Vol 23 No 4 April 2024
Vol 23 No 4 April 2024
Vol 23 No 4 April 2024
ORG
International Journal
of
Learning, Teaching
And
Educational Research
p-ISSN: 1694-2493
e-ISSN: 1694-2116
Vol.23 No.4
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 23, No. 4 (April 2024)
Print version: 1694-2493
Online version: 1694-2116
IJLTER
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research (IJLTER)
Vol. 23, No. 4
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Table of Contents
Educational Innovation: Teacher- and Student-Made Videos to Enhance English Proficiency at University Level . 1
Juanita Argudo-Serrano, María Lorena Albán-Neira, Antonio Lenin Argudo Garzon, Javier Andrés Sánchez Rodríguez,
Nancy Paola Orellana Parra
The Efficacy of a Programme Utilizing Digital Learning Technology in Fostering the Life Skills of Students with
Learning Disabilities ............................................................................................................................................................. 18
Mohamad Ahmad Saleem Khasawneh
Teachers to Learners: Portfolio, please! New Techniques of Portfolio Assessment in ESL Classrooms ................... 34
Samah Abdulhadi Abduljawad
A Modified 5-SPICE Framework Review on English Language Teachers' and Learners' Perceptions of an
Educational Emergency ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
Md. Ziaul Karim, Laxman Gnawali, Md. Kamrul Hasan
Analysis of Innovative and Adaptive Higher Education Curriculum Development to Education 5.0 Based
Challenges in Indonesia ....................................................................................................................................................... 76
Berman Hutahaean, Sadieli Telaumbanua, Losten Tamba, Renato Gema Nugraha Hutabarat, Sumani Sumani
Beyond the Dictionary: Redefining Translation Education with Artificial Intelligence-Assisted App Design and
Training ................................................................................................................................................................................ 118
Ivan Bakhov, Nataliya Bilous, Mykhailo Saiko, Svitlana Isaienko, Svitlana Hurinchuk, Oleh Mykolaiovych Nozhovnik
Impact of Islamic-Based Services Provided by Lecturers and Staff on Students' Perceptions of Religiosity ......... 141
Mardiah Astuti, Fajri Ismail, Yunika Triana, Andi Arif Rifai
Education for Sustainable Development: Mapping Socio-legal and Eco-cultural Sustainability Topics in English
Learning ............................................................................................................................................................................... 161
I Gusti Agung Sri Rwa Jayantini, Putu Desi Anggerina Hikmaharyanti, I Gst Pt Bagus Suka Arjawa, I Gusti Agung Mas
Jayantiari
Using Digital Technologies in Teaching and Learning of Literature in ESL Classrooms: A Systematic Literature
Review .................................................................................................................................................................................. 180
Irdina Shamimi Binti Mohamad Shamshul, Hanita Hanim Binti Ismail, Norazah Binti Mohd Nordin
An Investigation into whether Applying Augmented Reality (AR) in Teaching Chemistry Enhances Chemical
Cognitive Ability................................................................................................................................................................. 195
Vu Thi Thu Hoai, Pham Ngoc Son, Dang Thi Thuan An, Nguyen Viet Anh
Mathematical Proficiency, Scientific Reasoning, Metacognitive Skills, and Performance of Learners in Physics: A
Mathematical Model ........................................................................................................................................................... 252
Christzon Pagdawan Pasigon
Microlearning and Nanolearning in Higher Education: A Bibliometric Review to Identify Thematic Prevalence in
the COVID-19 Pandemic and Post-Pandemic Context .................................................................................................. 279
Omar Chamorro-Atalaya, Carlos Hernán Flores-Velásquez, Soledad Olivares-Zegarra, Carlos Dávila-Ignacio, Richard
Flores-Cáceres, José Antonio Arévalo-Tuesta, Yreneo Cruz-Telada, Raul Suarez-Bazalar
Perspectives of Peers as a Microsystem for Supporting Deaf Students in Inclusive Elementary Schools .............. 298
Betya Sahara, Mumpuniarti Mumpuniarti, Suwarjo Suwarjo, Muhammad Syamsuri
Enhancing Educational Practices during a Pandemic: Examining Teachers' Journey with Blended Learning in
Rural High Schools ............................................................................................................................................................. 320
Sakyiwaa Boateng, Siziwe Marwanqana
Development of Early Childhood Education Teachers in Information and Communication Technologies for
Literacy or Pedagogy.......................................................................................................................................................... 341
Lydia Mavuru, Alice Kuyayama, Joe Phaeton Mukaro
Effects of Facilitating Condition, Social Influence and Self-Efficacy on Science Teachers’ Integration of Digital
Technology in South Africa: A Regression-Based Approach ........................................................................................ 354
Samuel Jere, Mamotena Mpeta
Enhancing Elementary Students’ Oral Reading Fluency Through Repeated Reading and Big Books ................... 376
Peter Paul Canuto, Yuvimin Lumidao, Alize Ballagan, Peter Jr. Calya-en, Richelle Kathe Laoyan, Arnold Oplas
Islamic Teachers’ Implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in Senior High Schools: A Systematic Review ... 394
Jasiah Jasiah, Mazrur Mazrur, Zainap Hartati, Abd. Rahman, Mariah Kibtiyah, Fimeir Liadi, Fahmi Fahmi
Developing professional development for vocational teachers based on the OBE framework and its effect on
trainees’ learning motivation and training satisfaction ................................................................................................. 409
Fan Wang, Chowwalit Chookhampaeng, Jiraporn Chano
Exploring Homeschooling: In-depth Meta-Analysis of Its Impact on Learning Motivation and Factors Influencing
Family Choices .................................................................................................................................................................... 432
Mena Khairy Eldeeb, Tasneem Diab, Yusr Alkubish, Saba Mansoor Qadhi
Measuring the Impact of Islamic Values-Based Scientific Literacy on Scientific Competency of Madrasah Teachers
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 476
Asiyah Asiyah, Deni Febrini, Adrian Topano, Abdul Aziz Mustamin, M. Arif Rahman Hakim
Re-engineering the Pedagogical Design of Virtual Classrooms in Higher Education using the Community of
Inquiry Framework: Benefits, Challenges, and Lessons Learned................................................................................. 497
Abdurrahman Ghaleb Almekhlafi, Hamdy Ahmed Abdelaziz, Mohamed Sadeg Shabaan
The Effects of Microlearning on EFL Students’ English Speaking: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis ...... 525
Pitchada Prasittichok, Phohnthip Naoise Smithsarakarn
1
Juanita Argudo-Serrano*
Universidad de Cuenca
Cuenca, Ecuador
*
Corresponding author: Juanita Argudo-Serrano, [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
2
1. Introduction
In recent years, the integration of multimedia resources in English as a foreign
language (EFL) instruction has gained significant attention, reflecting the
evolving landscape of language learning methodologies (Dhivya et al., 2023). As
technology continues to reshape educational paradigms, the exploration of
innovative tools, such as student- and teacher-made videos, has become
imperative for enhancing the language acquisition process (Baker-Doyle, 2021).
These kinds of material (videos) also allow students to hear native speakers
interacting in their everyday, authentic vernacular and they are good sources of
real linguistic systems (Dhivya et al., 2023).
This research aims to address this gap by conducting a detailed study that
investigates the nuanced dynamics of producing and implementing multimedia
videos versus traditional teacher-led methods on EFL class outcomes among EFL
students. The study delves into the effects of these multimedia resources on EFL
learning, focusing on a specific context — the tertiary level. It also seeks to address
this gap by not only elucidating the potential advantages or challenges associated
with multimedia integration but also by offering practical implications for
educators, curriculum designers, and policymakers seeking to optimize language
instruction in tertiary environments.
Central to this inquiry is the overarching question: How do the production and
implementation of multimedia videos affect EFL classes at the tertiary level?
2. Literature Review
Technology has evolved and profoundly changes how people consume and
produce information (Yeh, 2018), ushering in a new era of knowledge acquisition
and dissemination. From the advent of the printing press, to the rise of the
internet, technological advancements have revolutionized the way we access,
process, and share information. This transformative shift has extended its reach
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to higher education (Altbach et al., 2019), sparking a fervent debate regarding the
use of new information technology in the education system (Pelletier et al., 2021).
Higher education should use information technology that facilitates the
comprehensive dissemination of interactive and electronic learning, benefiting
learners by broadening access to digital and intellectual resources for the future
(Biletska et al., 2021). This transformation calls for a comprehensive approach that
embraces interactive and electronic learning, coupled with continuous access to
digital and intellectual resources (Khalid et al., 2018; Mohamed et al., 2021).
Considering this, Shadiev et al. (2021) stated that videos can bring some benefits
to the EFL classrooms. These benefits may be found in improving students’
listening comprehension as they become familiar with authentic language use,
different pronunciations, accents, and intonations. In addition, this exposure
enhances their ability to contextualize the target language and develop fluency in
everyday situations. Another benefit mentioned by Shadiev et al. (2021) is
motivation; the audiovisual medium can increase students’ engagement and
attentiveness during class activities, fostering a more enjoyable and stimulating
language learning experience, thereby minimizing boredom and apathy. The last
benefit mentioned was retention, since combining auditory and visual channels
helps students retain information better. The combination of auditory and visual
stimuli provided by videos creates a more immersive and engaging learning
experience, fostering stronger neural connections and promoting better memory
retention.
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specific learning objectives, cater to diverse learning styles, and effectively engage
students in the activities. Additionally, the lack of technological devices and stable
internet access can hinder the effective use of videos in class, particularly in
resource-constrained environments. Finally, assessing not only students’
improvement but also the effects these videos have on their learning can be a
complex task (Ali & Baig, 2022). Traditional assessment methods may not
adequately capture the nuances of video-based learning, and teachers may need
to develop innovative assessment strategies to measure student progress and the
overall effectiveness of video integration.
Nevertheless, there is evidence that videos made by EFL teachers have an effective
influence on students’ academic performance and motivation (Priyo Atmojo,
2022). However, making videos is a time-consuming endeavor for EFL teachers as
it requires meticulous planning of content, careful selection of materials, skillful
editing to ensure the video’s effectiveness as a teaching tool, and consideration of
students’ interests and needs. This personalized approach can foster deeper
engagement, promote understanding, and boost motivation among learners.
In the same manner, student-made videos are a very effective way to promote
active learning, creativity, oral skills, vocabulary building, and even collaborative
learning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills (Anas, 2021). Even though
the students who participated in this research were all digital natives, they faced
some issues while editing the videos and using some specific applications. In
order to have better results, Anas (2021) suggested that it would be necessary to
prepare students to use technology to work on specific assignments that involve
it and, in this way, they may better understand the procedures of doing the task.
Furthermore, when teachers and students work collaboratively to make videos
for their EFL class, this practice not only enhances the didactic content but also
promotes active participation and the development of different skills.
Gallo-Crail and Zerwekh (2002) stated that these kinds of activities help students
remember a great deal of new vocabulary, reading, and oral skills, interaction,
and discussion and, of course, develop new technological abilities while learning
the target language. This active collaborative participation, of both teachers and
students, boosts and engages them as co-creators of educational content.
Moreover, communication and presentation skills can also be fostered. These
important abilities need to be developed, not only when learning English, but also
for professional and personal development (Gallo-Crail & Zerwekh, 2002).
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only is it about new technical means but also about new ways and methods of
teaching and the learning process.
A screen recording has also emerged as an essential tool for students, particularly
in the context of multimedia projects (Hafner et al., 2015). For instance, they can
effectively document their work and share processes, experiments, or research
data with their teacher and classmates (Cowie & Sakui, 2021). This approach to
project development not only enhances student engagement but also promotes
higher-order thinking skills as students must organize their thoughts, articulate
their understanding, and present their work in a clear and concise manner.
Additionally, it is important to state that creating an instructional video requires
students to use a range of semiotic resources and orchestrate them to make videos
that are creative, entertaining, and, above all, comprehensive demonstrations of
their theoretical and practical knowledge. Thus, these learners fully convey their
ability to communicate effectively (Ho, 2022).
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participants expressed a strong preference for concise videos of less than six
minutes in length, that featured clear audio quality and relevant examples, while
also providing additional resources for further review. Alternatively, research by
Cowie and Sakui (2019) identified certain characteristics of multimedia videos
that were perceived as less appealing to learners. These included videos with
exaggerated text, excessively informal or first-person speech, as well an excess of
distracting images.
These findings align with those of Biletska et al. (2021), who investigated EFL
student teachers’ perceptions of multimodal video creation. Their study similarly
concluded that incorporating multimodal video creation into language
instruction can foster the development of multiliteracies, enhance critical thinking
skills, and promote creativity among learners. The combined findings of these
studies underscore the potential of multimodal video creation as a transformative
tool in language education. By engaging with different modes of communication,
learners can develop a more nuanced understanding of how language interacts
with other semiotic systems, such as images, sound, and movement. This
enhanced understanding can improve communication skills, increase critical
thinking abilities, and heighten appreciation for the multifaceted nature of
meaning construction.
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others. This self-awareness can serve as a foundation for more mindful and
empathetic digital engagement.
Despite these positive consequences, very little research has studied video
production by students and teachers and its impact on motivation and language
performance in EFL instruction at a tertiary level (Noetel et al., 2020). This study
aims to address this gap by investigating the effectiveness of multimedia video
production in enhancing student motivation, language proficiency, and overall
learning outcomes. The present research aligns with constructivist theory, which
promotes active engagement and meaningful knowledge construction. Joint,
meaningful engagement in knowledge construction is at the center of video
creation in classrooms (Jaleel & Verghis, 2015).
