systematic literature review method, the synthesis process
employed qualitative and quantitative research methods to analyze existing
literature (University of Nebraska, 2024). Emphasis was placed on identifying
overarching themes, patterns, and key findings, while addressing any
discrepancies or contradictions within the literature.

5. Findings and discussion


The results were reported clearly, emphasizing key findings, challenges, and
opportunities related to Merdeka Curriculum implementation in integrated
Islamic schools, especially at the senior high school level. The discussion
involved interpreting results by addressing the research questions and
identifying the central phenomenon.

6. Report language
The methodology employed a structured process, replacing speculative terms
with reporting language to convey a sense of certainty in the execution of the
methodology.

By following this systematic review methodology, we aimed to provide valuable


insights for policymakers, administrators, and educators in enhancing the
integration of Islamic values within the ever-evolving landscape of Indonesian
senior high schools (University of Nebraska, 2024).

The PRISMA method (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analyses) is a comprehensive and transparent guideline for systematic
reviews and meta-analyses (see Figure 1). It ensures methodological rigor by
guiding researchers through a systematic literature search, selection based on
predefined criteria, standardized data extraction, and clear synthesis. This
method promotes transparency in reporting, enhancing the reproducibility and
reliability of systematic reviews. Its structured approach contributes to the
credibility and quality of evidence synthesis in scientific literature. The entire

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selection process is visually depicted in Figure 1, illustrating the systematic


progression of literature selection.

Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram

The initial phase in the PRISMA literature review process involved the
identification of search results utilizing specified keywords, yielding a total of
214,200 articles. The subsequent step involved the screening of articles based on
the year of publication, resulting in 32,200 articles. Further refinement was carried
out by filtering articles based on their titles, resulting in a selection of 53 articles.
Another round of filtering, this time based on the type of article, eliminated 20
non-journal articles, leaving 33 articles for consideration. Subsequently, the
journal articles underwent a thorough examination for eligibility, focusing on the
target subject and content. Within this scrutiny, 24 articles were deemed irrelevant
and excluded. In the final phase, a total of nine articles that met the inclusion
criteria were identified.

4. Findings
Table 1 presents a summary of the nine articles that were reviewed. These articles
indicate that Islamic religious education teachers applied the Merdeka
Curriculum using various methods. Teachers in several schools attended
workshops or training to plan Merdeka Curriculum implementation. This has
resulted in an enhanced understanding of compiling teaching tools in alignment
with the Merdeka Curriculum. Teachers have successfully developed curriculum
operations, learning tools, learning objectives, learning objective flow, and

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teaching modules (Kusmaeni et al., 2022). Learning activities result in the creation
of teaching modules, which are designed in accordance with the flow of learning
objectives derived from predefined learning outcomes (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001).

Table 1: Implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in senior high schools

Senior high
No. Source Method/s of implementation
school name
1 Zulfi and SMAN 3 Problem-based learning.
Khairat (2023) Batusangkar
2 Aryanti and SMAN 12 Implementation of intracurricular learning and
Saputra (2023) Bandar project implementation of strengthening
Lampung Pancasila student profiles through project-based
learning.
3 Zaini (2023) SMA 1 Attending workshop for preparation of learning
Simanjaya objective flow and learning modules;
constructing a Merdeka Curriculum document;
carrying out learning consisting of five elements
with a regular approach; performing evaluation
based on the aim of learning that has been made.
4 Danial and SMAN 5 Tana Using the five differentiated learning indicators:
Widodo (2022) Toraja (1) creating an enjoyable learning environment,
(2) clearly defined learning objectives,
(3) learning in favor of students, (4) effective
classroom management, and (5) continuous
assessment.
5 Sulastri et al. SMAN 9 Teachers socialized the Merdeka learning
(2023) Malang curriculum and prepared appropriate materials
and devices for learning. Teachers used the
project- and problem-based learning methods.
The evaluation methods applied by the teachers
are diagnostic tests, formative evaluation, and
summative evaluation.
6 Siregar et al. SMA Attending workshops, coaching from
(2023) Ar-Rahman supervisors, and teacher meetings.
Medan Helvetia Implementation of online learning is carried out
by increasing interactive and communicative
learning techniques.
7 Fitria et al. (2023) SMAN 7 The teacher gives freedom in choosing learning
Malang methods to students, adjusting to the
characteristics of students.
8 Dirjo et al. (2023) SMAS Bina Mapping the learning needs of students,
Putra-Kopo learning planning, implementation, and
evaluation are carried out by the teachers
individually or with other teachers.
9 Padang and SMA Implementation of the Pancasila Student Profile
Suhaeb (2023) Muhammadiyah Strengthening Project (P5) through project-based
4 Surabaya learning.

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Islamic religious education teachers use project- and problem-based learning


methods in implementing the Merdeka Curriculum. Project-based learning is a
learning model that helps students build knowledge through doing projects and
developing products. This method trains creativity and requires a scientific
attitude in students (Wicaksana & Sanjaya, 2022). The application of the problem-
based learning model in the implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum is also
necessary because this method involves the activeness of students in problem-
solving and studying the relationship between knowledge and these problems.
This method is in line with constructivism theory (Syamsidah et al., 2023).

Table 1 shows a clear overview of Islamic teachers’ implementation of the


Merdeka Curriculum, including their incorporation of intracurricular learning.
This educational approach enhances students’ competencies and allows for a
more optimal exploration of concepts (Pratama & Dewi, 2023). Furthermore, a
number of educators have executed the Pancasila Student Profile Strengthening
Project to cultivate strong character traits in students and encourage endeavors in
achieving competencies aligned with the Pancasila Student Profile. This profile is
designed based on graduation competency standards as outlined by Kholidah
et al. (2022).

The table also offers a comprehensive depiction of the diverse methodologies


employed by Islamic religious education teachers in implementing the Merdeka
Curriculum across nine senior high schools. The findings highlight a spectrum of
approaches, including teachers attending workshops, incorporating project- and
problem-based learning models, and integrating intracurricular activities.
Notably, educators have demonstrated a multifaceted understanding of the
Merdeka Curriculum. This is evident in their development of various teaching
tools, such as curriculum operations, learning tools, learning objectives, learning
objective flow, and teaching modules (Agustin et al., 2012). This nuanced
implementation showcases adaptability and innovation within the educational
landscape. The variety in teaching methods and tools across different schools
underscores the dynamic nature of curriculum implementation. The cited sources
provide a foundation for understanding the specific strategies employed by
educators, contributing to the broader discourse on effective educational practices
in the context of the Merdeka Curriculum.

5. Discussion
5.1 Understanding the Merdeka Curriculum in an Academic Context
The utilization of project- and problem-based learning among Islamic religious
education teachers aligns with contemporary educational theories, fostering
student engagement and active learning. Project-based learning, observed in
SMAN 3 Batusangkar, is a pedagogical approach emphasizing students’ active
involvement in real-world projects to build knowledge, enhancing creativity and
knowledge (Wicaksana & Sanjaya, 2022). The application of the problem-based
learning model, as evidenced in SMAN 12 Bandar Lampung, resonates with
constructivism theory, emphasizing students’ active participation in problem-
solving processes (Syamsidah et al., 2023). These findings suggest that the
implementation of project- and problem-based learning is not only widespread

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but also aligned with established educational theories. Islamic teachers’ choices
reflect an awareness of pedagogical approaches that promote deeper
understanding and critical thinking. The cited studies provide a theoretical
underpinning for the observed teaching methods, contributing to the ongoing
discourse on effective teaching strategies within the context of the Merdeka
Curriculum.

Moreover, the incorporation of intracurricular learning and the Pancasila Student


Profile Strengthening Project underlines the commitment to holistic education. It
emphasizes that intracurricular activities are crucial in enhancing students’
competencies and optimizing conceptual exploration (Pratama & Dewi, 2023).
Projects such as the Pancasila Student Profile Strengthening Project contribute to
character development aligned with graduation competency standards (Kholidah
et al., 2022). Thus, these initiatives not only align with theoretical frameworks but
also demonstrate a practical integration of educational philosophies within the
Merdeka Curriculum. In conclusion, the interpretation of findings highlights the
informed and strategic choices made by Islamic teachers in adopting teaching
methodologies, underscoring their alignment with established educational
theories. The related studies provide a theoretical framework that supports the
observed practices, contributing valuable insights to the broader discussion on
effective teaching strategies within the Merdeka Curriculum.

5.2 Impact and Insights: Merdeka Curriculum in Indonesian Education


The implications drawn from the findings on Merdeka Curriculum
implementation in integrated Islamic schools hold significant importance for the
educational landscape. The incorporation of intracurricular learning has
positively impacted students’ competencies, fostering a more optimal exploration
of conceptual nuances (Pratama & Dewi, 2023).

Additionally, the execution of the Pancasila Student Profile Strengthening Project


contributes to character development aligned with graduation competency
standards. These implications extend beyond the individual schools assessed,
resonating with broader educational discourse. The Merdeka Curriculum’s
emphasis on autonomy and diverse teaching methods aligns with global
educational trends that prioritize student-centric learning and creativity (Usanto,
2022). The multi-dimensional approach, incorporating both project- and problem-
based learning, speaks to the contemporary need for holistic education that
nurtures critical thinking and active engagement.

The findings contribute to the body of knowledge by showcasing the adaptability


and effectiveness of the Merdeka Curriculum in various contexts. Policymakers,
administrators, and educators can leverage these insights to tailor strategies that
enhance the integration of Islamic values and autonomy within the ever-evolving
landscape of Indonesian senior high schools. The study thus adds a valuable layer
to the ongoing dialogue on educational reform and pedagogical innovation in the
Indonesian education system.

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5.3 Challenges and Solutions: Navigating Merdeka Curriculum Research


While this study offers valuable insights into the implementation of the Merdeka
Curriculum in integrated Islamic schools, it is crucial to acknowledge certain
limitations that may affect the generalizability of the findings. To address this,
future research could employ observational methods or triangulate data from
multiple sources, bolstering the robustness of the findings.

Implementation planning involves systematic workshops or training activities for


teachers, guiding the design of teaching modules for organized learning, also
including the development of a systematic flow of learning objectives. Six key
points from the Merdeka learning curriculum have been internalized into Islamic
religious education. First, the project-based learning system involves direct
student involvement in problem-solving, enhancing understanding and problem-
solving skills. Second, the values of Merdeka learning include freedom for
students to choose the time and place of learning, providing an engaging and
diverse learning environment. Third, freedom in choosing offered materials
allows students to select topics of interest. The fourth point is personalized
learning. This involves teachers acting as facilitators, helping students maximize
their abilities to discover universal Islamic values. This approach is applied at
SMAN 7 Malang and SMAN 5 Tana Toraja, focusing on exploration, elaboration,
and confirmation. The fifth point is the application of the link and match principle,
connecting Islamic values to students’ needs, as demonstrated by SMA 1
Simanjaya (Zaini, 2023). Finally, data interpretation is employed by teachers and
students to analyze and solve problems.

Educators actively engaging with Merdeka Curriculum modules experience


substantial growth in subject matter expertise, leading to improved instructional
practices (Wahyu et al., 2021). The evaluation process for the Merdeka Curriculum
involves tests, diagnostics, formative evaluations, and summative evaluations,
providing feedback for teachers on their performance (Sulastri et al., 2023). The
emphasis on student-centered and interactive learning methodologies prompts
teachers to refine pedagogical skills, resulting in deeper engagement and
improved performance in assessments. The success of Islamic religious education
within the Merdeka Curriculum is influenced by teachers’ ability to select
essential materials and develop a systematic flow of learning objectives.

6. Conclusion
The study sheds light on pivotal recommendations for the successful
implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in senior high schools, particularly
within the domain of Islamic education. First, for stakeholders and practitioners
actively involved in Merdeka Curriculum implementation, it is paramount to
prioritize continuous professional development for teachers. This can be achieved
through tailored workshops and training programs, ensuring educators are well
equipped to navigate the complexities of the curriculum. Collaborative platforms
should be established to encourage knowledge-sharing among teachers, fostering
a culture of continuous learning. Regular curriculum reviews, featuring active
participation by educators and subject matter experts, are essential to address
emerging challenges and opportunities. Furthermore, allocating resources for

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teaching materials and technology is crucial, providing teachers with the


necessary tools for effective curriculum implementation. Student engagement and
feedback mechanisms should be encouraged to comprehensively assess the
curriculum’s impact on diverse learners. To ensure accountability and
improvement, the establishment of a robust monitoring and evaluation
framework, incorporating standardized assessments and classroom observations,
is recommended.

Additionally, there should be a concerted effort to support inclusive learning


environments that cater to diverse needs and abilities. Community involvement
and awareness play a pivotal role in reinforcing the core values of the Merdeka
Curriculum within the broader societal context. Promoting these values beyond
the classroom contributes to a more comprehensive and sustained impact.
Looking toward future studies, research and innovation grants should be
provided to support projects exploring the efficacy of diverse teaching
methodologies within the Merdeka Curriculum. Investigations into the long-term
impact of the curriculum on student outcomes and educational achievement are
warranted. Conducting a comparative analysis with similar curricular programs
can help identify best practices and areas for improvement. Additionally,
exploring the dynamic needs of students in depth, focusing on evolving
educational trends and societal changes, is crucial for curriculum evolution.
Lastly, advocating for regular curriculum updates based on ongoing research
findings ensures the continual relevance and effectiveness of the curriculum.
These recommendations collectively offer actionable insights for current
stakeholders and practitioners, while suggesting valuable avenues for future
research endeavors.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 409-431, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.22
Received Jan 16, 2024; Revised Apr 21, 2024; Accepted Apr 30, 2024

Developing Professional Development (PD) for


Vocational Teachers based on the OBE
Framework, its Effect on Trainees’ Learning
Motivation and Training Satisfaction

Fan Wang , Chowwalit Chookhampaeng* , Jiraporn Chano


Faculty of Education, Mahasarakham University,
Mahasarakham 44000, Thailand

Abstract. Professional Development (PD) for teachers plays a significant


role in nurturing new skills, extending updated knowledge and
promoting educational reform. The concept of Outcome-Based Education
(OBE) is highly recognised in the field of education as it matches the
student-centred claim and emphasises measurable learning outcomes. In
order to improve the training effectiveness and stimulate vocational
teachers’ learning motivation, authors in this research developed a PD for
vocational teachers according to the design process and learning
outcomes of the OBE concept. Trainees’ learning motivation is measured
through the questionnaire based on Kirkpatrick’s model of training
evaluation and the ARCS Model of motivation. A total of 40 secondary
vocational teachers and 40 higher vocational teachers from Guangdong,
China were enrolled in this research. The analysis of quantitative data
was conducted using paired samples t-test and one-sample t-test to
evaluate trainees’ motivation and satisfaction throughout the PD. The
findings of this research suggest that the PD design based on the OBE
framework has a significant impact on trainees’ learning motivation and
training satisfaction according to the comparison of the data collected
from trainees before and after attending the PD.

Keywords: learning motivation; outcome-based education; teacher’s


professional development; training satisfaction; vocational education

1. Introduction
Professional development (PD) for teachers has gained increasing significance on
a global scale. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO) introduced a framework titled the “International

*
Corresponding author: Chowwalit Chookhampaeng; [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
410

Standard Classification of Teacher Training Programmes” in 2021, which was


designed for the collection, coding and analysis of internationally comparable
statistics related to teacher PD and the qualifications of different educators.
Education International published “The Global Report on the Status of Teachers
2021” to discuss the status of teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic, which
emphasised that the improvement of teachers’ status also involved the support of
PD and teacher training from different jurisdictions. Cambridge Partnership for
Education published a report in 2021, which argues that PD has the potential to
significantly improve teachers’ essential skills in the modern era, extending
beyond the mere imparting of subject knowledge. This includes equipping them
with the capacity for constructing knowledge systems.

However, UNESCO also identified some of the challenges of PD, including


insufficient training duration, limited training opportunities, inadequate training
funding, and deficient information technology (IT) proficiency, which hinder
successful implementation of PD in certain regions. Meanwhile, there are no
specific published standards to evaluate PD’s quality and effectiveness (Loyalka
et al., 2019). PD design also emphasises organiser-centred concept (Darling-
Hammond, 2008; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Penuel & Gallagher, 2017), which
means trainees’ actual needs may be overlooked. In addition, the COVID-19
pandemic also promotes the changes in training organisation modes, training
methods and evaluation and among others (Pozo-Rico et al., 2020; Zhang et al.,
2020).

Vocational education is a form of education, which is career-oriented and


develops learners’ specific knowledge, skills and abilities related to particular
positions or fields (UNESCO, 2021). In 2022, UNESCO released the “Draft
Strategy for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) (2022-2029):
Transforming TVET for Successful and Just Transitions”. This document
underscores the needs of global transitions in the new era for vocational education
and training to foster skills that enable all individuals to learn, work and live,
develop skills for inclusive and sustainable economies, and cultivate skills for
inclusive and peaceful societies. Meanwhile, the State Council of the People's
Republic of China published “National Implementation Plan for Vocational
Education Reform” in 2019, which promotes “three education reform” to each
vocational school. The Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China
and the Ministry of Finance of the People’s Republic of China published
“Vocational Teachers’ Quality Improvement Plan (2021-2025)”, which emphasises
vocational teachers in the new era need to equip with professional skills that align
with the latest industry standards and possess teaching capabilities capable to
promoting “three education reform”. Hence, the global industry transition
necessitates higher quality and advanced educational and training resources,
especially in nurturing high-quality and high-level teams of vocational teachers.


Notes:
“three education reform” means the educational reform of vocational schools, which emphasises three core factors in the
vocational school: teaching materials, teaching methods and teachers.

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2. Literature review
Outcome-based education (OBE)
Outcome-Based Education (OBE) is a learner-centred and performance-oriented
pedagogical approach (Mokgaphame, 2001; Spady, 1994; Yasmin & Yasmeen,
2021). In the PD process, PD organisers act as a facilitator to empower trainees to
cultivate the competencies they anticipate through the creation and maintenance
of a conducive learning environment. Hence, OBE offers a powerful and
promising pathway for the transformation and management of PD.

OBE also emphasises the introduction of a clear picture of what participants can
do, and then uses these learning outcomes as a foundation for constructing
relevant curriculum and activities (Deneen et al., 2013; Morcke et al., 2013; Spady,
1994). Therefore, learning outcomes are significant in endowing learners with
observable and measurable objectives in the OBE education process (Spady, 1994;
Abd Majid, 2016; Senaratne and Gunarathne, 2019), which can significantly
stimulate learners’ motivation (Akhmadeeva et al., 2013; Kusurkar et al., 2012;
Spady, 1994) and performance (Camello, 2014; Macayan, 2017; Pradhan, 2021).

According to Korthagen (2017), PD design needs to consider trainees’ thoughts,


feelings, wants and learning motivation for the programme, which can construct
connections with trainees, influence the trainees’ behaviour during the PD
process, and even improve the effectiveness of PD. Besides, effective PD design
should encompass content-centred, sufficient training duration, interactive group
learning, the stimulation of learning enthusiasm, and continuous guidance and
learning (Desimone and Stuckey, 2014; Hubers et al., 2022; Mouza et al., 2022).
Hence, the characteristics of PD design grounded in the OBE framework can
perfectly align with some of the requirements mentioned above.

PD design based on OBE framework


Loucks-Horsley et al. (2009) describe the PD design process as follows (see Figure
1). With the investigation of the disparity between the current situation and
expectations of PD participants, guided by vision and standards, PD design
formulates appropriate objectives for improvement. Meanwhile, PD participants
are willing to engage in the PD design to improve themselves. Analysis of student
learning and other data are also the influencing factors for objectives setting in the
PD design, especially connected with the learning context. Additionally,
anticipating critical issues during the goal-setting phase are essential to ensure the
effective implementation of PD. After that, employing multiple strategies
simultaneously should be considered to achieve the goals of PD design.

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Figure 1: Professional Development Design Framework (Loucks-Horsley et al., 2009)

As for PD design based on the OBE framework for vocational teachers, PD design
process is implemented as follows (see Figure 2). Compared with the PD design
framework mentioned above, this research aims to emphasise bringing the results
phase to the forefront of PD design process, the intended learning outcomes that
trainees can achieve when they finish the PD and revolving around the detailed
learning outcomes to design appropriate assessment activities. Simultaneously,
the design of training content and related activities should also be geared towards
facilitating the achievement of learning outcomes. Finally but not the least, the
learning outcomes in PD design will continuously improve until they align with
the participants’ capabilities at their utmost potential.

Figure 2: PD Design Process for Vocational Teachers Based on the OBE Framework

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The ARCS model


The ARCS model is a method that Keller (1984) developed to increase the
motivational appeal of instructional materials. It combines four dimensions
(Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction) to describe how people
become and remain motivated: (1) Attention is a prerequisite for learning, which
emphasises learners getting and maintaining attention during the learning
process; (2) Relevance emphasises concentrating on learners' needs, interests and
motives; (3) Confidence emphasises enhancing learners' belief on achieving
success by themselves; and (4) Satisfaction emphasises promoting learners' efforts
through the provision of both extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcement. This research
leverages the ARCS model in questionnaire design to record the change in
trainees’ learning motivation level before and after attending the training
workshop.

Kirkpatrick’s model
Kirkpatrick’s model is a training evaluation method developed in 1959 and it
defines four levels (Reaction, Learning, Behaviour and Results) to evaluate the
efficacy of training design (Kirkpatrick, 1959). Kirkpatrick (2015) defines each
level as follows: (1) The first level (Reaction) emphasises the degree to which
participants find the training design has enough attraction and can meet their
needs; (2) The second level (Learning) emphasises the degree to which
participants can acquire the intended knowledge, skills and attitudes through the
training; (3) The third level (Behaviour) emphasises the degree to which
participants apply the training contents into their work when they return to the
workplace; and (4) The fourth level (Results) emphasises the degree to which
participants have achieved training objectives after training and following
support. This research adopts the level 1 (Reaction) measurement method in
Kirkpatrick’s model in questionnaire design to evaluate trainees’ training
satisfaction after they have completed the PD.

4. Methodology
In this empirical research, a PD programme was implemented to enhance
vocational teachers' curriculum design ability; for example, to evaluate the
efficacy of a PD design based on the OBE framework. The PD was conducted over
a period of one month and consisted of two groups: 40 secondary vocational
teachers and 40 higher vocational teachers from Guangdong Province, China.

The learning outcomes in this empirical research are divided into four modules,
aligning with the demands and the present state of curriculum design ability
among vocational teachers: needs analysis, instructional improvement, student
assessment and pedagogical reflection. Before trainees attend the PD, the PD
organiser informs them about specific learning outcomes they expect to achieve
upon completing the PD: (1) Trainees can apply the requirements of policy
documents and social needs in curriculum design; (2) Trainees can formulate
teaching objectives according to students' learning needs; (3) Trainees can
implement curriculums based on the concept of Gagne’s 9 Events of Instruction;
(4) Trainees can measure their students’ learning performance with appropriate

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methods; and (5) Trainees demonstrate awareness of the importance of reflection


after class.

Satisfaction and learning motivation serve as crucial indicators for evaluating the
performance of learners (Hong et al., 2019; Kirkpatrick, 1967; Li & Keller, 2018;
Medina, 2017; Moreira et al., 2019). Consequently, the questionnaire design in this
research uses the ARCS model to measure trainees' learning motivation before
and after the introduction of PD design and employs the level 1 (Reaction)
measurement method in Kirkpatrick’s model to evaluate trainees' satisfaction
after participating in the PD.

The learning motivation questionnaire and the training satisfaction questionnaire


employ a five-point Likert Scale, where scores range from 1 to 5, representing
trainees' attitudes from the lowest to the highest. Secondary vocational education
and higher vocational education are different stages of vocational education:
secondary vocational education emphasises constructing the basic knowledge
framework of vocational education and higher vocational education emphasises
extending the latest technologies and knowledge of related industries (Maclean &
Pavlova, 2013). As the teaching objectives differ for secondary vocational teachers
and higher vocational teachers, the questionnaire data analysis is divided into two
groups: secondary and higher vocational teachers' groups. Although both
vocational teachers' groups achieve the same learning outcomes in teacher PD, the
detailed training contents and activities will be different.

Before and after introducing the learning outcomes and training framework,
trainees’ learning motivation is investigated and compared through a paired
samples t-test. The learning motivation questionnaire is designed to assess
trainees’ expectations of the PD, PD's relevance for vocational teachers’
curriculum design ability, trainees’ recognition of the PD framework and the
trainees’ feelings about the PD arrangement. Upon completion of the PD, trainees'
satisfaction is assessed and results are analysed through a one-sample t-test. The
training satisfaction questionnaire is designed to evaluate trainees’ achievement
of both expectations and learning outcomes, the trainees' willingness to transfer
training contents into practice, the trainees' satisfaction with the PD, and the
trainees' adaptation to the training contents and activities.

To ensure data effectiveness, 20 participants were randomly selected in each


group to fill out the questionnaire. With the analysis of SPSS statistical software,
the Cronbach’s alphas of the learning motivation questionnaire and the training
satisfaction questionnaire are 0.740 and 0.896, the KMO measure of sampling
adequacy of the learning motivation questionnaire and the training satisfaction
questionnaire are 0.658 and 0.815, and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity of the
learning motivation questionnaire and the training satisfaction questionnaire are
96.280 and 238.774, respectively, both sig. levels are 0.000. Furthermore, the factor
analysis without rotated solution of the learning motivation questionnaire and the
training satisfaction questionnaire both extract two components, which can
explain 62.149% and 73.265% of the total variance respectively. Hence, the

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learning motivation questionnaire and the training satisfaction questionnaire


have acceptable validity and reliability.

The research hypotheses are presented as follows:


Hypothesis 1: The PD design based on the OBE framework enhances both
secondary vocational teachers’ and higher vocational teachers’ learning
motivation in comparison to their motivation levels before the introduction of the
learning outcomes and training framework.

Hypothesis 2: The PD design based on the OBE framework increases both


secondary vocational teachers’ and higher vocational teachers’ satisfaction when
they finish the PD.

5. Results
To assess hypothesis 1, 80 questionnaires were distributed on the PD learning
motivation before and after the accomplishment of PD programme on curriculum
design for the secondary and higher vocational teacher groups. The research
questions can be summarised under Keller’s four dimensions: A (Attention), R
(Relevance), C (Confidence) and S (Satisfaction), assessed using a five-point Likert
Scale (1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Undecided, 4=Agree, 5=Strongly
Agree).

To confirm the effects of OBE-based PD design on secondary vocational teachers,


a paired samples t-test was adopted to compare and analyse their learning
motivation levels before and after attending the PD programme.

H0: The learning motivation of the secondary vocational teachers remains


unchanged following the introduction to the learning outcomes and training
framework, as compared to their motivation levels before the programme.

H1: The learning motivation of the secondary vocational teachers is improved


following the introduction to the learning outcomes and training framework, as
compared to their motivation levels before the programme.

As depicted in Table 1, feedback across the four dimensions indicates that within
the secondary vocational teachers’ group, learning motivation increased
following the PD programme, with average levels rising by 16%-19%. According
to the results of the paired samples t-test in Table 2, the p-value of each question
is less than 0.05, indicating that there is a significant improvement in the feedback
on learning motivation from secondary vocational teachers following their
participation in the PD programme and the null hypothesis H0 is rejected.

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Table 1. Group Statistics of Secondary Vocational Teachers’ Learning Motivation


before and after the PD programme
Improvement
Dimensions Questions Situation N Mean SD
Rate
To what extent do you agree Before 40 2.33 0.971
that you are willing to attend 19%
After 40 2.78 0.800
this PD?
To what extent do you agree Before 40 2.93 1.299
Attention
that the learning outcomes
listed in the PD notice could 19%
After 40 3.50 0.564
attract you to attend this PD
design?
To what extent do you agree Before 40 3.18 0.903
that this PD programme 16%
After 40 3.70 0.516
matched your expectations?
To what extent do you agree Before 40 3.28 0.751
Relevance
that the learning outcomes
outlined in this PD 16%
After 40 3.80 0.464
programme fit your
expectations?
To what extent do you agree Before 40 3.23 0.620
that this PD programme
Confidence assisted you in solving the 17%
After 40 3.78 0.423
problems in your daily
curriculum design?
To what extent do you agree Before 40 3.18 18% 0.903
that you could achieve the
Confidence
learning outcomes specified in After 40 3.75 0.588
this PD design?
To what extent do you agree Before 40 3.05 17% 0.846
Satisfaction that this PD programme is
After 40 3.58 0.636
useful for you?

Table 2. Paired Samples t-Test on Secondary Vocational Teachers’ Learning


Motivation before and after the PD introduction
95% Confidence
Sig.
Interval of the
Dimensions Pairs Questions t df (2-
Difference
tailed)
Lower Upper
To what extent do you agree
Pair -
that you are willing to 39 .000 -.641 -.259
1 4.767
attend this PD?
To what extent do you agree
Attention
that the learning outcomes
Pair -
listed in the PD notice could 39 .000 -.825 -.325
2 4.658
attract you to attend this PD
programme?
To what extent do you agree
Pair that this PD programme -
39 .000 -.687 -.363
3 could match your 6.565
expectations?
Relevance To what extent do you agree
that the learning outcomes
Pair -
outlined in this PD 39 .000 -.687 -.363
4 6.565
programme could fit your
expectations?
Pair To what extent do you agree -
Confidence 39 .000 -.711 -.389
5 that this PD programme 6.904

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95% Confidence
Sig.
Interval of the
Dimensions Pairs Questions t df (2-
Difference
tailed)
Lower Upper
could assist you in solving
the problems in your daily
curriculum design?
To what extent do you agree
Pair that you could achieve the -
39 .000 -.735 -.415
6 learning outcomes specified 7.264
in this PD programme?
To what extent do you agree
Pair -
Satisfaction that this PD programme is 39 .000 -.687 -.363
7 6.565
useful for you?

To confirm the effects of OBE-based PD programme on curriculum design on the


higher vocational teachers, a paired samples t-test is also employed to compare
and analyse their learning motivation levels before and after attending the PD
programme.
H0: The learning motivation of the higher vocational teachers remains unchanged
following the introduction to the learning outcomes and training framework, as
compared to their motivation levels before the programme.

H1: The learning motivation of the higher vocational teachers is improved


following the introduction to the learning outcomes and training framework
compared to their motivation levels before the programme.

As depicted in Table 3, feedback across the four dimensions indicates that within
the higher vocational teachers’ group, learning motivation increased following
the PD programme, with average levels rising by 16%-20%. According to the
results of the paired samples t-test in Table 4, the p-value of each question is less
than 0.05, suggesting that there is a significant improvement in the feedback on
learning motivation from higher vocational teachers following their participation
in the PD programme and the null hypothesis H0 is rejected.