3. Method
A quantitative methodology with a quasi-experimental type and a Solomon four-
group design (Cabrera-Tenecela, 2023; Campbell & Stanley, 2015) was used for
this study. This type of research design combines a pre-test/post-test control
group design and a post-test design (Wilson Mcgahee & Tingen, 2009). According
to these authors, through this design, it is also possible to evaluate and control the
instrument. This design was chosen as it is one of the most rigorous and confident
“since it guards against both threats to internal and external validity” (Wilson
Mcgahee & Tingen, 2009, p. 6). In this sense, the different arrangements of groups,
involving both those who were evaluated with the pre-test and those who were
not, along with treatment and control groups, helped the researcher to verify that
external factors and potential issues have not impacted the outcomes (Cabrera-
Tenecela, 2023).
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According to Mertens (2015), the use of pre-tests can help teachers get information
about students’ needs and knowledge, which may help teachers decide about
content and material, pacing, and class organization. The author also mentioned
that a pre-test/post-test design can give the researcher information about the
effectiveness of the intervention process. This kind of design can also provide the
researcher with data about different factors that may interact during the
intervention. Furthermore, through the pre-test/post-test design, the starting
point is measured before the intervention and then the changes after it are
evaluated (Mertens, 2015).
Participants
A group of 214 students enrolled in EFL courses at a university language institute
participated in the study. The university language institute randomly organized
these students into four different groups. At the beginning of the investigation, a
group of 47 students were assessed on their language proficiency with a pre-test.
This group received the treatment and was re-evaluated with a post-test (PTP). A
second group of 44 students did not take the pre-test but they received the
treatment and were evaluated with the post-test (NPTP). A third group of 63
students took the pre-test, received the treatment, and took the post-test (PNTP).
Finally, the last group of 60 students neither took the pre-test nor received the
treatment but they were evaluated with the post-test (NPNTP).
Within these Solomon four-groups, the students were organized into three
comparison subgroups:
• S) those who received the treatment by creating videos (14+14) or those
who did not receive such treatment (21+17).
• T) those who received the treatment with videos created by their teachers
(14+14) or those who did not receive such treatment (27+17).
• ST) those who received the treatment by creating videos and received
classes with videos created by their teachers (19+16) and those who did
not receive such treatment (15+26).
Table 1 displays the structure of the studied groups.
PTP 14 14 19 47
NPTP 14 14 16 44
PNTP 21 27 15 63
NPNTP 17 17 26 60
Total 66 72 76 214
Note: In the context provided, “S” refers to students who created the videos, “T” represents
teachers who created the videos, and “ST” denotes a collaboration between students and
teachers in video creation. Additionally, the following abbreviations are used: “PTP” for pre-
test-treatment-post-test, “NPTP” for no pre-test-treatment-post-test, “PNTP” for pre-test-no
treatment-post-test, and "NPNTP" for no pre-test-no treatment-post-test.
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Statistical analysis was conducted using the JAMOVI software program (The
Jamovi Project, 2021). JAMOVI, a user-friendly and open-source statistical
package, was employed to examine the data comprehensively. The procedures
applied encompassed a range of statistical tests, including ANOVA (analysis of
variance) to assess group differences, post hoc tests to identify specific group
variations, and effect size calculations to quantify the magnitude of observed
effects. The post hoc test was done in order to identify the exact groups that
differed from each other. Additionally, the program facilitated the visualization
of results through graphical representations, enhancing the clarity and
interpretability of the statistical findings.
Instrument
The investigation was carried out during regular classes; the participants were
asked to collaborate in this research and the data collection process took place
with their consent. The Preliminary English Test by Cambridge English for
speakers of other languages was administrated to the Solomon four-groups that
required the post-test and/or the pre-test to assess the students’ English
proficiency before and after the intervention. The evaluation instrument contains
three main components: (1) reading and writing (2) listening comprehension, and
(3) oral communication. This test assesses the students’ language proficiency at an
intermediate level (B1) according to the Common European Framework of
References for Languages. For the purpose of this study, the grades of these three
components were not considered individually, but the total exam grade was taken
into account.
Procedures
A total of seven steps were contemplated in the procedure. The first consisted of
forming the Solomon groups for the quasi-experiment. The second dealt with the
diagnostic evaluation of the students’ English level. This process was followed by
the pre-production of the multimedia videos regarding the creation of the scripts
and the recording space, considering the recommendations of Cowie and Sakui
(2019). Next, the production of multimedia videos, including recording and
editing those videos, took place. Then, these multimedia videos were
implemented in class, as well as the specific evaluation of those videos with the
purpose of improving students’ language proficiency level. After that, the
students’ English-level evaluation was done using a post-test. To conclude, the
comparison of the groups was conducted.
4. Results
The results are organized into two sections, one that compares post-test data and
another that focuses on mean differences among those groups that underwent
both pre-test and post-test assessments.
Post-test
The post-test results were compared with a two-factor ANOVA analysis. It was
possible to demonstrate statistically significant differences among the video
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creation groups and the Solomon groups. However, no significant interaction was
found between these two groups.
Table 2 displays the statistical significance (p) and their respective effect sizes
(η²) for both independent groups.
Figures 1 and 2 show the outcomes obtained in each scenario. For instance, in the
video groups, there is an observable advantage for the group that received classes
with the teacher’s videos (T), scoring an average of 17.26 (SD 4.07), while those
using student-made videos scored 15.33 (SD 4.68). The students and teachers (ST)
group obtained 15.11 (SD 4.45). The Tukey post hoc test reveals significant
differences between S and ST compared to T, as illustrated in Figure 1.
Upon analyzing the Solomon groups, the hypothesis is partially confirmed. The
group assessed both before and after the intervention achieved a mean score of
18.1 (SD 3.46). However, the group that did not take the pre-test but received the
intervention showed considerable variability compared to the other groups,
despite having an average score of 16.6 (SD 5.85). Alternatively, those who took
the pre-and post-tests attained an average score of 15.3 (SD 4.13), while those who
did not receive the treatment but only took the post-test scored 3.29 (SD 3.29).
Notably, the pre-test appears to influence the outcomes in both the treatment and
non-treatment groups, as evidenced by the Tukey post hoc test.
This situation implies that NPTP has a similar average to PNTP, as seen in Figure
2, which aligns with the observed results.
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Figure 1: Error bars of the video creation Figure 2: Error bars of the Solomon
groups at 95% confidence groups at 95% confidence
Figure 3 shows a summary that combines the previous findings and shows that
the teacher’s role is the one that stands out the most in the scores obtained by the
students. However, it can also be seen that the groups that have been intervened
have a much higher level than those that have not been intervened.
Figure 3: Error bars of the Solomon and video groups at 95% confidence
Mean differences
When analyzing the differences between the post-test and pre-test (post-test /pre-
test = differences), it is observed that only the two Solomon groups exhibit
differences in the averages. Thus, it can be concluded that the two fully
comparable groups, PTP and PNTP, achieved significant differences, albeit with
a small effect size.
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Table 3 presents the results of the two-factor ANOVA, where the p-value is
significant only for the two mentioned groups.
According to post hoc comparisons, the video creation groups do not exhibit
statistically significant differences. Nevertheless, there is a notable trend towards
a decrease, rather than an increase, in the teacher group, with an average of -1.27
(SD 5.0). In contrast, the S and ST groups increased, with averages of 1.05 (SD 3.63)
and 0.84 (SD 4.12), respectively. These results are visually represented in the bar
chart in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Error bars of the video creation Figure 5: Error bars of the Solomon
groups at 95% confidence groups at 95% confidence
Figure 6 shows that the group that has been intervened has a higher level than the
non-intervened group, particularly with respect to the role of the teacher creating
videos. The contrast is similar with respect to the groups in which only students
or students and teachers created. This improvement in the students’ English level
can be explained by the fact that students and peers, students and teachers
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Figure 6: Error bars of the Solomon and video groups at 95% confidence
5. Discussion
The results presented in this study indicate that interaction and teachers’ and
students’ collaborative work could yield better results in EFL learning, especially
when implementing technological resources. These results might be compared to
the suggestions made by Anas (2021), Biletska et al. (2021), and Yu (2020), that
implementing information technology in higher education should be in close
association with interactive and electronic learning, as long as all participants
receive the necessary preparation for effectively completing the task.
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Teachers’ and students’ videos become an unflinching mirror for those involved.
Not only might the videos help participants to evaluate themselves and improve
their language skills, but the process also can enhance their technological skills,
making them more active teachers and learners.
6. Conclusion
The results of this study, subjected to rigorous statistical analysis, have provided
a comprehensive insight into the differences and trends observed among groups
of EFL students. Comparisons between the video creation and Solomon groups
have yielded significant findings, notably significant differences in post-test
evaluations within the PTP and PNTP groups, supported by modest effect sizes.
Furthermore, a declining trend was observed in the teacher group compared to
the student groups, although statistical significance was not reached.
Some pedagogical implications for the Ecuadorian context could be grasped from
this research. These findings might be considered as a good starting point for
Ecuadorian teachers to plan their classes and incorporate student-generated
content which can promote language proficiency improvement and motivation to
learn.
These findings provide a solid foundation for future research in English language
pedagogy. The findings highlight the importance of considering factors such as
pre-tests when designing effective instructional strategies. Ultimately, this
research advances knowledge in language education and offers insights that can
be valuable for educators and policymakers.
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Research in this field could elucidate best practices and innovative approaches to
improve the effectiveness of video-based instruction in English language learning.
Furthermore, research into using such videos for online teaching, personalizing
the content to be taught, and effective video-based learning assessment is
suggested. It would also be imperative to study teachers’ and students’
perceptions and how they use teacher-made, student-made, and student-teacher
video collaborations to take advantage of them while teaching and learning the
target language.
8. Acknowledgment
This paper resulted from a research project entitled Efecto de la Implementación de
la Producción de Videos Multimedia de Micro-Aprendizaje del Inglés como Lengua
Extranjera en las clases del Centro de Idiomas de la UCACUE of the XII Convocatoria
ODS UCACUE and the certification of the Universidad Católica de Cuenca
Research Headquarters.
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Abstract. The main aim of this research was to determine how the
effectiveness of a programme that uses digital learning technology
enhances the life skills of students who have learning disabilities. The
research was conducted over a period of one month on a group of 32
students affiliated to educational institutions in the Governorate of Abha,
Saudi Arabia. Sixteen individuals were assigned to each of an the
experimental and a control group. The experimental group outperformed
the control group on post-tests measuring social skills, independence
skills, and emotional skills. There was no statistically significant disparity
observed in the life skills scores between the experimental group and the
control group at either the follow-up evaluation or the immediate post-
intervention phase. The hypothesis posits that students' likelihood of
experiencing sudden or premature departure decreases when they have
the opportunity to practice and enhance their cognitive and practical
abilities across various curriculum-defined situations.
1. Introduction
The twenty-first century witnessed an immense and unparalleled scientific and
cognitive revolution that included diverse domains of human, natural, and
applied sciences. It marked the emergence of novel scientific disciplines that were
previously unknown (Kaltsidou, 2022). Education was not exempt from this
progress; indeed, it was one of the disciplines most impacted and shaped by it,
prompting educators to be highly attentive. Within the realm of learning
disabilities (LD), the incorporation of diverse digital technologies has emerged to
support the educational process (Sailer, et al., 2021), encompassing contemporary
educational technologies that have successfully penetrated students’ education
across different levels and contributed significantly to the advancement of the
*
Corresponding author: Mohamad Ahmad Saleem Khasawneh; [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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training teachers to foster students’ life skills and offering relevant courses to
support this endeavour. The research emphasised the importance of educating the
family about the adverse consequences of inadequate life skills and the need to
connect these abilities to the real-world situations that the student encounters,
both within and outside educational establishments. The research conducted by
Fransson et al. (2019) verifies that the rapid pace of changes has had an impact on
the organisation of knowledge, the social structure, and the education systems.
Consequently, it has become imperative for education to adapt its role to meet the
demands of the digital era. This adaptation is necessary to equip learners with the
essential skills for navigating a new way of life and to address any deficiencies in
their life skills while also fostering their development.
Considering this perspective, the researcher was eager to create a programme that
enhances the life skills of students with learning disabilities. Digital technology
has become indispensable in today’s world. Assistive technology refers to any
object, gadget, or work system that increases or enhances the capacities of
individuals with impairments; it is used in a special education environment.
People with impairments may benefit from more modern technology like
smartphones, and laptops and instructional advice for learning might be
effectively provided by these instruments (Humpl & Andersen, 2022). Everyone
has a responsibility to help students with special needs obtain the education they
need. Interventions including physical exercises, verbal teaching, behavioural
support, and metacognitive skills may be provided to children with LD as a kind
of service. A student with a moderate to severe impairment is only one of many
people who may benefit from assistive technology (Timotheou et al., 2023), and
thanks to technology's conveniences, they have little trouble surviving in social
situations. The use of digital technology might provide interventions that
contribute insight and overcome the obstacles related to them. The goal is to
facilitate the integration of those with learning disabilities by equipping students
with the necessary skills to effectively navigate various life situations, following
contemporary digital learning methods.
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Digital capabilities refer to the skills and talents that enable individuals to function
effectively and thrive in a society that relies heavily on digital technology
(Hussein, 2020). For efficient utilization and development of digital learning
activities, it is imperative to possess proficient digital skills.
Life skills refer to the ability to effectively adjust to diverse individuals and meet
the demands and obstacles of life, which can differ, depending on the surrounding
society and environment (Permana et al., 2021). These skills are commonly seen
as fundamental abilities that individuals should develop and internalize to
enhance their personal growth and well-being, and they are essential tools that
enhance cognitive abilities in personal, professional, and social contexts.
According to Ningsih et al. (2023), life skills refer to the actions that a person does
to effectively manage the challenges of life and acquiring them is crucial for
achieving success (Saad, 2018).
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Life skills are crucial in attaining educational objectives. They embody the
paramount results of human acquisition of knowledge, as they aid the individual
in effectively navigating their existence, attaining personal and societal
equilibrium, and adapting to environmental factors and the demands of life (Jaya
et al., 2018; Saad, 2018). These skills facilitate personal growth and enhance
productivity, resulting in benefits for both individuals and their communities.
Additionally, these skills provide learners with the opportunity to improve their
social and living conditions, particularly in a technologically advanced society
where such skills are increasingly necessary (Permana et al., 2021). The following
are some of the subskills that make up life skills (Backfisch et al., 2021):
− Social skills: the skill of cooperation and participation; the skill of social
etiquette.
− Independence skills: the skill of choosing the appropriate outfit on one’s
own; the skill of eating on one’s own.
− Emotional skills: the skill of expressing emotions (happiness - sadness -
anger - crying).
The fact that educational institutions play a different function now than they did
in the past must be properly acknowledged. Their present function is to prepare
students who are lifelong learners, seeking knowledge, and to prepare them for
changes in their lives, self-realization, and social integration, as well as to develop
the mental skills necessary to solve problems and generate knowledge in an
engaging environment (Ningsih et al., 2023). The programme aims to provide
students with a range of real-world experiences and practical skills. Institutions
focus particularly on education and inculcate a set of refined ideals among
students. The only way to do all of this is to implement contemporary teaching
techniques and activities (Jaya et al., 2018). The only remaining option for this
educational establishment to stay up to date with the times is to use contemporary
tools like computer games, smartphones, the Internet, exercise, and practice while
instructing its students. By utilizing the gadgets they already own, the use of these
technologies guarantees increased student engagement in mobile education.
Accordingly, some regard mobile education as an illustration of life learning,
wherein the student gains valuable experience (Abdel Aziz et al., 2020).
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Several studies have explored this topic. Al-Qahtani (2019) investigated the
cultivation of life skills in kindergarten children residing in the Tabuk region. The
research aimed to identify the specific life skills that should be nurtured at the
kindergarten stage in this particular area. The study included a cohort of 30
children, aged 5-6, who exhibited deficits in certain life skills. The study's most
important finding was that there were statistically significant differences between
the three groups after using both the pictorial achievement test and the
performance note card for life skills. The third experimental group, which
received a mix of digital and interactive stimuli, did better.
Abdel Aziz et al. (2020) studied the impact of using digital storytelling on the
development of life skills in children with mild impairments. Their sample
comprised 30 male and female adolescents who were enrolled in educational
inclusion programmes, with ages ranging from 8 to 10. The instruments of note
cards and a compilation of abilities were utilized. The study used a descriptive-
analytical and quasi-experimental method to collect data on the achievement test
and performance note card for children with mild mental disabilities. One notable
finding was a statistically significant difference between the average scores of the
research group students in the pre-measurement and post-measurement. The
post-measurement showed higher scores on the achievement test and
performance note card.
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that uses digital learning technology to develop the life skills of students with
learning disabilities?
2. Methodology
2.1. Research design
This study employed an experimental design to assess the impact of alterations in
one or more independent variables on a dependent variable. The effects were
assessed and recorded accordingly. In this study, the researcher employed both
traditional methodologies and digital learning technologies to assess the impact
on the participants. The study sample consisted of an experimental group that
enrolled in a digital learning technology programme and a control group that
studied using the conventional method.
2.2. Participants
The study included students with learning disabilities who were enrolled in the
Abha Governorate, Saudi Arabia, before its division into 170 schools. We
employed a stochastic sampling methodology to choose our sample and selected
two classes at random to participate in the study. A total of 32 students were
assigned randomly to one of the two classrooms, while the other classroom was
designated as the control group.
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Table 2 presents the post-test results of the experimental group. The average
scores for life skills, encompassing social skills, independence skills, and
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The table also presents the results related to the questions of the study, showing
the mean scores and standard deviations of the students in the post-testing after
implementing the instructional programme.
Table 2: Post-test
Dimensions Group N Mean Standard U Z P
score deviation
Social skills Experimental 16 20.20 323.20 260.00 0.600 0.000
Control 16 15.30 244.80
Independence skills Experimental 16 20.00 320.00 250.00 0.660 0.000
Control 16 16.20 259.20
Emotional skills Experimental 16 20.50 328.00 270.00 0.650 0.000
Control 16 15.30 244.80
Total Experimental 16 20.20 323.20 260.00 0.600 0.000
Control 16 15.60 249.60
The researcher ascribes the outcome in Table 2 to how these technologies were
introduced, exemplified by multimedia, iPads, projectors, interactive educational
games, and activities that engage all of the students' senses. These methods
effectively facilitated the students' independent acquisition of skills by exposing
them to various scenarios that they experienced through the techniques provided.
Consequently, the students learned about the skills in numerous stimulating
ways, enabling them to learn comfortably, freely, and flexibly. The student bears
the responsibility for how the activity is carried out, which has a direct impact on
the student's level of engagement in the learning process. This assertion is
supported by the research of Alshammari and Ahmed (2022), which highlights
the efficacy of utilizing electronic technology in this regard. It offers students a
more adaptable environment, allowing them to choose the time and location of
learning, as well as study at their own pace and have control over the presentation
rate, sequence, and progression. The researcher also credits this phenomenon to
the inclusion of interactive elements in educational activities and games. These
elements have heightened children's enthusiasm and motivation to learn, develop
skills, and engage with their peers, which has fostered a lively, friendly, and
collaborative atmosphere among the children.
The researcher also credits the effectiveness of the techniques used in the
educational content for igniting students' motivation to learn. These techniques
offer activities that are appropriate for students, moving away from mere
narration and indoctrination. They also help overcome obstacles in the
educational process by incorporating audio-visual stimuli that are rich in colours,
sounds, and movement, and by reinforcing correct answers. This approach
provides the learner with ample opportunities to repeat the activity, identify
errors and rectify them, thereby enhancing their educational attainment. The
method also aligns with the demands of the digital era and fulfils the current
generation's inclination towards constant engagement with electronic devices,
thereby infusing enthusiasm and enjoyment into the educational experience.
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The outcome is also attributed to the congruence between the content of life skills,
encompassing social skills, independence skills, emotional skills, and digital
technologies. This congruence arises from the fact that these skills are suitable for
students owing to their familiarity with the underlying concepts, alignment with
their capabilities, and relevance to their environment. Moreover, the skills are
delivered to students in discrete, interconnected segments that encompass a
multitude of components. Engaging in diverse and stimulating activities that offer
ongoing feedback enhances the retention of knowledge in students' minds, and
motivates them to persist in their learning and attain active involvement. This
result is in line with earlier studies by Al-Qahtani (2019), Hussein (2020),
Alshammari and Ahmed (2022), and Abdel Aziz et al. (2020) .
The mean scores of the experimental groups in several life skills, such as social,
independent, and emotional skills, exhibited substantial variation. Table 3 reveals
significant variability in the final examination score. The results of evaluation
indicate that pupils in the experimental group had a greater proficiency in life
skills.
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The last question was framed to assess whether there was a statistically significant
difference between the scores on the post-test and the follow-up tests when
looking at how well a programme uses digital learning technology to improve the
life skills of students with learning disabilities. Providing a prompt response to
the current inquiry is crucial to deliver a significant answer. Table 4 indicates that
there are no statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the
experimental group between the post-test and follow-up assessments. The study's
findings indicate that the programme's efficacy remained consistent over the post-
intervention phase, rather than showing a decrease after it was discontinued.
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Positive 16
Rank
Ties
Total
Emotional skills Negative 14 6.20 86.80 10.10 0.120
Rank 0 0.00 0.00
Positive 2
Rank 16
Ties
Total
Total Negative 14 6.20 86.80 10.00 0.110
Rank 0 0.00 0.00
Positive 2
Rank 16
Ties
Total
The results align with the notion that digital learning technology has the potential
to enhance the adaptive capacities of students with learning disabilities, fostering
their social, self-reliant, and emotional competencies. There was no noticeable
decrease in the previously published outcomes for the people at issue.
Programmes that employ digital learning technologies also enable lifelong
learning by enhancing the linkage between freshly taught ideas and previously
comprehended ones. The hypothesis posits that students' likelihood of
experiencing sudden or premature departure decreases when they have the
opportunity to practise and enhance their cognitive and practical abilities across
various curriculum-defined situations.
4. Conclusion
The results of this study corroborate the idea that utilizing digital learning
technology can enhance the life skills of students with learning disabilities. Hence,
a key factor lies in the extent to which digital learning technology has successfully
advanced and improved students' ability to develop life skills and generate
abstract mental representations using various methods, resulting in exceptional
performance on assessments that assess all aspects of practical abilities. The
experimental group exhibited superior performance compared to their peers in
the control group, who received only auditory signals.
Acknowledgments
The author extends their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at
King Khalid University for funding this work through Large Research Groups
under grant number (RGP.2 / 465 /44).
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1. Introduction
Understanding the different kinds of language is one of the complicated processes
in the study of the language. A portfolio evaluation that includes different kinds
©Authors
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International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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also explores the barriers Saudi ESL teachers and students face in using the
writing portfolio, which may prevent the students from achieving a high level in
writing tests. Current research on ESL barely examines the challenges associated
with writing portfolios to establish an optimal learning environment for both
teachers and students. Furthermore, this research may enlighten ESL teachers
regarding the most effective pedagogical approaches for assessing the writing
portfolio and offer suggestions for assisting students in improving their writing
abilities. Hence, the following research questions are formulated:
2. What challenges do Saudi students face in using the writing portfolio that
would deter them from scoring high marks in written examinations? What
pedagogical techniques could ESL teachers use to help students overcome these
challenges?
2. Literature Review
Writing a portfolio is one the most effective, beneficial, and valid tools for teaching
and evaluation in different settings such as colleges and ESL education. A well-
designed portfolio model can play a vital role in improving students’ critical
thinking in writing through creativity, decision-making, and initiative. The
writing portfolio also provides opportunities for teachers to determine the
students’ writing proficiency, abilities, and efforts. Additionally, it strengthens the
relationship between the learning processes and the writing assessment, both of
which have a vital significance (Do, 2023).
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The implementation of the EP follows the same pattern as utilized in PP. In this
research, PP refers to a collection of students’ writing assignments in ESL
classrooms that are collated, formulated, and reflected upon by ESL students. EP,
on the other hand, refers to a collection of students’ writing assignments in a
digital layout that is collected, formulated, and reflected upon by ESL students
(Möller et al., 2021). Nevertheless, portfolio assessments do not always yield
positive findings. For instance, Domene-Martos et al. (2021) have found in their
research that although the writing portfolio enhances the learning outcomes and
the evaluation processes, it sometimes shows that it is a time-consuming process
and sometimes causes anxiety in students due to stressful tasks. Therefore, more
studies are required to address these challenges and ensure the successful
implementation of PA for ESL.
In the literature on teaching and learning ESL writing skills, some research studies
have investigated the development of PA and the challenges of using it in an ESL
environment. However, it has yet to be extended by qualitative and quantitative
studies to examine the factors that generate these problems and how ESL teachers
evaluate PA effectively (Torabi & Safdari, 2020).
In many studies, EP has been compared with PP. Likewise, Hasnah (2022)
conducted research to compare the writing abilities of ESL students using the
online portfolio and the paper-based portfolio. The research was carried out on 23
first-grade students of SMA Muhammadiyah 1 Natar. There were two groups in
the research: one was an experimental group (online portfolio), and another one
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was a control group (paper-based portfolio). The research results have shown
that, as compared to PP, EP has significantly improved ESL writing skills.
This research also employed freewriting practices, providing practice tests, asking
students to reflect on their writings, and giving further corrective feedback
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methods (which is also called the DA as mentioned above) with the avoidance of
excessive corrections using red markers in checking students' portfolios. Previous
research has suggested that using different educational features significantly
improves the students’ second language (Ngui et al., 2019; Nunan & Capobianco,
2019). For instance, Park (2020) conducted research on thirty university students
who were enrolled at the first level of the academic writing class. He used anxiety
surveys, free writing, and students’ reflections as the main methods of collecting
data. His findings demonstrated the benefits of freewriting practices for ESL
students’ writing fluency and anxiety. ESL students generally agreed that the
freewriting activity increased the quality of their writing, decreased their fear of
writing tests, and improved their thinking skills. However, they reported some
negative aspects of freewriting activities such as time limits and the absence of
feedback. Analysis of students’ reflections also revealed that their language
accuracy also improved. Hence, their scores on the writing tests gradually
increased as these reflections raised students’ awareness of second language
structures.
Besides using everyday freewriting exercises and providing practice tests in the
portfolio-based instruction, another important part of a successful assessment of
the writing portfolio was avoiding the overuse of red markers in checking
students' writing portfolios. According to Fikrlova et al. (2019), using a red marker
for checking the students' portfolios evokes a correlation with failure and
increases the level of anxiety. The return of papers covered with the inevitable
red marks results in a need for more comprehension and awareness of linguistic
mistakes. ESL students may feel discouraged and disappointed if they see red
markers in their portfolios as they feel their efforts do not have merit. Therefore,
it leads to students’ reluctance to read their teachers’ feedback.