Table 3. Group Statistics of Higher Vocational Teachers’ Learning Motivation before


and after the PD introduction
Improvement
Dimensions Questions Situation N Mean Std. Deviation
Rate
To what extent do Before 40 2.58 0.903
you agree that you
20%
are willing to attend After 40 3.10 0.744
this PD?
To what extent do Before 40 2.83 1.196
Attention you agree that the
learning outcomes
listed in the PD 19%
After 40 3.35 0.622
notice could attract
you to attend this
PD programme?
To what extent do Before 40 3.05 16% 1.011
Relevance you agree that this
After 40 3.55 0.504
PD design could

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Improvement
Dimensions Questions Situation N Mean Std. Deviation
Rate
match your
expectations?
To what extent do Before 40 3.20 16% 0.992
you agree that the
learning outcomes
Relevance
outlined in this PD After 40 3.70 0.464
programme fit your
expectations?
To what extent do Before 40 2.85 18% 1.167
you agree that this
PD programme
could assist you in
solving the After 40 3.35 0.483
problems in your
daily curriculum
Confidence
design?
To what extent do Before 40 2.80 19% 0.823
you agree that you
could achieve the
learning outcomes After 40 3.33 0.474
specified in this PD
programme?
To what extent do Before 40 3.03 17% 0.698
you agree that this
Satisfaction
PD programmeis After 40 3.55 0.552
useful for you?

Table 4. Paired Samples t-Test on Higher Vocational Teachers’ Learning Motivation


before and after the PD introduction
95% Confidence
Sig.
Interval of the
Dimensions Pairs Questions t df (2-
Difference
tailed)
Lower Upper
To what extent do you agree
Pair -
that you are willing to 39 .000 -.786 -.264
1 4.069
attend this PD?
To what extent do you agree
Attention
that the learning outcomes
Pair -
listed in the PD notice could 39 .006 -.887 -.163
2 2.933
attract you to attend this PD
design?
To what extent do you agree
Pair that this PD programme -
39 .008 -.862 -.138
3 could match your 2.793
expectations?
Relevance To what extent do you agree
that the learning outcomes
Pair -
outlined in this PD 39 .006 -.847 -.153
4 2.912
programme fit your
expectations?
To what extent do you agree
Pair
that this PD programme
5 -
Confidence assisted you in solving the 39 .018 -.910 -.090
Pair 2.469
problems in your daily
6
curriculum design?

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95% Confidence
Sig.
Interval of the
Dimensions Pairs Questions t df (2-
Difference
tailed)
Lower Upper
To what extent do you agree
that you could achieve the -
39 .000 -.754 -.296
learning outcomes specified 4.640
in this PD programme?
To what extent do you agree
Pair -
Satisfaction that this PD programme is 39 .000 -.716 -.334
7 5.547
useful for you?

To assess hypothesis 2, a satisfaction assessment questionnaire was received after


completing the PD programme and 80 questionnaires were collected in two
groups. The questionnaire used a five-point Likert Scale (1=Very Dissatisfied,
2=Dissatisfied, 3=Unsure, 4=Satisfied, 5=Very Satisfied) to assess satisfaction
levels.

To assess the potential correlation between the PD programme based on the OBE
framework and trainees' satisfaction within the secondary vocational teacher
group, one-sample t-test was adopted to analyse their satisfaction levels after
attending the PD. Besides, a test value of 4 (i.e., 4=Satisfy) for analysis was selected
to evaluate the effects on satisfaction levels.
H0: µ=4
H1: µ≠4

The results in Table 6 revealed that the p-value of the satisfaction levels in each
question within the secondary vocational teacher group were all less than 0.05,
which rejects the null hypothesis. As indicated in Table 5, the average satisfaction
level in each question exceeded 4, with the 95% satisfaction level falling within
the range from 4.22 to 4.71. Consequently, the PD programme based on the OBE
framework significantly enhanced training satisfaction in the secondary
vocational teacher group.

Table 5. Group Statistics of Secondary Vocational Teachers’ Training Satisfaction


after Attending the PD
Std.
Questions N Mean
Deviation
To what extent are you satisfied with the overall design of
40 4.64 0.570
PD?
To what extent are you satisfied with the overall curriculum
40 4.71 0.458
design programme in PD?
To what extent do you agree that attending this PD
40 4.67 0.477
programme is useful when you return to work?
To what extent do you agree that attending this PD
programme could solve your problems in your curriculum 40 4.42 0.657
design process?
To what extent do you agree that the content in this PD
programme could be easily integrated into your curriculum 40 4.40 0.654
design?

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To what extent do you agree that the content in this PD


programme could help enhance the quality of your 40 4.42 0.657
curriculum design?
To what extent do you agree that the content in this PD
programme could help boost your students' learning 40 4.38 0.716
motivation?
To what extent do you are willing to adopt or refer to the
40 4.22 0.517
contents of this PD programme in your curriculum design?

Table 6. One-Sample t-Test on Secondary Vocational Teachers’ Training Satisfaction


after Attending the PD
Test Value = 4
95% Confidence
Sig.
Interval of the
Questions t df (2-
Difference
tailed)
Lower Upper
To what extent are you satisfied
with the overall design of the 7.580 39 0.000 0.47 0.82
PD?
To what extent are you satisfied
with the overall curriculum 10.407 39 0.000 0.57 0.85
design programme in PD?
To what extent do you agree that
attending this PD programme is 9.381 39 0.000 0.52 0.81
useful when you return to work?
To what extent do you agree that
attending this PD programme
4.313 39 0.000 0.22 0.62
could solve your problems in
your curriculum design process?
To what extent do you agree that
the content in this PD
programme could be easily 4.105 39 0.000 0.20 0.60
integrated into your curriculum
design?
To what extent do you agree that
the content in this PD
programme could help enhance 4.313 39 0.000 0.22 0.62
the quality of your curriculum
design?
To what extent do you agree that
the content in this PD
programme could help boost 3.538 39 0.001 0.16 0.59
your students' learning
motivation?
To what extent do you are
willing to adopt or refer to the
2.881 39 0.006 0.07 0.38
contents of this PD programme
in your curriculum design?

To assess the potential correlation between the PD design based on the OBE
framework and trainees' satisfaction within the higher vocational teacher group,
one-sample t-test was conducted to analyse their satisfaction levels after attending

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the PD. In addition, the same test value (i.e., 4=Satisfy) was selected for analysis
to assess the effects on satisfaction levels in the secondary vocational teacher
group.
H0: µ=4
H1: µ≠4

The results in Table 8 reveal that the p-value of the satisfaction levels in each
question within the higher vocational teacher group were all less than 0.05, which
rejects the null hypothesis. As indicated in Table 7, the average satisfaction level
in each question exceeded 4, with the 95% satisfaction levels falling within the
range from 4.09 to 4.69. Consequently, the PD programme based on the OBE
framework significantly enhanced training satisfaction in the higher vocational
teacher group.

Table 7. Group Statistics of Higher Vocational Teachers’ Training Satisfaction after


Attending the PD
Std.
Questions N Mean
Deviation
To what extent are you satisfied with the
40 4.62 0.535
overall design of PD?
To what extent are you satisfied with the
40 4.62 0.490
overall curriculum design in PD?
To what extent do you agree that attending this
PD programme is useful when you return to 40 4.69 0.468
work?
To what extent do you agree that attending this
PD programme could solve your problems in 40 4.49 0.549
your curriculum design process?
To what extent do you agree that the content in
this PD programme could be easily integrated 40 4.47 0.588
into your curriculum design?
To what extent do you agree that the content in
this PD programme could help enhance the 40 4.56 0.546
quality of your curriculum design?
To what extent do you agree that the content in
this PD programme could help boost your 40 4.38 0.650
students' learning motivation?
To what extent do you are willing to adopt or
refer to the contents of this PD programme in 40 4.09 0.288
your curriculum design?

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Table 8. One-Sample t-Test on Higher Vocational Teachers’ Training Satisfaction


after Attending the PD
Test Value = 4
95% Confidence
Sig.
Interval of the
Questions t df (2-
Difference
tailed)
Lower Upper
To what extent are you
satisfied with the overall 7.807 39 0.000 0.46 0.78
design of PD?
To what extent are you
satisfied with the overall 8.513 39 0.000 0.47 0.77
curriculum design in PD?
To what extent do you
agree that attending this
PD programme is useful 9.871 39 0.000 0.55 0.83
when you return to
work?
To what extent do you
agree that attending this
PD programme could
5.978 39 0.000 0.32 0.65
solve your problems in
your curriculum design
process?
To what extent do you
agree that the content in
this PD programme could 5.326 39 0.000 0.29 0.64
be easily integrated into
your curriculum design?
To what extent do you
agree that the content in
this PD programme could
6.827 39 0.000 0.39 0.72
help enhance the quality
of your curriculum
design?
To what extent do you
agree that the content in
this PD programme could 3.900 39 0.000 0.18 0.57
help boost your students'
learning motivation?
To what extent do you
are willing to adopt or
refer to the contents of 2.072 39 0.044 0.00 0.18
this PD programme in
your curriculum design?

6. Discussion
According to the analysis of pre-training and post-training questionnaires from
both secondary and higher vocational teachers, several important findings can be
obtained in the PD programme based on the OBE framework.

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The PD design of this research incorporates effective PD design factors identified


in previous studies (Desimone & Stuckey, 2014; Hubers et al., 2022; Mouza et al.,
2022; Yurtseven et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021;). The PD design in this research
followed the OBE principles, emphasising student-centred, learning outcomes-
oriented and continual improvement (Deneen et al., 2013; Morcke et al., 2013;
Spady, 1994).

The PD programme based on the OBE framework effectively enhanced the


learning motivation. As the PD programme in this research particularly offers a
comprehensive overview of the knowledge and competencies trainees can acquire
and apply post-training, the learning motivation of both secondary and higher
vocational teachers was significantly enhanced across all four dimensions (See
Table 1 to Table 4). Interestingly, in the attention dimension, an increase of nearly
19% can be seen in both groups, representing the most substantial improvement
among all dimensions.

The OBE-based PD programme effectively increases the training satisfaction of


vocational teachers. As the PD programme in this research emphasised trainee-
centred concept, revolving around trainees' feedback to adjust training contents
and methods accordingly, both secondary and higher vocational teachers highly
validate the PD design based on the OBE framework (See Table 5 to Table 8),
especially regarding curriculum design and ultimate learning outcomes design.

Although the results of this research show the improvement of trainees’ learning
motivation and training satisfaction among vocational teachers throughout
training, it is essential to delve into specific indexes for a more comprehensive
analysis. The improvement rate of the relevance dimension in learning motivation
research was lower than those of other dimensions in both secondary and higher
vocational teacher groups. This suggests that each trainee may have other
expectations that the design of the programme cannot match. Furthermore, the
mean score for Question 8, indicating the willingness to transfer training contents
into practice, is the lowest in both secondary and higher vocational teacher
groups, as shown in Table 6 and Table 8, indicating that each trainee may require
ongoing support or follow-up to encourage the implementation of learning
outcomes.

Table 9. The Improvement of Secondary Vocational Teachers’ Learning Motivation


Before and After the PD Programme in Four Dimensions
Improvement Improvement
Dimensions Pre-test Post-test
quantities rate
Attention 2.755 3.24 0.485 19%
Relevance 3.23 3.775 0.545 16%
Confidence 3.205 3.765 0.56 17%
Satisfaction 3.05 3.58 0.53 17%

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Table 10. The Improvement of Higher Vocational Teachers’ Learning Motivation


Before and After the PD Programme in Four Dimensions
Improvement Improvement
Dimensions Pre-test Post-test
quantities rate
Attention 2.705 3.225 0.52 19%
Relevance 3.125 3.625 0.5 16%
Confidence 2.825 3.34 0.515 18%
Satisfaction 3 3.5 0.5 17%

7. Conclusion
In this research, the PD programme based on the OBE framework had a significant
impact on learning motivation and training satisfaction of vocational teachers and
confirmed the advancement of the OBE framework in PD design, which
emphasises trainee-centred, learning outcomes-oriented and persistent
improvement (Deneen et al., 2013; Morcke et al., 2013; Spady, 1994). These
characteristics are consistent with the findings from previous studies on the
effective factors influencing PD implementation (Desimone & Stuckey, 2014;
Hubers et al., 2022; Mouza et al., 2022; Yurtseven et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021).

Four dimensions (i.e., Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction) were


assessed in learning motivation before and after attending the PD proramme in
both secondary and higher vocational teacher groups, confirming that the OBE
framework can be adopted in the PD programme for vocational teachers. After
attending the PD programme, trainees' learning motivation significantly
improved due to the provision of attainable and measurable learning outcomes
tailored from the pre-training needs survey conducted with the trainees.
Meanwhile, the PD programme revolved around learning outcomes to review
design training content and continually improve training arrangements based on
trainees’ feedback, which promotes positive reflection on trainees’ satisfaction.

Although this research assesses only trainees' learning motivation and training
satisfaction, the PD programme based on the OBE framework still had a beneficial
impact on trainees' learning behaviours, training models and training assessment
methods and among others.

In conclusion, there is a large amount of research that has adopted the OBE
framework in curriculum design around the world with great success, but the
research on PD programmes based on the OBE framework has not been fully
explored. The findings of this research aim to contribute to the exploration of the
OBE framework's application in teacher professional development.

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Appendix 1
Questionnaire Design for Trainees’ Learning Motivation
Part I Trainees’ information
1. Name:

2. Gender
Male
Female

3. Diploma
Higher Diploma
Bachelor’s degree
Master’s degree
Doctoral degree

4. Position:

5. Professional qualification:

6. Subject to teach:

7. Instructional Experience
1-3 years
4-6 years
7-15 years
16-25 years
More than 25 years

Part II Status of trainees’ curriculum design ability


1. To what extent do you agree that you are willing to attend this PD?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

2. To what extent do you agree that the learning outcomes listed in the PD notice could
attract you to attend this PD design?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

3. To what extent do you agree that this Pd programme could match your expectations?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

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4. To what extent do you agree that the learning outcomes outlined in this Pd
programme could fit your expectations?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

5. To what extent do you agree that this Pd programme could assist you in solving the
problems in your daily curriculum design?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

6. To what extent do you agree that you could achieve the learning outcomes specified in
this Pd programme?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

7.To what extent do you agree that this Pd programme is useful for you?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

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Appendix 2
Questionnaire Design for Training Satisfaction
Part I Trainees’ information
1. Name:

Part II Evaluation of teacher professional development design based on the OBE


framework

1. To what extent are you satisfied with the overall design of PD?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied

2. To what extent are you satisfied with the overall curriculum design in PD?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied

3. To what extent do you agree that attending this Pd programme is useful when you
return to work?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied

4. To what extent do you agree that attending this Pd programme could solve your
problems in your curriculum design process?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied

5. To what extent do you agree that the content in this Pd programme could be easily
integrated into your curriculum design?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied

6. To what extent do you agree that the content in this Pd programme could help
enhance the quality of your curriculum design?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied

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7. To what extent do you agree that the content in this Pd programme could help boost
your students' learning motivation?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied

8. To what extent do you are willing to adopt or refer to the contents of this Pd
programme in your curriculum design?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 432-461, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.23
Received Mar 1, 2024; Revised Apr 8, 2024; Accepted Apr 30, 2024

Exploring Homeschooling: In-depth


Meta-Analysis of Its Impact on Learning
Motivation and Factors Influencing Family
Choices
Mena Khairy Eldeeb* , Tasneem Diab ,
Yusr Alkubish and Saba Qadhi
Qatar University
Doha, Qatar

Abstract. This study examines the impact of homeschooling, an


increasingly popular alternative education, on learning motivation and
the factors influencing families' decisions to homeschool. Employing a
meta-analytical approach, this study aims to synthesize existing literature
on these topics, offering a comprehensive overview of current
knowledge. A search conducted on the Web-of-Science database yielded
18 relevant studies meeting the inclusion criteria. The decision to
homeschool is inherently intertwined with family choices, influenced by
personal family beliefs and values, dissatisfaction with conventional
schooling, special health conditions, and religious or moral guidance.
These decisions often reflect diverse cultural and societal contexts,
emphasizing the contextual nature of homeschooling choices. Overall,
results indicate a significant positive impact of homeschooling on
learning motivation, as it enhances students' engagement and learning
interests. Additionally, the study incorporates a PRISMA diagram and a
table outlining the characteristics of the incorporated studies. This meta-
analysis provides an updated overview of the homeschooling
phenomenon and its implications for future education and practice.

Keywords: Motivation; Prisma; Homeschooling; Home Education;


Alternative Education

1. Introduction
Homeschooling, which is identified by some as "unschooling," is a unique
approach to education that can be viewed to embrace diversity and promote
cultural understanding. It has evolved from being perceived solely as an emerging
educational phenomenon to becoming an established practice with growing
popularity and significance in contemporary education systems. Once considered

*
Corresponding author: Mena Khairy Eldeeb, [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
433

an alternative approach, homeschooling is now recognized as a mainstream


educational option chosen by an increasing number of families worldwide. Its
emergence as a viable educational model reflects shifting perspectives on
education and a desire for personalized learning experiences (Tilhou, 2020). By
allowing children to learn from various sources and viewpoints, homeschooling
enables them to form their beliefs and values (Chase and Morrison, 2018).
Homeschooling, characterized by parental guidance in home-based learning, has
evolved over the past decade from being viewed as an unconventional and
innovative approach to education to becoming increasingly accepted as a
mainstream option in the United States. It is now acknowledged as one of the
fastest-growing educational alternatives in the country (Kunzman & Gaither,
2013; Ray, 2011). Moreover, home-based education is gaining momentum
worldwide; in South Africa, homeschooling reflects a dynamic and varied
educational landscape influenced by legal, cultural, and socio-economic factors
(Dlamini et al., 2021).

Similarly, in the context of the UAE, some families opt for homeschooling to offer
a customized educational experience in line with their cultural or religious
convictions. Additionally, expatriate families may choose homeschooling to
ensure continuity in their children's education (Ahbabi, 2021). Many other nations
have seen this rise in homeschooling's popularity. However, while
homeschooling offers flexibility and personalized learning, concerns exist about
its effectiveness in promoting multicultural education (Murphy, 2014). According
to Romanowski (2001), limited exposure to diverse and marginalized perspectives
may perpetuate stereotypes and biases among homeschooled students.

Moreover, the homeschooling framework might face challenges in addressing


complex systemic and structural inequalities, which are crucial aspects of a
comprehensive multicultural education (Hadderman, 2002). Balancing the
benefits of individualized learning with the need for a broader, inclusive
understanding of society remains a critical consideration in evaluating the impact
of homeschooling on multicultural education (Carlson, 2020; Romanowski, 2006).
According to Hartman and Huttunen (2021) and Romanowski (2001), there is a
growing interest in home education in several countries worldwide, specifically
in Finland. This method of educating children at home, as opposed to traditional
schooling, has increasingly been a source of attention and questions regarding its
effectiveness and challenges.

It cannot be denied that despite the growing popularity of homeschooling, it


remains a complex topic to study empirically. This is one of the limitations due to
methodological challenges, such as sampling bias, lack of control groups,
outdated or inappropriate measures, and ethical concerns in previous research.
As a result, the researchers agree that the effects of homeschooling on students'
academic achievement and college success are mixed and inconclusive. It
ultimately depends on the quality and type of instruction and the curriculum
used.

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In the upcoming sections, the rationale behind this study's research will be shared,
followed by the methods used to discover relevant information and combine the
findings. Our research adheres to established guidelines for META Analysis.
Finally, the implications and potential areas for future research will be addressed
in the concluding portion.

The main objective of this META Analysis is to study why parents and families
choose to be home-educated and to see if this type of education is suitable from
an academic and social view. To achieve this objective, a META Analysis will be
conducted of research that includes 18 studies, and the following research
questions (RQ) will be addressed:
RQ1. To what extent does homeschooling serve as an effective alternative form of
education in enhancing children's academic learning outcomes? How does
homeschooling compare to traditional schooling?

RQ2. Why do parents choose homeschooling? How do homeschoolers perceive


their social interactions in terms of happiness and confidence?

1.1. Research rationale and theoretical perspective


Homeschooling has emerged as a prominent alternative to traditional schooling,
as revealed in Carlson's (2020) recent study. This educational method entails
parents assuming the role of educators and providing instruction to their children
within the home environment. However, homeschooling does not have a uniform
approach and can significantly vary based on factors such as state regulations,
family dynamics, and individual student needs.

Clements (2002) identifies various factors influencing families' decisions to


homeschool, encompassing parental rights, religious beliefs, dissatisfaction with
public schools, and the unique needs of children. State regulations further
contribute to this variability, with some states imposing stringent oversight and
accountability measures while others maintain minimal regulations (Puga, 2019).
Notably, Puga highlights the contrast in testing methods between homeschooled
and traditionally schooled students, suggesting potential implications for student
motivation.

Research by Romanowski (2006) underscores homeschooled students' strong


performance on standardized tests, indicative of the academic proficiency
fostered by this educational approach. Homeschooling provides a flexible
environment conducive to meeting individual learners' needs and preferences.
Additionally, homeschooled students benefit from personalized attention,
enabling tailored instruction and deeper subject understanding (Ray, 2000).
Qureshi & Ali (2022) emphasize the diverse daily experiences of homeschooled
children, contrasting with the routine of traditional schooling and its potential
impact on student engagement.

Beyond academic outcomes, the social, psychological, and civic effects of


homeschooling remain understudied, presenting both challenges and

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opportunities for school psychologists (Murphy, 2014). Understanding the legal


and ethical dimensions of homeschooling is crucial for professionals in this field.

2. Methodology
This precise method of collecting data is essential in synthesizing findings from
multiple studies to provide more robust conclusions. An interpretive method is
used in this meta-analysis, which aims to integrate the findings from qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed studies that examined the same or closely related topic.
The research topic was centered around homeschooling and its relationship to
motivation. A straightforward research question was formulated, and criteria for
selecting relevant studies were established. For example, the research question
posed was: "How is learning motivation influenced by homeschooling as an
alternative approach, and what factors contribute to an increased preference for
homeschooling by families?".

On October 7th, 2023, searches for English language articles were conducted in
the Web of Science database. The search string included three categories. Firstly,
the term covering education: (Homeschooling). Secondly, the term covering
education (OR "home education"). Thirdly, a term covering the context:
(motivation). The searches were not restricted to a specific document type and
included research conducted between 2003 and 2023. Other limitations included
considerations for open access studies, language, and country.

The Web of Science database was chosen due to its extensive coverage of
educational literature, and the specific time frame was selected to ensure the
analysis captured recent trends in homeschooling. Additionally, this timeframe
allows future submissions to specific databases while meeting the required date
range. The selection of this database was tailored to the particular needs of the
research, as not all databases address educational matters. Moreover, this
platform provides rich content from various regions and countries. The specified
date range was chosen to give a contemporary perspective on homeschooling,
given its historical significance as a method of education.

2.1. Study identification and data extraction


The electronic search yielded 362 articles, of which 205 were removed due to no
open access. Subsequently, 18 articles were excluded based on language, with
only English articles meeting the criteria. An article from Israel was also removed.
Following the elimination of these 224 articles, 138 remained for independent
screening by the three authors of this paper. Each author was assigned 46 articles
for a thorough review. Upon distribution and detailed examination, 80 COVID-
related articles were eliminated as they did not pertain to the search context.

Additionally, 26 articles discussed unrelated matters, while two did not address
the relationship between homeschooling and motivation. Twelve articles were
deemed erroneous or inaccessible. Consequently, 18 studies were included in the
reference list for this review (See Table 2).

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The titles and abstracts of the identified studies were carefully reviewed and
evaluated, and only those meeting our criteria were selected for further analysis.
Relevant information was extracted, including parental perspectives on
homeschooling, specific homeschooling methods, and influencing factors. Our
team utilized a standardized form to ensure organized and accessible data
management. In addition, several studies presented varying perspectives on
homeschooling. Therefore, researchers ensured these divergent viewpoints were
incorporated into the analysis sections to capture a comprehensive range of
opinions and mitigate potential biases or discrepancies.

In delving into the findings of our meta-analysis, thoughtful discussions were


conducted, drawing upon existing literature and theory to provide context.
Limitations of the study and potential implications were also considered, along
with directions for future research on homeschooling.

Maintaining objectivity and focusing on data from elementary or secondary


schools were paramount. Studies lacking concrete evidence, targeting different
age groups, or explicitly examining distance learning were excluded based on
predefined criteria. Discrepancies in including studies were discussed and
resolved among the three authors, and all extracted data underwent thorough
verification.

The meta-analysis was meticulously crafted and shared, adhering to our field and
journal's reporting standards and guidelines. A PRISMA diagram (Figure 1) and
a table outlining the characteristics of the included studies were incorporated to
enhance clarity (See Table 2). Proper citation of data sources and a comprehensive
description of the methodology were provided.

2.2. Analysis
Information was extracted from the studies regarding research questions,
theoretical approaches, countries, samples, and results. Extracting this data
necessitated a thorough re-reading of each study. During this process, awareness
was raised regarding potential differences in analysis depending on the context
in which they were conducted. Some studies focused on special needs home-
educated students, while others addressed parents' motivations for
homeschooling. In some instances, the authors did not investigate specific
contexts. Different connections were identified in the studies table (See Table 1),
leading to their inclusion in the data results and analysis.

Each article was meticulously condensed by the authors of this study, with
extraneous and irrelevant information carefully removed. The original research
was consistently referenced to identify the main topics under discussion. This
process involved working within each main category and bridging them to ensure
a shared understanding and agreement among all three authors.

An analytical approach was utilized to uncover underlying themes, involving


multiple rounds of reading, highlighting, interpreting, and discussing. A table
with ten columns encompassing each study's main genres, interests, limitations,
and specifications was created to organize the findings. The information was

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individually read, interpreted, and paraphrased before being discussed


collectively by the authors. In presenting results, various research questions and
the corresponding answers from multiple studies were provided to illustrate the
understanding and connections made to address the main research questions.

Figure 1: PRISMA Diagram

Records identified through database searching


(n = 362)
Identification

Web of science (Keywords: homeschooling, or


“home education”, and motivation)

Limitations: From year 2003-2023

Date of the search: 7-10-2023


Screening

Records screened (n = 362) Records excluded (n = 344)

Full-text articles excluded, with


reasons (n = 344)

Full-text articles assessed for eligibility - 205 no open access articles


(n = 18) - 18 different languages
Eligibility

18 articles were studied and read by the - 1 other reasons (Israel)


researchers. After clear examination all
articles were deemed relevant to the - 12 errors
study.
- 80 Covid-related studies or
distance learning

- 26 articles discussed other topics

- 2 articles did not discuss


motivation
Included

Studies included in qualitative synthesis (n = 12)

Studies included in quantitative synthesis (meta-analysis) or mixed methods (n =6)

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3. Results
3.1. To what extent does homeschooling serve as an effective alternative form
of education in enhancing children's academic learning outcomes? How
does homeschooling compare to traditional schooling?

Homeschooling has emerged as an educational alternative that offers unique


advantages, particularly in providing individualized attention to students
(Ludgate et al., 2021; Blok & Karsten, 2011). Homeschooled students benefit from
a more intimate learning environment with smaller student-to-teacher ratios. In
traditional schools, large class sizes often make it challenging for educators to
address individual needs. In homeschooling, focused attention allows for a
detailed understanding of each student's strengths and weaknesses. Therefore,
homeschooled students benefit significantly from the personalized attention
parents or tutors provide. The smaller student-to-teacher ratios intrinsic to
homeschooling create an environment where educators can focus on the
individual strengths and weaknesses of each student (O'Hagan et al., 2021). This
tailored approach has the potential to yield better academic outcomes as it
addresses the specific needs of learners.

Van Schalkwyk and Bouwer (2011) claimed that homeschooled students could
follow a customized curriculum, allowing them to explore subjects in-depth or
accelerate learning in areas of strength. Personalized curricula cater to individual
interests and foster a more engaged and motivated learning experience. This
engagement positively influences academic achievement as students connect with
the material more deeply. According to Ng et al. (2021), homeschooling provides
varied learning experiences through interactive games and virtual tours, which
enhance achievement in math and social studies, strengthening the motivation to
learn. There is no one-size-fits-all approach to homeschooling, and families
should choose methods that align with their children's needs and preferences.

Blok and Karsten (2011) agreed with the previous researchers. They argued that
one of the advantages of homeschooling is its flexibility in adapting teaching
methods to suit the student's preferred learning style. Homeschool educators can
enhance understanding and retention by tailoring lessons to accommodate visual,
auditory, or kinesthetic learners. This adaptability in teaching methods is a crucial
factor in contributing to improved academic performance. Moreover, O'Hagan et
al. (2021) noted that mainstream education can be challenging for some children,
such as autistic students with social communication difficulties, while home
education can offer a positive experience for those families as it establishes good
academic and social outcomes. With homeschooling, parents can provide flexible,
balanced, and individualized education, leading to positive outcomes.

Homeschooled students can also progress at their own pace, ensuring mastery of
concepts before moving forward. This flexibility in pacing, known as mastery-
based learning, contributes to a solid academic foundation. Students can be free
to spend more time on challenging subjects, fostering a comprehensive
understanding of the material (Merry and Karsten, 2010).

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The controlled home environment in homeschooling minimizes distractions,


providing students with an atmosphere conducive to increased focus on
academics. The reduced likelihood of disruptions allows for enhanced
concentration, ultimately contributing to improved academic performance.
Mwanyumba Tweni et al.'s (2022) results showed that homeschooled students
might experience fewer distractions than their peers in traditional schools, leading
to an increased focus on academics. Furthermore, the lower student-to-teacher
ratios in homeschooling create an environment where personalized feedback and
targeted support can be readily provided. They indicate that homeschooled
students often perform as well as or better than their traditionally schooled
counterparts on standardized tests. The consistently higher academic competence
of homeschooled students, as demonstrated through these test scores, attests to
the effectiveness of the homeschooling approach. This individualized attention
addresses educational gaps promptly, contributing to a more robust academic
foundation. The close interaction between educators, "parents", and students
facilitates a deeper understanding of the material and ensures that learning
challenges are addressed effectively (Kraftl, 2012).

3.2. Why do parents choose homeschooling? How do homeschoolers perceive


their social interactions in terms of happiness and confidence?
There are a variety of reasons why families decide to homeschool their children,
each with its own set of goals and motives. Seven of the 18 studies that have been
categorized are mainly concerned with reasons why families choose
homeschooling (Choen, 2020; Chase & Morrison, 2018; Cheng & Hamlin, 2023;
Burke, 2022; Carlson, 2019; Hartman & Huttunen, 2020; Ng et al., 2021). They
explained that homeschooling parents might strive to harmonize their personal
beliefs and sentiments with societal norms and practices. Another motivation is
to give children additional self-discovery time and reduce parental workload.
According to Chase and Morrison (2018), reasons for choosing homeschooling can
fluctuate, influenced by factors like seeking self-directed education,
dissatisfaction with conventional schooling, worries about societal disparities, or
a preference for alternative perspectives in comprehending the world. Cheng and
Hamlin (2023) noted that families combine knowledge and resources by
homeschooling in addition to the education provided by their parents through
other channels, such as homeschool cooperatives. Furthermore, different
homeschooling arrangements, such as participating in cooperatives or using
online instruction, can offer diverse access points to extracurricular activities and
academic material, which may affect families' motivation in selecting particular
arrangements.