Past studies show the different kinds of strategies such as sharing error sheets,
using color codes to identify errors and having the students correct them as an
appropriate strategy to avoid the usage of red markers (Azeez, 2021; De Oliveira
et al., 2021; Núñez-Peña & Bono, 2022). Furthermore, Diab (2022) recommended
the use of a peer corrective feedback approach to improve ESL students' writing
and language skills instead of the instructor's direct feedback with red markers.
In this research, the researcher used both PP and EP, provided many different
writing topics and practice tests, assessed the writing portfolio by means of DA,
and avoided excessive corrections with red markers to check students’ writing
portfolios.
3. Methodology
3.1 Participants in the research
The research participants in this research were ESL teachers from various
universities in Saudi Arabia and their ages ranged between 25 to 55 years. In
addition, there were 120 male students from Yanbu Industrial College (YIC) in
Saudi Arabia. These male students were selected from six different ESL classes,
and their ages ranged between 18 and 22 years, with Arabic as their first language.
The six ESL classes were classified into three groups: Group One consisting of two
ESL classes served as the first experimental group which received a paper-based
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performance, both on the contents and the mechanics. Furthermore, the explicit
methods of teaching for the experiment group were utilized, including instructor-
direct feedback and peer collaboration regarding the errors to enhance the ESL
students’ interest.
On the other hand, the control group was only given the traditional writing
instruction. They were asked to submit simple writing drafts to their instructor
with no peer collaboration or self-reflection. Furthermore, in the control group,
the instructor utilized the traditional way of checking, which involved the grading
criteria as per the rubric. These practices, tests, and activities with the control and
experimental groups were conducted during the semester classes. The main aim
of conducting these experiments was to compare the PP and EP portfolio writing
approaches with the traditional writing approach.
After conducting the tests, the data-analysis phase began. The researcher
compared their results on the writing tests using the T-test of Stata17 Software to
explore their performance before and after the experiment. Later, the researcher
analyzed the data from the qualitative materials thematically.
4. Result
For precise analysis, this research focuses on two elements:
● The first element includes English writing exams (EWE), which are
utilized to compare students’ writing competency in English after
implementing various kinds of writing portfolios with advanced
teaching methods; and
The first analysis presents the students’ performance in the three groups:
● Group A (the first experimental group) which received a paper-based
portfolio assessment with advanced pedagogical strategies;
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The results of these three groups in EWE before and after the experiment were
collected and analyzed using a t-test to answer the first research question.
For Group A, the value of t is 41.589825. The value of p is < .00001. The result is
significant at p < .05. These results indicate a statistically apparent change in
scores from the pre-test to the post-test in this group, as seen in Table 1. The t-test
results of Group A show a highly significant change in scores from the pre-test to
the post-test. This suggests that paper-based portfolio assessment with advanced
pedagogical strategies used with Group A has had a substantial impact on the
student’s performance.
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For Group B, the value of t is 46.6017. The value of p is < .00001. The result is
significant at p < .05, as seen in Table 2. Similar to Group A, the t-test results of
Group B indicate a highly significant change in scores from the pre-test to the post-
test. However, there is a slight increase in students’ scores in Group B, who used
e-portfolios (t=46.6), compared with Group A, who used paper-based portfolios
(t=41.5). This suggests that using either paper-based portfolios or e-portfolios with
good teaching techniques helps students perform better in English writing.
For Group C, the control group, the t value is 3.7443. The value of p is .00058. The
result is significant at p < .05, as seen in Table 3. The t-test results of Group C show
a small change in students’ scores from the pre-test to the post-test. This suggests
that the paper-based portfolio and the traditional methods of teaching writing
implemented in Group C have had a minor positive impact on the student's
performance compared to Groups A and B.
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The researchers also asked the teachers about the implementation of portfolio
writing in their colleges. The teachers answered as follows:
“Many ESL teachers mentioned in the interviews that they implement the
writing portfolio in ESL classrooms in Saudi Arabia; however, we do not
use it as it is supposed to be used. Another teacher added that most of the
writing topics were chosen by the University Curriculum Department,
which makes students feel boredom and demotivated to write.”
5. Discussion
The research sets out to investigate any major differences between the e-portfolio
assessment and the paper-based portfolio assessment on improving Saudi ESL
students’ writing performance. Additionally, the research attempts to examine the
challenges that the students face in using the writing portfolio and to explore
efficient pedagogical ways for evaluating the writing portfolios, which in turn
leads to improved student performance in writing successfully.
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For research Q1, the quantitative analysis indicated that using writing portfolios,
both PP and EP, with certain pedagogical methods of assessing these portfolios
enhanced Saudi ESL students’ writing performance. Nevertheless, there was not
any statistically valid difference between the impact of PP assessment and EP
assessment on improving Saudi ESL students’ writing performance. This finding
confirms the results of a study by Torabi and Safdari (2020). They concluded that
paper-based portfolios form the basis for the development of e-portfolios.
Therefore, both can improve students' writing performance once the right criteria
are applied. Likewise, the results of the current research concerning the positive
impact of using writing portfolios and valid pedagogical methods on assessing
the writing performance of Saudi ESL students are in line with Alam and Aktar's
(2019) findings. The results of this research have indicated that the formative
portfolio assessment has improved the language writing and reading skills of
Saudi students by empowering them to control their learning processes (Alam &
Aktar, 2019). The results of this research are also in congruence with Bahrrom et
al.’s (2018) findings (Baharom et al., 2022). This research has shown that
implementing the PA with ESL students has improved their language abilities by
giving them autonomy in various psychological aspects compared to traditional
teaching methods.
The results of these research questions indicated some barriers to using the PA
that ESL students faced before the experiment was applied. For instance, some
students mentioned in the interviews that it is boring and difficult, and others
stated it is complicated and useless as they do not score high in the final
examinations. Moreover, student interviews revealed that most students do not
follow the teachers’ feedback. They use autocorrect sites (such as ChatGPT) before
submitting the final draft. Unfortunately, the researcher found that the teachers
indicated all students' errors in students’ drafts with red markers. Therefore,
students might feel too disappointed to read their instructor's corrections.
Furthermore, the teachers' interviews revealed that owing to the large number of
students in the class, there is no time to check the students’ writing portfolios
twice, and there is no time to meet students and discuss the teacher’s comments
on their writing portfolios, only those who need it. The teachers also argued that
one of the challenges that deter students from scoring high marks in the final
examination is the lack of writing practice during the semester. This finding is
supported by Ankwai (2022), who mentioned that the Saudi curricula do not focus
much on English writing skills. All these weaknesses of portfolio assessment
stated earlier are in line with other studies (Hudori et al., 2020; Kao, 2015). Hence,
the qualitative data analysis offers several suggestions for how ESL teachers can
assess PA successfully to help Saudi students overcome the barriers they face
using the writing portfolio.
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ESL teachers should use pedagogical methods in teaching and assessing the
writing portfolio to improve students’ writing performance. For instance,
implementing students' reflections is important to help students identify their
own mistakes. Park (2020) supports this result, noting that implementing
students' reflections on portfolios encourages students to revise and improve their
work. Students' reflection helps ESL students notice their mistakes, which leads
to stable knowledge development.
The ESL teachers could also help students be aware of their mistakes by using
dynamic assessment, such as enhanced peer collaboration (implicit methods of
teaching) and consulting with teachers after each writing assignment (explicit
methods of teaching) to provide direct feedback on their work. The findings of
this research allude to the positive impact of DA on ESL learners’ writing
performance. Abdullateef and Muhammedzein (2021) concurred with the results
through research at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University. This study shows
that DA significantly enhances ESL learners’ language and promotes social
practices.
Conversely, ESL teachers should change their way of correcting students’ writing
portfolios and avoid excessive corrections using red markers since the qualitative
data of this research showed that many students did not read their teachers’
feedback on their writing portfolios. ESL teachers should adopt a correction
method that highlights only common mistakes and explains these mistakes with
written comments at the end of the content to help students notice their mistakes
and avoid the negative impacts of excessive corrections. Feren et al. (2020) noted
that the detailed feedback at the end of the paper showed a significant
improvement in English students' writing skills.
6. Limitation
One limitation was that only one university in Saudi Arabia was targeted for data
collection. Another limitation of this research is that it only considers male
students as a sample size because male and female students are separated in Saudi
universities.
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7. Future Implications
For future research, researchers should collect data from multiple universities
instead of only one to obtain diverse perspectives. Future researchers should
conduct a comparative analysis between the PP and EP to determine which
system is most relevant to addressing the issue investigated. Furthermore, the
researchers should consider a longitudinal research design to identify the long-
term impact of PA on ESL students.
8. Conclusion
In ESL classes, simply teaching ESL writing using electronic (EP) or paper-based
(PP) writing portfolios without defined assessment criteria is insufficient to make
the students successful writers in the target language. Some advanced
pedagogical methods should also be combined with implementing the writing
portfolio to improve students’ writing performance. We advocate an integrated
teaching approach to heighten ESL students’ awareness across the writing
portfolios through a fruitful integration of collaborative learning, students’ self-
reflections, everyday writing, and practice tests. Also implementing authentic
materials in teaching ESL writing, such as using literature materials that consist
of novels and poetry, enhances students’ writing performance. Finally, following
effective ways of checking ESL students’ writings and avoiding excessive
corrections in their writing portfolios help them notice their mistakes and avoid
charging them with the negative energy resulting from using red markers. The
research has proven that portfolio assessment (PA) and advanced pedagogical
approaches significantly enhance students' writing capabilities. This research has
provided fruitful insight to educationalists regarding the impact of PA.
Educationists can advance the use of PA for their ESL students by using
innovative strategies.
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Appendix A
Interview Questions:
Section 1: General information
1- Could you please tell me some general information about your teaching
experience?
For example, (What level do you teach, and how long have you been in teaching
English?)
Section 2: Questions
1- What pedagogical methods do you use in teaching writing?
2- Do you only follow the course specifications of the writing course? What Kind
of materials do you use in teaching writing?
3- Do you notice differences between paper-based and electronic portfolios in
developing students' writing performance?
4- From your teaching experience, what barriers do your students face in using
the writing portfolio that would deter them from scoring high in the writing
exam?
5- Tell me some procedures that you follow to check the writing portfolio. In
other words, how do you assess their writing portfolios, and what color do you
use to correct their portfolios?
6- Do you have any comments that you would like to add?
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Laxman Gnawali
Department of Language Education
School of Education
Kathmandu University, Nepal
*
Corresponding author: Kamrul Hasan; [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
53
1. Introduction
English as a global language has established its consolidated roots in the
education sectors of both developed and developing countries. The British
colonized many countries like Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Malaysia and
Indonesia while countries like Nepal, Iran, and Saudi Arabia were never under
their direct colonial power (Singh, 2021). Yet, English Language Education (ELE)
has become an inseparable component of the higher education system in all
these nations. At the tertiary level of education, according to Krsmanovic (2022),
''Almost all students all over the world are required to take English course(s) in
their first or second year of study, no matter what the core subject is'' (p.1).
Hence, English teachers need to teach one or sometimes multiple English
language courses besides their core courses.
Before COVID-19, the ELE pedagogy in the developing world applied mostly
the behavioristic knowledge transmission model with a one-size-fits-all
approach like the hypodermic needle theory where teachers were like a 'sage on
the stage' (King, 1993, p.30) while the students were like clay-made banks –
passive recipients of coins (lessons). Traditional face-to-face brick-and-mortar
classrooms with chalk and talk methods were predominant though the
Grammar Translation Method (GTM) was replaced by the Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT) approach in policy and paper (Kabir et al., 2020). As
time passed, the ELE landscape underwent some ontological and
epistemological reforms. For example, the 'native-speakerism idealism' (Fang et
al., 2022, p.305) in ELE no longer holds water. For the emergence of World
Englishes (Kachru, 1992, as cited in Fang et al., 2022) and the recent trends in
teaching Global Englishes, ELE gained acceleration with ''multifaceted linguistic,
cultural and multimodal practices'' (Fang et al., 2022, p.305) and Non-Native
English Speaking Teachers (NNESTs) have outnumbered the Native English
Speaking Teachers (NESTs). Therefore, the focus of ELE is shifting ''from the
traditional, monolingual perspective towards multi/translingualism'' (Fang et
al., 2022, p.306) in this 'trans-era' to promote a decolonizing pedagogy.
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distance mode but the developing states struggled to adapt to the new techno-
pedagogies. This review paper through a modified 5-SPICE framework (See
details in the Methodology section) tried to find out how the educational
emergency is perceived by the tertiary English language teachers and students
as delineated by the ethically conducted empirical studies. In addition, the
review article is designed to find out the predominant themes that came to the
fore out of the reviewed articles.
2. Literature Review
2.1. How COVID-19 Affected the Education System
The WHO declared COVID-19 a public health emergency on January 30, 2020
(Islam et al., 2021). On March 8, 2020, the first COVID-19 case was detected in
Bangladesh (Ferdous & Shifat, 2020) and all academic institutions were closed
from March 17 to March 31, 2020 (Khan et al., 2021; Rahaman, et al., 2021;
Sultana, 2021). Although the University Grants Commission (UGC) and the
Ministry of Education (MoE) were initially against virtual teaching (Sultana,
2021), the Education Minister had to finally recommend conducting all academic
activities of universities through online modes on April 30, 2020, (Sultana, 2020).
While some private universities tried to commence online classes from May 7,
2020 (Khan et al., 2021), the public universities started virtual classes flexibly
from June 25, 2020, (Kamol, 2020). An identical situation also existed in many
developing countries, especially in Asia. The pandemic affected 216 countries by
June 2020 and produced much trepidation among all people. Patients were
detected with COVID symptoms and millions of death casualties happened
(Islam et al., 2021). All Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) were shut down
(Muhaji, et al., 2023). A new pedagogical shift to emergency remote teaching
(ERT) (Hodges et al., 2020), became a New Normal reality, a rescuer.
Since 1950, UNESCO has been rendering EiEs to ensure people’s right to
education. It tries to ensure inclusive and equitable education under difficult
circumstances by collaborating with ministries of education and regional and
international partners. It always keeps the candle of education burning in the
world’s most acute humanitarian crises as in Ukraine and Afghanistan and in
elongated conflicts, as in Syria and Iraq, through Disaster Risk Reduction in
Education (UNESCO, 2023).
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Before COVID-19, WEB 2.0 tools were merely used on personal initiatives but
after COVID-19, some were institutionally integrated as pedagogical tools. Web
3.0 with its live streaming and AI Chabot is getting popular now in the
education sector. The pandemic accelerated the use of these EdTechs. Hence, all
teachers need to master both non-internet (laptop, desktop, radio, TV, phone),
and internet-based technologies now since after the pandemic, generation Z
(children born between 1995 and 2009) students are getting more gadget-smart
than before (Ahmad et al., 2019). Teachers also have to prepare for the new
'Generation Alpha' (children born between 2010 and 2025) who are also
considered as 'Gen C or Generation COVID' by some researchers (Eldridge,
2023) due to their enhanced exposure to technologies.
3. Methodology
As we planned to conduct a systematic review, one of them browsed the
internet, looking for some existing frameworks. The 5-SPICE framework caught
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his attention and he shared this with the other two researchers who also agreed
to apply it for this article. This framework does not belong to a single proponent.
Rather, it was proposed by researchers and clinicians from Brigham and
Women's Hospital in Boston, MA and Partners In Health, Harvard Medical
School, to allow all community health program stakeholders to participate in
dialogues and analysis to accelerate the roles of the community health workers.
SPICE actually stood for Setting, Population, Intervention, Comparison and
Evaluation. However, these elements might be modified to suit a particular
context. One such application of the 5-SPICE framework was applied by
Palazuelos et al. (2013) in a community health worker program where SPICE
referred to Supervision, Partners, Incentives, Choice and Education. Later, it was
also used in health education research with minor modifications by Singh et al.
(2015). Hence, we also modified the 5-SPICE protocol to fit with their research
questions, naming it 'Modified 5-SPICE Framework' where 5-SPICE means
Setting, Participants/Population, Investigation, Content and Ethical standards.
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From 2020, we selected four articles (two from Bangladesh, one from India and
one from Indonesia). Seven articles (four from Bangladesh, one from Iran, one
from Pakistan and one jointly from Saudi Arab and Bangladesh) published in
2021 were also reviewed. Eight articles (four from Bangladesh, one from Nepal,
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one from Malaysia, and one based on 25 countries in 5 regions of Asia, Europe,
Latin America, North America and the Middle East and another research work
(on 40 countries including Serbia, Pakistan, Mexico, Greece, Philippines, UK,
Italy, and Indonesia) from the year 2022 were selected for review. Finally, only
one article from Indonesia published in 2023 was considered for this study. All
these twenty (20) articles were from the field of English language education in
universities during the COVID and post-vaccine periods. The researchers
wanted to add some research works on the same theme from Singapore,
Thailand, the Maldives and Srilanka, but when they browsed, the search engine
'scholar.google.com' showed none that could match their inclusion criteria (see
Figure 1). However, the selected articles involved research participants from the
Middle East, Europe, Asia Pacific and, North and South America. Table 1
showcases a year-wise summary of the reviewed articles sequentially based on
the modified 5-SPICE framework.
Table 1: Year-wise Summary of the reviewed articles based on the modified 5-SPICE
framework
S-Setting (Time + P- I- C-Content E-Ethics
Place) Participants Investigation
Author (s)
Year Countries Population/ Methodology COVID-time Ethical
of (No. of Research Educational Standards
Publica Articles) Participants Emergency
tion
(2020-
2023)
Afrin; 2020 Total – 60 EFL Mixed Virtual Informed
Ferdous & Four (4) students of a Method EFL/ELT Consent
Shifat; private (Survey Data classes at
Subekti; Bangladesh university & Textual tertiary level Voluntary
Purushotham (2) Analysis) Participation
& Swathi Qualitative Dealing with
Indonesia (10 EFL Quantitative mental No harm or
(1) learners of a (Data health of risk
private collected ELT teachers
India (1) university & through and EFL Anonymity
10 ELT Google learners in
teachers questionnaire online Confidentiality
from ); Qualitative learning
different (data
private collected Pre-service
universities); through semi- English
Quantitative structured teachers’
(46 students interviews beliefs
and 20 over regarding
teachers telephone online
from private and through learning
universities) online implementat
messaging) ion
9 pre-service
English Qualitative Online
teachers (secondary learning and
taking data in the its effects on
Technology forms of the English
for participants' language
Language written skills among
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Perceptions
of EFL
educators of
their
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instruction
during the
pandemic
We kept the selected articles in four different folders named by years (2020, 2021,
2022 and 2023). Then they opened a Microsoft Word doc file where five thematic
categories (See Figure 2) were typed in bold. The thematic analysis of this paper
consisted of the following seven stages suggested by Wellington (2015, as cited
in Cohen et al., 2018, p.646):
Stage 1: Familiarization with the data/literature also called 'Immersion'
Stage 2: Data/Literature Arrangement through reflection (dividing up the data
according to the Modified 5-SPICE framework)
Stage 3: Data/Text Analysis (Selecting, filtering, classifying and re-categorizing)
Stage 4: Synthesizing or recombining data/text
Stage 5: Relating to other works and locating data
Stage 6: Reflecting again for further details
Stage 7: Presenting and sharing the findings with discussions
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Firstly, we went through the selected articles and after getting familiar with the
data, we arranged them under the five thematic categories with the names of
authors and years of publication. Then, we read again, reflected, filtered the
disorganized data to re-categorize them (i.e. similar information was classified
together with in-text citations). After the third cycle of reading the data under
the five major themes, we synthesized some repeated concepts and thematic
analyses to get to the key analysis. Next, we related it to other works, read and
reflected again before presenting and sharing the findings with discussions.
4. Findings
The findings are elaborated under five phenomena or themes divided into a few
sub-categories (see Figure 2). The 1st theme 'Education sector during and after
COVID-19' showcases organizational improvements and pedagogical
innovations. The 2nd theme delineates stakeholders' (teachers' and learners')
perspectives, perplexities and propositions for technology use. The 3rd one
describes the methodologies applied in the articles. The 4th category focuses on
teaching aids and materials, pitfalls and future possibilities of EiE technologies.
The final theme (5th) exhibits the ethical standards upheld by the research
works.
According to the selected analytical framework, the five themes are categorized
based on the two RQs. The 2nd theme answers the 1st RQ while all the
remaining four themes answer the 2nd RQ.
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Sultana (2021) demonstrated that some students were dissatisfied because their
teachers lacked techno-pedagogical skills. Therefore, they wanted their teachers
to have IT knowledge, deliver the ELE content properly and publish their results
on time (Purushotham & Swathi, 2020). Moreover, the universities failed to
provide effective online LMS. Maniruzzaman (2022) showed students'
preference for onsite classes over online classes which were boring and less
interactive though they expressed their confidence in both modes.
4.1.3. Perplexities
Technophobia (Aktar, 2020; Islam et al., 2020; Aktar et al., 2022) was a problem
both teachers and learners suffered from. Students seemed intimidated to
communicate through emails and open accounts on prescribed platforms while
many teachers were poor in using online teaching tools and sharing recorded
lessons or materials (Aktar et al., 2022).
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having problems operating breakout rooms for various tasks, fast technological
troubleshooting, engaging students in activities, conducting online assessments
and providing quick feedback. In the context of Pakistan, Khan et al. (2021)
depicted similar picture where teachers struggled to keep learners motivated
and maintain assessment ethics.
Shifat et al. (2021) revealed that online mode was more challenging for students
than teachers. English language learners faced problems due to inadequate
logistic provision, high-priced devices, slow and interrupted internet services,
inaccessibility of class materials, raucous home environment, incessant reading
of online materials, lack of interaction for language development, struggle with
online assessment (Ferdous & Shifat, 2020), having stress, depression, insomnia
and short temper and lack of family support (Islam et al., 2020; Sultana, 2021).
Sultana (2021) also reported that learners had issues like not owning a laptop or
computer, not having a webcam or working microphone and not recharging the
mobile data for its cost. Furthermore, doing all kinds of tasks on a smartphone
was not always possible. Arju and Juhi (2022) excavated challenges like boredom
or fatigue emanating from less or no classroom interaction, lack of motivation,
technical support and self-confidence and unfamiliar learning environments.
Consequently, the new pedagogical transition might have influenced students'
affective domains in areas like ''empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition,
imitation, anxiety and attitudes, which may have impacted their performance on
the final examination'' (Sultana, 2021, p.150).
4.1.4. Propositions
Arju and Juhi (2022) mention that COVID-19 is an emergency when building
support communities, sharing knowledge and experiences is essential for
teachers to provide meaningful learning processes aiming at therapy, empathy,
and care for students. Khan et al. (2021) in Pakistan's context, claim that a
motivated teacher can produce motivated students. However, a suitable
environment is required where both students and teachers are friendly,
cooperative and interactive to make the learning process productive and boost
positive motivation.
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Sultana (2021) thinks that teachers must take pedagogical risks for effective
teaching. They have to self-train by attending webinars and MOOCs (Massive
Open Online Courses). Frequent meetings among colleagues to share thoughts,
ideas and techniques are required to bring the best out of the worst. Afrin (2020)
recommends recording live lectures with the teacher's face while streaming,
testing lecture slides and videos before a class launches, using existing resources
and ensuring open access. She also highlights the need for arranging consistent
webinars on techno-pedagogies in low-resource contexts like Bangladesh,
offering decent pay packages to the pedagogues and developing hygiene
amenities and supervision on campus. Shifat et al. (2021) endorse an interactive
and collaborative learning environment, a combo of audio-visual text and
sufficient tools for teaching in crisis.
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Any sudden transition throws organizations into a critical situation when they
must invest in professional development, capacity building and take measures
to adapt to the change. The private-run organizations with swift top-down
decisions were in the driver's seat in the case of applying online education more
effectively than the government-owned ones where policies are usually adopted
through tiered bottom-up planning. Islam et al. (2021) identified that some
universities established an institutional G Suite affiliation. Concurrently, the IT
wing of all universities became vibrant in arranging training sessions for
teachers and students. All institutes adopted total virtual teaching during the
pandemic period. Later after two doses of vaccines by mid-2021, technology-
enhanced instruction, web-mediated instruction and mixed-mode instruction in
the names of hybrid, blended or HyFlex (Hybrid-Flexible) education were
applied when a teacher took classes from inside the classroom in the presence of
some students while students with health problems could join online from their
comfort zones. Though blended learning first developed in the 1960s and gained
its formal terminology in the 1990s, it became a new pedagogy for developing
countries like Bangladesh after COVID-19. Blended learning or hybrid teaching
requires strong information communication technology (ICT) and highly
qualified technical staff. The ICT wing of every university became vibrant to
embrace the new techno-pedagogy. Similar was the case in many other countries
in the world.
Afrin (2020) postulated that students also had to learn new things to adapt to a
rapidly shifting world. They developed soft skills and technological literacy to
get hold of the teacher-provided materials and communicate well digitally. They
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could access class materials synchronously and asynchronously and felt excited
when they received their quiz grades instantly (Islam et al., 2021). ERT was less
costly and less stressful as students could work from their own homes and
comfort zones (Shifat et al., 2021; Ping et al., 2022). Incorporating face-to-face
lectures with technology is an attribute of the flipped classroom and blended
learning, where students can learn anywhere at any time at their own
convenience (Ping et al., 2022).
Zoom, Skype, WhatsApp, ➢ synchronous applications (Afrin, 2020; Islam et al., 2021; Nisha,
WebX, Facebook Live, Google ➢ video conferencing 2022; Purushotham & Swathi, 2020;
Meet, Facebook Messenger, ➢ live classes Rahman et al., 2021; Rai, 2022; Shak et
Viber, Microsoft Team, Adobe ➢ real time talking al., 2022; Shifat et al., 2021; Subekti, 2020;
Connect Sultana, 2021)
➢ asynchronous teaching-
Moodle, Schoology, Google learning (Afrin, 2020; Rahaman et al., 2021; Shifat
Classroom, NAVID, VESTA ➢ learning management et al., 2021; Subekti, 2020; Sultana, 2021;
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materials, including PPT slides and recorded lectures which students could
easily access.
Rai (2022) believes that after the pandemic both tools Open Educational
Resources (OER) and Open Educational Practices (OEP) have started to
contribute to ELE. There is a paradigm shift that has transformed both teachers'
and students' attitudes towards online education. The new dynamism will
develop a high level of critical thinking, interpersonal, managerial and language
skills and cognitive abilities in students. The ICT tools will help them perform as
autonomous, creative and research-oriented learners with motivation. Rahaman
et al. (2021) speculate that virtual learning tools will augment the new academic
standard. Maniruzzaman (2022) believes that the new normal will accommodate
ERT, virtual learning and traditional face-to-face learning.