Moreover, the significant role of creative arts in education is widely


acknowledged; they positively influence student motivation by nurturing
creativity, critical and innovative thinking skills and fostering cultural and
personal awareness (Burke, 2022). In a qualitative study conducted in the United
States, Delaney (2014, as cited in Carlson, 2020) discovered that different families
had different reasons for homeschooling, such as discontent with traditional
education, concerns about the school atmosphere, and a desire for individualized
instruction. Hartman and Huttunen (2021) mentioned that the motivation behind
homeschooling stems from a desire to establish a customized, nurturing learning

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setting that honors a child's uniqueness and cultivates a genuine passion for
learning. However, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, motivations for
homeschooling might have been shaped by various factors, including access to
digital tools, worries about remote schooling quality, and the necessity for tailored
support (Ng et al., 2021).

According to McCabe et al. (2021), a primary motivation for parents opting for
homeschooling is their wish to offer religious or moral guidance and education to
their children. Five of the 18 studies primarily discuss the positive effects of home
education that appear in the learners' feelings and social interactions (Chase &
Morrison, 2018; Cheng & Hamlin, 2023; Burke, 2022; Hartman & Huttunen, 2020;
Davies, 2015). Chase and Morrison (2018) pointed to the findings indicating that
adolescents engaged in various social encounters enhanced their social skills,
happiness, and self-assurance. This will foster a favorable social milieu, a sense of
community, and motivation for the adolescents to engage with diverse
individuals.

The opportunity for children to interact with parents, siblings, and other members
of society in homeschooling can enhance motivation and learning outcomes,
especially in subjects like English (Permoser & Stoeckl, 2021). According to Cheng
and Hamlin (2023), facilitating collaboration and fostering social connections
among homeschooling students can be achieved through arrangements involving
participation in homeschool cooperatives or the engagement of private tutors. In
recent times, there has been a transformation in the approach to homeschooling
instruction. Through an increasing dependence on internet resources and digital
learning methods due to reduce in-person interaction with peers, homeschooled
students might experience altered social dynamics. Social interaction approaches
in homeschooling exhibit diversity due to their varied pedagogical nature,
tailored uniquely to each household (Burke, 2022). In homeschooling, the focus
on solid parent-child bonds and a positive atmosphere creates a supportive space
for social interaction. This environment hones a child's self-assessment skills, aids
in assimilating diverse information, and ultimately bolsters students' confidence
in social engagements (Hartman & Huttunen, 2020).

In exploring alternative perspectives and motivations related to homeschooling,


it becomes evident that families opt for this educational approach for many
reasons. One significant factor is dissatisfaction with traditional schooling
systems, where parents may perceive limitations in meeting their children's
individual needs or addressing specific learning challenges adequately (Cheng &
Hamlin, 2012; Van Schalkwyk & Bouwer, 2011; Permoser & Stoeckl, 2021; Chase
& Morrison, 2018). Additionally, concerns about societal disparities, including
issues related to school safety, peer influences, and academic standards, prompt
some families to seek alternatives such as homeschooling. Moreover, religious or
moral guidance is pivotal in influencing homeschooling decisions, as parents may
prioritize instilling specific values and beliefs in their children's education
(O'Hagan et al., 2021; Kraftl, 2012; Ng et al., 2021). Furthermore, the desire for
individualized instruction tailored to a child's unique learning style and pace
drives many homeschooling choices. By embracing these diverse motivations and

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perspectives, homeschooling offers families the flexibility and freedom to create


personalized learning environments that promote academic success and holistic
development (Merry & Karsten, 2010; Myers, 2022; Cohen, 2020; McCabe et al.,
2021).

Furthermore, principles and convictions passed down by their families, often in


line with religious or conservative moral ideologies, could foster contentment and
self-assurance among home-educated individuals during social interactions.
Davies (2015) mentioned that homeschooling is a beneficial option for children
who have faced challenges in traditional school environments, such as bullying
or insufficient support for special needs. This alternative can significantly enhance
their well-being and confidence in social interactions. Thomas (2016) emphasized
this idea and pointed out the importance of understanding the diverse
motivations and perspectives of homeschooling parents and emphasizing their
flexibility and freedom when making educational choices.

Table 1: A summary of the mentioned studies


Context Main results/ recommendations Studies
Curriculum These studies claimed that Van Schalkwyk & Bouwer,
and Academic incorporating diverse curriculums into 2011; Tweni et al., 2022;
Achievement homeschooling programs enhances Permoser & Stoeckl, 2021;
individualized learning experiences. De Carvalho & Skipper,
Moreover, it indicates positive 2019; O’Hagan et al., 2021;
academic outcomes among Kraftl, 2012; Ng et al., 2021
homeschooled students compared to
traditional schools. Recommending
various curriculums and emphasizing
these favorable academic results could
help improve the overall perception of
homeschooling as a successful and
viable educational alternative.
Homeschooling These studies found that the flexibility Cheng & Hamlin, 2023;
as a flexible in homeschooling positively influences Schalkwyk & Bouwer,
alternative learning outcomes. The adaptability of 2011; Permoser & Stoeckl,
schedules allows students to progress 2021; Chase & Morrison,
at their own pace, leading to increased 2018; De Carvalho &
engagement and a more Skipper, 2019; Davies,
comprehensive understanding of 2015; Merry & Karsten,
subjects, which genuinely increases 2010; Myers, 2022; Cohen,
learning motivation. Recognizing and 2020; Mccabe et al., 2021
embracing the advantages of flexibility
in homeschooling could enhance the
overall learning experience for
students.
Providing These studies suggest that providing Van Schalkwyk & Bouwer,
support for increased support to homeschoolers 2011; Cheng & Hamlin,
homeschooled from both the government and society 2023; Burke, 2022; Carlson,
adolescents and can contribute to the overall success of 2020; Hartman &
their families homeschooling. This support might Huttunen, 2021; Ng et al.,
include access to resources, 2021; De Carvalho &
educational materials, and community

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programs. Recognizing and Skipper, 2019; Ludget et


addressing the needs of al., 2021.
homeschooling families could foster a
more conducive environment for
effective home-based education.

4. Summary of main findings


The main findings can be summarized in the following points:
(1) Homeschooling offers unique advantages in providing individualized
attention, customized curriculum, flexible pacing, and reduced distractions to
students, leading to improved academic performance and outcomes.
Homeschooled students benefit from a more intimate and adaptable learning
environment where they can explore their interests, master concepts, and
receive personalized feedback and support.
(2) Homeschooling can positively affect students' feelings and social interaction,
especially when participating in cooperatives, online instruction, or private
tutoring. It enables students to access various learning resources and
opportunities, such as online instruction, homeschool cooperatives, private
tutors, and creative arts, enhancing their academic and social development.
(3) Homeschooling allows parents to align their educational goals and methods
with their personal beliefs, sentiments, and preferences, creating a
harmonious and satisfying learning experience for their children. A study by
Davies (2015) focuses on how parent-child solid bonds and a positive
atmosphere in homeschooling support social interaction, aid in assimilating
information, and bolster confidence in social engagements. Homeschooling
can benefit children facing challenges in traditional school environments, like
bullying or lack of support for special needs, enhancing overall well-being and
confidence in social interactions. The flexibility and freedom available to
homeschooling parents when making educational choices are essential
(Thomas, 2016).
(4) Families choose homeschooling for various reasons, such as personal beliefs,
dissatisfaction with conventional schooling, creative arts, and religious or
moral guidance. A study by McCabe et al. (2021) pointed out that families'
dissatisfaction with traditional education, worries about societal injustices,
wish to seek alternative viewpoints and combine knowledge and resources,
wish for individualized instruction, want to offer kids more time for self-
discovery, and desire to create a nurturing, customized learning environment
are reasons why they choose homeschooling,. One important reason for
homeschooling is moral or religious guidance.
(5) In our exploration of motivations for homeschooling, several vital factors
emerged. Families often choose this educational approach due to
dissatisfaction with traditional schooling, concerns about societal disparities,
and the desire for individualized instruction tailored to their child's needs and
values (Cheng & Hamlin, 2023; Van Schalkwyk & Bouwer, 2011; Permoser &
Stoeckl, 2021; Chase & Morrison, 2018). Additionally, religious or moral
guidance significantly influences homeschooling decisions (O'Hagan et al.,
2021; Kraftl, 2012; Ng et al., 2021). Ultimately, homeschooling allows families
to create personalized learning environments, fostering academic success and

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holistic development (Merry & Karsten, 2010; Myers, 2022; Cohen, 2020;
McCabe et al., 2021).

5. Limitations
Our research has explored the topic by conducting a thorough Meta-Analysis of
existing studies. While this approach allowed us to comprehensively examine a
vast body of analysis, it also has limitations. Our search strategy was limited to
English databases, potentially omitting relevant studies from other languages.
The exclusion of non-English studies has omitted valuable insights from non-
Anglophone countries, which could provide a more global perspective on
homeschooling.
Other databases could not be included, which may have presented some
challenges for the researchers. Including more databases in the search would be
more confusing and complex, and it might take more time to exclude repeated
articles from each database. References in each cited paper were not thoroughly
or manually searched through journals and websites, which may have yielded
additional insights and studies relevant to our research questions.
Another significant constraint about accessing "open access" articles is that despite
having institutional access to the database, most of these articles required viewing
fees, leading to our decision to exclude them from our study. It is important to
note that our research questions were not the only aspects of this topic worth
exploring. Other valuable discussions and perspectives could have been covered
in this paper. Other questions could have yielded more ideas about the topic
discussed here.
Nonetheless, the analysis has carefully identified and focused on two specific
questions. Our team of three authors meticulously extracted and analyzed
utterances and descriptions, but it is acknowledged that there may have been
alternative interpretations. Overall, our research has provided valuable insights
into the topic, but it is recognized that other interpretations and perspectives
could have been included. Despite its limitations, our Meta-Analysis has shed
light on essential aspects of the research, and it is hoped that it will contribute to
further discussions and studies in the future.

6. Discussion
There is a general understanding of homeschooling as a parental choice to educate
children outside of traditional school settings. Myers (2022), in his latest work,
discusses the complex world of homeschooling, exploring its many definitions
and diverse nature. He highlights that homeschooling has no one-size-fits-all
meaning, as it can vary greatly depending on the family, country, and approach.
Myers emphasizes the wide range of interpretations and practices within this
umbrella term. While Myers accentuates the varied nature of homeschooling,
Farris (2013) contends that an essential uniformity exists, especially concerning
specific educational philosophies and methodologies. Farris argues that despite
apparent diversity, a core set of educational approaches prevails within the
homeschooling landscape. Light must be shed on the diversity of families who
homeschool and the various pedagogical methods they employ. To further
complicate matters, Myers humanizes the often misunderstood and

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misrepresented concept of homeschooling, showing that it is a diverse and


nuanced practice shaped by many factors.
Homeschooling has become famous for parents seeking a unique educational
approach catering to their child's needs (Ludgate et al., 2021). According to Choen
(2020), homeschooling parents often strive to align their personal beliefs with
societal norms and practices. This approach allows children more time to explore
their interests and passions while easing the burden on parents. In a similar vein,
Lee (2023) explores the motivations behind homeschooling, particularly among
conservative parents seeking to instill their own moral and religious beliefs in
their children; they identify two main justifications for homeschooling - one based
on the natural and divine rights of parents, and the other on the benefits and
freedoms of homeschooling. In contrast to Tweni et al.'s (2022) advocacy for
homeschooling as a progressive and beneficial option that empowers parents to
take charge of their children's education and shield them from issues in traditional
schools, Bartholet (2020) presents a different perspective. Bartholet argues that
homeschooling motivations might primarily focus on sheltering children from
diverse perspectives rather than cultivating a progressive, open-minded
educational environment. According to Bartholet, the choice to homeschool is
driven more by a desire to protect children from varied viewpoints than to
provide them with a forward-thinking education. This opposition reflects a
fundamental disagreement on the underlying motivations and outcomes of
homeschooling, with Tweni et al. emphasizing empowerment and educational
benefits. At the same time, Bartholet underscores concerns about potential
insularity and the avoidance of diverse perspectives. Davies' study (2015) drew
upon the concept of 'upbringing', arguing that education should equip children
with the skills and knowledge to lead fulfilling lives. He also emphasizes the need
to shift the focus from the characteristics of education to the aspects of the family,
as the family provides the foundation for a child's education.
In a separate study, Hartman and Huttunen (2021) examined the challenges faced
by home education. They also argued that the current assessment theories and
methods used in schools are unsuitable for home education, as they focus on
performance and grades rather than progress.

Davies (2015), Choen (2020), Myers (2022), Ludgate et al. (2021), and Hartman and
Huttunen (2021) proposed the development of a more appropriate and effective
assessment model specifically designed for home education. They also shed light
on the various challenges parents face when educating their children at home.
With a wealth of data and information, they highlight crucial elements such as the
number of home-educated children, the legal requirements, the curriculum, the
funding, and the monitoring of home education's impact on children's well-being
and socialization. De Carvalho and Skipper (2019) agreed with what they said.
They mentioned the socialization issue for home-educated children as they found
that home-education networks provide a sense of community and identity, with
parents playing a crucial role in facilitating social opportunities. In interviews
with adolescents and their mothers, children reported feeling happier and more
confident than in a traditional school setting, with the authors suggesting that
home education allows for greater freedom and overall well-being regarding
socialization. Kraftl (2012) agreed with all the researchers and noted that parents

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are attentive to their teenagers' needs and preferences. Furthermore, the


researchers pointed out that home education does not impede a child's social
growth, as they have ample opportunities to develop social skills and gain
experiences through various activities and connections. In addition, the
researchers examined previous studies comparing the social abilities of home-
educated and traditionally schooled children and concluded no notable
distinction between the two groups.

According to Kraftl (2012), homeschooling has become an increasingly popular


choice for parents. In confluence with Kraftl's acknowledgment of the complexity
and diversity of homeschooling, its various settings, and challenging the
dominant educational model, Green (2007) presents an opposing viewpoint.
Green argues that homeschooling families' challenges may be exaggerated and
that the traditional education system encounters comparable or even more
substantial issues. This contrast reflects a divergence in perspectives. Chase and
Morrison's (2018) study pointed out the effect of "unschooling" on equity and
social justice, highlighting its potential to foster individual growth and challenge
oppressive norms within the traditional school system. However, they also
mentioned the potential drawbacks that most people associate with unschooling,
such as limited exposure to diverse perspectives and experiences. Nevertheless,
they later considered implementing multicultural education within this
alternative form of education, where they defined multicultural education as
valuing diversity and promoting social justice and highlighted its potential within
unschooling.
Expanding on this topic, a study by Burke (2022) focused on the creative arts
teaching and learning practices within the homeschooling community in
Australia. This research revealed the growing and diverse nature of
homeschooling, emphasizing the importance of providing adequate support and
resources for quality education. McCabe et al. (2021) discussed the decision-
making process behind homeschooling, highlighting the privilege and
vulnerability of being a primary caregiver and educator in homeschooling
families. They all suggest that homeschooling may benefit the state by reducing
its role and expenses in providing care and education. O'Hagan et al. (2021) added
to these studies' findings by highlighting the challenges of mainstream education
that some students, like autistic children with social communication difficulties,
may face. Homeschooling has been shown to positively affect academic and social
outcomes for families with exceptional children. This is due to the flexible and
personalized education that parents can provide in a home setting. All previous
studies worked to provide a comprehensive and contextual analysis of
homeschooling as a social phenomenon. On one hand, some argue that students
in such environments tend to achieve more tremendous academic success than
their public school counterparts. The tailored curriculum, one-on-one attention,
and flexibility in pacing are believed to contribute to a more personalized and
practical learning experience (O'Hagan et al., 2021).
On the other hand, Romanowski (2001) claimed that there is a contrasting
perspective when it comes to unstructured homeschooling. Critics contend that
students who receive unstructured homeschooling may achieve lower grades
compared to their peers in both structured homeschooling and public schools. The

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absence of a formalized curriculum, standardized assessments, and clear


educational goals is a potential drawback, possibly leading to a lack of academic
rigor and accountability. This dichotomy reflects the ongoing debate within the
homeschooling community about the effectiveness of different approaches and
the varied outcomes for students depending on the structure of their
homeschooling environment.
Our study's findings on homeschooling align with socio-constructivist theories in
education, emphasizing the social and collaborative nature of learning (Neuman
& Guterman, 2016). Families create unique educational environments tailored to
their children's needs and preferences through homeschooling, often involving
interactive and participatory learning experiences (Crafter, 2011). This aligns with
the socio-constructivist perspective, which posits that knowledge is actively
constructed through social interactions and meaningful engagement with the
learning environment (Neuman & Guterman, 2016). Homeschooling
environments, characterized by personalized instruction and flexible curriculum
design, provide ample opportunities for students to engage in collaborative
learning experiences with peers, family members, and community resources
(Crafter, 2011). By acknowledging the diverse motivations and practices within
homeschooling, our research contributes to broader discussions surrounding
socio-constructivist approaches to education, highlighting the importance of
student-centered learning environments and the role of social interaction in
knowledge construction.
Van Schalkwyk and Bouwer (2011), Cheng and Hamlin (2021), Tweni et al. (2022),
and Carlson (2020) explored the concept and history of homeschooling. They
argue that homeschooled learners are often overlooked in research on this topic,
and their perspectives should be given more weight. The authors also criticize
previous studies for relying solely on interviews and not delving deeper into the
learners' personal experiences and motivations. They also found it a constantly
evolving practice with various instructional methods and educational offerings.
Their findings suggest that each type of homeschooling arrangement yields
unique outcomes and characteristics, highlighting the need for further
investigation into these distinctions. They highlighted the various factors that
influence this phenomenon and noted the differing regulations in each state.
Additionally, the authors raised concerns about the limited and biased research
literature on homeschooling and offered recommendations for school
psychologists to support homeschooling families and students better. The
findings of our study carry several significant implications for academia and
practice. By uncovering the diverse motivations behind homeschooling choices
and the positive outcomes associated with this educational approach, our research
underscores the need for a nuanced understanding of alternative education
models. These insights can inform policy decisions to support homeschooling
families and address their unique needs within the broader educational
landscape. Furthermore, our identification of various factors influencing
homeschooling decisions highlights the importance of personalized and flexible
learning environments that cater to individual students' needs and preferences.
Practically, our study underscores the value of holistic educational approaches
prioritizing student well-being and academic success. Ultimately, our research

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contributes to the ongoing discourse on homeschooling and offers valuable


insights for educators, policymakers, and researchers striving to enhance
educational practices and outcomes.
In exploring the multifaceted realm of homeschooling, scholars have uncovered a
diversity of perspectives that challenge traditional notions of education. While
Myers (2022) explores the complex landscape of homeschooling, acknowledging
its varied definitions and practices, Farris (2013) contends that a core set of
educational philosophies persists amidst this diversity. The dichotomy between
these viewpoints underscores the intricate nature of homeschooling, shaped by
familial, cultural, and pedagogical factors. Moreover, scholars such as Ludgate et
al. (2021) and Lee (2023) shed light on the motivations driving homeschooling
choices, ranging from a desire for individualized learning to pursuing religious
and moral values. These varying perspectives underscore the need for a nuanced
understanding of homeschooling as a multifaceted phenomenon influenced by
many factors. In addressing these complexities, our study contributes to a deeper
understanding of homeschooling and its implications for education policy and
practice.

7. Conclusion
In general, our analysis not only underscores the growing relevance of
homeschooling but also highlights the need for practice. Homeschooling
demonstrates significant variability based on geographical location, family
dynamics, and the chosen methodology. The rationale behind opting for home
education primarily revolves around catering to individual student needs and
fostering social development, with parents playing a pivotal role in granting
autonomy and flexibility. Previous research exhibits diverse perspectives
regarding the challenges homeschooling families encounter compared to those
adhering to traditional educational systems. Homeschooling achieves notable
academic advancements, surpassing the outcomes of students in conventional
education.
Moreover, homeschooling contributes to governmental support and cost savings
within the education sector. Ultimately, it provides families with the opportunity
to establish customized learning environments, nurturing not only academic
achievement but also holistic development. It can also enhance students'
emotional well-being and social interactions, mainly through participation in
cooperatives, online instruction, and private tutoring. Notably, homeschooling
offers advantages for children encountering difficulties in conventional school
settings, such as bullying or insufficient support for special needs, as it positively
influences families with autistic children, augmenting their academic and social
achievements.
Future research could explore several unexplored dimensions in light of the
complexities surrounding homeschooling. One area of inquiry could focus on the
long-term academic and socio-emotional outcomes of homeschooled students
compared to those in traditional schooling. Additionally, investigating the
effectiveness of different homeschooling approaches, such as structured versus
unstructured methods, would provide valuable insights. Moreover, exploring the
impact of homeschooling on parental well-being and family dynamics warrants

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attention. Finally, analyzing the role of technology in homeschooling and its


implications for educational outcomes could offer valuable insights into the
evolving landscape of home-based education. Overall, homeschooling provides a
unique opportunity for children to thrive and reach their full potential.

Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing


process
While working on this research, the authors utilized Chat GPT and Microsoft Bing
to seek advice on condensing the length of some paragraphs and rephrasing some
ideas and sentences. With the guidance of this tool, the authors carefully
examined and made necessary adjustments to the content, taking complete
ownership of the publication's material.

Declaration of competing interest


The writers want to clarify that they have no competing financial interests or
personal relationships that may have biased the work presented in this paper.

Data availability
A review of research and articles from databases

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Attached Below (Table 2)

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451

# Authors Year Re Country Participants/ Article Research Thematic Issues/ Gaps Recommendations Relationship between
f. Data source Type Method Focus Homeschooling &
Motivation
1 Van 2011 1 South primarily Journal Qualitative Homeschooli The limited Diverse curricula: there is Each homeschool
Schalkwyk Africa homeschool paper ng, Learning focus of no one-size-fits-all educator and learner
& Bouwer educators and homeschooling approach to brings their values,
and Assessment research is on homeschooling, and perceptions, and
homeschool the perspectives families should choose experiences to the
learners. of homeschool methods that align with homeschool situation,
educators. their children's needs and which can influence
The paper preferences. motivation and the
recognizes the Flexibility: flexibility may teaching and learning
importance of imply that homeschooling process.
heeding can be suitable for children
homeschool with specific educational The homeschool
learners' voices needs or desires. educators in the study
to gain a Support: homeschooling were often unaware of
trustworthy can be a collaborative their learners' particular
understanding effort, and involving other needs, which impacted
of the family members can be motivation.
homeschooling beneficial.
context. Families who homeschool
often find it successful and
continue with it over time.
2 Tweni, 2022 2 Kenya Children Journal Quantitative Homeschooli The limited Homeschooling can be an Homeschooling
Wamocha, & pursuing the paper ng, exploration of effective educational motivates parents to
Buhere Accelerated education, homeschooling option in Kenya. develop moral and
Christian ACE as an religious values in their
Education curriculum. educational Homeschooled children children while offering a
(ACE) alternative in pursuing the ACE comfortable learning
curriculum in the Kenyan curriculum achieved atmosphere. It also aims
Kenya. context. academic results at a to maximize learning
similar or even better level experiences.

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
452

Comparing the than children in Homeschooling has the


performance of conventional ACE schools. potential to address the
homeschooled increasing cost of
children with Homeschooling can be education, which leads to
those in more expensive due to the more children from low-
conventional need for digital media and income families dropping
schools within resources. out of school.
the Kenyan
education
sector.
3 Cheng & 2023 3 USA homeschool Journal Quantitative Home Research tends Policymakers should Homeschool families
Hamlin families in paper education, to treat acknowledge the diversity often supplement their
the United National homeschooled of homeschooling children's education with
States who Household children as a arrangements and private tutors,
were part of Education uniform group consider this diversity homeschooling groups,
the National Survey. without when making decisions or cooperatives, and online
Household accounting for regulations related to tools and resources.
Education differing homeschooling. Participation in these
Survey homeschool activities may lead to a
(NHES). arrangements. Providing support and compromise and loss of
The differences resources for control among individual
in supplemental homeschooling families. families, which decreases
education the motivation for
methods used Considering the learning.
by educational needs of
homeschooling homeschooled children.
families.
4 Katie M. & 2022 4 Australia One hundred Journal Qualitative Homeschooli How can Homeschooling families Homeschooling is
Burke. ninety-three paper ng, quality homeschooling benefit from support pedagogically distinct
homeschoolin arts learning. families be frameworks that align with and diverse, with
g families supported in these identified processes, approaches to learning
were facilitating such as prioritizing child- varying based on
consulted as creative arts centered arts learning and individual homes and
part of a learning? supporting children's philosophies.
larger creativity in the skills.

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Design-Based The value of creative arts


Research in education is widely
project. recognized, positively
impacting critical and
creative thinking,
innovation, and personal
and cultural
understanding,
enhancing students'
motivation.
5 Carlson 2020 5 USA Homeschooli Journal Qualitative Assessment, Understanding School psychologists The study suggests that
ng parents. paper home the factors should become familiar homeschooled students
education influencing with their state's may have higher
homeschooling homeschooling academic engagement
in the United regulations, including and achievement in
States and the assessment and evaluation specific subjects than
lack of empirical requirements. Active students in public
evidence engagement with schools, reflecting on
derived from homeschool associations students' motivation to
methodologicall can allow school learn positively.
y strong psychologists to share their
research expertise and collaborate There are concerns about
paradigms. with homeschooling socialization in
families. homeschooling that are
not shared by parents,
and homeschooled
college students have
been found to possess
positive personality traits.

6 Hartman & 2021 6 Finland Schooled and Journal Mixed methods Homeschooli Absence of Centralizing the Homeschooling practices
Huttunen homeschoole paper ng, standardized monitoring of all home- vary widely, with
d children. unschooling methods for educated children from the different approaches to
monitoring the municipalities to a few learning based on
progress of competent and well-

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compulsory informed professionals individual homes and


education for trained explicitly for this philosophies.
home-educated task. However, parents do not
children in share concerns about
Finland. There is an urgent need for socialization in
There is a need research on the results and homeschooling, and
for research on productivity of home homeschooled college
the results and education in Finland. students have been found
productivity of to possess positive
home education personality traits.
in Finland, as
well as
exploring the
reasons behind
parents'
decisions to
homeschool and
the growing
popularity of
homeschooling
in the country.
7 Kwok Ng, 2021 7 Does not 125 adapted Journal Quantitative Homeschooli The need to Update the European Homeschooling provides
Klavina, specify a physical paper ng; special update Standards in Adapted varied learning
Ferreira, particular education education. standards to Physical Activity experiences through
Barrett, country. (APE) incorporate (EUSAPA) to include interactive games and
Pozeriene & teachers technology in technologically supported virtual tours, which
Reina APE for SEN pedagogy. enhance math and social
students studies achievement and
underscores the increase motivation to
importance of learn.
providing
professional Research suggests that
development to homeschooling can
enhance enhance learning
teachers' motivation, particularly

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technological in the context of


competencies. unschooling.
Unschooling allows
children to have freedom
and autonomy in their
learning, which promotes
intrinsic motivation and a
strong desire to learn.
According to Cognitive
Evaluation Theory,
feedback that enhances
learners' sense of
competence, autonomy,
and responsibility can
strengthen intrinsic
motivation. Therefore,
careful consideration
should be given to the
evaluation, assessment,
and feedback methods
used in homeschooling.
Homeschooling provides
a learning environment
tailored to the individual
child's interests and
needs, which can foster a
strong intrinsic
motivation to learn.

8 PERMOSER. 2021 8 USA Hundreds of Journal Mixed methods Homeschooli The Homeschooling advocacy Homeschooling provides
& homeschoolin paper ng. transnational can be considered part of a a tailored learning
STOECKL. g advocates advocacy of broader effort to reframe environment that caters
from all over homeschooling human rights from a to the child's interests and
the world. by moral morally conservative needs, fostering a strong
perspective.

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conservative intrinsic motivation to


groups. learn.
The Homeschooling's ability
transnational to offer children
advocacy of interactions with parents,
homeschooling siblings, and other
by moral members of society can
conservative enhance motivation and
groups. learning outcomes,
especially in subjects like
English.
9 Chase & 2018 9 USA Unschooling Journal Qualitative 2018 The minimal There is a need for ongoing Unschooling gives
Morrison. families. paper focus is on research to delve deeper children freedom and
taking social into the identity autonomy in their
action to development of the learning, enhancing their
address societal unschooling community, sense of competence,
inequities understand the independence, and
within the motivations behind responsibility increasing
unschooling unschooling choices, intrinsic motivation.
community, as explore the The individualized and
depicted in implementation of flexible nature of
GWS. multicultural education in homeschooling provides
the unschooling context, personalized learning
and extract valuable experiences, catering to
lessons that can enhance the individual child's
multicultural teaching and interests and needs,
learning across different which can foster a strong
educational approaches. intrinsic motivation to
learn.
10 De Carvalho 2018 10 UK Home- Journal Qualitative Homeschooli Gaining insights Parental Involvement and The individualized and
& Skipper educated paper ng into the social Organization: organizing flexible nature of
adolescents Social experiences and social opportunities for homeschooling provides
and their experience. development of home-educated personalized learning
mothers. home-educated adolescents. Encouraging experiences, catering to
adolescents. parental involvement and the individual child's

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Examining the providing resources to interests and needs,


social impacts of manage diverse activities which can foster a strong
home education could contribute to intrinsic motivation to
on adolescents positive social outcomes. learn.
is an area that Acknowledging the Homeschooling also
has received less importance of diverse offers opportunities for
attention in social experiences in home children to interact with
previous education and parents, siblings, and
research. understanding the shared other members of society,
identities within home- which can enhance
educating communities motivation and learning
can contribute to a more outcomes.
supportive and inclusive
environment for
homeschooling families.
11 Davies 2015 11 UK Homeschooli Article Qualitative Domestic Risks focus How children develop, Homeschooling also
ng family education attention on how they are to be allows for a more tailored
educational included in family life, and and responsive learning
practices and how they focus more environment, which can
ignore the clearly not on the help maintain and sustain
institutional approaches to education student motivation.
characteristics per se but on approaches to
of education. family life and the kinds of
relationships between
family members.
12 Ludget,Blac 2021 12 UK Parents' Article Qualitative Homeschooli Parents are Creative and inclusive Homeschooling during
hburn & experiences ng children experiencing learning practices the pandemic has
Mears of with (SEND) severe embraced by parents and provided opportunities
homeschoolin challenges in enjoyed by children must for creative and inclusive
g children providing and be valued by educators learning practices, which
with SEND maintaining a and policymakers so that can potentially enhance
home parents feel confident to motivation in children
environment support their children with special educational
that enables during future lockdown needs and disabilities
situations. (SEND).