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5. Discussion
The shift to Emergency Remote Teaching was an emotional rollercoaster that
simultaneously offered excitement, frustration, stress and reward for the
teachers and students (Maniruzzaman, 2022). The findings lead to the following
discussion based on the SWOC (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and
Challenges) framework.
5.1. Strengths
The greatest distance education experiment in history brought about the
emergence of pedagogy of care (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020) and established a
positive 'culture-change moment' (Calonge et al., 2022). Teachers and students
became well-equipped with strategies to solve technological glitches and show
resilience and mindfulness to survive and continue teaching-learning in crisis
moments, overcoming distance-learning pedagogy challenges. The new
academic standard developed teachers’ and learners’ soft skills they lacked
before. Teachers and organizations learnt how to overcome the session jam
which students were worried about. The contactless EiE exposed all the
academic stakeholders to hybrid pedagogy replacing stereotypical teaching. It
gave birth to an era of techno-pedagogy for all where teachers require new
identities as techno-pedagogues and students as smart App users and problem
solvers.
5.2. Weaknesses
COVID-19 created the greatest disruption to the higher education landscape
giving rise to an 'educational punctuated equilibrium' (Calonge et al., 2022).
Teachers could not properly enhance learners' overall performance and failed to
properly monitor their students during exams when they could resort to
plagiarism. The teaching agency and teacher identity were initially at risk.
Students lost motivation and were suffering psychologically due to the lack of
physical presence on campus for social interaction and face-to-face learning. EiE
also generated digital poverty and digital divide among university teachers and
students in low-resource settings.
5.3. Opportunities
All teachers tried to upskill their digital competencies as it was a sink-or-swim
situation. According to Islam et al. (2021) during online classes, teachers posted
announcements, recorded lectures, shared the screen, uploaded course materials
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and were involved in live chatting. Gradually, they used ICT tools efficiently to
conduct virtual or hybrid classes (Rai, 2022). Khan et al. (2021) stated that
teachers demonstrated their humanistic stance and consideration for
disadvantaged students and hence, human compassion emerged as a
pedagogical quality (Afrin, 2020). The teachers felt they must be smart with Web
2.0 and Web 3.0 technologies to teach Generation Z (Muhaji et al., 2023) and
Generation Alpha students, the digital natives born with gadgets. EiE made
teachers and students understand resilience as an adaptive process to maintain
their identities and continue learning, growing, and evolving despite multiple
adversities. Islam et al. (2021) consider tech-based education as a timely weapon
to face an invisible enemy (COVID-19). Both teachers and students had to make
use of multiple devices (e.g., mobile phones, laptops, desktops, tabs) and social
networking sites (e.g., Messenger, WhatsApp, Viber, and Imo groups) for
academic purposes.
The changed circumstances enhanced digital technology use for which teachers
and learners got training and technical support. Teachers learnt how to record
audio and video lectures and live classes for learners' convenience. The
government and mobile operator companies are taking steps to offer cost-
effective data packages with uninterrupted internet services even in rural areas.
The government and some private institutions are providing subsidies and
stipends to disadvantaged teachers and students. The institutional website or
blog is getting more secure, simple and user-friendly. A pool of dedicated and
strong IT people to assist students and teachers with LMS functionalities,
materials development, and instant problem-solving has been formed as an
inseparable part of education. Interesting and relevant mini-lesson pedagogy is
being designed for learner interaction through instructional modes in multiple
formats, platforms, and devices. Hence, future EiE will adopt multi-modal ERT
channels through the creation of a sustainable, robust emergency-resilient
educational ecosystem.
5.4. Challenges
Mudzingiri et al. (2022) believe that education during the COVID emergency
''was accompanied by the challenges of digital technology resources and the lack
of training and preparation for digital platforms'' (p.297). EiE gave rise to
technophobia among teachers and learners. It injected turmoil and uncertainty
across the education sector. There was an initial fear of deskilling and de-
professionalization among academic staff. It also led to instructional frustration
or even an identity crisis among teachers, all of which could lead to educators
leaving the profession. Teachers felt worried about the over-dependence of
students on assignments, presentations, short questions and quizzes. Virtual
teaching resulted in a higher attrition rate among the students.
6. Conclusion
Through the Modified 5-SPICE framework, this paper addresses the importance
of techno-pedagogies during COVID-19 in the tertiary ELE context. With some
preliminary glitches, all the educational stakeholders, especially the teachers as
'frontline heroes' (Pherali & Mendenhall, 2023) have been able to keep pace with
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the New Normal technologies. Desperate times call for desperate measures. ERT
as a desperate measure during the pandemic has ushered in an era of techno-
pedagogy for all. Every teacher and student has mastered hard and soft skills to
be an unbreakable shield against such an emergency situation in the future.
Hence, COVID-19 has been a blessing in disguise. It has given birth to
institutional digital twins that will be a ubiquitous requirement to tackle any
future catastrophe. Teacher agency and teacher identity may be under threat if
techno-pedagogy is not embraced. However, tech-savvy teachers with ELE
expertise and continuous professional development strategies will surpass
teachers with conventional pedagogies and create consolidated identities and
agencies. Despite the new insights gained by the study, this small-scale desk
research has not been able to shed light on many other original research works
in developed contexts. Therefore, further large-scale research needs to be carried
out to add more insights into using EiE technologies at the university level in the
wider ELE context. However, the pedagogical implications of the findings of this
study can’t be denied. The institutional authorities, policy makers, curriculum
developers, teacher trainers, ELE pedagogues, learners and other stakeholders
can gain valuable insight from the findings to perform better in the next-normal
educational setting even though any unprecedented emergency arises.
Acknowledgement of Funding
This research is funded by UIU-LCT project of United International University,
Madani Avenue, Dhaka- 1212, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
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Sadieli Telaumbanua
Universitas Prima Indonesia, Medan, Indonesia
Losten Tamba
Universitas Katolik Santo Thomas, Medan, Indonesia
Sumani
Universitas PGRI Madiun, Indonesia
*
Corresponding author: Berman Hutahaean, [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
77
1. Introduction
Education 5.0 is a term used to describe an educational paradigm that focuses on
developing twenty-first-century skills, such as creativity, collaboration,
communication, critical thinking and character, by utilizing advanced digital
technologies, such as artificial intelligence, Internet of Things, Big Data, cloud
computing, and augmented reality (González et al., 2022; Rusman et al., 2023).
Education 5.0 is expected to produce graduates who are ready to face the
challenges and opportunities in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR),
which is characterized by rapid, complex, and uncertain changes in various fields
of life, including the current hostile and favorable challenges of AI (Rymarczyk,
2020).
Recognizing these developments, this research aims to delve into the existing
problems and gaps within the educational field, particularly in the context of
higher education curriculum development in Indonesia (Hutahaean et al., 2022).
The advent of AI and its implications necessitates a reevaluation of educational
frameworks to ensure they remain relevant and capable of equipping students
with the skills required in the digital age (Gill et al., 2022). However, a notable
need exists for a clear framework or model in the literature that addresses the need
for curricula to adapt to technological advancements and innovatively foster
critical competencies among students.
This study seeks to fill this gap by proposing a model for an innovative and
adaptive curriculum responsive to the challenges posed by the digital revolution,
including integrating AI in educational settings. By examining the design and
implementation of such curricula in selected Indonesian universities, this research
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This study aims to analyze the development of an innovative and adaptive higher
education curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 in Indonesia. This
research uses a qualitative descriptive method with three core informants, namely
three universities in Indonesia that have implemented an innovative and adaptive
curriculum, namely University A, University B and University C, and three
supporting informants, namely three stakeholders related to the higher education
curriculum, namely industry, government and society. The data analyzed came
from interviews, observations and documentation conducted on informants.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Education 5.0
Education 5.0 represents an educational paradigm focusing on developing 21st-
century skills by leveraging advanced digital technologies (N. Rane et al., 2023).
These skills include creativity, collaboration, communication, critical thinking and
character development (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). The integration of artificial
intelligence, the Internet of Things, Big Data, cloud computing and augmented
reality plays a pivotal role in shaping Education 5.0 (Rane, 2023). The goal is to
produce graduates who are well-prepared to navigate the challenges and
opportunities of the 4IR, characterized by rapid and complex changes across
various domains (Bikse et al., 2022; Ramnund-Mansingh & Reddy, 2021).
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While existing literature provides insights into Education 5.0, there still needs to
be a more precise identification of arguments related to the adaptive, innovative
and challenging nature of curricula. Our research reviews previous empirical
studies to address this gap, examining their methods, results and conclusions. By
outlining these gaps, we aim to contribute to the ongoing discourse on curriculum
development. Combining the research questions addressed in this study is
essential. Therefore, constructing feasible research questions becomes imperative
to demonstrate the relevance of our study and its ability to achieve its objectives.
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Central to this discussion is the work of Mahmud and Wong (2022), who articulate
the importance of developing curricula that are not only technologically
integrated but also foster critical thinking, creativity and adaptability among
students. Similarly, Parker et al. (2024) emphasize the role of AI in reshaping
educational practices, highlighting the potential for enhanced personalized
learning experiences. However, these advancements also bring forth challenges,
including the risk of obsolescence of traditional educational models and the need
for educators to acquire new pedagogical skills.
3. Research Methodology
In this study, researchers used a qualitative research method with a case-study
approach. According to Sugiyono (2019), qualitative research methods are
research methods that produce descriptive data in the form of written or spoken
words from people and observable behavior. According to Yin et al. (2018), a case
study is a research strategy that studies a phenomenon in depth in a natural
context, using various sources of evidence. The researcher chose a qualitative
research method with a case study approach because the researcher wanted to
analyze the development of an innovative and adaptive higher education
curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 in Indonesia by describing,
explaining and understanding the phenomenon holistically and
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In this study, researchers used the Miles and Huberman model data analysis
technique, consisting of three stages: data reduction, data presentation, and
conclusion drawing (Miles et al., 2018). Data reduction simplifies, organizes and
selects data relevant to research objectives using coding, categorization or
thematization techniques. Data presentation is the process of organizing and
structuring data that has been reduced into a form that is easy to understand and
interpret using techniques such as tables, diagrams, graphs or narratives.
Concluding is the process of interpreting and making meaning from the data that
has been presented using techniques such as comparison, triangulation, or
verification (Creswell, 2017).
All collected data were managed using NVivo software to facilitate organized
storage, coding and analysis. This software enabled the efficient handling of
diverse data sources and supported the thematic analysis to identify patterns and
insights related to the study objectives (Bonello & Meehan, 2019).
Validity and Reliability. To ensure the reliability and validity of the research
instruments, a pilot test was conducted with a small group of educational experts
not included in the main study (Karmilla et al., 2016). Feedback from this pilot test
led to refinements in the interview questions and observation criteria.
Additionally, triangulation of data sources was employed to cross-verify
information and enhance the study’s credibility.
Instruments and Validity.
1. Interview Instruments: We developed interview guides tailored to
each informant group (core and supporting). The questions covered
curriculum development, challenges, stakeholder collaboration and
impact assessment.
2. Observation Instruments: We used structured observation forms to
record classroom dynamics, teaching methods and student
participation.
3. Document Analysis: We systematically reviewed curriculum
documents, ensuring consistency and alignment with Education 5.0
principles.
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The interviews with the core informants showed that the three universities had
implemented a twenty-first-century competency-oriented curriculum differently.
University A developed a project-based curriculum, where students were
assigned projects related to their field of study, using various learning resources,
including technology. The projects were aimed at demonstrating students’
creativity, problem-solving, collaboration and communication, both in the process
and the outcome. University B developed a problem-based curriculum, where
students were given real problems relevant to their field of study, using various
methods and approaches, including technology. These problems challenged
students’ critical, analytical and reflective thinking and require effective
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The results of interviews with supporting informants show that the three
stakeholders, namely industry, government and society, appreciated the need for
a curriculum oriented toward twenty-first-century competencies because of the
needs and demands of the times consider it. Industry said that graduates who
have twenty-first-century competencies will be more adaptable, innovative and
collaborative in an increasingly complex and competitive world of work. The
government said that graduates with twenty-first-century competencies will be
better able to contribute to social, cultural and economic development using
various media and platforms that support communication and cooperation.
Society says that graduates with twenty-first-century competencies will be more
sensitive to global and local issues and responsible for the environment and
humanity.
The interviews with the core informants showed that the three universities had
implemented a curriculum that integrated technology, humanities and local
wisdom differently. University A developed a technology-based curriculum
(hybrid), where part of the learning process was carried out online, using various
applications and platforms, such as Google Classroom, Zoom, YouTube and
others. University A also developed a humanities-based curriculum, where
students were given courses related to the humanities, such as philosophy,
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Discussion in Light of Previous Research The findings from this study resonate
with existing literature that emphasizes the importance of technological fluency
in modern education. However, the novel integration of local wisdom and
humanities significantly contributes to the discourse on adaptive curricula. This
dual focus addresses a critical gap in existing research, as highlighted by Abidoye
et al. (2024), who call for a more holistic approach to curriculum development in
the digital age.
The challenges identified align with those documented by Ali (2020), who also
notes resistance to technological integration in higher education. However, this
study extends the conversation by identifying clear pathways through which
institutions have turned challenges into opportunities for curriculum
enhancement.