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children with Supporting families with While positive aspects of


SEND appropriate resources and homeschooling have been
the reported lack of reported, it is essential to
specialist available acknowledge the
resources by parents in this challenges families face,
study, any future including difficulties
lockdown situations need adapting to a new way of
to commence with an living and learning at
assessment of this. home, changes in
routines, and children
missing their friends,
which can impact
motivation.
This is learning that
perhaps has no
immediate practical value
but which elicits a sense
of freedom and well-
being; learning that
brings about self-
motivation, 'nourishment
and hope,'
13 Merry & 2010 13 USA Homeschooli Article Qualitative Liberty, The problem of Homeschooling will It is important to note that
Karsten ng Parents Parental liberty as it increasingly be attractive the specific relationship
Choice, and applies to school to parents who find between homeschooling
Homeschooli choice and alternatives unsatisfactory. and motivation may vary
ng whether there depending on individual
ought to be circumstances and the
restricted regulatory conditions in
freedom in the place.
case of
homeschooling.
14 O’Hagan, 2021 14 UK Parents with Article Mix methods Home Mainstream Home education can be a Motivations and reasons
Bond & autistic Quantitative. educating education can positive experience for that led parents to home-
Hebron children And Qualitative be a challenge families with good educate their autistic

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459

autistic for autistic academic and social children to improve


children. children, given outcomes for autistic social, emotional, and
their social children and young mental health were
communication people. reported across the
difficulties, Parents can be able to studies. Parents reported
highly focused provide flexible, balanced, a drastic increase in
interests, and and motivation for 51.16% of
sensory individualized education, participants, a decrease in
sensitives leading to positive active engagement for
associated with outcomes 53.49%; a drastic
autism. reduction in problem
behavior for 57.78%; a
drastic increase in family
functioning
for 56.9%, and a drastic
reduction in stress for
52.54%

15 Myers 2022 15 UK Homeschoole Article Qualitative Homeschooli Homeschoolers Freud's account of Many homeschoolers
rs ng identify their Unheimlich helps explain identify their fears of risks
fears of risks the fear and discomfort and failings in
and failings in that consistently underpin mainstream schooling as
mainstream debates about the reason they
schooling as the homeschooling. homeschool, suggesting
reason they Freud's reconciliation of that motivation can stem
homeschool. the conflation of from dissatisfaction with
This article homeliness and traditional schooling
explores how unhomeliness as a systems.
discomfort and particular form of fear or
fear are discomfort is a valuable
ingrained insight into
within the homeschooling.
meanings Homeschooling is readily
associated with mapped over the safe
homeschooling. spaces of many families'

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(rich and poor, marginal


and privileged) homes.
16 Cohen 2020 16 USA Homschoolin Case Qualitative Homschoolin "Math and Math mom worked toward The flexibility of
g, math mom study g , math mom motherhood." balancing her beliefs and homeschooling enables
"Parenting feelings with societal students to pursue their
anxiety," mindsets and practices as a interests and passions,
something like mom and teacher. which can foster intrinsic
math anxiety, motivation and a love for
and providing learning.
examples of Homeschooling also
"fear-based provides a supportive
parenting and nurturing
advice." environment, which can
boost students' self-
confidence and
motivation to succeed
academically
it is essential to note that
motivation in
homeschooling can vary
depending on factors
such as the teaching
approach, parental
involvement, and the
student's characteristics.
17 Mccabe, 2021 17 Czechia Homeschooli Article Qualitative homeschoolin It focuses on the Homeschooling mothers The decision to
Machovcova ng Mothers g; gender and gender aspects embrace and oppose homeschool is often
, Belanova, family of cultural imperatives of driven by a desire to
& homeschooling good mothering, spend more time together
Kostelecka in Czechia. It indicating a complex as a family, create a safe
explores how relationship between space for individual
mothers are homeschooling and development, and
involved in the societal expectations of promote positive
decision to motherhood. character and values.
homeschool and

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how the practice Homeschooling mothers


is embedded in prioritize their children's
gendered socio-affective
relationships development and
within society. educational quality,
reflecting their
commitment to a
mothering ideal.
Economic considerations
play a role, as
homeschooling mothers
may face limited
opportunities for income
due to their primary
caregiving and educational
responsibilities.
18 Kraftl 2012 18 UK 30 UK-based Article Qualitative Alternative Experiences and Focusing on learning The experiences and
homeschoolin education discourses are uncovers spatial motivations of some of
g families like crucial to the experiences in the 'subjects' of education
homeschoolin constitution of homeschooling. - who operate outside
g alternative Geographers should mainstream schooling:
educational consider emotions' parents who home
practices like political and moral educate their children.
homeschooling. implications in alternative Characterise
education. homeschoolers'
experiences, where
feelings of intimacy and
love are essentially
constitutive of what
makes homeschooling an
'alternative' space to
mainstream schools.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 462-475, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.24
Received Mar 1, 2024; Revised Apr 8, 2024; Accepted Apr 30, 2024

Pre-Service Teachers’ Professional Competence in


Integrating ICT in Business Education in Lesotho:
A Systematic Literature Review
Mamosa Thaanyane* and Thuthukile Jita
University of the Free State
Bloemfontein, South Africa

Abstract. Information and communication technology (ICT) is a concern in


educational settings in developing and developed countries. Studies have
shown that the increasing interest in integrating ICT into teaching practices
has pressed teacher education institutions to incorporate 21st-century skills
in training pre-service teachers to develop these skills for their classroom
instruction in the future. However, studies on the integration of ICT in
business education are lacking. The purpose of this study was to examine pre-
service teachers’ professional competence in integrating ICT into business
education during teaching practice, in Lesotho. A systematic literature review
examined pre-service teachers’ professional competence in integrating ICT
into business education. Hence, an integrative method of analysis was used
to extract the influencing factors on the competence of pre-service teachers in
integrating ICT in the teaching of business education. The findings revealed
that pre-service teachers’ ICT professional competence is influenced by self-
efficacy, which relates to the beliefs they hold about their capabilities to
integrate ICT into business education. Furthermore, the findings revealed
that professional competence is influenced by attitudes toward using ICT,
inadequate training, and institutional infrastructure. Teacher education
institutions should improve their training programmes to adequately meet
the needs of pre-service teachers and develop policies regarding the
integration of ICT in their curriculum. If teacher education does not address
these issues, pre-service teachers will continue struggling with the
integration of ICT in their teaching. Therefore, teacher education should
refine its curriculum and support the integration of ICT into business
education.

Keywords: Pre-service teachers; ICT; integration; self-efficacy; teacher


education

* Corresponding author: Mamosa Thaanyane; [email protected]

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
463

1. Introduction
Although information and communication technology (ITC) has grown favourably
in reputation, it is a concern in educational settings in developing and developed
countries. As a vital tool, it needs to be seen as an important aspect of teaching in the
21st century, requiring developing countries to invest in it (Malik & Hooda, 2022).
Hence, teacher education institutions are expected to provide pre-service teachers
with the necessary tools and support for them to acquire the skills and knowledge
needed to learn how to integrate technology into their teaching instruction.
Equipping them with the necessary skills will help them make their lessons
interactive, while also preparing students for the technology-driven world. Since the
developments of ICT have changed society and the workplace, higher education
institutions are bound to restructure their teacher education programmes and
provide classroom facilities to decrease the teaching and learning gap with ICT
between now and the future (Ranta et al., 2022; Thephavongsa & Qingtang, 2018).

The use of ICT has gained a growing reputation and become a great concern in
educational settings globally (Aydın & Gürol, 2019; Heine et al., 2023; Pozas & Letzel,
2023). Studies have shown that the increasing interest in integrating ICT into teaching
practices has pressed teacher education institutions to incorporate 21st-century skills
in their training to help pre-service teachers integrate it into their classroom
instruction in the future (Heine et al., 2023; Sutton, 2011; Teo et al., 2015). The modern
educational system strives to provide pre-service teachers with more enhanced
learning opportunities so they may transfer these to their students. Another reason
for this growing interest is that students insist on having ICT so that they can access
information in their daily lives, connect with others, and share information within the
school learning environment through what is called e-learning (Aydın & Gürol,
2019).

The restructuring process requires the development of skills to support ICT


integration into the existing context to provide pre-service teachers with knowledge
of specific subject areas that promotes meaningful learning and enhances
professional productivity (Gülbahar, 2008). Hence, training must mainly focus on
acquiring competencies and skills on how to integrate ICT into the teaching and
learning process to make it easy for pre-service teachers to transfer those skills to their
learners (Heine et al., 2023).

Heine et al. (2023 further argued that lecturers (facilitators) and pre-service teachers
are also expected to develop new informal learning and entrepreneurial skills to
maintain continuous learning. These are the skills needed in the 21st century and
which give meaning to learning business education. Having observed the increased
rate of unemployment among business education graduates, I can conclude that there
is a mismatch between the world of work and what is taught, which calls for revision
of the curriculum to meet the demands of employees. Since ICT has the potential to
accelerate, enrich, and deepen the acquisition of 21st-century skills, motivating and
engaging pre-service teachers in learning can help them relate school experiences to

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work practices in the future (Ranta et al., 2022; Sutton, 2011). This would mean that
pre-service teachers can now determine which applications can be used in teaching
and learning and how much time to spend on them.

Despite the attempts by teacher education to develop pre-service teachers’ ICT


integration skills and to assess their professional competence, the use of ICT has been
failing because the issue has received insufficient attention. Hence, this study
examined pre-service teachers’ professional competence in ICT integration and its
usage as a learning tool, in Lesotho. Understanding how these factors hinder or
facilitate ICT usage and integration can help teacher education institutions improve
on training quality teachers with necessary knowledge and skills. This study will also
assist policymakers and educators in developing countries to adopt an educational
plan that can cope with highly competitive market needs.

Institutions can adequately prepare pre-service teachers to be able to integrate ICT


into the teaching and learning process. If teacher education can implement and
integrate ICT properly in its education system, ICT can enrich, enhance, and develop
the teaching and learning process, while also assisting pre-service teachers to develop
and master 21st-century skills. Teacher education needs to restructure its
programmes and redefine its mission to fully embrace the integration of ICT in
teaching and learning and preparation for quality teachers. Teacher education must
develop strategic plans for managing the technology that will enhance the learning
experience. It also requires instructors to use technological tools to instruct and guide
pre-service teachers to better understand the subject matter. As such, this study
investigated the influences of pre-service teachers’ professional competence in ICT
integration.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
This study is framed by the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)
which was introduced by Mishra and Koehler in 2006. This model is built upon
Shulman’s pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) framework of 1986, furthering its
interrelation with content, pedagogy, and technology (Soong & Tan, 2010). According
to Mishra and Koehler (2006), this framework is used to describe how technology can
be effectively used to promote a better understanding and retention of information.
The domains of TPACK are that PCK deals with how to teach content-based material;
technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) deals with how to use technologies in
teaching; and technological content knowledge (TCK) is concerned with selecting and
using technologies to communicate content knowledge. TPACK empowers pre-
service teachers with a profound understanding of how the using technology can be
harnessed and tailored to their needs.

When a teacher uses certain knowledge to transform pedagogical strategies and


content representations for teaching a particular topic and how these tools and
representations affect students’ understanding of topics, then TPACK is achieved. It

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is therefore important for pre-service teachers to acquire TPACK to be effective in


their teaching. Since it is based on three primary forms of knowledge, it helps pre-
service teachers understand the best practices for teaching specific content. It also
helps pre-service teachers know how their students learn by selecting appropriate
strategies that will meet their needs. In this way, TPACK helps them identify
available technological tools to teach such content. TPACK is the specific knowledge
that supports content-based technology integration in the classrooms.

This framework identifies three domains of knowledge that pre-service teachers need
to possess to successfully integrate technology into the content to be taught. One
domain of TPACK is PCK, which incorporates content and pedagogy into
understanding topics, problems, or issues organised for the diverse interests and
abilities of the learners. In other words, it refers to learning how to teach the content
of a particular subject matter, which requires the development of appropriate
instructional strategies and skills for the learner (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). According
to Mishra and Koehler (2006), TPACK theory focuses on designing and evaluating
teachers’ knowledge, emphasising effective student learning in various content areas.
Thus, it is used to frame thinking about what knowledge pre-service teachers must
have to integrate technology into teaching and how they might develop this
knowledge. The theory is relevant to this study as it informs the reader (and teacher
education) about the knowledge pre-service teachers must possess to integrate ICT
into the teaching and learning process. TPACK is also used in this study to
understand pre-service teachers’ professional competence in integrating technology
into teaching and learning and how this has impacted the professional development
experiences of pre-service teachers. Teacher education must, therefore, consider
strategies that will effectively prepare pre-service teachers to integrate technology
into their teaching.

2.2. ICT Integration in Teaching


Research has shown that the integration of ICT in the classroom is becoming
increasingly important in schools and teacher education, to the extent that pre-service
teachers’ professional competence in ICT is targeted development (Heine et al., 2023).
This means that pre-service teachers must acquire technological knowledge to master
and perform teaching-related tasks. As ICT and its tools have the potential to
fundamentally transform the teaching and learning process, teacher education must
prepare pre-service teachers to make links between technological, pedagogical, and
content knowledge for effective integration. Having all kinds of knowledge can
enable them to use it more often. ICT plays an important role in enhancing business
education. The integration of ICT tools and facilities can indeed greatly benefit
students by improving their access to information, data management, and
presentation skills (Oluwalola, 2021).

However, challenges such as electricity interruptions and poor implementation


policies can hinder the effective integration of ICT in educational institutions (James,
2013). Adequate funding is crucial to ensure that schools have the necessary ICT

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equipment for teaching business education effectively. The argument that teaching
business education with a focus on ICT skills can develop valuable competencies that
are in demand in the job market is quite valid (Ratheeswari, 2018). As technology
continues to play a significant role in business operations, having a strong foundation
in both business principles and ICT skills can indeed make students more competitive
and prepared for the workforce. Overall, integrating ICT into business education can
not only enhance students’ learning experiences but also contribute to the
development of essential skills that can drive entrepreneurship and economic growth
in countries. Institutions and policymakers need to address the challenges in
implementing ICT effectively to ensure that students are well-equipped for the
demands of the modern business world.

3. Methodology
This is a qualitative study that adopted a systematic literature review to examine pre-
service teachers’ ICT professional competence focusing on the factors that influence
its usage. Hence, the systematic review was determined to be an appropriate method
to closely examine the ICT integration of pre-service teachers as a mode of instruction.
The study was a systematic review of literature that has been organised thoroughly
and systematically, effectively conveying important insights that can guide various
stakeholders in improving the integration of technology, particularly in the field of
business education. This study provides a comprehensive examination of the factors
influencing the competence of pre-service teachers to integrate ICT into their teaching
and learning practices. The study adopted an integrative literature review by Souza
et al. (2010); Grove et al. (2013); Smith et al. (2011); and Whittemore and Knafl (2005).
The process commenced by using a research question formulated to identify the gap
in the literature.

To sample the appropriate literature, which was the selection of studies to be


included for critical appraisal, a thorough search strategy was used to select the
appropriate studies through selected keywords or key terms. The abstraction for each
study through titles and abstracts was done independently to ensure that there was
a fair selection as abstracts summarise the findings of each study (Hopia et al., 2016;
Smith et al., 2011; Whittemore, 2005). The search resulted in a large number of studies
that were eligible for the inclusion and exclusion criteria of an integrative literature
review. Only qualitative studies were included.

The next step was to refine and narrow down the search of studies. This was done to
ensure that only relevant and unbiased studies were included in the selection to
extend the precision of the search (Cronin & George, 2023; Grove et al., 2013). A
critical analysis was done using a comprehensive tool to appraise thoroughly each
relevant study selected (Cronin, 2023). This means studies that did not meet the
criteria of inclusion were considered irrelevant to the current study based on their
abstracts and titles which included, in some cases, reading the full text.

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The final selected studies were thoroughly read and the findings of each, the focus of
the study, and conclusion were considered as the criteria for inclusion. Data synthesis
included summarising the findings from individual studies integrated to form new
findings or constructs (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005). A total of 25 studies were
identified and grouped thematically, resulting in five major categories (named
themes) that were presented and discussed as new knowledge generated. Finally, the
findings for this study were presented and discussed as available evidence as a means
of documenting the entire integrative literature review (Cronin, 2023; Grove et al.,
2013).

4. Results and Discussion


Pre-service teachers’ low professional competence in integrating ICT into their
instruction during training is multifaceted. It has been identified that although pre-
service teachers are trained to integrate ICT into their learning, a discrepancy limits
their full application. This discrepancy depends very much on their low professional
competence in using ICT in instructional learning. The findings from the systematic
review responding to the research question on “What Influences Pre-service Teachers’
Professional Competence in ICT Integration” were presented and discussed thematically
(Souza et al., 2010; Whittemore & Knafl, 2005.

Theme 1: Limited Infrastructure


Infrastructure may refer to limited technologies at some rural institutions, which can
influence the use of ICTs in the lecture room and this can affect pre-service teachers’
use of technology during initial training. Limited infrastructure can also inhibit other
activities that must be done online, such as discussion forums and collaborative
writing that need the use of ICT tools. This agrees with Chisango and Marongwe
(2018) and Heine et al. (2023) that integrating ICT in instructional learning promotes
teacher-centred teaching, which is discouraged because it does not promote creative
thinking among pre-service teachers.

Acquiring the necessary equipment enables lecturers to create an inclusive classroom


atmosphere that fosters open communication with pre-service teachers as a
curriculum development initiative. The unavailability of some ICT tools, such as data
projectors, microphones and computers in lecture halls, and poor network connection
in other areas, are also barriers that can lead to the lecturer resorting to the traditional
mode of teaching pre-service teachers. Resorting to the traditional teacher-centred
mode negates pre-service teachers call for training programmes due to a lack of skills
and knowledge on how to integrate ICT into learning and, hence, this will affect their
competence in the future. Similarly, lecturers are not able to develop these skills
because they do not have laptops to use at home or even access to the Internet. This
makes their work even more difficult because they cannot access the information
needed to effectively prepare for lecturing. This affects pre-service teachers’ training
concerning technological knowledge in their future teaching and even their
interaction with their peers as a way of consultation.

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When the integration of technology, pedagogy, and content is left to the discretion of
individual lecturers, it limits ICT integration for instructional purposes and there are
inconsistent interpretations of how it can best be used in the classroom (Zyad, 2016).
This implies a revision of the training programme to adequately equip pre-service
teachers with relevant skills for integrating ICT in business education. However, pre-
service teachers feel challenged to effectively integrate ICT in the classroom because
it requires the application of complex TPACK that needs to be incorporated into the
training programmes.

This finding agrees with Heine et al. (2023), Ramirez (2020), Uslu and Ersan (2020),
and Mishra and Koehler (2006), that facilitators are challenged to foster learning that
helps pre-service teachers to meaningfully integrate content and pedagogy. In other
words, they fail to nurture 21st-century skills in these pre-service teachers. As such,
the effectiveness of pre-service teachers in the future can be blamed on the rigid
training and impactful preparation they receive. Hence, teacher education
programmes need to be designed in such a way that they equip pre-service teachers
with knowledge and skills on effective technology integration in their future
classrooms. As indicated by Peng et al. (2023) and Mishra and Koehler (2006),
different strategies of content and delivery can be used to prepare pre-service
teachers for TPACK.

Sometimes, laboratories for teacher education may lack computers and software for
the pre-service teachers to practise and this can seriously limit what they can do in
the classroom with regards to integrating ICT. This proves that there is a need for
teacher education institutions to improve their infrastructure so that it allows pre-
service teachers to practise, as well as the required support from their facilitators.
Restructuring and facilitator support can help pre-service teachers to easily integrate
ICT into the content of their teaching subjects and, hence, their ICT competencies can
also improve. This coincides with Ersoy et al. (2016), who explained that integrating
ICT into teaching and learning not only requires the acquisition of up-to-date
technology but also needs to consider various variables, including administrative,
educational, and institutional policy on the use of ICT.

When all these factors are in place, the quality of teacher education can be improved,
which in turn helps lecturers perform their duties. This implies that pre-service
teachers must be competent and possess several skills and techniques for providing
successful teaching (Bhattacharjee & Deb, 2016; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Evaluating
teacher education training helps to identify which ICT tools need to be included at
which stages of training activities by teachers and the competency levels within the
training process. This is why pre-service teachers are still struggling to integrate ICT
into teaching and learning. Without these initiatives, pre-service teachers will still be
immersed in challenges of this sort when trying to integrate ICT into learning.

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Theme 2: Pre-Service Teachers’ Attitudes


The transformation of the mode of delivery in higher education has brought
significant change in the roles that teachers play as the key implementers when it
comes to the integration of ICT in the teaching and learning process. This transition
has prompted a change in teaching instruction, from lecturing to electronic teaching
and learning. These changes have also necessitated changes in the attitudes of pre-
service teachers to fully embrace the use of ICT in teaching and learning. It can even
change pre-service teachers’ attitudes and enable them to explore trends in education
and tailor them to teaching business education. For effective and successful ICT
integration, instructors must also change their attitudes so that they influence pre-
service teachers to use ICT more frequently. In that way, pre-service teachers will be
encouraged to use technology in their learning often because they would have been
trained on how to integrate it. Proficiency in the use of ICT empowers pre-service
teachers to close the gap that exists between theory and practice.

The findings of previous studies have established that pre-service teachers’


professional competence is associated with their attitudes toward ICT integration.
This is evident in Bariu and Chun (2022), Cabellos et al. (2024), and Rastogi and
Malhotra (2013), who showed that those who use technology regularly have positive
attitudes because they can regularly search for teaching materials on the Internet. On
the contrary, those with negative attitudes might be subjective to their previous use
and access to technology. This implies that pre-service teachers need training that will
motivate them to use and facilitate the use of ICT in class in the future, which in turn
will meet the needs of society in the Information Age.

Theme 3: Inadequate ICT Training


It has been identified from the literature reviewed that pre-service teachers’ inability
to integrate ICT into their learning emanates from inadequate teacher education
training. This inability is the consequence of a lack of TPACK, that is, the knowledge
of how to integrate ICT into the lecturers’ instruction, which indicates that they will
not be able to transfer it (knowledge) to their learners in the future. As Bhattacharjee
and Deb (2016) indicated, ICT can be successfully integrated when lecturers know
how to use technological tools to transform pedagogical strategies and present the
content of their subjects in such a way that pre-service teachers understand it.

When pre-service teachers are not provided with proper training to use recent
technology in the classroom, they feel challenged in their teaching profession and fail
to prepare students for the workplace. This means that they can only commence their
roles as competent teachers when their competencies as teachers have been
developed adequately. Hence, their training has to be improved, as inadequate
training has the potential to limit pre-service teachers’ ability to integrate ICT into
their instructional practices. It is, therefore, crucial for pre-service teachers to learn
and acquire the TPACK of the subject they will be teaching in the future.

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The study also identified that, due to irregular use of ICT, pre-service teachers’
professional competence is low because of inadequate training received. Sometimes,
the inadequacy results from instructors who lack technological skills and just upload
notes or materials with the assumption that they have used ICT in teaching and
learning (Zyad, 2016). This implies that they will not use or integrate it in their
teaching and learning in the future. Consequently, the students of these teachers are
likely to seldom use ICT, like their teachers. This coincides with Akaadom (2020) and
Peng et al. (2023), who found that pre-service teachers are not able to use technology
for instruction during their training because of their instructors or lecturers’
incompetence in using technology. They do not possess the knowledge of how to use
ICT skills for instructing pre-service teachers. This deficiency is reflected in the pre-
service teachers’ low professional competence in using technology because they are
not well trained and, hence, they too do not know how to integrate it. The findings
also indicate that pre-service teachers have reported not being adequately competent
in integrating ICT into their learning during training because integration is not
discussed in depth during teacher education training. This is why pre-service
teachers still struggle to integrate ICT into their learning. Hence, this study was
conducted to close the gap between training and application.

Theme 4: Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy


Another personal factor identified in determining the professional competence in ICT
integration of pre-service teachers is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy in this context refers to
the beliefs that pre-service teachers hold about their ability to integrate ICT into
learning activities (Pozas & Letzel, 2023). The findings indicated that their self-
efficacy serves as an indicator of how confident they are in using ICT tools for
learning as they recognise their capabilities. This means that pre-service teachers can
effectively choose the appropriate ICT tools to use for certain content of their subject
areas. Pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy is vital in developing entrepreneurial skills
that allow them to use ICT in their instructional learning. This finding corresponds
with Jita and Sintema (2022), who indicated that pre-service teachers will be able to
actively participate and flourish in the future if they can choose appropriate ICT tools
to use for certain content. Similarly, self-efficacy has been found useful and
contributes significantly to pre-service teachers’ use of ICT tools. It involves them in
professional development programmes during their teaching practice because they
have sufficient time to practise integration. This helps in testing their professional
competence, which enables teacher education to decide on the kind of training to
offer. This also means that pre-service teachers have high self-efficacy and may be
eager to learn how to integrate ICT in the future. It also means that such teachers
possess TPACK. In this regard, it means that pre-service teachers possess knowledge
of how to use technology in teaching.

As an element of TPACK, pre-service teachers would show that they possess PCK,
which refers to knowledge of how to teach particular content based on the materials
available. Being able to select appropriate content and tools for teaching using ICT
proves teachers’ competence in ICT integration and shows that their self-efficacy is

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high. In contrast, pre-service teachers with low self-efficacy in using ICT tools are not
eager to use them for learning or even to access ICT resources at university. This
shows that they are not likely to use it even during their teaching practice and in their
future practice. This means that various initiatives have to be established to better
prepare pre-service teachers for these challenges.

Sometimes, teachers need to take advantage of ICT and its integration as they have
the appropriate skills to incorporate it into teaching and learning. This is
substantiated by Ranta et al. (2022), that integration of ICT and its related changes in
education are dependent on a pre-service teacher’s ability to incorporate technology
into creative pedagogy. It also depends on the development of an active learning
environment that will integrate technology. Being able to integrate ICT into teaching
and learning implies that pre-service teachers possess TPACK, which refers to the
technical knowledge, skills, and content that are necessary for the integration. Pre-
service teachers’ failure to integrate ICT into teaching and learning demonstrates the
ineffectiveness of their training.

Theme 5: Perceived Ease of Use and Usefulness


Given the pivotal role played by ICT in teaching and learning, it is important to
examine and understand factors that can influence pre-service teachers’ professional
competence in using ICT in the teaching and learning process. This implies that
teacher education programmes should ensure that pre-service teachers are equipped
with the necessary skills to use ICT, specifically in teaching their subject matter
content during their training; to provide an enriched learning environment during
training will ensure meaningful learning, retention, and transfer in the future.

Since ICT involves the use of networks, expert systems controllers of ICT must be
trained to provide support and make it easy for pre-service teachers to use. This
agrees with what Teo et al. (2015) explained, that when pre-service teachers tend to
use technology more actively, they can find it easy to navigate and manage it.
Therefore, the perceived ease of use of ICT influences attitudes toward its use in the
classroom and, hence, it is a determinant of pre-service teachers’ professional
competence in integrating technology in learning. Consequently, this study agrees
with Jadhav (2011) that the effective integration of ICT in teaching and learning by
pre-service teachers lies in their capacities. This is about using ICT tools for
instruction, accessing information, and any other activity that relates to teaching and
learning, and not just accessing material from websites. Furthermore, when pre-
service teachers persistently use ICT tools, it can influence their knowledge about
their subject content and how ICT is related to it, to the extent that they can identify
areas that need ICT integration.

This study further identified that pre-service teachers can integrate ICT into teaching
and learning when they find it useful and easy to access. Integrating ICT in teacher
education training also helps pre-service teachers to be aware of technological tools
and how they can be usefully applied in the future for the benefit of their students

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(Heine et al., 2023; Jita & Sintema, 2022). Therefore, ICT tools have to be used in
teacher education to empower pre-service teachers with the knowledge and skills
that will help them teach their various subjects at schools in the future. These skills
are the fundamental requirements in teaching in the current period of the 21st
century. It also implies that pre-service teachers have to consider ICT as one of the
ways that enhance quality and effective teaching in schools. Studies have identified
that teaching using ICT tools helps students develop positive attitudes toward
learning and understanding concepts easily (Gülbahar, 2008; Jita & Sintema, 2022;
Harju et al., 2019). In this way, empowering pre-service teachers with the necessary
skills and knowledge will help them select the appropriate methods and content that
need integration. This will make it easy for pre-service teachers to integrate
technology into teaching as it makes teaching and learning interactive.

5. Conclusions
The study examined pre-service teachers’ professional competence in integrating ICT
into business education in Lesotho. The study findings revealed that as pre-service
teachers are the ultimate decision-makers on what to teach, they need training on
how to integrate ICT into the teaching and learning of business education. It was
highlighted that professional competence is influenced by the attitudes that pre-
service teachers hold about using ICT in teaching and learning in the future. The
findings revealed that they feel ill-prepared to integrate ICT into their learning
because of a lack of TPACK. A lack of technological knowledge can inhibit them from
easily integrating ICT. They are not used to interacting with ICT tools and do not
know which tools to use and when. The findings further revealed that they
sometimes do not integrate ICT because they do not know how to do so. This
influences them not to try integrating ICT into teaching and learning.

Institutional infrastructure was also considered to influence effective integration


since it inhibits other educational activities. The unavailability of ICT tools, such as
projectors and computers in the lecture rooms, and poor connections are some other
influences that inhibit pre-service teachers from integrating ICT into their
instructional learning. Their attitudes toward ICT integration might be a problem for
them to integrate ICT into their learning. They have not fully embraced the use of
technology and, hence, fail to even search for learning materials on the Internet. This
proves that they cannot integrate it into their learning.

Lastly, inadequate training has also been identified as a factor influencing pre-service
teachers’ inability to integrate ICT into learning. Inadequate training results from
lecturers who are not knowledgeable about technology and who continue using
traditional teaching methods, which does not allow in-depth discussions of ICT
during training. In this way, pre-service teachers remain inadequately trained in the
use of ICT in learning. This affects their TPACK and the students they will be teaching
in the future. On this basis, teacher education needs to restructure its programmes
and redefine its mission to show that it has fully embraced the integration of ICT in
teaching and learning in preparation for quality teachers.

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6. Recommendations
Since the findings of this study cannot be generalised, we recommend that teacher
education should offer ICT as a compulsory course for all pre-service teachers. That
is, it should be included in the curriculum to enable pre-service teachers to develop
skills and technological knowledge to some extent since TPACK is associated with
effective teaching. Thus, pre-service teachers must also be provided with adequate
training to become competent enough to integrate technology into their learning.
Teacher education has to embrace and maintain the use of technology by
implementing appropriate strategies and policies to orient pre-service teachers’
professional competence in using ICT. Universities should therefore equip their
lecturers with ICT skills so that they can easily include ICT it in their teaching. The
curriculum should also include teaching through ICTs. Furthermore, they should
select schools that are well equipped with ICT tools to place pre-service teachers to
provide them the opportunity to practice and transfer their skills to learners. In
Lesotho, an effective control and management of management learning platforms
such as Thuto, are recommended to reduce chances of electricity cut-offs leading to
disconnection. Addressing infrastructure challenges such as having no ICT tools in
the classrooms is recommended as it leaves pre-service teachers with inadequate
technological skills, which also affects their self-efficacy in integrating ICT in business
education.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 476-496, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.25
Received Mar 1, 2024; Revised Apr 24, 2024; Accepted Apr 30, 2024

Measuring the Impact of Islamic Values-Based


Scientific Literacy on Scientific Competency of
Madrasah Teachers
Asiyah , Deni Febrini , Adrian Topano and Abdul Aziz Mustamin
Universitas Islam Negeri (UIN) Fatmawati Sukarno
Bengkulu Bengkulu, Indonesia

M. Arif Rahman Hakim


Universitas Islam Internasional Indonesia (UIII)
Depok, Indonesia

Abstract. Based on the Programme for International Student Assessment


(PISA) 383, 382, 403 assessment, the scientific literacy level of students in
Indonesia remains relatively low. This study seeks to ascertain the
outcomes of scientific competency assessments and scientific literacy
when combined with Islamic principles, as well as its impact on the
science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) approach
employed in education. The study was carried out from February to
November 2023 and included quantitative research methods. The
instruments employed in this investigation encompassed observation
and test sheets. The research findings on the STEM approach have a
substantial influence on the scientific competence and scientific literacy
of prospective madrasah instructors. This impact was determined by the
independent samples t-test with equal variances. If the significance (2-
tailed) is less than 0.05, then the hypothesis is accepted. In this study, the
independent samples t-test was used to assess both scientific competence
and scientific literacy. It was found that the values obtained indicated
equal variances. The significance level was assumed to be less than 0.05,
indicating that the hypothesis, which indicates that there is an influence,
is accepted. In addition, the control class had an average score of 67.52%
on the scientific competency pre-test and a score of 70.85% on the post-
test. The experimental class, on the other hand, had a pre-test score of
66.63% and a post-test score of 79.00%. The average score for the scientific
literacy test in the control class was 57.63% before the test and 74.90% after
the test. In the experimental class, the pre-test score was 61.70% and the
post-test score was 77.30%. The statistics clearly indicate a notable
disparity in the mean score between the pre-test and post-test scores for
both competence and scientific literacy in the experimental class trial. The
implementation of the STEM approach resulted in a significant
improvement in the average score of prospective teachers (post-test),

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
477

indicating a positive impact on the scientific competence and literacy of


prospective madrasah teachers.

Keywords: Scientific competence; scientific literacy; Islamic values; STEM

1. Introduction
Education has a crucial function as a hub of excellence in shaping the human
character and a significant impact on cultivating individuals with high quality
and potential. Education provides individuals with a profound understanding of
knowledge, skills, and attitudes, with the ultimate goal of enhancing their well-
being and contributing to the betterment of their religion, nation, and country
(Rokhman et al., 2014). Education is a collaborative process whereby students and
teachers work together to explore their abilities and potential in the classroom. It
can also be regarded as the efforts made by educators to teach and improve
morals, and provide intellectual training to students (Sholihah et al., 2018;
Panggabean & Sitorus, 2021; Grajeda et al., 2024). According to Toomey (2023),
education is the act of modifying behaviour by integrating new knowledge into
current ideas and attitudes. Therefore, it is a crucial aspect of human existence
that should not be disregarded (Hakim et al., 2023). The primary objective of
Indonesia's national education system is to facilitate the development of students'
full potential as individuals who possess a strong belief in and reverence for God,
display virtuous behaviour, sustain physical well-being, obtain knowledge,
showcase proficiency, promote originality, cultivate self-reliance, and ultimately
develop into accountable individuals. The effectiveness of achieving educational
goals will depend on the implementation of the educational process. The
assessment of the education process is based on two factors: the excellence of its
components and the effectiveness of its administration (Ilham, 2019).

Enhancing the calibre and potential of each individual can be achieved through
education. This demonstrates that there is a significant level of interest in human
resource development, particularly in the current period of globalisation. The
challenges that may arise can undoubtedly be resolved by the presence of human
capital or the inherent abilities of individuals, particularly in the younger
demographic. In the field of education, such as in madrasah schools, it is necessary
for prospective educators to possess a high level of scientific competence in order
to carry out the process of teaching effectively and efficiently and helping learners
to acquire knowledge. This will ensure that the material is easily comprehensible
and enjoyable for students (Revola et al., 2023). It is necessary to maintain a
balance between the methods and the outcomes of learning (Junaedi, 2019). Put
simply, the level of scientific expertise possessed by potential madrasah teachers
will greatly influence the quality of their education (Anggraeni & Akbar, 2018).

Prospective teachers, who will later serve as facilitators, must guarantee that
learners have a pleasurable experience throughout the learning process, drawing
upon their knowledge and expertise. In order to ensure successful outcomes, it is
imperative for potential teachers to possess strong scientific proficiency since this
directly influences the learning process of pupils (Khairiah & Sirajuddin, 2019;
Fakhrurrazi et al., 2022). Insufficient mastery of scientific competency among

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prospective instructors can limit their pedagogical competence, resulting in


suboptimal conveyance of science concepts and pupils' failure to comprehend the
offered content (Suharni, 2021). The significance of competence for aspiring
madrasah teachers is evident. This is to ensure that they possess the necessary
knowledge and comprehension, enabling students to grasp and comprehend the
essence of education. Moreover, it fosters a sense of commitment within
themselves to generate positive outcomes consistently for both themselves and
their immediate surroundings (Tambak et al., 2023). Astari et al. (2022) identified
a number of essential scientific competences, including (a) problem-solving skills,
(b) science topic knowledge, (c) science literacy, and (d) mastery of science process
skills.

Regrettably, the degree of scientific literacy among Indonesian learners remains


generally deficient. The science literacy ranking of Indonesian students according
to the PISA is as follows: 383 for 2009, 382 for 2012, and 403 for 2015 (Hardinata et
al., 2019). The poor science literacy score suggests that Indonesian pupils have a
limited understanding of science education. Science education and religious
instruction are inherently interconnected. Physicists Charles A. Coulson and
Harold K. Schilling have stated that the methodologies employed in science and
religion share many similarities (Johnson, 2016). Integration can be achieved in
the subject. Ian G. Barbour, widely recognised as the pioneer of global integration,
conveyed a similar sentiment. He is a physicist and agnostic scientist who
developed four models to describe the connection between science and religion,
namely conflict, independence, dialogue, and integration (Barbour, 2002, p. 44).

Integrating Islamic beliefs into science learning activities is beneficial as it helps


students recognise the Qur'an as the source of scientific knowledge. Furthermore,
it safeguards students' convictions and intellectual pursuits in the context of
contemporary progress. Fakhrurrazi et al. (2024) affirm that incorporating Islamic
principles into scientific education is an appropriate approach to enhance
students' faith and commitment. The Islamic ideals being discussed involve the
integration or connection of verses from the Qur'an into the educational content.
The teachings of the Qur'an will undoubtedly cultivate individuals of exceptional
quality, thereby enabling the realm of education to generate a generation
characterised by profound spirituality. Observations conducted at various Islamic
Universities in Bengkulu Province have revealed empirical evidence that the
Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Teacher Education study programme continues to utilise the
Kerangka Kualifikasi Nasional Indonesia (KKNI) curriculum for scientific
courses. In terms of the learning process, it incorporates teaching materials that
are aligned with Islamic principles. Additionally, it is noteworthy that the
majority of students achieve a grade B (Good) in science courses. Since 2020,
teaching materials that combine science with Islamic principles have been
employed following research undertaken by a lecturer at UIN Famawati Sukarno
Bengkulu. The research focused on establishing learning modules for integrated
scientific courses that incorporate Islamic values. The results were derived from
conducting face-to-face interviews with the study programme coordinator and
one of the Integrated Science instructors for the primary education study
programme in Bengkulu Province.

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Based on the aforementioned observations, it is evident that the teaching process


has been effectively implemented by utilising teaching resources in the form of
research-based learning modules. A follow-up study is required to assess the
scientific competency of potential madrasah instructors at Islamic universities in
Bengkulu Province, specifically in terms of their skills in Islamic values-based
scientific literacy. This task must be completed in order to assess the scientific
proficiency of potential teachers prior to their transition into future instructors as
well as equipping aspiring madrasah instructors with the necessary skills to meet
the current demands of the times effectively.

Based on field research, it has been observed that current students, in general,
have a deficiency in scientific literacy abilities, particularly in the context of
science education. Hence, it is imperative for potential madrasah instructors to
possess scientific competency, particularly strong scientific literacy, as they would
assume the crucial position of educators responsible for comprehending the
subject matter they teach. Zuraini et al. (2021) assert that the effectiveness of a
teaching process hinges on the teacher's multifaceted position as an educator,
facilitator, administrator, and motivator for students in their learning (Payton,
2021). The success of the student learning process is influenced by the teaching
activities conducted by teachers (Insani, 2021).

This study aims to measure the extent of competence possessed by prospective


madrasah teachers through the science, technology, engineering and mathematics
(STEM) approach in the madrasa teacher candidature. The problem formulations
are (a) How are the results of the scientific competency test of prospective
madrasah teachers integrated with scientific literacy based on Islamic values
through the STEM approach? and (b) Is there any impact of the scientific
competence of madrasah teacher candidates integrated with Islamic values-based
scientific literacy to the STEM approach?

2. Theoretical Review
The essence of science is commonly understood as the epistemology of science,
which refers to the methods and principles used to acquire scientific knowledge
and the underlying values and beliefs associated with its growth. Nevertheless,
multiple studies indicate that students across different educational levels,
spanning from kindergarten to university, generally lack a comprehensive
comprehension of the essence of science (Lederman, 1992). Moreover, Nurcholish
argues that the conflict between religion and social science mostly stems from
their contrasting approaches in interpreting and elucidating the state of affairs or
objective truth (Lahaji & Faisal, 2023). Social science differs from religion in two
key aspects when it comes to explaining reality. Firstly, social science is genuinely
committed to explaining reality. Secondly, many social sciences focus on
developing a paradigm; however, the scientific methods employed have not yet
been able to fully address empirical problems that remain unresolved
(Wallerstein, 2001). The rivalry between religion and science manifests in two
ways: firstly, social science compares itself to religion, and secondly, social science
presents itself as an alternative option for constructing a weltanschauung
(McGrath, 2020; Kurniawan et al., 2022).

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Furthermore, STEM endeavours to inspire and engage students in advanced


cognitive processes such as critical thinking. The key components include
teamwork, self-directed learning, project-based learning, challenge-based
learning, and research (Twiningsih & Elisanti, 2021). STEM education may
cultivate highly skilled individuals who are well-prepared to tackle the demands
of the contemporary global era. This is because STEM effectively addresses the
requirements of individuals with aptitude in the domains of science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics.

The teacher's strong scientific literacy abilities will foster student interest in
learning. Curiosity about a particular subject or activity sparks an individual's
interest in learning, leading them to desire to explore and engage in it (Yunitasari
& Hanifah, 2020; Zubaedi et al., 2020). The students' intrinsic motivation to study
will undoubtedly facilitate the teachers' delivery of instructional content (Rahayu
et al., 2023). Indeed, students' enthusiasm for learning in the field of science varies,
as many students are more inclined towards non-abstract subjects. This can be
attributed to teachers' lack of strong scientific literacy skills, making it challenging
to deliver material effectively, particularly in the domains of physics, chemistry,
and biology. To address and resolve these issues, one can employ the STEM
approach as a means of learning. Ibtida et al. (2020) and Twiningsih and Elisanti
(2021) propose that STEM, as an interdisciplinary educational approach, is a
method that allows educators to examine science from multiple viewpoints. This
approach leverages Internet technology to enhance scientific literacy. Science can
be defined as a systematic and organised collection of knowledge that is acquired
through certain techniques (Fatimah & Mufti, 2014).

STEM education fosters scientific attitudes (Fasasi, 2017) and promotes student
engagement in the learning process (Subali, 2018). By integrating STEM, students
can enhance their understanding of science by establishing connections between
scientific concepts and the immediate environment in which they live. Multiple
further studies have demonstrated that STEM education can enhance students'
scientific literacy, as evidenced by the research conducted by Ariningtyas et al.
(2017), Maesaroh et al. (2021), and Hariyadi et al. (2023). Prasetyo (2017) defines
natural science as a branch of knowledge. Science is a constituent of the broader
field of STEM . The STEM methodology was initially employed by the National
Science Foundation (NSF) throughout the 1990s. The STEM method serves
multiple functions such as instructing students in the integration of four distinct
disciplines: science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The aim is to
enable students to address problems that are relevant to their own experiences or
real-world situations (Rodriguez et al., 2021). Kang and Peters (2019) define STEM
literacy as the collective understanding, mindset, and abilities of an individual to
recognise and elucidate natural phenomena, and to make informed inferences
based on the empirical evidence pertaining to STEM subjects. An individual's
comprehension is derived from the attributes of STEM, which encompass human
knowledge, investigation, and design. STEM influences the material, knowledge,
and culture of the surrounding environment. Zaki et al. (2020) argue that those
who aspire to participate actively in STEM matters and approach these with a

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constructive, empathetic, and thoughtful mindset demonstrate a desire to be


responsible and thoughtful citizens.

In the context of science education, the process of learning closely resembles the
experience of directly engaging with the natural environment and
comprehending it through scientific methods (Rubiana & Dadi, 2020). Science is
an academic discipline that investigates the natural occurrences and events
occurring in the world (Azhar, 2022). Science education plays a crucial role in
learning as it directly pertains to the systematic exploration of nature. Learning
science is more than just acquiring factual knowledge and concepts; it involves a
process of discovery that is rooted in scientific principles relevant to human
existence (Suharyati, 2022). The role of teachers in implementing STEM in
scientific education is expected to inspire students to comprehend their own
condition and the natural world in which they live. This, in turn, enables them to
impart lessons and knowledge that can be practically implemented in society
(Vennix et al., 2018).

Science teachings encompass the fundamental elements of products, processes,


attitudes, and technology. Thus, the process of acquiring scientific knowledge
should be conducted through scientific inquiry. For effective scientific inquiry,
science learning should be conducted by proficient educators with strong
scientific literacy abilities (Bellova et al., 2022). Science, as a school topic, offers
pupils the opportunity to play a significant role and gain valuable experience.
Science learning is anticipated to involve an understanding and admiration of the
natural world, which is considered the fundamental element for achieving
scientific literacy (Donohue et al., 2020). Nevertheless, aspiring teachers and
educators frequently experience uncertainty regarding the extent of knowledge
required to incorporate Islamic beliefs effectively into science education. In order
to integrate scientific competence with Islamic values-based scientific literacy, it
is necessary to have an understanding of the study undertaken by researchers.

3. Research Methodology
This study applied a quantitative research methodology and employed the quasi-
experimental design research method. This experimental design represents a
progression from traditional experimental design; however, it also presents
difficulties in its execution. This design includes a control group, but it lacks the
ability to regulate extraneous variables adequately that could impact the
implementation of the experiment. However, this design exceeds the pre-
experimental design. A quasi-experimental design is utilised in situations where
it is difficult to obtain a control group for the purpose of conducting research. This
study assessed the scientific competency of students in the elementary education
programme at Islamic universities in Bengkulu Province. The assessment was
conducted using a science literacy approach that incorporated Islamic values. The
study included four districts in Bengkulu Province: Rejang Lebong, Bengkulu
City, South Bengkulu, and Kaur. This study's objective was to determine the
scientific proficiency of potential madrasah instructors through the utilisation of
the STEM methodology.

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The samples in this study were second- and third-year students for both for the
experimental and control classes. They were selected by applying purposive
sampling. This is a one data source sampling technique with several implications.
The primary reason for selecting purposive sampling is that the sampled students
have completed their internship practice at school. The instruments used in this
study were observation sheets and tests. The test questions in this study were in
the form of multiple choice questions comprising as many as 50 questions. The
data analysis used descriptive quantitative analysis with statistics assisted by the
SPSS 22 application.

Table 1
Design of the Research
Group Pre-test Treatment Post-test
Experiment X 1 O X2
Control Y 1 - Y2

Description of Research Location


UIN Fatmawati Sukarno Bengkulu
UIN FAS Bengkulu is a state Islamic university located in Bengkulu City,
Indonesia. UIN FAS Bengkulu has undergone a transition or institutional change
from Institut Agama Islam Negeri Bengkulu (IAIN Bengkulu) and has now
received an Accreditation B (Good) from the Ministry of Higher Education.
Initially, the university was a satellite campus of IAIN Raden Patah Palembang
and then evolved into the Bengkulu College of Islamic Studies (STAIN).
Subsequently, the institution's designation was altered to Bengkulu State Islamic
Institute (IAIN) in accordance with Presidential Regulation No. 51 of 2012.
Currently, it has been permanently renamed as Fatmawati Sukarno State Islamic
University or UIN FAS Bengkulu. The transformation of IAIN Bengkulu into UIN
Fatmawati Sukarno (UIN FAS) Bengkulu, based on RI Perpress No. 45 of 2021 on
May 11, 2021, is the outcome of the collective efforts of the academic community
and all stakeholders in Bengkulu Province. It is situated on Raden Fatah Street,
in Pagar Dewa Village, Selebar District, Bengkulu City. UIN FAS Bengkulu
presently possesses four faculties offering 24 undergraduate study programmes,
six master's degree study programmes, and two doctoral study programmes.

STIT AL Qur’aniyah Manna


The creation of STIT Al-Quraniyah Manna is rooted in the fundamental objective
of cultivating academic and professional personnel who possess unwavering
faith, devotion, and a strong commitment to the nation's welfare. The
fundamental concept is delineated in the Statute of STIT Al-Quraniyah Manna,
namely in Article 3 which expounds on the Principles, Functions, and Objectives
of STIT Al-Quraniyah Manna. STIT Al-Quraniyah Manna is overseen and funded
by a foundation that was founded on February 22, 1993, known as the Affan
Foundation. Currently, in the academic year 2022/2023, there is a college called
STIT Al-Quraniyah Manna situated at 13 Affan Bachsin Street, Manna South
Bengkulu, Indonesia. The current chairperson of the college is Dr. Dedi Irama,
M.Pd.I.

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STIT AL Wasi Kaur


The College of Tarbiyah STIT Al Wasi Kaur, located in Indonesia, is the first
campus to be established in Kaur Regency and is now in operation. The
chairperson of the college is Mr. Mahlian, M.Pd.I. The activities revolve around
the Al Wasi Kaur Campus, located in Penyandingan Village, in the Central Kaur
District. The institution offers two study programmes and aims to establish
itself as one of the top Islamic private colleges in Bengkulu.

IAIN Curup
IAIN Curup is situated in the Rejang Lebong Regency of Bengkulu Province,
Indonesia. It is an Islamic university that operates as a public institution and falls
under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Religious Affairs of the Republic of
Indonesia. Currently, there are three faculties available for undergraduate study,
five study programmes for master's degrees, and two doctoral study
programmes.

4. Result
Results of the Scientific Competency Test
By administering the pre-test and post-test to the experimental and control
courses, the study's findings regarding the scientific competency of aspiring
madrasah instructors were determined. The four Islamic universities in the
province of Bengkulu provided a sample for both classes. The information was
utilized to compare the experimental and control groups' madrasah teacher
applicants' scores on the scientific competency examination. Furthermore,
descriptive analysis—which includes describing the quantity of data, maximum
value, minimum value, average value, and the like—was used to describe
research data in order to ascertain the impact of the STEM approach on the
scientific competency of aspiring madrasah teachers from the four Islamic
Universities (PTKI) in Bengkulu Province, Indonesia. The pre-test results for the
experimental class have an average value of 66.63, according to the conducted
results where 40 is the lowest possible score and 87 is the maximum. The
experimental class's average score on the post-test is 79.00. where 98 is the greatest
possible score and 50 is the lowest. The average value of the control class pre-test
scores is 67.52. where 45 was the lowest possible score and 87 was the highest
possible. According to the post-test findings, the control class scored an average
of 70.85, with 89 being the highest and 49 being the lowest. Prior to testing
hypotheses, two prerequisite tests were administered: a normality test to
determine whether the prospective madrasah teachers' pre- and post-test results
were normally distributed, and a homogeneity test to determine whether the
prospective madrasah teachers' scientific competence was homogeneous.
a. Normality Test
This was utilised to ascertain the normal distribution of the research data. The
significance value (sig.) for all data in the Shapiro-Wilk test is more than 0.05.
Therefore, it can be inferred that the research data follows a normal
distribution. Owing to the normal distribution of the data, a parametric
statistical test, specifically an independent samples t-test, was conducted.

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b. Homogeneity Test
This method was employed to ascertain whether the data of a research study
exhibited homogeneity or not, specifically in terms of variance or variety. The
homogeneity test conducted on the experimental and control classes indicates
that the data is homogeneously distributed, since the significance value is
greater than 0.05.

c. Independent Samples T-Test


Since the data from both the pre-test and post-test has a normal distribution, it
is appropriate to conduct further analysis using parametric tests, namely the t-
test, using SPSS 22. The independent t-test is utilised to determine whether
there is a significant disparity in the post-test outcomes between students in
the experimental class and the control class. Based on the decision rule, if the
p-value (one-tailed) is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected in
favour of the alternative hypothesis (Ha). Conversely, if the p-value (one-
tailed) is greater than 0.05, the alternative hypothesis (Ha) is rejected and the
null hypothesis (H0) is accepted.

Table 2
Independent Samples T-Test
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for Equality t-test for Equality of Means
of Variances

F Sig. t Df Sig. (2-tailed)


Scientific 2.473 .120 3.179 78 .002
Competence 3.179 73.750 .002

According to the data in Table 2, the t-test results indicate a significance value
of 0.002, which is lower than the threshold of 0.05 (sig: 0.002 < 0.05). Therefore,
it can be concluded that the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected and the alternative
hypothesis (Ha) is accepted, indicating a statistically significant difference
between the post-test scores of the experimental class and the control class. The
post-test for the experimental class was conducted after the completion of
learning utilising the STEM methodology, while the control class followed
their usual learning methods. Therefore it can be concluded that there is a
significant impact of the STEM approach on the integrated competence of
scientific literacy in the experimental class. The results of the scientific literacy
level of prospective madrasah teachers in this study were obtained through
questionnaires given to experimental and control classes. The data was used to
determine the scientific literacy test results of madrasah teacher candidates
between the experimental and control classes. In addition, the study
endeavoured to determine the impact of the STEM approach on the scientific
literacy of prospective madrasah teachers from the four Islamic universities in
Bengkulu Province, Indonesia.

About descriptive analysis of scientific literacy, this data analysis helps to


check whether the data is in accordance with the actual data. Then it is

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processed and analyzed to provide an overview of the research data, which


includes the amount of data, maximum value, minimum value, average value
and others. The results of descriptive statistics are as follows: (a) In the control
class, based on the descriptive table of variables above, it can be seen that the
results of the pre-test and post-test of the control class of 40 students, have a
minimum pre-test score of 33, a maximum pre-test score of 82, and a minimum
post-test score of 63, a maximum post-test score of 92. The mean pre-test was
57.63 and the mean post-test was 74.90. The requirement has a standard
deviation for the pre-test of 12.573 and for the post-test of 7.629. (b) In the
experimental class, based on the descriptive table of variables above, it can be
seen that the results of the pre-test and post-test of the experimental class of 25
students reflect a minimum pre-test value of 36, a maximum pre-test of 83, and
a minimum post-test of 50, with a maximum post-test value of 95. The mean
pre-test was 61.70 and the mean post-test was 77.30. The requirement has a
standard deviation for the pre-test of 11.314 and for post-test of 9.233.

Table 3
Average Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups
Experiment Group Control Group
Pre Test Score (Mean) 57.63 61.70
Post Test Score (Mean) 74.90 77.30

d. Normality Test
The goal of the normality test is to ascertain the presence or absence of the pre-
test and post-test data obtained. The Shapiro-Wilk test was performed using
IBM SPSS 22 in this investigation. The statistical tests conducted on the control
class yielded pre-test results of 0.690 and post-test results of 0.116. In
comparison, the experimental class achieved pre-test results of 0.771 and post-
test results of 0.486. Thus, it may be inferred that both the control and
experimental classes exhibit a normal distribution, as the p-value is greater
than or equal to 0.05.

e. Homogeneity Test
The homogeneity test is employed to demonstrate that many sets of sample
data from the population possess equal variances. The homogeneity test is
conducted on the pre-test and post-test data collected from both the control
class and the experimental class. If the significance value (sig) is greater than
0.05, the data can be considered to be the same. However, if the significance
value is less than 0.05, it indicates that the data is not the same. According to
the statistical analysis conducted using SPSS 27, the homogeneity test yielded
a significance level of 0.429 for the post-test results. Based on these findings, it
can be inferred that the post-test result of 0.429 is greater than 0.05, indicating
homogeneity in the data.

Implication of STEM Approach on Scientific Competence


The t-test in this study used the independent-samples t-test because the sample
used consisted of two classes. The significance for the independent samples t-test
is sig < 0.05, which means Ha is accepted. However, if the significance sig > 0.05,
then H0 is rejected. The research hypothesis to be tested is as follows:

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H0 = There is no impact of STEM approach on scientific literacy of madrasah


teacher candidates.
H1 = There is an impact of the STEM approach on the scientific literacy of
prospective madrasah teachers. The following is the independent samples t-test
using IBM SPSS 22 for Windows:

Table 4
Hypothesis Test
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

Sig. (2-
F Sig. T Df tailed)
Result of Equal .632 .429 -1.267 78 .000
Scientific variances
Result assumed
Equal -1.267 75.322 .000
variances
not
assumed

Based on the statistical test results, the significance sig. (2-tailed) of 0.00 is
obtained. The significance of 0.00 is smaller than 0.05 (0.00 <0.05). Therefore the
difference in the level of confidence is 5%. This means that Ho is rejected and Ha
is accepted.

5. Discussion
This study aimed to assess the outcomes of a scientific competency test that was
combined with scientific literacy among prospective madrasah teachers.
Additionally, it sought to examine the influence of the STEM approach on the
scientific competence of prospective madrasah teachers, while also integrating
Islamic values-based scientific literacy. The study was conducted in Bengkulu
Province, Indonesia. This study involved the selection of prospective instructors
from four Islamic universities, with each university contributing a sample size of
up to 20 individuals. Moreover, the sample was divided into two categories,
namely the experimental group and the control group. In order to assess the
scientific proficiency of potential madrasah teachers, pre- and post-tests
consisting of multiple choice questions were administered, while a questionnaire
sheet was used to evaluate their scientific literacy. The purpose of administering
this pre-test is to ascertain whether there is a disparity in the initial scientific
competency between the two classes. The post-test is designed to assess the
impact of the STEM approach on scientific competence following the completion
of the learning process. The findings of the independent sample t-test indicate that
the sig. (2-tailed) values are 0.02 for scientific competence and 0.00 for scientific
literacy. Both of these values indicate that the sig. (2-tailed) is greater than 0.05.

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The data analysis reveals that the scientific competence and scientific literacy of
prospective madrasah teachers in the experimental class, who were taught using
the STEM approach, is superior to those in the class taught using a conventional
learning approach. This indicates that the STEM approach is more effective in
enhancing the scientific competence and scientific literacy of prospective
madrasah teachers. The success can be attributed to the alignment of the STEM
method with the criteria of 21st century learning, which include (a) an emphasis
on learner-centered instruction; (b) fostering collaborative work among learners;
and (c) connecting learning materials to real-life challenges. The concept of 21st
century education was developed and advocated by professionals, institutions,
and educational authorities in Indonesia and globally in response to these
concerns and situations (Davidi et al., 2021). The STEM approach is an educational
approach that aligns with the features of 21st century learning (Lestari et al., 2018).

The STEM approach enhances scientific competency and literacy by teaching the
application of real-world concepts, principles, and technology to problem-
solving. STEM education integrates multiple disciplines into a unified learning
approach grounded in real-world applications. STEM literacy encompasses the
acquisition of scientific, technological, engineering, and mathematical knowledge,
which is then used to issue identification and the generation of new information.
The attributes of STEM are regarded as a type of human undertaking,
encompassing design, inquiry, and analytical procedures (Eliana et al., 2021).
Furthermore, STEM is a multidisciplinary strategy that aids aspiring educators in
their learning process. This strategy entails the utilisation of science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics in a cross-school setting to enhance the proficiency
and scientific knowledge of future madrasah instructors (Maulidia et al., 2019).
Moreover, it has the capability to generate novel pedagogical approaches and use
STEM education to address a problem. Additionally, it may assist aspiring
educators in identifying, examining, and resolving difficulties, as well as
comprehending the interconnectedness of various challenges (Oktaviyani et al.,
2020). STEM abilities also cultivate problem-solving skills and foster a scientific
mindset, making STEM integration a constant pursuit of innovation. STEM
approaches play a crucial role in the field of education (Mu'minah & Aripin, 2019).
Overall, the goals and advantages of the STEM learning approach are anticipated
to enhance critical, creative, logical, imaginative, and productive thinking
abilities, as well as fostering a sense of collaborative problem-solving.

STEM is an educational method that prioritises the interconnectedness of


information, highlighting how different concepts and subjects are related to one
other. Technology is utilised to generate and convey inventive remedies, serving
as a means to enhance the capacity to identify and resolve problems (Utomo et al.,
2020). The incorporation of the STEM approach is crucial for enhancing the
scientific competence and literacy of prospective madrasah teachers. This
approach enables them to contribute actively to the improvement of the learning
process and facilitate better understanding among students. Additionally, it
equips them with problem-solving skills to address challenges encountered
during the teaching and learning process.