Interviews with core informants showed that the three universities had
implemented flexible and personalized curricula differently. University A
developed a project-based curriculum where students could choose project topics,
sources and methods that suited their interests, goals, conditions and situations.
University A also developed a portfolio-based curriculum, where students could
choose products and processes that matched their characteristics and potential, as
well as the development of science and technology. University B developed a
problem-based curriculum where students could choose problems, approaches
and solutions that suited their interests and goals, as well as existing conditions
and situations. University B also developed a competency-based curriculum,
where students could choose competencies that aligned with their characteristics
and potential and the development of science and technology. University C
developed a curriculum based on learning independence, where students could
choose courses, sources and media that fit their interests and goals and existing
conditions and situations. University C also developed a curriculum based on
campus freedom, where students could choose activities, places and times
according to their characteristics and potential, as well as the development of
science and technology.
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The results of interviews with supporting informants showed that all three
stakeholders, namely industry, government and society, supported a flexible and
personalized curriculum, as it was considered to improve the quality and
relevance of higher education. Industry said that graduates who followed a
flexible and personalized curriculum would have more skills needed in the world
of work, such as adaptation, innovation and collaboration. The government said
that graduates who followed a flexible and personalized curriculum would have
more knowledge needed by society, such as citizenship, entrepreneurship and
humanity. The community said that graduates who followed a flexible and
personalized curriculum would have more attitudes and values needed by the
environment, such as tolerance, empathy and responsibility.
The interviews with the core informants showed that the three universities had
implemented a collaborative curriculum differently. University A developed a
project-based curriculum where students could undertake projects related to their
field of study by working with industry, government or the community as
partners, clients or beneficiaries. University A also developed a portfolio-based
curriculum, where students can demonstrate products and processes related to
their twenty-first-century competencies by working with industry, government
or the community as givers, assessors or users. University B developed problem-
based curricula where students could solve real problems relevant to their field of
study by working with industry, government or the community as sources,
mentors or solutions. University B also developed a competency-based
curriculum, where students could develop competencies required by the
economy and society by working with industry, government or society as trainers,
mentors or partners. University C developed a learning independence-based
curriculum, where students could choose courses that suited their interests and
goals by working with industry, government or society as providers, facilitators
or inspirers. University C also developed a curriculum based on campus freedom,
where students could carry out activities that suited their characteristics and
potential by working with industry, government or society as partners, sponsors
or reinforcers.
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The results of interviews with supporting informants show that the three
stakeholders, namely industry, government and society, participate in the
collaborative curriculum in different ways. The industry said they participated in
the collaborative curriculum by providing inputs, resources and opportunities for
universities and students and getting qualified, relevant and work-ready
graduates. The government said they participated in a collaborative curriculum
by providing policies, regulations, and support for university students and
graduates who contributed, were competitive and had integrity. The community
said they participated in a collaborative curriculum by providing problems,
challenges, and solutions for universities and students and getting graduates who
were helpful, innovative and responsible.
The interviews with the core informants showed that the three universities had
implemented innovative and adaptive curricula to the challenges of Education 5.0
in different ways. University A developed a project-based curriculum where
lecturers act as facilitators, providing guidance, direction and feedback to
students in carrying out projects. Lecturers serve as sources of inspiration for
students, offering examples, ideas, and suggestions to aid in project creation.
Moreover, they embody the spirit of lifelong learning, constantly enhancing their
expertise through research, publications, and training. At University B, a
problem-based curriculum has been implemented, wherein lecturers function as
facilitators, guiding students by presenting problems, methods, and resources for
problem-solving. They also serve as motivators, presenting challenges, questions,
and solutions to students as they tackle these problems. Additionally, they remain
committed to their own ongoing intellectual growth, fostering critical, analytical,
and reflective thinking through continued research, publications, and seminar
participation. Meanwhile, University C adopts a curriculum emphasizing
learning independence, with lecturers acting as facilitators to provide students
with choice, variety, and flexibility in selecting courses and activities. They also
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The results of interviews with supporting informants show that the three
stakeholders, namely industry, government and society, appreciate an innovative
and adaptive curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 because it is
considered to improve the quality and capacity of lecturers, as well as the role of
lecturers as facilitators, inspirers and true learners. The industry said that lecturers
who have high quality and capacity, as well as the role of facilitators, inspirers
and true learners, will be able to produce qualified, relevant and work-ready
graduates. The government says that lecturers who have high quality and
capacity and act as facilitators, inspirers and true learners will be able to produce
graduates who contribute, are competitive and have integrity. The community
says that lecturers who have high quality and capacity and act as facilitators,
inspirers and true learners will be able to produce graduates who are helpful,
instrumental and responsible.
The interviews with the core informants show that the three universities have
implemented an accountable and credible curriculum differently. University A
developed a project-based curriculum, where student performance or outcomes
were assessed based on the projects they created, using clear, objective and
transparent indicators or criteria. University A also developed a portfolio-based
curriculum, where students’ performance or outcomes were assessed based on
the portfolios they submitted, using clear, objective and transparent indicators or
criteria. University A also undergoes a continuous evaluation and accreditation
process, both internally and externally, using valid, reliable and accurate
instruments or tools. University B developed a problem-based curriculum, where
student performance or outcomes are assessed based on the problems they solve,
using clear, objective and transparent indicators or criteria. University B also
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The results of interviews with supporting informants show that all three
stakeholders, namely industry, government and society, appreciate an
accountable and credible curriculum because it is considered to ensure the
quality, relevance and impact of higher education. The industry said that an
accountable and credible curriculum would be able to produce graduates who
had delivered performance or results in terms of quality standards set by the
industry, both in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes. The government said
that an accountable and credible curriculum would be able to produce graduates
who had delivered performance or results in terms of the quality standards set by
the government, both in terms of competence, achievement and integrity. The
community said that an accountable and credible curriculum would be able to
produce graduates who had delivered performance or results according to the
quality standards set by the community, both in terms of benefits, roles and
responsibilities.
8) Interpretation of Findings
a. Accountable and Credible Curricula. Universities demonstrate
accountability and credibility through transparent assessment methods.
University A’s project-based and portfolio-based assessments exemplify this
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5. Conclusion
Based on the results of the research and discussion, it can be concluded that:
1) The development of an innovative and adaptive higher education curriculum
to address the challenges of Education 5.0 in Indonesia is conducted through
various approaches. These include orienting students towards twenty-first-
century competencies; integrating technology, humanities, and local wisdom
in learning; offering flexibility and personalization in the learning process;
fostering collaboration between universities, industry, and society in
curriculum preparation and implementation; enhancing the quality and
capacity of lecturers as facilitators, inspirers, and lifelong learners; and
enhancing curriculum accountability and credibility through continuous
evaluation and accreditation.
2) Factors that influence the development of an innovative and adaptive higher
education curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 in Indonesia
are the vision, mission and goals of higher education, the needs and demands
of the world of work and society, the development of science and technology,
government policies and regulations and available resources and facilities.
3) The impact of developing an innovative and adaptive higher education
curriculum to the challenges based on Education 5.0 in Indonesia is to improve
the quality, relevance and impact of higher education for universities,
students, graduates, lecturers, industry, government and society.
6. Recommendations
Based on the conclusions that have been described, the researchers provide the
following recommendations:
1) Universities must continue to innovate and adapt in the development of
higher education curricula, taking into account the challenges and
opportunities that exist in the education 5.0 era, and referring to the quality
standards set by the government, industry and society.
2) Universities must continue to improve cooperation and communication with
industry, government and society, to develop and implement a higher
education curriculum that is by the needs and demands of the world of work
and society, as well as providing benefits and contributions to social, cultural
and economic development.
3) Universities must continue to improve the quality and capacity of lecturers,
both in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values, as well as the role of
lecturers as facilitators, inspirers and true learners who can support, motivate
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1. Introduction
In the present globalized world, English has established itself as the predominant
medium of communication. Its influence extends to various domains, including
*
Corresponding author: Sirinthorn Seepho; [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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the realm of education - serving as a crucial pathway for individuals to attain their
goals and pursue their desired careers. As English has gained prominence as a
widely accepted language in the world, it has significantly impacted the field of
instruction in non-English speaking countries (see Baker, 2021; Bowles & Murphy;
2020; Chapple, 2015; Galloway et al., 2020; Hultgren et al., 2015). Not limited to
the compulsory education sector, but also kindergarten, vocational, and
professional education, the number of courses integrating content and language
has increased significantly (Coyle, 2007). Moreover, the push for
internationalization in higher education has resulted in an increase in English-
taught programs, especially in engineering and business fields, making
institutions more competitive. Several colleges in many non-native English-
speaking countries use EMI to teach engineering disciplines at the undergraduate
level since English is the language of science and technology in the 21st century
(Crystal, 2012). Moreover, it is undeniable that a sizable portion of teaching
resources and materials used in educational contexts are currently available in
English. Furthermore, careerwise, international engineering companies demand
English-proficient engineers. Such factors support Macaro's (2015) assertion that
EMI is an 'unstoppable train' (p.7) because, theoretically, English's worldwide
dominance pushes its use in education, while practically, institutions see its
competitive advantages as well as the inherent access to resources it provides,
fuelling its growth.
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Banegas and Busleiman (2021) also claimed that it is important to create teaching
materials developed in a context-responsive manner, considering the specific
news and interests of the learners. The materials also should include activities that
develop learners’ language awareness, not only in terms of specific vocabulary
but also in terms of textual grammar. It is also noteworthy that the materials
accommodate the needs of EMI learners and provide proper scaffolding for both
content learning and language learning. In terms of activities, the materials should
incorporate a focus on tasks and engagement, providing varied and interactive
activities to maximize input and learner participation. In addition to that, the
materials used in the EMI context should promote autonomous learning, allowing
learners to explore and manipulate tools and resources (see Ball, 2018). Learning
materials should be learner-centered and relevant to future contexts. Lastly, the
materials should provide opportunities for detailed feedback on both language
and content aspects and should support collaborative work among learners.
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The design of the EMI Engineering lesson in this study was grounded in the 4C
principles of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): content,
communication, cognition, and culture (Coyle, 2015). The integration of the
language and content of engineering was guided by these principles, which
facilitated effective communication, cognitive engagement, and knowledge
construction. Furthermore, cultural elements were incorporated through group
work-based activities. An interactive learning environment was created by
incorporating tasks that required students to solve problems and apply critical
thinking skills. This promoted active participation and collaborative study among
the students.
2. Methodology
2.1 Research Design
The research adopted mixed-methods by using convergent parallel design, where
the qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analyzed independently,
but the results were interpreted together (Creswell & Pablo-Clark, 2011; Guest
and Fleming, 2014). The qualitative method was used to answer research question
one and the quantitative method was employed to answer research question two.
Combining qualitative and quantitative results allows researchers to obtain broad
perspectives on the complexity of a phenomenon that may be disregarded when
employing just one research approach (McKim, 2017).
2.2 Participants
The participants included three engineering lecturers, three language teachers,
and 102 engineering students. The three Civil Engineering lecturers (content
teachers) drawn from a Thai EMI context voluntarily participated in this study.
They all taught EMI engineering courses and possessed varied lengths of teaching
experience, ranging from three to seven years. Apart from engineering lecturers,
language teachers and students were also selected to participate. The study
involved three language teacher experts in teaching English as a foreign language
(EFL) and had broad experiences in teaching materials design. They collaborated
closely with engineering lecturers to develop and implement lesson plans that
integrated content and language learning in the EMI engineering classes. In the
case of the student participants, there were 102 engineering undergraduates who
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Satisfaction survey
A four-point Likert scale satisfaction survey was developed by the researchers. It
composed of nine questions relating to the quality of teaching, the teacher's
expertise and familiarity with the subject matter, the efficacy of the teaching aids,
the appropriateness of the content taught, the level of content learned, the
comprehensibility of the lesson, the opportunity for collaborative work, the use of
English as the medium of instruction, and overall satisfaction. The survey was
verified by the three researchers before distributing to students.
Semi-structured interviews
To follow up the satisfaction survey about the EMI engineering lesson, semi-
structured interviews were conducted to explore deeper insight about students’
experiences and perceptions of the EMI engineering lesson. Five interview
questions were given to three researchers for validation. The interview lasted
about thirty minutes for each participant. They were informed that their responses
were voluntary and would be kept confidential.
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- Semi-structured interview
Step 4 Sharing insights and Joint revision of the lesson
- Discuss the strengths and - Semi-structured interview Content analysis
weaknesses of the lessons with content teachers
The data collection process was divided into four major steps based on the process
of EMI materials development as displayed in Table 1. For data analysis, the
quantitative data from the pretest, post-test, and survey responses were analyzed
by using descriptive statistics and T-tests. In the realm of qualitative analysis,
content analysis was applied to explore insights emerging from the semi-
structured interviews.
4. Results
4.1 Designing EMI engineering lessons collaboratively
Figure 1 presents a systematic approach in collaboratively designing the EMI
Engineering lessons. Language learning and content instruction are integrated,
emphasizing collaboration between language and content teachers (Engineering
lecturers) to enhance the overall educational experience for students.
Step 1
Corpus-based Analysis of Text
(language teahers)
Step 4 Step 2
Sharing Insights and Joint
Revision of the Lesson (content Lesson Design (content and
and language teachers) language teachers)
Step 3
Lesson Delivery (content
teachers)
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This flowchart suggests a dynamic and iterative process where both sets of
teachers worked closely throughout the instructional cycle, from planning to
delivery to revision, ensuring that content instruction was linguistically
accessible, and that language instruction was content-relevant.