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Acquiring scientific knowledge can enable aspiring teachers to create impactful


learning opportunities. Prospective teachers with robust scientific competences
may effectively design captivating and significant science education encounters
for their pupils, equipping them to tackle the complexities of the contemporary
world. The significance of scientific proficiency for aspiring educators can be
elucidated as follows: (a) Possessing scientific knowledge enables potential
teachers to comprehend and tackle distinctive individual disparities among
students. The factors encompassed are physical characteristics, cognitive abilities,
individual dispositions, psychological features, linguistic aptitude, and preferred
methods of learning. Teachers who possess a high level of scientific competence
are able to adapt their teaching approaches to meet the demands of a wide range
of pupils (Sari & Mudjiran, 2020). (b) Additionally, scientific competence is a
crucial component of professional competence for aspiring teachers. It empowers
them to oversee and assist science learning activities efficiently, mentor students
in their scientific inquiries, and execute their responsibilities as educators.
Prospective teachers can deliver high-quality science education to their pupils by
consistently enhancing their scientific competence (Febriana et al., 2020). (c)
Additionally, scientific competence empowers prospective teachers to include
Islamic beliefs into their science instruction. This integration facilitates students'
comprehension of the congruity between Islam and scientific investigation,
fostering a more profound comprehension of the Islamic perspective. By
integrating Islamic principles into science education, aspiring educators can foster
ethical decision-making, moral reasoning, and a comprehensive comprehension
of the world (Ratu et al., 2022). (d) Proficiency in scientific knowledge empowers
prospective teachers to cultivate and enhance higher order thinking skills (HOTS)
in their students. These HOTS are crucial for cultivating creativity, innovation,
and critical thinking. By integrating HOTS into science education, educators can
provide students with the necessary abilities to analyse, assess, and utilise
scientific knowledge critically within real-life situations (Sopian et al., 2022). (e)
Furthermore, scientific competency provides aspiring teachers with the necessary
skills to utilise technology proficiently in the science classroom. Technology is
crucial in education during the digital era. Prospective teachers with a solid
scientific competency can enhance science education by integrating technological
tools and resources into their teaching, resulting in a more engaging and dynamic
learning experience for pupils (Wulandari et al., 2021).

Based on the aforementioned statements, it can be inferred that possessing


scientific competence is crucial for aspiring teachers as it allows them to
comprehend variances among individuals, cultivate advanced cognitive abilities,
incorporate Islamic principles, utilise technology proficiently, and enhance their
expertise in science education. Prospective instructors must possess scientific
competency, as it greatly influences the quality of their teaching and mentoring of
pupils. Prospective teachers who possess scientific competence are able to educate
with a solid knowledge base in their chosen area of study. With a profound
comprehension of scientific principles, research methodologies, and cutting-edge
advancements in the discipline, they possess the ability to enhance students'
comprehension and elucidate subject matter with greater clarity and
meticulousness.

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Prospective instructors can cultivate critical thinking skills in students through


scientific competency. They have the ability to prevent students from
deconstructing material, and to encourage scrutinising scientific evidence, and
discerning solid arguments. This facilitates the cultivation of crucial cognitive
skills in students, which are essential for problem-solving and decision-making.
Scientific competency enables potential instructors to instruct students about the
scientific method. They can assist students in comprehending the procedures
involved in doing research, creating experiments, gathering and analysing data,
and interpreting findings. This facilitates students' comprehension of the scientific
process and fosters the cultivation of research abilities that hold significance
across several disciplines. Furthermore, possessing scientific competency enables
potential teachers to incorporate scientific concepts effectively into the everyday
lives of their students. They can demonstrate the influence of science on different
domains of life, including health, environment, technology, and other areas. This
facilitates students' comprehension of the significance of science in their daily
lives and fosters a deeper admiration for the field of science.

Prospective teachers with scientific competency are able to assist students in


developing the skills necessary to communicate scientific information effectively,
therefore fostering their ability to be informed and engaged citizens. They have
the ability to direct students to safeguard scientific evidence, safeguard the
research process, and make decisions based on precise and dependable
information. This fosters the cultivation of a rational and critical mindset in pupils,
enabling them to question and scrutinise ideas without relying on baseless
assumptions. Prospective teachers who possess a robust scientific competence are
capable of delivering more impactful instruction, fostering critical thinking skills,
and facilitating the development of a profound comprehension of science among
pupils. Enhancing scientific requirements can be achieved by pursuing additional
education, undergoing training, engaging in research activities, and gaining
hands-on experience in the application of the scientific method. Prospective
madrasah instructors must possess not only competency but also a strong
foundation in scientific literacy.

Scientific literacy pertains to an individual's capacity to comprehend, assess, and


employ scientific information with proficiency. It encompasses the capacity to
comprehend and evaluate scientific publications, journals, books, and other
sources pertaining to research and science. Scientific literacy is crucial in a
progressively intricate and internationally interconnected society. Developing a
strong scientific literacy enables individuals to make informed decisions by
relying on scientific data, comprehend and value the scientific method, and
actively engage in scientific conversations and debates. In order to enhance
scientific literacy, one can undertake many courses of action, including routinely
perusing scientific papers, enrolling in courses or training programmes focused
on the scientific method, engaging in scientific conversations, and posing critical
inquiries regarding encountered scientific knowledge.

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Scientific literacy is crucial for aspiring teachers as it enables them to educate and
mentor their students effectively. Scientific literacy holds significant importance
for potential instructors due to several reasons: Firstly, enhancing scientific
literacy will facilitate a deeper comprehension of scientific concepts, hence
enabling more effective teaching. Instructors have the capacity to instruct their
students on the scientific method, facilitate their comprehension of research
methodologies, and foster their critical thinking skills in relation to scientific
knowledge. Scientific literacy is crucial for cultivating essential critical thinking
abilities, particularly in the field of education. They will also have the ability to
discern bias, and pose pertinent questions. By possessing a strong scientific
literacy, they will be capable of assisting their students in comprehending the
significance of science in their daily lives. They will demonstrate the impact of
research on their lives and dissuade people from making decisions solely on
scientific data. By possessing a strong understanding of scientific concepts and
principles, instructors will be capable of formulating more effective methods for
imparting knowledge. They will further enhance their ability to facilitate access
for their students in a more efficient manner, while also facilitating their
comprehension of scientific topics. Their credibility as an educator will be further
enhanced by cultivating a strong foundation in scientific literacy. They will
possess the capability to furnish precise and current knowledge to their learners,
thereby assisting them in enhancing their comprehension of science.

To enhance scientific literacy, aspiring educators can engage in activities such as


routinely reading scientific papers, enrolling in courses or training programmes
focused on scientific procedures, actively participating in scientific conversations,
and posing critical inquiries regarding encountered scientific knowledge. By
incorporating Islamic principles into the fields of science and technology, it is
possible to develop a comprehensive and holistic knowledge system that is
infused with religious values. This approach acknowledges that Islam is a
comprehensive and all-encompassing system that encompasses every facet of
human existence, including scientific inquiry and technological progress (Ikmal,
2018; Afriansyah et al., 2022).

The amalgamation of Islamic principles and scientific knowledge holds significant


importance for multiple reasons. Firstly, the incorporation of Islamic beliefs into
science enables a comprehensive approach to teaching. It acknowledges the
significance of both religious and scientific knowledge in influencing an
individual's comprehension of the universe. This integration facilitates the
cultivation of a harmonious viewpoint among students in which faith and reason
are effectively blended (Isgandi, 2021). Science offers knowledge and instruments
for comprehending the natural world; however, it does not inherently offer a
moral framework. By incorporating Islamic principles, science education can
integrate moral and ethical aspects into scientific discourse. This promotes
students' comprehension of the moral consequences of scientific progress and
fosters conscientious and ethical scientific conduct.

By integrating Islamic principles with scientific study, students also gain a clear
understanding of the harmonious relationship between Islam and scientific

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exploration. It allows individuals to perceive science as a tool for investigating


and admiring the marvels of Allah's creation. This integration facilitates the
cultivation of a more profound comprehension of the Islamic worldview and
fortifies their faith. The Islamic faith places great emphasis on the significance of
acquiring information and comprehending the world in which we live. By
amalgamating Islamic principles with scientific knowledge, students are
motivated to participate actively in analytical reasoning, probing, and
investigation. This integration promotes an inquisitive attitude to learning and
motivates students to investigate scientific issues within an Islamic framework.

In addition, the amalgamation of Islamic principles and scientific knowledge can


effectively tackle present-day problems and obstacles encountered by Muslim
societies. This platform facilitates the examination of scientific breakthroughs and
their consequences via an Islamic lens. This integration enables students to
navigate intricate ethical challenges effectively and make well-informed
judgements that are in accordance with their personal values. In summary, the
incorporation of Islamic principles with scientific principles in education offers a
thorough and balanced learning experience that merges religious instruction with
scientific understanding. It facilitates the cultivation of a profound
comprehension in students about both subjects and motivates them to incorporate
Islamic principles into their scientific endeavours. This integration fosters the
development of analytical thinking, moral judgement, and a comprehensive
comprehension of the world.

6. Conclusion
The research findings indicate a significant disparity in the mean scores between
the pre-test and post-test outcomes in the experimental class. The results indicate
an increase in the competency and scientific literacy of prospective madrasa
instructors in the experimental group. This suggests that the STEM approach has
been demonstrated to have a substantial effect on the scientific competence and
scientific literacy of prospective madrasa teachers. Therefore, the research
hypothesis, which posits that the STEM approach influences the scientific
competence and scientific literacy of prospective madrasa teachers, can be
confirmed. This additionally substantiates the need of scientific literacy for
madrasa professors in an interconnected and progressively intricate world.
Teachers’ possession of strong scientific literacy enables them to comprehend and
value the scientific methodology, hence facilitating the ability to make more
informed decisions grounded in scientific evidence.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 497-524, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.26
Received Mar 3, 2024; Revised Apr 26, 2024; Accepted Apr 30, 2024

Re-engineering the Pedagogical Design of


Virtual Classrooms in Higher Education using
the Community of Inquiry Framework: Benefits,
Challenges, and Lessons Learned
Abdurrahman Ghaleb Almekhlafi
School of e-Education, Hamdan Bin Mohamed Smart University
Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Hamdy A. Abdelaziz
Hamdan Bin Mohamed Smart University; affiliated with Tanta University,
Egypt

Mohamad S. Shaban
United Arab Emirates University,
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Abstract. The demand for online learning is increasing yearly in higher


education and training industries worldwide. To sustain this demand,
online course design and delivery quality became a critical topic for
research and investigation. This study aimed to reimagine the
pedagogical planning and design for virtual classrooms in a higher
education institution based on the Community of Inquiry (CoI)
framework. To achieve this goal, the researcher adopted the type 2
developmental research methods to reimagine the pedagogical planning
and design for a virtual classroom considering the interconnectedness of
the CoI dimensions: Cognitive Presence, Teaching Presence, and Social
Presence. In addition, a closed and open-ended questionnaire was
developed based on the CoI framework and employed to gather
instructors' views on the benefits and challenges of utilizing a virtual
classroom designed based on the CoI dimensions. The results showed
that instructors had a favourable view of the benefits of virtual classrooms
for delivering course content. They also reported several challenges that
need to be addressed for using virtual classrooms. Study findings
highlight the importance of offering customized training to instructors by
higher education institutions on the best practices of virtual classrooms.
In addition, findings showed the crucial role of pedagogical frameworks
such as CoI for the effective design of learning activities tailored to
teaching via virtual classrooms.

©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
498

Keywords: Community of Inquiry, higher education; pedagogical


planning and design; Virtual classroom

1. Introduction
Over the past decade, technological advances have led to a surge in remote or
online education (Abraham, 2014). This learning mode is widely considered a
useful tool that offers flexibility, quality education, and reduced long-term costs.
Despite its benefits, there is limited understanding of how instructors adjust to
online teaching and the support they receive from their institutions in academic,
administrative, technical, and social aspects.
Online education refers to delivering content through online channels, enabling
students to learn independently using digital resources. Instructors provide
teaching modules that enhance learning and interactivity in synchronous or
asynchronous environments (Hodges et al., 2020; Singh & Thurman, 2019). Some
scholars use online distance learning or remote teaching to describe online
education (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). Additionally,
technology-mediated learning, internet-based education, web-based learning,
and virtual learning are frequently employed in academic literature (Mishra et al.,
2021).
However, in the rapidly evolving landscape of online education, the pedagogical
design of virtual classrooms in higher education institutions is of top importance.
However, a lack of pedagogical design skills among instructors hinders the
effective implementation of online learning platforms, reducing learner
motivation and engagement and ultimately failing to achieve desired learning
outcomes (Meylani et al., 2015). To address this issue, there is a need for research
that explores how online virtual classrooms can be re-engineered and developed
based on best practices of pedagogical frameworks to enhance the quality of
online teaching and learning experiences.
This pedagogical design involves systematically planning educational activities
and content to achieve learning objectives and promote proximal growth among
learners. A well-designed virtual classroom can enhance and lead to effective
teaching and learning practices.
Re-engineering the pedagogical design of online virtual classrooms is a key factor
and actor in ensuring effective pedagogical planning and implementation of
online courses in online platforms. Mayes and de Freitas (2004) indicated that the
ideal eLearning model gives considerable attention to online learners'
engagement, gives rapid feedback, encourages reflection through dialogue with
instructors and peers, aligns assessment, and supports creating a community of
learners through discussion and other planned activities. The Community of
Inquiry (CoI) was selected in this research since it emphasizes the social,
pedagogical, and cognitive presences.
The virtual classroom in this research refers to a platform where students can
participate and interact with their instructor and classmates through different
communication tools. This type of virtual classroom provides synchronous
communication options, offering flexible and immersive learning experiences. In

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such a classroom, students and instructors engage in real-time, live sessions and
have access to pre-recorded or live materials and do pre-planned activities. This
approach to virtual education aims to provide the benefits of both live interaction
and flexible learning. Therefore, this approach emphasizes the importance of
social and technological presence to enhance the online learning experience.
Numerous studies have shown that technology adoption and integration into
education largely depend on its perceived benefits. The Technology Acceptance
Model (TAM) posits that the more benefits technology offers, the higher its
perceived value and the likelihood of adoption (Cobo-Rendon et al., 2021;
Kaewsaiha & Chanchalor, 2021; Granic & Marangunic, 2019; Mousa et al., 2020;
Scherer et al. 2019; Tarhini et al., 2017). Therefore, it is essential to identify and
communicate the benefits of technology to educators and learners to increase their
motivation and engagement with technology.

Previous studies such as Martin et al., (2019) and Otter et al. (2013) indicated that
an investigation of the benefits and challenges of Virtual Classrooms users face is
necessary to gain a deeper understanding of the preparation of instructors for
online courses. In addition, the outcomes of this investigation may provide
valuable insights and practical recommendations for higher education institutions
seeking to enhance their online teaching and learning environments using the CoI
framework, ultimately leading to improved learner engagement, motivation, and
achievement of desired learning outcomes. Learner engagement in this context
refers to the interaction and communication with the course instructor, peers, and
presented content. It exhibits active learning and participation by learners during
the class.

2. Research Problem
The Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has led to a significant
increase in the use of online virtual classrooms in higher education institutions
worldwide. However, instructors lack pedagogical planning and design skills,
affecting teaching and learning quality in virtual classrooms (Kibaru, 2018). The
lack of pedagogical design may result in less motivation and engagement of
learners with instructors in virtual classroom sessions, leading to not achieving
the learning outcomes. Therefore, there is a need to reimagine the pedagogical
design of online virtual classrooms in higher education institutions since the
adoption of online learning is there and will continue to expand across higher
education programs and disciplines.
According to Ally (2004), and Boud and Prosser (2002), the ideal pedagogical
practice in eLearning contexts is structured around five key processes: 1)
Engaging learners, 2) Acknowledging the learning context, 3) Challenging
learners, 4) Providing practice, and 5) Giving time and opportunity to reflect. The
skill of planning and designing interactive activities to deliver effective online
education was among the big six training needs for instructors in the United Arab
Emirates (Abdelaziz et al., 2023).
The CoI framework may have a structure to achieve the above five processes.
Therefore, the current research seeks to discover the potential of utilizing the CoI
framework to reimage the pedagogical planning and designing of online virtual

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classrooms in a higher education context. Recent research has explored the


effectiveness of the CoI framework in online courses (Aslan & Turgut, 2021;
Bektashi, 2018; Fiock, 2020; Brown & Eaton, 2020; Junus et al., 2022; Richardson et
al., 2014; Tolu, 2013). However, they emphasize the utilization of the CoI
framework in asynchronous learning settings, not for virtual classrooms.
Therefore, there is a need for further research to explore how the CoI framework
can be applied to reimagine the pedagogical planning and designing of online
virtual classrooms in higher education institutions. Since the online delivery
method was adopted across higher education institutions worldwide, the
problem could occur in other contexts regardless of the geographical location.
Hence, the need to re-engineer the VC worldwide has the same importance with
the same global impact of the problem.

3. Research Significance
This study seeks to investigate and propose effective strategies for reimagining
the pedagogical planning and designing of online virtual classrooms within a
higher education context. By utilizing the CoI framework as a guiding and
structured framework to support and promote cognitive, social, and teaching
practices, the research aims to support instructors in creating engaging and
interactive virtual classrooms. The CoI framework emphasizes the importance of
three interrelated dimensions: social presence, cognitive presence, and teaching
presence, which collectively contribute to meaningful teaching and learning
experiences. Virtual classrooms have become increasingly prevalent in various
educational settings, yet the approach has not been thoroughly investigated,
especially in the Middle East region.

4. Research Objectives
The main purpose of this research was to explore how online virtual classrooms
in higher education institutions can be designed and delivered based on the CoI
framework. Thus, the study aimed to:
1. Explore how the CoI framework can be applied to reimagine
the pedagogical planning and designing of online virtual classrooms in
higher education institutions.
2. Examine the benefits and challenges of utilizing the CoI framework to
deliver online virtual classrooms in higher education institutions.

5. Research Questions
The research questions:
1. How can the CoI framework be applied to reimagine the pedagogical
planning and designing of online virtual classrooms in higher education
institutions?
2. What are the benefits of utilizing the CoI framework to deliver online
virtual classrooms in higher education institutions?
3. What are the challenges of utilizing the CoI framework to deliver online
virtual classrooms in higher education institutions?

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6. Literature Review
6.1. Online and Virtual Classroom Benefits
Previous research has extensively examined the benefits of incorporating online
learning into higher education (Raspopovic et al., 2017). For instance, a survey
conducted by Learning House, Inc. and Aslanian Market Research in 2016 found
that 86% of 1,500 online graduate students believed that the value of their online
degree was equal to or exceeded the cost (Songkram, 2015; Aparicio et al., 2016).
Furthermore, the Brandon-Hall Group (2018) reported that online courses take
considerably less time to teach than traditional face-to-face instruction.
Additionally, online learning has been shown to offer several other benefits, such
as increased interaction between students and faculty, greater flexibility, the
convenience of learning anytime and anywhere, the potential to reduce anxiety,
and the ability to record video lectures for flipped learning (Singh & Hurley,
2017). Other studies have identified several advantages of online education,
including virtual classrooms, user-friendliness, effective time management, easy-
to-manage course resources, and the ability to generate reports (Al-Handhali et
al., 2020; Bolliger & Wasilik, 2009; Lloyd et al., 2012).
Other well-known and documented benefits of online learning include flexible
degrees, different eContent, and platforms for collaboration learning, deep
skilling through reusable learning objects, promoting lifelong learning
competencies, and gamification to enhance learning during online learning.
Virtual classrooms provide numerous advantages that improve learning
accessibility, flexibility, and safety, especially during health emergencies like the
COVID-19 pandemic. They provide a safe learning environment and enable
remote attendance from any location, removing geographical restrictions. The
opportunity to balance studies with other obligations, interactive technologies
that encourage participation, and self-paced learning that promotes
comprehension and retention are some of the main benefits. Virtual classrooms
(VCs) provide instructors benefits like enhanced digital literacy, pedagogical
abilities, and professional development possibilities (Dung, 2020; Ladia et al.,
2023; Vargas-Murillo et al., 2023). Similarly, learners can go back to materials
including recordings and discussion at their own pace and time.
6.2. Online and Virtual Classroom Challenges
While technology has numerous benefits for education, several obstacles still
prevent its widespread adoption (Almekhlafi & Almeqdadi, 2010; Goundar, 2015;
Neiterman & Zaza, 2019; Pazilah et al., 2019). One primary concern against online
education is the perception that it lacks quality. Virtual classrooms can present
certain challenges for instructors, such as eye strain from prolonged screen time,
trouble with social interaction, technical issues, and digital inequality that can
impair instruction quality and student performance (Arkorful & Abaidoo, 2015;
Hiranrithikorn, 2019; Dung, 2020; Ladia et al., 2023; Vargas-Murillo et al., 2023).
While many educational institutions have equipped their educators with
technology, factors such as time and staff development support can hinder or
facilitate its adoption (Ismail et al., 2010; Kafyulilo et al., 2015). Technology can
also create opportunities for cheating and plagiarism (Boudjadar, 2015). For
example, Pazilah et al., (2019) suggest that technology may limit students' critical

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thinking abilities by providing easy access to answers, which may hamper their
creativity.
Furthermore, research suggests that interaction is essential for students to have
positive learning experiences and become satisfied with their courses (Strandberg
& Campbell, 2014; Singh & Hurley, 2017). However, critics of online education
argue that one of the primary drawbacks of remote online education is the loss of
face-to-face interaction among instructors and students (Cho & Kim, 2013; Kang
& Im, 2013; Strandberg & Campbell, 2014). Many instructors consider the loss of
physical co-presence among students to be one of the significant challenges of
online learning (Fish & Gill, 2009; Fox et al., 2020; Korkmaz et al., 2021; & Zare-ee,
2011; Dung, 2020; Ladia et al., 2023; Vargas-Murillo et al., 2023).
6.3. Instructors' Technology Readiness
Vang et al., (2020) investigated the factors instructors perceived as essential for
success in online teaching. They found that network reliability, creation of online
assignments, grade management, time management, and technical competencies
were highly regarded. Similarly, Aytac (2021) identified network problems and
software and hardware issues as widespread concerns among instructors.
Instructors hesitated to embrace virtual teaching because they lacked basic
technological proficiency.
Many studies have emphasized professional development as a necessary aspect
of enhancing virtual learning environments (Kibaru, 2018; Maatuk et al., 2021).
AbuZayyad-Nuseibeh (2017) conducted an exploratory study that aimed to
investigate the perceptions of instructors toward the process of transitioning from
face-to-face to online instruction. The authors stated that instructors sought
additional technical and instructional design training and requested that this
aspect be a prerequisite to teaching online.
The literature review has established the benefits and challenges of virtual
classrooms as a teaching mode. This study extends the examination by focusing
on the benefits and challenges of virtual classrooms from university instructors'
perspectives in light of the CoI framework utilization.
6.4. CoI Framework
Garrison, Anderson, and Archer introduced the CoI framework in 2000 for online
higher education, highlighting its role in fostering a quality e-learning
environment through integrating social, cognitive, and teaching presence
(Garrison, 2007). The CoI framework is an instructional design model for
eLearning focusing on exploring, constructing meaning, and validating
understanding. It comprises three interdependent dimensions: social presence,
cognitive presence, and teaching presence. Social presence refers to students
feeling connected and engaged with their instructors and peers in an online
learning environment. Teaching presence refers to how the course instructor
shows up and manages the class. Cognitive presence refers to the degree to which
learners can construct and validate meaning through dialogue in a critical
community of inquiry (Garrison et al., 2010).
This research used the CoI framework to create compelling virtual classrooms.
CoI is an approach that facilitates interaction and collaboration among learners
and researchers, encouraging the sharing of ideas, discussions, and solution

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development. It promotes a supportive environment for group work, critical


thinking, and creativity, allowing learners to benefit from each other's knowledge
and skills for classroom projects. The framework also supports engaging in
meaningful dialogue and gaining deeper insights into learning topics, helping
online learners understand the learning process and build strong relationships in
their field. It may also facilitate creating meaningful learning experiences and
projects.
6.5. Online Teaching Presence
Teaching presence is a critical component of the CoI framework for delivering
effective and engaging online courses. It involves the deliberate design,
facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social processes to promote personally
meaningful learning. Anderson et al. (2001) suggested several techniques can be
implemented to enhance online teaching presence, including:
1. Creating an introductory video of the course instructor for students.
2. Holding online office hours for student questions and concerns.
3. Responding to student problems and questions in a timely and helpful
manner.
4. Providing clear and actionable feedback to students.
5. Communicating expectations for synchronous and asynchronous
communication with the instructor.
6. Explaining how assignments contribute to achieving learning objectives.
7. Using formative assessments such as polls, quizzes, discussion posts,
reflective writing assignments, and class participation to provide ample
feedback opportunities.
8. Using discussion prompts to encourage student engagement.
9. Acknowledging and reinforcing student contributions to the class.
10. Creating a highlights reel of the week's activities and insightful
contributions by students at the end of the week.
By implementing these techniques, instructors can create a more engaging and
supportive online learning environment that promotes student success. It worth
mentioning that this study was conducted during the implementation of both
blended and online learning delivery methods at the United Arab Emirates
University.
6.6. Cognitive Presence
To foster cognitive presence, theoretical statements are presented to students via
the "Opinionator," a free virtual world tool that animates a Likert-like
questionnaire scale. This allows students to position themselves, ask questions
about the theoretical point, and exchange ideas as they explain their decisions to
one another. Students demonstrate their positions by placing their avatars on the
Opinionator. They may change their positions during the discussion due to their
peers' arguments. In addition, they have reported that the engagement and
presence of this experience are superior to having a similar discussion in a
traditional, text-based learning management system (McKerlich et al., 2011).
When all these elements are present, learning and development are driven.
Learners who engage in deep inquiry processing during academic tasks
demonstrate high cognitive and metacognitive Engagement (Harlow et al., 2011).

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6.7. Online Social Presence


Social presence refers to the degree to which an online student's true self is
projected and perceived in a virtual course (McKerlich et al., 2011; Rourke et al.,
2001). In social presence, students act as role models for each other, presenting
their positions in virtual worlds. To foster online social presence, Abdelaziz (2012)
suggested several activities, such as group discussions, online debates,
simulations, creating peer games, maintaining a diary, and engaging in role-
playing. These activities encourage learners to interact and share their ideas,
leading to a greater sense of community and the development of strong
interpersonal skills.
As the demand for online learning and distance education continues to grow, the
CoI framework has become a popular instructional design approach, particularly
during and post the COVID-19 pandemic. To explore online learning for sub-
degree students, Lau, Tang, Chau, Vyas, Sandoval-Hernandez, and Wong (2021)
employed aCoIapproach. They surveyed 287 sub-degree students from business
and engineering disciplines and conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
on the data. The study found that the network speed for online education plays a
significant role in determining students' perceived cognitive presence, social
presence, and teaching presence. Overall, these findings shed light on the
importance of network speed in online education and emphasize the need to
ensure that technological infrastructure is robust enough to support effective
learning. It is worth mentioning here that the study did not include Participants
disciplines among the investigated variables

7. Research Methodology
This study aims to re-engineer the pedagogical planning and designing of online
virtual classrooms based on the CoI framework. The study was conducted at UAE
University, which has a well-established technology infrastructure that supports
eLearning.
7.1. Research Approach
To re-engineer the pedagogical planning and designing of online virtual
classrooms to achieve the purpose of this research, the researcher adopted and
implemented the procedures, stages, and steps of the second type of
developmental research. Type 2 developmental research is a generalized
approach focusing on design, development, and evaluation processes. It aims to
produce knowledge resulting in new or enhanced design or development models
Richey, Klein, and Nelson's developmental research (2004). According to Richey
and Klein (2005), the three main stages of this type of research are systematic
design, development, and evaluation. The following addresses each stage and the
steps that are implemented:
First: Systematic design of the online virtual classroom (OVC) based on the CoI
framework
This phase describes the general requirements and structure of the OVC-CoI and
includes the following steps: (1) Review educational research and literature
related to the CoI framework, (2) Review the pedagogical principles of virtual
learning through online classrooms, and (3) Map the CoI stages with pedagogical

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principles of virtual learning to reimagine the pedagogical planning and


designing of OVC.
The most important result of the systematic design stage is identifying how the
OVC is systematically structured to address the elements of social, cognitive, and
teaching presences. Based on the theoretical and empirical review and
background of the CoI approach, nature, and the purposes of this research, the
researcher designed the virtual classroom to address the three dimensions of the
CoI (see Figure 1).

CoI Components as a Framework for Virtual


Classrooms
Social Presence Cognitive Presence Teaching Presence

Induction activities Exploration Interactive e-Content

Discussion Etiquette and Knowledge generation and


Communicating Expectations
Interaction construction

Engagement and Visual


Feedback and Constructive Active engagement
Presence
Criticism
Teamwork and Collaborative Effective Assessments and
Learning Knowledge and skills transfer feedback

Acknowledgment and
Peer Support and Teaching
Reinforcement
Sustained reflection and
discourse
Communication and Empathy

Social media Integration

Figure 1. The suggested pedagogical design and structure of virtual classrooms based
on the CoI framework

Second, the Systematic Development of the online virtual classroom (OVC)


based on the CoI framework
This stage aims to develop online virtual learning activities that support online
learners' and instructors' social, cognitive, and teaching presence. The systematic
development stage was implemented according to the following steps:
▪ Provide a definition and description of each of the CoI dimensions when
it is utilized for OVC,
▪ Develop a set of interactive activities relevant to each of the CoI
dimensions,
▪ Select the appropriate technology that supports implementing each of the
interactive activities, and
▪ Review the above process through a small jury of instructors specialized
in educational technology and online learning.

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The following figures demonstrate the pedagogical development of a virtual


classroom and the pedagogical considerations and aspects implemented, in
addition to screenshots (Figures 2, 3, and 4) from one of the courses showing
prototypes of the three CoI domains.

Figure 2. An example of social presence design in the study

Figure 3. An example of cognitive presence design is in the study

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Figure 4. An example of teaching presence design in the study

Third, Evaluation of the Proposed Framework of OVC-CoI (Validity)


This phase aims to verify the validity of the proposed framework by identifying
its applicability to improve online synchronous learning quality and the benefits
and challenges of utilizing the proposed framework of OVC-CoI from faculty and
instructors' perspectives. This phase was implemented according to the following
steps: (1) Conduct an orientation session for instructors selected from the higher
education institution, (2) Ask the participant to apply this model to their courses'
synchronous activities and assessment tasks, (3) Collect prototyping feedback
about the implementation of the OVC-CoI framework from instructors, (4) Share
the research instruments with the participants. and (5) Analyze and summarize
the results of adopting and implementing the proposed framework.

7.2. Participants
The participants were 85 instructors from all colleges of the United Arab Emirates
University.
Table 1: Participants’ Distribution by College

Frequency %
Arts and Humanities 11 12.9
F Education 28 32.9
i Engineering 3 3.5
g Medical and Health Sciences 15 17.6
u Law, Politic, and Sociology 9 10.6
r Business, Economics, and Finance 4 4.7
e Natural & Life Science 11 12.9
4 Other 4 4.7
.
Approximately
A two-thirds (63.5%) were male, while the rest were females. All
instructors
n had experience teaching graduate and undergraduate students (30.6%
teaching
e Bachelor's Degrees, 7.1% teaching Master's Degrees, 41.2% teaching
Ph.D.,
x and 21.2% teaching varied levels). All participants had good experience
with
a teaching online and using virtual classrooms effectively. Approximately 94%
ofmparticipants had two or more years of experience using virtual classrooms (5.9%
p
l
e
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= one year; 30.6% = two years; 30.6% = three years; 41.2% = four years, and 16.5 =
five years). Notably, all participants experienced teaching online courses.
Approximately 70% experienced teaching three or more online courses.
Due to the nature of the study and the importance of instructors having
technology competencies to use the virtual classrooms to teach students
effectively, background data were collected focusing on instructors' technical
skills. Table 2 shows the readiness of instructors to implement virtual classrooms
efficiently from their perspectives.
As seen from the table, instructors were ready to utilize the virtual classrooms for
teaching in an online smart learning environment as they had the competencies
and skills needed for such type of instruction.
Table 2: Instructors’ Technology Competencies and Experiences

Item B I A E
Using learning management systems 2.6 36.8 55.3 5.3
Using system software (e.g., Windows, Androids, and 2.7 31.5 60.3 5.5
iOS)
Using application software (Office application) 4.5 25.4 62.7 7.5
Using email 1.8 14.0 61.4 22.8
Using hardware (microphones, cameras) 1.4 29.0 52.2 17.4
Using hardware (scanners, printers) 1.4 20.3 63.8 14.5
Using web technologies to exchange information with 8.4 20.8 59.7 11.1
others
Using web technologies to exchange files with others 5.6 29.6 54.9 9.9
Collaborating with others in virtual classrooms. 8.3 31.9 52.8 6.9
Using other Internet tools (blogs, social networking, 17.6 39.2 37.8 5.4
and forums).
Note: B = Beginner; I = Intermediate; A = Advanced; E = Expert

7.3. Data Collection and Analysis


7.3.1. Questionnaire
The study used a questionnaire developed by the researchers. The questionnaire
consisted of three main sections: (1) section 1 focused on collecting demographic
data about instructors' characteristics and their technology experience and skills
for using virtual classrooms, and (2) a section focusing on 5-Point Likert scale
closed-ended items about the instructors' perceptions of the benefits and
challenges of virtual classrooms, and (3) two open-ended items asking
participants to write the benefits and the challenges they faced when
implementing virtual classrooms as a delivery method. The questionnaire was
available online in both English and Arabic to avoid language interference with
the meaning.
A panel of experts in education, educational technology, online learning, and
teaching reviewed the questionnaire. The questionnaire validation focused on
several aspects including content validity, face validity, cultural biases, in
addition to language issues. As a result of this validation, a few changes were
made based on the referees' feedback, including the number of items and sections

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and rephrasing certain items. The questionnaire utilized a 5-point Likert scale
from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).

The questionnaire was piloted on an online technology course that has multiple
sections. Cronbach's alpha was.92, indicating that the questionnaire was highly
reliable.
7.3.2. Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviation, and percentages,
describe the quantitative collected data. In addition, qualitative coding of themes
was conducted based on the responses to open-ended questions, following an
inductive process (Corbin & Strauss, 1990; Saldana, 2015). The following stages
were followed: open coding, axial coding and selective coding to ground the
major patterns and themes addressing concern, benefits or challenges perceived
by the participants to deliver and assess the virtual classrooms in the selected
higher institution.

8. Results and Discussion


8.1. Research question 1
To answer question number 1, " How can the CoI framework be applied to
reimagine the pedagogical planning and designing of online virtual classrooms in
higher education institutions? The suggested pedagogical planning and designing
principles of virtual classrooms based on the CoI dimensions demonstrate the
practical application of its components to the design of online virtual classrooms.
Applying CoI to the plan and design of virtual classrooms involves assessing the
three key components: social presence, cognitive presence, and teaching presence.
The following is the answer to the first question.

8.1.1. Social Presence


Social presence in the virtual classroom is important for building a sense of
community of learning among learners. This dimension focuses on establishing
interpersonal connections and engagement. Pedagogical aspects that enhance
social presence include Induction Activities, Discussion Etiquette and Interaction,
Engagement and Visual Presence, Teamwork and Collaborative Learning, Peer
Support and Teaching, Communication and Empathy, and Social Media
Integration (see Table 3). By implementing these aspects, instructors create an
environment where learners feel connected and supported, enhancing their
learning experience.
Table 3: The Social Presence Pedagogical Design of Online Virtual Classrooms
CoI Element Application to Virtual Classroom
Induction ● Develop Ice-breaking activities
activities ● Encourage learners to share their short CVs reflecting their
personal experiences and interests.
● Encourage learners to share their personal and professional
expectations from the course.
Discussion ● Establishing guidelines and rules for courteous, constructive
Etiquette and discussions
Interaction ● Actively acknowledging and appreciating others' contributions
● Participating in conversations and listening attentively
● Reacting to students' sentiments and emotions

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● Expressing a variety of feelings, both good and bad


Engagement ● Encouraging active engagement from all students while providing
and Visual examples of proper online conduct
Presence ● Starting conversations and discussions to promote engagement
● Participating actively in group projects, games, and activities
Teamwork ● Involving students in group activities, discussions, and projects
and ● Giving teams the chance to collaborate asynchronously
Collaborative ● Encouraging collaborative efforts and group problem-solving
Learning ● Working together to solve problems and find solutions to issues
collectively
● Adopt group project assignments
● Adopt and implement activities that promote interpersonal
collaboration.
Peer Support ● Encouraging peer tutoring among students
and Teaching ● Creating peer games and engaging in role-playing
● Offering support, encouragement, and constructive criticism that
fosters growth
● Providing aid and support to students who are struggling
● Assign peer learning tasks (a task for two)
Communicati ● Using a friendly and open tone of voice when communicating
on and ● Making an effort to create a relaxed atmosphere by using informal
Empathy language
● Expressing a variety of feelings, both good and bad
● Reacting to students' emotions and sentiments
● Creating a supportive environment where students can express
their emotions
Social Media ● Capitalize on social media communication tools to promote active
Integration participation and interaction.
● Create private groups on social media platforms such as Facebook
and LinkedIn to enhance learning
● Encourage students to connect with their peers using well-known
social media platforms
● Use social media for formative assessment and peer review
whenever applicable

8.1.2. Cognitive Presence


Cognitive presence focuses on stimulating critical thinking and meaningful
learning experiences. Pedagogical aspects of cognitive presence include
Exploration, Knowledge Generation and Construction, Feedback and
Constructive Criticism, Knowledge and Skills Transfer, and Sustained reflection
and Discourse. Thus, encouraging critical thinking through discussions and
problem-solving activities promoting knowledge construction by engaging
learners in reflection-in-action exercises helps increase the cognitive presence
during virtual classrooms. Furthermore, timely feedback on assignments and
assessments guides and empowers learners' cognitive development, critical
thinking, and academic and professional growth (see Table 4).

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Table 4: The Cognitive Presence Pedagogical Design of Online Virtual Classrooms

CoI Element Application to Virtual Classroom


Exploration ● Involving students in ongoing debates and idea-sharing sessions
● Using live polls or surveys to compile feedback and insights
quickly
● Conducting collective research and critique analysis
● Motivating students to participate in asynchronous discussion
forums
● Offering a resource library for independent study
● Leading activities that encourage dialogue and investigation
● Asking provocative questions at the start of each class or module
Knowledge ● Allocate and use virtual learning space for interactive content
generation such as H5P activity.
and ● Implement a creative problem-solving approach.
construction ● Reflecting on Using virtual learning tools such as a wiki to
encourage collaborative knowledge generation.
Feedback ● Actively recognizing and thanking others for their contributions
and ● Offering constructive criticism and positive feedback
Constructive ● Responding to inquiries and criticism from instructors and fellow
Criticism learners
Knowledge ● Give real-world examples that would help transfer knowledge
and skills and skills.
transfer ● Integrate assessment tasks that promote students' cognitive
understanding.
● Use continuous assessment strategies to help learners transfer
their knowledge and skills to other situations.
Sustained ● Allocate a learning space for learners to reflect on and about their
reflection learning weekly.
and ● Use virtual learning tools that encourage self-reflection, such as
discourse blogs and feedback.
● Allocate a section in each assignment for reflection-in-action
purposes.

8.1.3. Teaching Presence


The instructor's teaching presence facilitates and guides the learning process. It
involves setting the course structure, establishing clear learning objectives, and
providing support. Pedagogical aspects of teaching presence include Interactive
e-content, Communicating Expectations, Active engagement, Effective
Assessments and feedback, and Acknowledgment and Reinforcement (see Table
5).
An effective design with clear learning outcomes, assessment, expectations, and
interactive content supported by interactive assessment, effective reinforcement,
and feedback will lead to a teaching presence. Instructors who excel in teaching
presence create a well-structured and supportive virtual classroom that fosters
active learning and helps learners achieve their educational goals.

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Table 5: The Teaching Presence Pedagogical Design of Online Virtual Classrooms


CoI Element Application to Virtual Classroom
Interactive e- ● Communicate regularly with students by using virtual synchronous
Content office hours.
● Integrate interactive quizzes and polls within the topics
● Integrate virtual labs into teaching
● Integrate virtual reality, augmented reality, and simulations in
teaching
● Use interactive storytelling to help students understand the content
● Implement e-content generation tools to support learning
● Integrate interactive multimedia to enhance understanding
● Incorporate gamification to increase students' motivation for learning
Communicati ● Communicate the course syllabus to students
ng ● Communicate course goals, outcomes, and calendars
Expectations ● Provide detailed guidelines and rubrics for every assessment task,
including assignments and projects
● Create discussion forums and blogs to answer students' questions
about assignments and projects
● Provide well-done assignments or project examples from previous
semesters to help students understand what is expected from them
● Communicate weekly with students to remind them of expectations,
highlighting assignment deadlines and readings
● Communicate technology requirements needed for the course
● Communicate expectations for email turnaround response and
feedback to students
Active ● Encourage learners to get immersed and participate positively
engagement ● Provide and guide learners to adopt productive dialogue for deep
learning
● Use interactive quizzes and polls
● Use gamification to increase students' engagement with content
Effective ● Provide immediate and simultaneous feedback for students'
Assessments performance
and feedback ● Encourage self and peer-assessment
● Create online tests and quizzes for formative and summative
assessment
● Integrate authentic project-based assessment
● Encourage virtual collaborative projects among students
● Provide comments on the group's overall performance and each
member's contributions to teamwork
● Assess student participation in online discussion forums and blogs
and provide constructive feedback
Acknowledg ● Use digital badges to award students
ment and ● Use personalized feedback to acknowledge achievement
Reinforcement ● Highlight outstanding students' work by reinforcing it
● Encourage peer recognition among students
● Use technology tools such as icons and emoticons to applaud
students virtually
● Consistently use positive reinforcement to encourage students'
engagement
● Acknowledge collaboration and group work

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8.2 Research question 2


To answer question number 2, What are the benefits of utilizing the CoI
framework to deliver online virtual classrooms in higher education institutions"?
Two primary data sources were used: (1) the closed items in the questionnaire and
(2) an open-ended question asking participants to list the benefits of the virtual
classroom for teaching and learning related to CoI. The correlation between
students’ responses to the closed items and the open-ended items is clear.
Answers from closed items such as the three highest ranked mean scores for the
closed-ended items on the benefits of CoI-based VC to teaching and instructors, “
enhances my digital skills (4.1)”, “is more convenient for teaching (4.0); and “is
more convenient for learning (4.0)” conform positively with open-ended
responses reported by participants such as VCs “support digital skills”, “flexible
for learning and learners”, and “provide effective learning environments” for
teaching and instructors. Designing the OVC based on CoI saves time, increases
the achievement and motivation of students, decreases anxiety among students,
and improves instructor-student interaction.
As shown in Table 6, the benefits are categorized into (1) the benefits of CoI-based
VC to teaching and instructors and (2) the benefits of CoI-based VC to learning
and learners. The means and percentages show highly positive perceptions of the
benefits of the CoI-based virtual classroom for teaching and learning.
Table 6: Instructors' Perspectives on the Benefits of Using a Virtual Classroom
Item %
M SD NA SD D A SA
Benefits of CoI-based VC to teaching and instructors
is beneficial to teaching 3.8 1.2 7.1 12.9 0.0 57.6 22.4
enhances the ability to teach 3.2 1.3 12.9 25.9 4.7 43.5 12.9
enhances my digital skills 4.1 0.9 4.7 2.4 1.2 57.6 34.1
supports instructors in giving timely 3.2 1.3 14.1 23.5 3.5 45.9 12.9
and high-quality feedback
supports the instructor in designing a 3.1 1.3 14.1 29.4 4.7 41.2 10.6
response assessment that portrays
student learning
is more convenient for teaching 4.0 1.0 4.7 3.5 15.3 44.7 31.8
saves the ' 'instructor's time 3.8 1.2 9.4 3.5 9.4 50.6 27.1
helps instructors prepare better for the 3.5 1.2 10.6 10.6 12.9 47.1 18.8
lectures
I intend to continue using virtual 3.3 1.5 14.1 17.6 3.5 42.4 22.4
classrooms
Benefits of CoI-based VC to learning and learners
enhances collaboration, communication, 3.1 1.3 20.0 10.6 20.0 41.2 8.2
discussion, and interaction among
students in the course
is accessible to everyone from 3.9 1.1 5.9 7.1 2.4 57.6 27.1
anywhere
is more convenient for learning 4.0 1.0 4.7 3.5 15.3 44.7 31.8
introduces students to authentic 3.8 1.2 9.4 5.9 8.2 51.8 24.7
learning skills
decreases anxiety among students 3.2 1.3 14.1 16.5 21.2 31.8 16.5
Note. NA= Does not Apply/I do not know; SD = Strongly Disagree; D = Disagree; A = Agree;
SA = Strongly Agree

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Instructors' percentages of agree and strongly agree combined ranged between


51.8 and 94.1 for most items in the two categories. This indicates that instructors
perceive several benefits of virtual classrooms for themselves and learners.
Positive perceptions correspond with Vang et al., (2020) and Schifter's (2002)
research findings.
Except for one item, the Standard Deviation (SD) values of all factors in both
categories were higher than 1. This result indicates the consistent self-perception
of instructors regarding the benefits of utilizing virtual classrooms in teaching.
These findings align with Lloyd et al., (2012).
Similarly, the results demonstrate that 63.5% of instructors agree that introducing
students and educators to education technology is one of the significant benefits
of using virtual classrooms for teaching and learning. In addition, 50.6%–57.6%
agree that virtual classrooms can save time, introduce students to learning skills
that will be useful after graduation, enhance digital skills, and provide access to
all students from any place. Additionally, 21.2% to 47.1% of instructors agree that
virtual classrooms for teaching and learning increase the achievement and
motivation of students.
These results agree with studies that reported numerous benefits of virtual
learning, such as improved instructor-student interaction (Mills et al., 2009; Singh
& Hurley, 2017), flexibility, and convenience (learning can occur anywhere and
anytime), potential reduction of anxiety and capability to record classes for
flipped learning (Singh & Hurley, 2017). Among the other benefits of virtual
education, Al-Handhali et al., (2020) emphasized user-friendliness, effective time
management, ease of managing courses and resources, and the ability to generate
reports.
These results agree with those of Mandernach et al. (2013) and Abdelaziz (2012),
who demonstrated that when instructors become familiar with virtual learning,
they exhibit a more positive attitude toward it. Moreover, instructors teaching
online were gratified when institutions provided mentoring, training, support,
and recognition of their success (Wingo et al., 2017). This is the case with the
instructors in this study. They were fully supported technically to deliver teaching
using virtual classrooms.
To conclude, virtual classrooms' benefits include decreasing anxiety among
students, providing an effective environment for discussion, supporting students
in learning lessons relevant to their lives and interests, enhancing collaboration
and communication, increasing convenience, providing immediate test and exam
results, and introducing students and educators to education technology.
8.2.1 Open-ended Qualitative answers
Investigating the open-ended answers to the same question, it is clear that
participants reported several benefits of the virtual classrooms. The answers were
clustered in themes, as shown in Table 7. When the responses were categorized,
the themes yielded three main themes: benefits to learning and learners, teaching
and instructors, and technology-related benefits. These benefits support all three
domains of the CoI framework.

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Table 7: Instructors' open-ended responses: Key themes of the virtual classrooms'


benefits
Benefits to teaching and instructors
● Provides an effective learning environment
● Facilitates cooperation with different educational groups,
● Provides a teaching platform to track students' performance
Benefits to learning and learners
● Flexible
● Encourage learners' voice
● An instrument for dynamic thinking and practice
Technology-related benefits:
● Support digital skills
● Support forms of technology integration
● A tool to support learning analytics
8.2.2 Social presence
The virtual classroom can encourage learners to participate actively in the
learning process. They can use chat or messaging features to ask questions
without fear of being judged by their peers. In addition, learners can ask questions
freely without feeling embarrassed. In addition, the virtual classroom allows
instructors to provide feedback to students promptly. Furthermore, it enables
instructors to engage students in active learning environments using quizzes,
polls, and breakout rooms.
Last, a significant benefit for instructors is the ability to control the discussion and
the time, allowing them to manage the class flow effectively and ensuring all
students have a chance to participate. The ease of breakout groups supports this
without worrying about physical space and arrangement.
8.2.3 Cognitive presence
The virtual classroom could help shy students participate in live sessions by
speaking or writing freely, allowing students who may be hesitant to participate
in face-to-face classes to feel more comfortable contributing their thoughts and
ideas. Another reported benefit for instructors is using advanced technology, such
as virtual and augmented reality and simulations, to create engaging and
interactive lessons.
8.2.4 Teaching presence
Participants reported numerous benefits of a virtual classroom for teaching and
instructors. It provides an environment where instructors can support their
students with more resources to study at their own pace, time, and pleasure and
share multimedia materials, such as videos, podcasts, and articles, for students to
access and review outside of class. Similarly, flexibility is another benefit where
learners can review the material at their own pace and revisit lectures they find
difficult or confusing. It is worth mentioning here that the reported benefits of the
virtual classroom conform to participants' self-perception as indicated by
questionnaire items.

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8.3 Research question 3


To answer question 3, "What are the challenges of utilizing the CoI framework to
deliver online virtual classrooms in higher education institutions?". Two primary
data sources were used to answer this question: (1) a questionnaire with closed
items and (2) an open-ended question asking participants to list the challenges of
the virtual classroom for teaching and learning. Table 8 presents the means, SD,
and percentages of the self-perceptions of instructors regarding the challenges of
virtual classrooms for teaching and learning. The researchers identified a few
challenges, such as difficulty in supporting students with special needs, technical
problems, and isolation among students.
Examining these challenges, researchers concluded that several solutions could
minimize these challenges to the minimum, such as fostering a sense of
community among students, using breakout rooms and support, encouraging
participation, setting clear expectations, and using incentives whenever possible.
These results echo those of several studies such as Pazilah et al., (2019); Ismail et
al., (2010); and Kafyulilo et al., (2015).

Table 8: Self-perception of instructors on the challenges of virtual classrooms for


teaching and learning
Item Mean SD %
NA SD D A SA

Interaction between teachers and students


Students feel the extra load is 3.18 1.36 15.3 21.2 11.8 34.1 17.6
required.
Difficulty in supporting students 3.74 1.19 5.9 15.3 5.9 44.7 28.2
with special needs or disabilities
Negatively influence the time 3.84 1.26 9.4 9.4 3.5 43.5 34.1
management of students
through technical problems
Reduce personal interaction 3.74 1.31 10.6 11.8 2.4 43.5 31.8
between teacher and students
Increase isolation among 4.06 1.06 4.7 7.1 3.5 47.1 37.6
students.

8.3.1 Open-ended answers


Similar to the questionnaire's closed-ended items, the answers to the open-ended
questions, instructors described a few challenges they faced when engaging in
virtual classroom instruction. Three major themes emerged from the analysis of
the open-ended responses: (1) challenges in Online instruction, (2) Engaging
Students Online, and (3) Technical Challenges in Online Learning (Table 9).
Table 9: The themes and items were created for the open-ended responses of
instructors to the challenges of the virtual classroom
Challenges of Online Teaching
● Time management skills.
● Technical issues.
● The virtual classroom may decrease the motivation for the instructor and student
alike.
● Mentally and physically, it is exhausting for both teachers and students.
● Control student's attendance.

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● Students' concentration.
Engaging Students Online
● Lack of feeling of belonging to the class
● This may decrease the motivation.
● Stimulating interactive thinking patterns was challenging for students with
special needs and low achievers.
Technical Challenges in Online Learning
● Different excuses due to technology.
● I would say disadvantages (cheating, etc..) may occur.
● Inability to conduct experiments or conduct practical activities.
8.3.2 Challenges of OVC-CoI
Table 9 shows instructors reported a few challenges while implementing virtual
classrooms. Although instructors highlighted technical and student interaction
challenges, these challenges could be overcome by increasing the social, cognitive,
and teaching presence during virtual classrooms. Instructors expressed how
difficult it was not to know the special needs students among the rest of the class.
Adonis (2020) mentioned that instructors suspected that the reduction in
participation was related to a poor internet connection as students struggled to
familiarize themselves with the new learning modality. Another instructor
member stated, "There is a need for designated technical personnel provided by
the institution to help the students." Another challenge was teaching the course's
practical parts in some specific subjects, making conducting experiments or
practical activities challenging.
However, these challenges can be solved or minimized dramatically. Some
solutions could be training instructors to use creative, innovative communication
tools to increase 'students' interactions with content and classmates. Although
attention to the challenges is essential in understanding how to support
instructors who are teaching virtually, possibly the similarly significant result is
that despite itemized challenges, instructors create ways in the virtual setting to
teach to the best of their abilities and always consider the future of their students.
This kind of human consciousness may have been the most seamlessly translated
to the online format, given that many online methods already exist, with
guidelines permitting some instructor path and built-in structure. Instructors
facilitated and provoked 'students' thinking through various methods. These
findings offer hope that a mentality can be shifted away from the belief that
learning and teaching in a virtual setting is "impossible." Instructors were
encouraged to best meet 'students' learning needs by providing the maximum
learning opportunities. With further assistance and coaching, those who may be
designated to teach virtually will be able to do so successfully and surely.
9. Conclusion
In this study, the virtual classroom designed based on the CoI framework was
perceived to be effective for teaching and learning, and the study shows that
virtual classrooms have benefits and challenges, as perceived by instructors. In
addition, virtual classrooms demonstrated the reflection on the quality of
educational outputs and the imparting of skills, experiences, and knowledge. This
was evident in transforming pedagogy from mere brain feeding to creativity,
interaction, and skill development. However, it can be used as the foundation for

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application to other organizations in other geographical areas, which will aid in


validating the results, improving the tool designed, and obtaining new findings.
Instructors using virtual classrooms were satisfied when the university could
mentor, train, support, and acknowledge their accomplishments. Instructors also
appreciated the individual and professional rewards they revived due to the
effective use of virtual classrooms, such as flexible schedules and professional
development opportunities.
Although the study showed that instructors had challenges in implementing
virtual classrooms, they received all the support they needed, including extensive
PD workshops and mentoring on using virtual classrooms and up-to-date
technologies for online and blended learning environments. In addition, they
received support by accessing a wider variety of resources and training personnel
available at the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning at the UAE
University. As a result of this support, the challenges started to be demolished as
teaching continued. Students started to feel more comfortable and adaptive to this
content delivery method. Similarly, instructors started realizing the benefits of
implementing virtual classrooms as a new delivery method.
Understanding the advantages and challenges of virtual classrooms, particularly
from the perspective of instructors using the approach, will provide valuable
insights into the most effective pedagogical strategies for integrating virtual
classrooms into teaching and learning. The findings of this study can be used to
train instructors on the best practices for utilizing virtual classrooms to teach
content and manage learner interaction.
Institutions should support instructors and indicate that their hard work is just as
appreciated as instructors teaching face-to-face; administrators could create a
solid, constructive image of virtual classroom teaching at their organization.
The pedagogical design of online learning plays an integral part in online teaching
quality and effectiveness. Therefore, each instructor in higher education content
should be aware of what works well with their learners and courses. The CoI
approach used in this research may guide learners and instructors to use it better
and learn through virtual classrooms.
Technical challenges will continue in all online teaching and learning contexts.
The effective way to reduce the impact of these challenges is to use, implement,
or utilize a pedagogically informed approach to reduce the technological load and
increase the potential for cognitive growth.

10. Recommendations
Based on the research findings, the following recommendations are made for
higher education institutions and future research:
● Virtual Classrooms should always be used hand in hand with PD training
sessions to guarantee effective use.
● Research should focus on qualitative data collection methods as well.
● The use of virtual classrooms should also be investigated in k-12 schools.
● Stakeholders should develop a set of measures and guidelines to regulate
the use of virtual classrooms in social communications within the
educational system.

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● There is a need for a replication of the study with students. This might
shed some light on the differences between instructors' perceptions
versus students' perceptions of the benefits and challenges of utilizing
virtual classrooms.
11. Limitations
One of the study's limitations is that the results mirror the setting of only a single
nation. Also, although the tool is influential and robust and covers instructors'
populations from different fields of study, it was applied to a sample from a single
higher education organization. In addition, students were not participating in
responding to the questionnaire, therefore, the findings of research is limited to
the instructors and instructors in higher education institutions.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research


Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 525-546, April 2024
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.23.4.27
Received Mar 3, 2024; Revised Apr 26, 2024; Accepted Apr 30, 2024

The Effects of Microlearning on EFL Students’


English Speaking: A Systematic Review and
Meta-Analysis
Pitchada Prasittichok and Phohnthip Smithsarakarn
Srinakharinwirot University
Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract. Despite advancements in microlearning-based English-


speaking education, comprehensive meta-analyses of its effectiveness
remain scarce. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of microlearning on
English speaking among English as a foreign language (EFL) students
through a systematic review and meta-analysis. Following the PRISMA
principles, the research was conducted in June 2023 across five phases:
problem identification, data collection, screening, evaluation, and
extraction. Data were obtained from peer-reviewed journals indexed in
databases, including ERIC, Science Direct, Scopus, and Google Scholar.
Data analysis was undertaken using the modified Newcastle-Ottawa
Scale-Education (NOS-E). Subsequently, the R meta program facilitated a
robust meta-analysis, allowing us to comprehensively gauge effect size.
A literature review yielded 10 studies (combined sample size = 743) that
matched the eligibility guidelines. On the NOS-E, each study scored 4.55
out of 6. The results demonstrate the superiority of microlearning over
traditional lectures (total English-speaking scores, SMD = 1.43,
95%CI = 1.27−1.59, p < .05). In the meta-analysis, heterogeneity was
revealed (total scores for English speaking, I2 = 66%, p < .01), with no
publication bias. Microlearning significantly benefits English language
teaching (ELT) and enhances EFL students’ English-speaking skills.
However, limitations do exist. By addressing these limitations, educators
may refine pedagogical practices for optimal ELT methods for EFL
learning.

Keywords: English as a foreign language (EFL); English speaking; meta-


analysis; microlearning; systematic review

* Corresponding author: Phohnthip Smithsarakarn, [email protected]

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1. Introduction
In current times, possessing strong English-speaking skills is vital for
communication and negotiation (Adipat, 2023; Jalkute, 2021). Proficient English
speaking not only fosters multicultural relationships and deepens the
understanding of diverse cultures and ethnic groups but also enhances the
individual’s global perception and pride in their own culture (Nur & Riadil, 2019).
Strong English-speaking skills effectively open doors to various occupational
opportunities (Dewi et al., 2016).

Many non-native English speakers (NNES) can neither speak English for
communication nor speak it correctly and efficiently. This issue arises from a lack
of vocabulary, feelings of nervousness, an unsupportive environment, and a lack
of motivation (Amoah & Yeboah, 2021). As a result, these speakers tend to neglect
learning or using English for communication purposes. It is thus plausible that
proficiency in English is often limited to specific professions, with only specific
companies prioritizing English skills. Specifically, those who possess the ability
usually acquire English out of necessity for communication with foreigners.
Consequently, many NNES experience nervousness and fear when confronted
with the need to speak English and often face difficulties with vocabulary. This
leads them to limit their English usage to essential situations, such as in a
classroom setting (Ratnasari, 2020).

This inability to use English results in unfamiliarity or a lack of regular speaking


practice, leading to a loss of confidence and denial of English-speaking ability
(Safari & Fitriati, 2017; Saputra et al., 2023). It is therefore not surprising that these
individuals fail to speak English fluently and naturally. Invariably, regular
English speaking is required to achieve this ability, along with continuous practice
to improve speaking proficiency and fluency as well as correct pronunciation and
intonation. Despite these requirements, daily life requires a number of tasks for
relaxation and self-care. In light of these challenges, English as a foreign language
(EFL) educators should embrace innovative teaching methods to engage students
and boost their enthusiasm for speaking, tailoring “instruction” to individual
learning requirements. Given the crucial role that EFL teachers play in impacting
students’ lives, it is essential for them to assess students’ prior knowledge and
needs. Consequently, EFL instructors should consider implementing suitable
instructional approaches that align with student needs (Ziqi et al., 2023).

Microlearning is considered a viable alternative for fast learning within a limited


timeframe among younger generations (Lee, 2023; Leong et al., 2020). This tool
involves a learning process starting from a small body of knowledge within a
short time (Dolasinski & Reynolds, 2020; Kohnke, 2023; Torgerson & Iannone,
2019). Only the essence and main ideas are extracted for easier absorption
(Nikkhoo et al., 2023; Samala et al., 2023). Each microlearning lesson focuses on a
single learning objective and incorporates multiple sensory and modal elements,
such as brief lectures, videos, text, images, and audio, among other elements. The
microlearning approach integrates both practice and assessment to ensure
effective learning and retention (Taylor & Hung, 2022). This technique empowers
speakers by granting them control over their learning experience, offering easy

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access to learning content, and allowing them to choose when they engage with
different components of the microlearning module (Dolasinski & Reynolds, 2020).
This adaptability is why this learning method takes less time compared to
traditional approaches. Numerous studies have been conducted on the
effectiveness of microlearning, demonstrating its efficiency in the learning and
memorization of knowledge and skills. Microlearning is effective because
knowledge can be reviewed in small pieces daily. This is more beneficial
compared to traditional methods requiring longer review times, often resulting in
limited retention for students. With microlearning, students may select the most
suitable dates and times for self-study by using accessible and widely used
channels, such as flashcards, TikTok, YouTube, podcasts, and Facebook, which
are favored by younger generations presently.

Despite numerous studies on the effectiveness of microlearning, different research


designs have caused scattered and ambiguous results with a lack of systematic
synthesis of knowledge. Due to these issues, there is a significant need for research
to synthesize knowledge systematically, leading to unambiguous conclusions and
the development of learning management strategies that promote English
speaking. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of microlearning on
English speaking in higher education. The methodology involved a systematic
literature review and meta-analysis, with two primary objectives:
1. to investigate research characteristics related to the effectiveness of
microlearning on English speaking among university students; and
2. to analyze and compare the effect size of microlearning on English
speaking in this context.

The results of this research will contribute to the existing body of knowledge. This
may allow individuals interested in enhancing their English-speaking skills,
including university lecturers and agencies concerned with learning
management, to employ the findings as a guideline for more efficient English
speaking.

2. Methodology
The meta-analytic procedures conducted (Glass et al., 1981) in this study involved
the following: (1) gathering relevant scholarly sources; (2) categorizing the study
characteristics; and (3) calculating effect sizes for the outcome measures in each
study.

2.1 Search Strategy


This study was initiated following approval (approval no. SWUEC–166/2566E)
from the institutional review board at Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok,
Thailand, ensuring compliance with ethical standards for scientific research. To
enhance the exploration of existing literature, the expertise of an experienced
librarian with over a decade of experience was sought to select search terms and
retrieval formulas. This step was crucial due to variations in databases,
necessitating diverse retrieval methods.

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The study used both a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the
impact of microlearning on university students’ English language proficiency.
The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis
(PRISMA) guideline, a widely acknowledged framework for conducting
systematic reviews and meta-analyses (Hasim et al., 2024; Page et al., 2021;
Vallespin & Prudente, 2024), was employed. The PRISMA flow diagram followed
in this study is presented in Figure 1.

Articles identified in databases (n = 242): 158 studies excluded


Identification

Science Direct (64), Scopus (32), - Duplicates removed


ERIC (89), and (n = 36)
Google Scholar (57) - Irrelevant studies
(n = 122)

57 studies excluded:
- do not fit definition of
Articles identified in the database by title
Screening

microlearning (n = 9)
and abstract
- no control/comparison
(n = 84) group (n = 14)
- no intervention: wrong
population, or not English-
speaking measures (n = 13)
- no full text available
Full-text articles were assessed for (n = 21)
Eligibility

eligibility during the screening process to


determine their relevance and suitability 17 studies excluded:
for inclusion in the study (n = 27) - not providing sufficient
statistical data for
estimating effect sizes after
sending primary authors the
request for missing data
(n = 15)
Studies included in the meta-analysis - no empirical data provided
Included

(n = 10) (n = 2)

Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram

The evaluation of the effects of microlearning on the English-speaking proficiency


of university students followed the population, intervention, comparison,
outcome, and study (PICOS) design criteria during the search and selection of
studies for inclusion in the meta-analysis. In this study, PICOS was applied as
follows: population (P): EFL students; intervention (I): microlearning; comparison
(C): control or placebo group not exposed to microlearning; outcome (O): English-
speaking skills; and study (S): randomized controlled trials or quasi-experimental
quantitative studies with pre-tests and post-tests (employing a non-equivalent
control group design).

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2.2 Study Selection


As recommended by systematic review quality criteria, a minimum of two
researchers should conduct the search for literature reviews (Shea et al., 2017).
Therefore, for this study, two researchers independently conducted an electronic
database search, focusing on peer-reviewed journals from 2018 to 2023. The
selected databases included ERIC, Science Direct, Scopus, and Google Scholar,
ensuring comprehensive coverage due to the widespread application of
microlearning across various fields.

The literature search, completed in October 2023, excluded publications beyond


this date. In all, 242 publications were retrieved from the electronic databases and
manual searches and were organized in EndNote, a reference management
database. After eliminating 36 redundant entries, an additional 122 irrelevant
documents were excluded based on title and abstract screening. Additionally, 21
articles without full texts were removed, and the full texts of the remaining articles
underwent scrutiny against the predefined selection and exclusion criteria
outlined in Table 1.

Table 1: Inclusion and exclusion criteria


Criterion Inclusion Exclusion
Publication 2018 – 2023 publication Research conducted beyond this
period timeframe
Literature type Peer-reviewed journals Dissertations and theses
Language English Non-English
Document type Scholarly articles and conference Publications not appearing in a
proceedings published in peer- peer-reviewed journal or
reviewed journals and conferences conference proceeding
proceedings
Accessibility Full text available Not accessible
Content The same learning content Learning content not the same
Implementation Utilization of microlearning Does not employ microlearning
techniques techniques
Research design The study required an experimental Non-experimental design or
or quasi-experimental design, within−subject design with
specifically a between−subject different learning content
design that compared
microlearning with traditional
classroom methods
Results Sufficient data are needed to Insufficient statistics provided or
compute the effect size, including problematic statistics
the reporting of sample size (N),
mean (M), and standard deviation
(SD)
English-speaking Clear English-speaking outcomes No clear English-speaking
outcomes outcomes

Throughout this search process, if meta-analysis statistics were not clearly


presented in an article, correspondence was initiated with the original author. We
collaboratively selected search terms, conducted independent literature searches,
and screened the identified documents together. In instances of disagreement, a

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collective review of the data was undertaken, leading to consensus. Ultimately, 10


publications underwent systematic review and meta-analysis.

2.3 Data Extraction


The data used were independently extracted by two reviewers, and any
disagreements regarding eligibility were settled through agreement. The analysis
involved extracting the following information: primary author; year of
publication; sample size; participant characteristics; intervention technique;
teaching methods; outcomes; assessed outcomes; and intervention duration. This
process involved capturing the mean difference and corresponding 95%
confidence interval for English-speaking scores in intervention and control
groups.

2.4 Quality Assessment


The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale-Education (NOS-E) was developed by modifying the
Newcastle-Ottawa Scale, an instrument that aims to assess the quality of non-
randomized comparative studies included in meta-analyses. Study quality was
assessed using the modified NOS-E, which comprises five domains:
representativeness of the intervention group; selection; comparability of the
comparison group; study retention; and assessment blinding. Each domain was
rated on a scale of 0 to 1, except for the comparability of the comparison group,
which was rated on a scale of 0 to 2 (Cook & Reed, 2015). The study quality was
categorized as high (5−6), medium (3−4), or low (0−2). In instances of
disagreement between the authors’ assessments, a third researcher intervened to
reach a consensus.

2.5 Statistical Analysis


In this investigation, data were collected on the characteristics of the selected
research subjects and a coding framework was applied to organize the
information. This coding framework served as the foundation for analyzing
diversity in effect sizes and providing a descriptive overview of each study’s
characteristics. We collected the mean and standard deviation values of pre- and
post-test scores for both groups in each study, alongside sample size information.
The literature data, encompassing details such as author/s, publication year, and
participant cases, were input into the R programming language for tests of
heterogeneity and meta-analysis.

The analysis focused on the English-speaking scores of the microlearning and


control groups. Since continuous data were extracted from various scales, we
calculated the standardized mean difference (SMD) for effect size based on sample
size (Cohen, 1988), along with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for each study.
Pooled studies underwent variance analysis. For continuous data from the same
scale, we computed the weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% confidence
intervals (CIs). A significance level of less than 0.05 was considered for all
analyses.

2.5.1 Meta-analysis methods


We utilized two meta-analysis models: the fixed-effect model for combining data
in instances of homogeneity and the random-effects model when heterogeneity

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was detected. Heterogeneity was deemed significant for a Cochran’s Q statistic


p value < 0.10 and I2 > 50% (Higgins & Thompson, 2002; Higgins et al., 2003). The
I2 statistic, representing the proportion of variability attributed to heterogeneity,
was interpreted as follows: 25% − 50% as low; 50% to 75% as moderate; and 75%+
as high.

2.5.2 Sensitivity analysis


A sensitivity analysis was conducted in the presence of heterogeneity to assess
whether it significantly affected the meta-analysis results. Each study was
excluded in turn, and the pooled estimates were recalculated. The results were
deemed not significantly different if the exclusion did not noticeably change
outcomes.

2.5.3 Publication bias assessment


Publication bias was evaluated using a funnel plot and Egger’s test of asymmetry
(Egger et al., 1997; Mujiono et al., 2003) using the R program. The shapes of the
funnel plots do not suggest evident asymmetry, and all Egger’s test p values were
above 0.05, indicating statistical support for funnel plot symmetry.

3. Findings
The findings presented in Table 2 are based on the findings of 10 reviewed studies
that implemented a microlearning approach for EFL speaking classes.

3.1 Characteristics of the Included Studies


This review included a total of 10 studies published between 2018 and 2023, all
written in English. Sample sizes across these studies ranged from 13 to 137
participants, resulting in a combined sample size of 743 (microlearning group =
372, control group = 371). The duration of interventions varied from 4 to 15 weeks.
The characteristics of the included studies can be seen in Table 2.

Microlearning, as defined in these articles, consists of six key components:


1. presenting concise content with a short-learning design;
2. offering easy-to-understand lessons to minimize confusion;
3. providing unambiguous practical guidelines;
4. incorporating humor for more engaging lessons;
5. ensuring easy access; and
6. facilitating quick development.

It is also essential to adjust learning methods in accordance with changing ages


and situations.

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Table 2: Included studies’ characteristics


Participant Intervention/s Outcome measurement
Author characteristics, (duration)
Outcome Measurement Main results
(year) sample size
(EG/CG) (duration) tools

Dang et al. EFL freshmen Video recording Students’ oral The speaking User video recording can be used to improve a student’s
(2022) students (13/13) activities performance section of the speaking skills for the Cambridge B1 Preliminary Test
(18 weeks) Cambridge B1 by allowing them to review their performance, identify
Preliminary Test areas for improvement, and practice speaking tasks
(PET) repeatedly to enhance fluency and accuracy.
Pre-test: EG 5.20 ± 0.46; CG 5.15 ± 0.52
Post-test: EG 7.72 ± 1.09; CG 6.62 ± 0.85
Gao et al. Meetings, TikTok Oral proficiency Oral proficiency The use of TikTok in language learning positively
(2023) incentive travel, (12 weeks) test impacted the motivation and oral proficiency of MICE
conferences, and learners compared to those who only used traditional
exhibitions teaching methods. TikTok promoted students’
(MICE) learners motivation, created an engaging learning environment,
(30/30) and encouraged the development of skills such as
creativity and curiosity, leading to improved language
skills in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
Pre-test: EG 78.23 ± 6.89; CG 76.37 ± 8.77
Post-test: EG 89.47 ± 10.75; CG 56.20 ± 16.20
Hamad EFL students YouTubes and Speaking skills Speaking tests Utilizing the YATI technique enhances the speaking
et al. (2019) (24/24) audio tracks skills, fluency, and pronunciation of EFL learners.
imitation (YATI) Pre-test: −
(6 weeks) Post-test: EG 8.17 ± 1.10; CG 7.33 ± 1.51

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Participant Intervention/s Outcome measurement


Author characteristics, (duration)
Outcome Measurement Main results
(year) sample size
(EG/CG) (duration) tools

Hanafiah Indonesian EFL Computer- Speaking skills Speaking test The experimental group surpassed the control group in
et al. (2022) students (30/30) assisted and Hughes’ the speaking post-test.
language speaking Pre-test: EG 14.30 ± 1.68; CG 14.16 ± 1.78
learning (CALL) checklist Post-test: EG 15.13 ± 2.08; CG 18.43 ± 1.71
(17 weeks)
Karpovich First year Monologue Speaking skills Monologue The experimental group participants outperformed
et al. (2021) students speaking tasks speaking tasks those in the control group in the speaking post-test.
(137/137) evaluation form Pre-test: −
Post-test: EG 2.00 ± 0.26; CG 1.5 ± 0.37
Laksanasut Students (41/40) Learning English- English- The speaking skills of the experimental group in the
(2022) activities with speaking skills speaking scoring post-test were significantly superior to those of the
TikTok rubric control group at a statistical significance level of .01.
(14 weeks) Pre-test: −
Post-test: EG 17.51 ± 2.02; CG 14.11 ± 3.20
Nur Aziz Foreign language TikTok Fluency of Fluency test Incorporating the TikTok application into teaching
and learners (EFL) students’ speaking can foster enhanced fluency in elementary
Sabella (20/20) speaking ability school students’ speaking abilities.
(2021) Pre-test: EG 79.00 ± 12.52; CG 84.50 ± 13.95
Post-test: EG 108.00 ± 8.34; CG 85.00 ± 11.47
Menggo EFL learners Video-assisted Speaking ability The speaking The participants in the experimental group
et al. (2022) (28/28) learning tasks scoring rubric outperformed those in the control group in the speaking
post-test.
Pre-test: EG 62.85 ± 4.60; CG 62.15 ± 4.56
Post-test: EG 80.29 ± 7.92; CG 67.57 ± 10.46

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Participant Intervention/s Outcome measurement


Author characteristics, (duration)
Outcome Measurement Main results
(year) sample size
(EG/CG) (duration) tools

Opas Non-English TikTok video English- English- Integrating TikTok as a supplementary tool in English
(2023) major students lessons for the speaking skills speaking test instruction has shown significant potential to enhance
(21/21) English for Work the listening and speaking proficiency of EFL learners.
Course Pre-test: EG 16.29 ± 3.12; CG 16.81 ± 3.60
(15 weeks) Post-test: EG 42.50 ± 5.19; CG 35.62 ± 4.23
Qisthi and EFL students The application Speaking skill Speaking skill There were notable discrepancies in speaking scores
Arifani (28/28) of project-based test between students instructed through project-based
(2018) learning via learning using Instagram and those undergoing
Instagram traditional teaching.
(4 weeks) Pre-test: EG 80.07 ± 3.29; CG 78.64 ± 2.96
Post-test: EG 82.68 ± 3.74; CG 79.61 ± 3.58
Note: EG = experimental group; CG = control group

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3.2 Study Quality


The NOS-E was used to analyze the methodological quality of all the reviewed
studies. Quality scores were assigned, with three studies receiving a score of 3
(n = 3) and seven studies receiving a score of 5 (n = 7) out of a maximum possible
score of 6, as detailed in Table 3.

Table 3: Quality score of all included studies


No Author (year) Intervention Comparison Comparability of Study Blinding Total
group group comparison group retention score
Non-randomized Lost to Was
study follow-up outcome
loss assessment
(< 25%) blinded?
Baseline Baseline
scores characteristics
1 Dang et al. (2022) 1 1 1 1 1 0 5
2 Gao et al. (2023) 1 1 1 1 1 0 5
3 Hamad et al. 1 1 0 0 1 0 3
(2019)
4 Hanafiah et al. 1 1 1 1 1 0 5
(2022)
5 Karpovich et al. 1 1 0 0 1 0 3
(2021)
6 Laksanasut 1 1 0 0 1 0 3
(2022)
7 Menggo et al. 1 1 1 1 1 0 5
(2022)
8 Nur Aziz and 1 1 1 1 1 0 5
Sabella (2021)
9 Opas (2023) 1 1 1 1 1 0 5
10 Qisthi and 1 1 1 1 1 0 5
Arifani (2018)

3.3 Effect of Intervention


The combined effect size indicated a significant improvement in English-speaking
scores with microlearning (SMD = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.10–1.76, p < .05). The fixed-
effect model was employed to aggregate the data, revealing favorable effects for
the microlearning group (SMD = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.27–1.59, p < .05). Notably, there
was considerable statistical heterogeneity among the reviewed studies (I2 = 66%,
p < .05), with individual effect sizes ranging from 0.63 to 2.39 (Figure 2).

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Figure 2: The effect of microlearning on English speaking at post-test

The funnel plot representing the ten reports on overall English-speaking analysis
is presented in Figure 3. The symmetrical shape of the funnel plot suggests no
significant bias in the main analysis (p > .05).

Figure 3: Funnel plot for English speaking as per reviewed studies

The black dots represent the studies from the study sample, positioned based on
their estimated effect size and standard error.

4. Discussion and Suggestions


Examining the use of microlearning for English language teaching and learning
in the selected studies revealed noteworthy common achievements, challenges,
and suggestions for future research. Table 4 presents the findings of the selected
studies in relation to the effects of microlearning on teaching and learning.

Table 4: The effects of microlearning on teaching and learning as per reviewed studies
No Publication Findings
1 Dang et al. Both the control and experimental groups showed
(2022) enhancements in post-tests, with the experimental group
exhibiting superior performance in grammar, vocabulary,
fluency, pronunciation, and interactive communication.
Statistical analysis verified a notable disparity between pre-test

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No Publication Findings
and post-test scores. Employing video recordings for speaking
assignments emerged as a holistic enhancement approach.
Survey data indicate positive student perceptions and
effectiveness in enhancing speaking performance. Nevertheless,
constraints such as the quasi-experimental structure and limited
sample size imply that the results might not be widely
applicable. Future research recommendations encompass a true
experimental design with a larger sample and exploration of
microlearning through video integration with tools such as
Flipgrid or Padlet for easier submission of video assignments.
2 Gao et al. The study investigated the effectiveness of integrating TikTok
(2023) as a video aid in the education of meetings, incentive travel,
conferences, and exhibitions (MICE) learners. Sixty participants
were evenly split into control and experimental groups. The
experimental group received instruction via TikTok, whereas
the control group was instructed via traditional teaching
methods. Both groups underwent pre- and post-tests. Survey
outcomes reveal that MICE learners exposed to TikTok
experienced significantly increased learning motivation and
oral proficiency compared to those taught through conventional
methods. The research proposed integrating TikTok as a video
tool in MICE education to boost both learning motivation and
oral proficiency among learners in this domain.
3 Hamad et al. The challenge of formally teaching speaking skills advocates for
(2019) an immersive environment. Using microlearning, the YouTubes
and audio tracks imitation (YATI) method employed
smartphones and applications for enhancing speaking skills in
tech-savvy 16- to 20-year-olds. Despite initial slowness, YATI
promoted confidence, intonation, and fluency. Results aligned
with the positive impact of technology on language learning,
particularly in listening comprehension. YATI fostered talent
discovery and competition, being a successful microlearning
tool for aural and oral proficiency in EFL learners. The study
recommended incorporating YATI into curriculum design for
optimal learning outcomes.
4 Hanafiah et al. The study investigated the positive impact of integrating
(2022) microlearning into online education in computer-assisted
language learning (CALL) on Indonesian EFL students. This
approach enhanced students’ vocabulary and speaking skills
and reduced anxiety. Microlearning, facilitated by online
instruction, provided flexibility and diverse tasks, contributing
to improved language competencies. Despite challenges, such
as limited Internet access, the study suggested a blended
approach of online and face-to-face instruction in Indonesia.
The findings highlight the benefits of microlearning, namely
enabling flexible study schedules and reducing stress through
engaging online activities. Improved communication between
instructors and learners was also emphasized, fostering
individualized education. The study encouraged English
teachers to incorporate microlearning through technology-
based methods for enhanced educational outcomes.
Acknowledging limitations, such as small sample size, the

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No Publication Findings
study recommended that future research explore the broader
impacts of microlearning on different language skills and
contexts.
5 Karpovich The study addressed the need for adaptation during students’
et al. (2021) transition to advanced education, emphasizing self-
organization and the formation of universal competencies.
Specifically focusing on EFL instruction, the research examined
the use of microlearning-oriented monologue speaking tasks,
which presented challenges for first year students. To address
these challenges, microlearning instructions, including peer
assessment and additional guidance, were implemented. The
results show an improvement in the English-speaking skills of
first year students, highlighting the significance of
microlearning through preventive measures such as peer
interaction and assessment in enhancing the performance of
specific activities. In conclusion, the study suggested that
integrating microlearning-oriented speaking tasks with peer
interaction and assessment positively impacted the English-
speaking skills of undergraduate students.
6 Laksanasut In this study, TikTok was a valuable tool for ELT, specifically
(2022) for English for occupational purposes (EOP) among Thai high
school students, aiming to enhance their speaking skills. This
approach facilitated the development of EFL students’ speaking
proficiency and contributed to creating a lively learning
environment. Students not only improved their language
competencies, including fluency and pronunciation, but also
strengthened their content-based knowledge. The use of TikTok
allowed for the exploration of social non-verbal communication
and encouraged creative experimentation. Despite its potential,
the implementation of TikTok into the course curriculum was
limited. It is crucial for EFL teachers to carefully consider the
most appropriate approach for students.
7 Menggo et al. The video-based task technique significantly enhanced
(2022) vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency, grammar, and
comprehension in students’ speaking ability. The class using
this technique exhibited greater improvements compared to the
non-video-based task group. Furthermore, the video-based task
approach fostered learning flexibility, self-evaluation, and ICT
capabilities among students. This research suggested that EFL
teachers, particularly speaking instructors, should incorporate
video-based tasks into their teaching methods. The findings
emphasize the efficacy of this technique in enhancing speaking
skills and its positive impact on students’ learning approaches.
8 Nur Aziz and According to student feedback, when used effectively, the
Sabella (2021) Seesaw application had a beneficial effect on their proficiency in
technology use during speaking classes. Recognizing lecturers
as key influencers in this digital realm, students appreciated
how technology, particularly Seesaw, brought the real world
into language learning. This method not only teaches a new
language but also introduces cultural elements, enhancing
motivation and activity. While some students preferred a
traditional learning atmosphere, teachers were advised to use

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No Publication Findings
technology carefully, tailoring activities to students’ age,
language level, interests, and needs. Teachers played a crucial
role in guiding students and parents to appropriate websites.
Future research should explore the application of Seesaw in
teaching various language skills and genres, encouraging
methodologies such as classroom action research.
9 Opas (2023) This research laid the foundation for validation and referencing
in relevant research to promote English listening and speaking
for EFL learners and encouraged educators to integrate TikTok
for enhanced student engagement and performance. The
research underscored the effectiveness of TikTok as a
supplementary tool for language teaching, aligning with
existing research highlighting its positive impact on language
proficiency. Student feedback revealed favorable attitudes
toward TikTok, with students enjoying lessons and duet videos.
While acknowledging the benefits, some limitations and
negative opinions surfaced. Overall, TikTok proved valuable in
enhancing English skills, emphasizing its role as supplementary
material, though with considerations for potential drawbacks.
This paper suggests that future research explore integrating
TikTok into course syllabi for diverse EFL learner groups.
10 Qisthi and This research discovered that Instagram had a noteworthy
Arifani (2018) influence on EFL classroom instruction, particularly focusing on
its efficacy in enhancing speaking abilities through project-
based learning. Participants were assigned to create short
dramas portraying telephone conversations, which were
subsequently shared on Instagram. Utilizing a quasi-
experimental design and non-parametric tests for data
evaluation, the findings illustrate a substantial enhancement in
speaking skills, rising from 1.22% in the control group to 3.25%
in the experimental group. The study concluded by advocating
for further exploration of integrating mobile applications such
as Instagram into the EFL curriculum, given the promising
outcomes.

Taking a closer look at the findings, this report reveals four foci. First, across the
selected studies, the use of microlearning has shown a positive impact on post-
test scores in terms of speaking ability (Dang et al., 2022; Gao et al., 2023; Qisthi &
Arifani, 2018). The use of various innovative tools through the lens of
microlearning, namely video recordings, gamification, technology
implementation, and social media platforms, consistently allowed for
participants’ improvement in grammar, vocabulary, fluency, pronunciation, and
interactive communication. This finding suggests a promising avenue for English
language teachers and learners seeking comprehensive approaches to address the
multifaceted nature of speaking proficiency. In other words, integrating video-
based tasks and social media platforms for teaching methods through the
microlearning approach may significantly contribute to a more comprehensive
and effective approach to enhancing speaking skills.

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Second, some studies have further highlighted how the use of short video content
can shed light on innovative teaching strategies (Gao et al., 2023; Hamad et al.,
2019; Menggo et al., 2022; Opas, 2023). Gao et al. (2023) and Qisthi and Arifani
(2018) found that learners exposed to short-form videos on TikTok or engaged in
project-based learning through the Instagram platform displayed heightened
motivation and oral proficiency compared to those in control groups. These
findings underscore the potential of incorporating social media into ELT to
stimulate EFL student engagement and improve speaking proficiency. Similarly,
as discussed by Nur Aziz and Sabella (2021), the use of mobile applications such
as Seesaw has also emerged as a potential for future success. The positive impact
of Seesaw on tech-savvy students in speaking classes indicates the potential of
technology to bring real-world elements into language learning. However, it is
worth noting that instructors should tailor these methods to the specific needs and
preferences of their students as some students might still prefer a more traditional
teaching and learning approach (Nur Aziz & Sabella, 2021).

Third, some existing studies have found significant enhancements in


implementing microlearning for self-development. More specifically, the use of
video recordings for speaking not only promotes self-assessment for learners but
also ensures self-esteem and self-confidence for a growth mindset (Dang et al.,
2022; Gao et al., 2023; Menggo et al., 2022). Hamad et al. (2019) and Hanafiah et al.
(2022) advocated for the efficacy of microlearning in English education. Hamad
et al. (2019) showcased the effectiveness of using YouTube videos and YATI for
teaching English language in speaking classrooms as pedagogical tools to
improve EFL students’ speaking skills. The use of YATI and the microlearning
approach has illustrated positive impacts on students’ confidence, intonation,
fluency, vocabulary, and overall language competencies. The findings by
Hanafiah et al. (2022) also guide us in the same direction. The use of microlearning
through online education in CALL for Indonesian EFL students benefits both the
English-speaking competency and learning experience of students. Participating
students enhanced their vocabulary and speaking skills and reduced anxiety.
Interestingly, the flexibility and diverse tasks created enjoyment, reduced stress,
and fostered individualized education.

Fourth, microlearning and educational technology should be integral components


of modern curricula and syllabi due to their transformative impact on learning
outcomes (Dang et al., 2022; Hanafiah et al., 2022). Microlearning enhances
student engagement and knowledge retention (Hamad et al., 2019), and its
adaptability allows for personalized, on-demand learning, catering to diverse
learning styles (Hanafiah et al., 2022). Moreover, educational technology,
encompassing tools and platforms, facilitates interactive and dynamic learning
experiences (Nur Aziz & Sabella, 2021). Integrating technology into the
curriculum prepares students for the digital era, which automatically fosters
crucial skills such as digital literacy and collaboration (Hanafiah et al., 2022).
Virtual resources also increase access to educational content, breaking down
geographical barriers (Dang et al., 2022). The marriage of microlearning and
educational technology not only aligns with contemporary learning preferences
but also equips students with the skills needed for success in an increasingly

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interconnected digital era, ensuring that the curriculum remains relevant and
impactful.

In summary, the integration of microlearning and educational technology offers


a promising pathway to enhance ELT, fostering engagement, motivation, and
proficiency, while preparing students for the demands of the digital age.

5. Conclusion
The reviewed studies have provided compelling evidence for the effectiveness of
innovative approaches in enhancing speaking skills in EFL education. The
synthesis of these studies underscores the dynamic landscape of innovative
approaches to enhance speaking skills among EFL students. The findings suggest
that a diversified, technology-integrated approach holds promise for language
instructors seeking to enrich their pedagogical practices. Video-based tasks,
microlearning, social media platforms, and mobile applications offer promising
avenues for language instructors to enrich teaching methodologies and enhance
students’ speaking proficiency in many aspects. More importantly, the positive
outcomes observed across these studies not only contribute to the ongoing
discourse on effective language instruction. They also emphasize the need for
continuous exploration and adaptation to meet EFL students’ evolving needs in
the digital age.

In summary, the reviewed studies highlight that microlearning underscores the


significant benefits of using microlearning for English language teaching and
learning, laying the foundation for advancing the understanding of innovative
approaches to enhance speaking skills in EFL education. Nevertheless, it should
be noted that the use of microlearning approaches does come with limitations. By
addressing the outlined suggestions for future research, scholars and educators
may continue to refine and adapt pedagogical practices, ensuring the continued
evolution of effective language instruction in the dynamic landscape of language
education.

5.1 Limitations
It should be noted that the microlearning method is not without limitations. It is
essential to acknowledge these limitations found in existing research. Three
obvious limitations of previous studies are the limited capacity of microlearning,
the small sample sizes, and the preferred traditional approach of English language
teachers and learners.

The first limitation is that microlearning has a limited capacity and is more
appropriate for less complex materials (Fitria, 2022). In this regard, EFL teachers
must deliberately provide suitable approaches and tools for specific groups of
students. Next, regarding small sample size (Hanafiah et al., 2022; Karpovich
et al., 2021; Qisthi & Arifani, 2018), although experimental and control groups
have been studied in prior research, the number of participants is limited with
respect to the large number of EFL students across all regions. Furthermore, some
learners have not yet been willing to use technology and microlearning as an
alternative approach to English language learning (Nur Aziz & Sabella, 2021;

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Opas, 2023). Some learners and educators prefer established teaching


methodologies and the practices of a traditional teaching method to ensure
predictable outcomes.

However, despite these constraints, the consistent positive trends observed in the
improvement of speaking skills across different methodologies underscore the
potential of these innovative approaches in EFL education. It is therefore perhaps
sufficient for future research to take these challenges into consideration before
choosing the most suitable teaching method that meets students’ needs and
preferences.

5.2 Recommendations for Further Studies


Due to the significant findings and constraints of the use of the microlearning
approach for ELT in the chosen studies, the current report recommends future
research take the following four points into consideration.

First, we suggest that future research take advantage of the strengths of


microlearning. Previous studies have expressed concerns over the limited
capability of microlearning. Fitria (2022) emphasized that microlearning is
suitable for less complex contents and materials. Based on this assertion, it
appears that if only microlearning is used with appropriate contents and
materials, the effectiveness of microlearning is sufficient as an alternative
approach for ELT. We thus recommend that future studies conduct a
microlearning approach for short, clear, and concise English-speaking
competency contents.

Second, we suggest that future research take the aspect “know your students” into
consideration. The data analysis of the selected studies has found that some EFL
learners and teachers were not pleased with the use or effectiveness of
microlearning due to its innovative approach (Menggo et al., 2022). Some findings
have revealed that learning new information in small chunks at a time through
digital devices and social media platforms, such as mobile phones and TikTok, is
not a suitable approach for ELT. This paper, on the contrary, asserts that it is
perhaps most important to understand the students’ needs and interests. The
positive outcomes from these studies suggest that a diversified instructional
strategy can cater to a broader range of learner preferences and styles (Nur Aziz
& Sabella, 2021). Accordingly, this paper assists teachers who are encouraged to
conduct student needs analysis and explore a blended approach, combining
traditional teaching methods with innovative approaches appropriate for specific
groups of learners.

Third, we suggest that future studies conduct research with the careful use of
technology. Previous studies have suggested incorporating videos, social media,
and technology into ELT to improve English-speaking skills, together with
English for specific purposes (ESP). Building on Dang et al.’s (2022)
recommendations, future research could explore the integration of microlearning
through alternative tools. Investigating different platforms and their impacts on
speaking skills may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the

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potential of microlearning in EFL education. This paper argues that this approach
may enhance learning motivation and oral proficiency among EFL learners.

Finally, we suggest that future research consider raising awareness of self-


development. Some of the reviewed studies have highlighted that students’
perceptions and confidence toward their English-speaking skills, as well as
listening skills for some, increase significantly following a microlearning
intervention (Dang et al., 2022; Gao et al., 2023; Menggo et al., 2022). Based on this
assertion, perhaps by enhancing their self-esteem, self-confidence, and
perceptions toward their own English language skills, it is likely that learners
might be more willing to learn and improve their English speaking and build a
solid foundation for a growth mindset. Considering the positive outcomes
observed in individual studies, future research could explore the potential
synergies of combining multiple innovative approaches.

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