Further findings elicited from the content analysis of journals and teacher
interviews revealed the challenges found during materials designing and
development. During stage 1, which was about the corpus-based analysis of text,
both language and content teachers mentioned that they did not know the
students’ background in both physics content and language proficiency. So, it was
difficult for them to select the appropriate language points. In addition, for this
step, language teachers further reported that most vocabulary and terminologies
were unfamiliar to them and the concepts in the reading texts were complex for
students to understand. As a result, it was rather difficult to design the materials
based on unfamiliar content, so it is unavoidable that language teachers had to
become familiar with the content. Excerpt below is quoted relevance to support
this claim.
“What’s very challenging for me is the technical terminology. When I
read the content teacher’s guide and presentation, I observed that friction
involves technical terms and concepts that can be complex for students to
understand. As a language teacher, I’m not familiar with those technical
terms, thus it’s time consuming to integrate these technical terms
effectively into the lesson plan; it required careful consideration of
students' content and language proficiency levels and finding appropriate
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To cope with the challenges above, the material developers decided to use
AntConc, a corpus tool to make a list of words related to the topics. They then
asked content teachers to primarily screen first, and then ask students to confirm
the unfamiliar words.
During the lesson design process, further data revealed that the content teachers
and language teachers had different viewpoints on the proportion of language
and content needed due to the time constraints of lessons. For instance, the content
teachers thought that (1) group work activities were interesting but they took too
long (2) subject matters were the main content that the students had to acquire at
the end of the class and language was only a by-product (3) they were not sure
about how to integrate language in the lessons and design language activities, and
they did not know how to teach language. Meanwhile, language teachers thought
that (1) there were limited resources available to find examples of well-designed
CLIL lesson plan models with specific requirements, so it was not easy to design
the materials that achieved two goals at the same time (2) the language teachers
did not truly understand the content of engineering (see extract below).
“I faced challenges in combining mathematical equations and language
phrases in my CLIL lesson plan due to my limited familiarity with the
mathematical equations and overall content. As a language teacher,
venturing into unfamiliar territory can be daunting, making it difficult
to integrate complex mathematical concepts seamlessly into the language
instruction. I may have limited exposure to or knowledge of mathematical
equations. This lack of familiarity can hinder my ability to understand the
equations fully, explain clearly, and guide students effectively. In
addition, teaching content subjects like mathematics requires a solid
understanding of the underlying concepts. In this case, not having a
strong background in the content related to the mathematical equations
makes it challenging for me to design meaningful activities or provide
accurate explanations.” Extract 2 (Language Teacher Journal)
Other thoughts included ‘time consuming’ preparation for each process, which
added more pressure and difficulty in setting collaborative meetings because both
parties are busy. In addition, designing a lesson for a mixed proficiency group is
hard. So, activities that required collaboration between the high and low
proficiency students were proposed. Choices of activities were given to the
content teachers so they could choose the ones that were suitable for their teaching
styles as depicted in the excerpt below.
“I have encountered challenges in designing activities for the content and
language integrated lesson plan on friction due to the need to consider the
difficulty of the activities and the students' content and language
proficiency levels. As I supposed, creating activities that strike the right
balance between challenge and appropriateness for students' abilities is
complex for me. It was challenging for me to determine the appropriate
level of difficulty for the activities related to friction. If the activities that
I will create are too easy, students may become disengaged, while overly
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However, both teachers agreed that figures and illustrations are important to
include in the lesson when dealing with complex concepts.
“The figure is from the textbook or the concept of the engineering, the real
engineering. So, I mean the context is very hard already and it's
complicated. So, if we find something that the student can see easily in the
classroom …, it's just a simple thing with an explanation that the student
might have experienced already. So, I think it can help them.” Extract 4
(Semi-structured interview)
In terms of assessment, there was not enough time for the lessons when the goals
of language learning were emphasized. Also, it was not easy to create assessments
that accurately measure their understanding and progress.
“The pre-test and post-test should be tailored to their abilities to provide
meaningful data. Also, incorporating appropriate language demands,
such as vocabulary, sentence structure, and comprehension, alongside
assessing their understanding of friction-related concepts, requires my
careful consideration.” Extract 5 (Semi-structured interview)
To solve this problem, consultations with the content teachers were done to check
the mathematical equations which had been integrated with language, so there
would be no problems with the in-class execution regarding these equations. Due
to the diverse proficiency of students, more activities were provided for content
teachers. This way they could select and use extra activities on a supplementary
basis when there was adequate time for some groups of students.
At the delivery stage, the lessons were delivered to students smoothly. The
content teacher followed every step and most of the students actively participated.
Activities included doing pair work, group work, and giving presentations in
front of the class. The content teacher gave feedback to the students, and this
demonstrated that the students understood the lessons. Classes were not silent,
and they enjoyed discussing their tasks with the group. After giving the lessons,
the content teachers admitted that (1) they felt reluctant to use collaborative
activities because they usually lectured rather than doing activities and it took
much time to complete the lesson, (2) content teachers took more time for lesson
preparation and lesson delivery.
At the last stage, the content and language teachers met after the class and
discussed the content of the EMI lessons. They agreed that challenges are caused
by (1) inadequate knowledge about students’ language and content background,
(2) the silent classroom atmosphere, (3) low math or physics background, (4)
inadequate knowledge about how to assess the students’ understanding of
content and specific language use, and (5) limited time allocation for the lesson.
During the process of designing and developing the EMI lessons, conflicts
between language and content teachers were not avoided. Common
disagreements involved the use of definitions of key terms – the content teacher
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thought that giving only definitions does not help with understanding while the
language teacher thought this kind of exercise may help reading and vocabulary
learning and increase exposure to language in use. For example, when talking
about introducing the history of friction, the content teacher felt this was
information the students could find themselves if they were interested. In
contrast, language teachers found that this extra reading passage could help
improve reading skills. Quoted below was the excerpt from teacher interview.
• “To engineer students, the definition is just the term or the sentence, the
phrase of the statement. But if you understand the concept, right, I think
you don't have to remember. …all of the text in that sentence...if you
understand the concept, it can help you” Extract 6 (Semi-structured
interview)
However, despite of some conflicting ideas between the two groups, both the
content and language teachers agreed on the following points: (1) Language
(English) is the barrier to content understanding; (2) Having pre-teaching
activities for language preparation is helpful; (3) Figures and illustrations are
needed to simplify the content difficulty.
The satisfaction survey shown in Table 2 indicated the nine aspects that were
measured including the quality of teaching, the teacher's expertise and familiarity
with the subject matter, the efficacy of the teaching aids, the appropriateness of
the content taught, the level of content learned, the comprehensibility of the
lesson, the opportunity for collaborative work, the use of English as the medium
of instruction, and overall satisfaction.
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At the end of the survey, the open-ended question elicited students’ insights about
the lesson. Some students suggested integrating Thai language alongside English
for instruction. The overall sentiment towards the quality of teaching is positive,
with comments like "The quality of teaching is good," "Everything is good," and "This
is a good lesson." A few students indicated areas for improvement in teaching
materials. For instance, there was one suggestion to include 3D models, such as
the Clip 3D model, for enhanced learning. Students also mentioned vocabulary
challenges, indicating that some students may not be familiar with specific words
used during the lessons. While some students did express difficulty with English,
the use of visual aids like pictures helped in understanding the content. One
detailed feedback from a student emphasized the importance of effective teaching
methods. While acknowledging the expertise of many professors, the student
believed that there was room for improvement on how content was conveyed.
They went on to emphasize that visual demonstrations in some subjects are
deemed necessary.
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Results from the pre- and post-tests were presented in Table 3. The table illustrates
an overall trend of improvement from pre-test to post-test across most questions.
Initial scores were lower, and there was a significant increase in post-test scores,
indicating that the subject matter was better understood after intervention or
teaching. A paired-sample t-test was conducted to compare the means of pre- and
post-test and a significant difference in the pre-test (M = 49.68, SD = 0.44) and
post-test (M = 57.23, SD = 0.40); t(14) = 3.3499, p = .00 was found.
“I am satisfied because many specific words are found in the lessons that
are new to me. I can’t translate the words but the teacher helps me to
understand it using figures and illustration.” Extract 9
“I am satisfied because I learn both content and language from the same
teacher.” Extract 10
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5. Discussion
Findings showed that the collaborative design of EMI engineering lessons is a
systematic and iterative process. In this study, language teachers began by
analyzing texts for key linguistic elements, which then informed the joint lesson
design with content teachers. The lessons, delivered by content teachers, were
revised post-delivery through insights shared by both language and content
teachers. Though the content and language integration sounded promising,
training and support are needed as the process of material designing remained
challenging (see Başıbek et al., 2014). During the process of designing the
instructional materials, disagreements between the content and language teachers
arose, but still they worked smoothly until the end. For instance, both groups of
teachers agreed on the usefulness of figures and illustrations for complex
concepts, yet they faced constraints of time and assessment design. Additionally,
they sometimes disagreed on the inclusion of certain content, such as historical
context. Specifically, content teachers usually prioritized subject matter and
content coverage, while language teachers emphasized more on language
proficiency development and pedagogical strategies. Both content teachers and
language teachers had teaching and researching routines and other
responsibilities, therefore they were busy. As a result, it was difficult to devote
sufficient attention to collaborative materials design efforts. Regardless of
difficulties, such collaborative efforts resulted in contextualized teaching
materials (Bovellan, 2014; Nikula, 2008).
It can be implied that when both teachers work together, they could (1) finalize
the list of language and content items to be addressed (2) define the balance
between the two aspects within a limited time frame (3) possess the required
knowledge, as it is necessary for language teachers to grasp the subject matter and
for content teachers to have pedagogical knowledge. Both must have a similar
mindset regarding the learner-centered approach. (4) define the objective and
outcomes of lessons and each step (5) select the appropriate activities that facilitate
students mastery of both language and content (6) assess their understanding
through outcomes.
Further insights from students and teachers reported challenges arising from a
lack of knowledge about students' backgrounds in content and language
proficiency, unfamiliarity with technical vocabulary, and differing views on the
balance of language and content within the lessons. These challenges persist as
seen from the previous literature (Albraki, 2017; Ekoç, 2020; Gu & Ren, 2016; Kim
et al., 2017; Poosinghar & Chaiyasuk, 2022; Pun & Jin, 2021). Despite the
challenges, the satisfaction survey showed positive feedback across several
educational aspects, with the highest commendations for teaching quality and
instructors' subject matter expertise. Teaching aids and content appropriateness
also received favorable ratings, suggesting that the tools and materials used were
largely effective like in previous studies (Albraki, 2017; Ekoç, 2020). These
students recognized the benefits of English-medium instruction. The pre- and
post-test comparisons revealed a significant improvement in students'
understanding post-intervention, evidenced by a statistical analysis showing
higher mean scores in the post-test. However, there are indications that the level
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The need to address the appropriacy of materials was necessary. Thus, when
designing materials, the following were suggested, as the design process was
inherently complex, nonlinear, and time consuming due to several possible
factors.
The first factor that should be taken into consideration is the appropriate and
balanced integration of language and content. Integration of language and content
effectively requires careful consideration of pedagogical knowledge and subject
matter expertise. Thus, designing a task that helps attain two goals within a
limited time for each topic is extremely challenging (Mehisto, 2012). It is iterative
and requires multiple revisions because most decisions to maintain the proportion
of content and language are dependent on ensuring both sets of objectives are
adequately addressed. Thus, the content and language integrated materials
design and development process are time-consuming in practice and this needs
to be acknowledged and accepted. In addition, the lesson should be customized
for different students’ backgrounds. Another point that needs careful
consideration is that the content and language integrated materials were designed
based on the student’s background in both content and language knowledge to
lessen the cognitive burden when dealing with both the content and language
integrated content. Thus, knowing the students’ existing knowledge can decrease
problems in materials selection and activity design and serves the diverse needs
of learners with varying language proficiency levels and subject matter
knowledge. Since exercises should be accessible and engaging for all learners, the
difficulty of content and language use should be carefully graded and choices
should be provided.
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6. Conclusion
Since language ability has been claimed to be an important barrier in English
Medium Instruction (EMI) classes, preparing learning materials that have been
adapted with language considerations are considered advantageous. However,
there exists a gap in research regarding the design of such materials.
Consequently, this study pursued two objectives. First, it sought to investigate the
design and development of integrated language and content materials for EMI
engineering classes which were achieved through collaboration between content
and language teachers. Second, it aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of these
materials. The developmental process included four stages: corpus analysis,
lesson design, lesson delivery, and the sharing of insights culminating in joint
revisions. The AntConc corpus analysis tool, content and language teachers’
journals, pre- and post-tests, satisfaction surveys, and semi-structured interviews
were employed to collect data from three content and three language teachers and
102 students. The findings revealed significant differences between the students’
pre-test and post-test scores. Their high satisfaction with the integrated materials
highlighted the efficacy of language preparation for enhancing content
comprehension. Furthermore, the preference for group activities over traditional
lecturing was evident, leading to the learning experience being more engaging.
Respondants also suggested using figures, illustrations, and multimedia
resources to increase the comprehensibility of complex engineering content.
Despite the favourable learning outcomes, the joint design process of content and
language integrated materials reflected several complexities, such as time
constraints, and the balance of content and language modifications to include in
the materials. The study recommends that EMI materials developers possess
extensive pedagogical knowledge on content and language teaching to achieve
the delicate balance between content and language objectives that optimize the
dual learning outcomes. Knowing the students’ background knowledge is also
helpful for content selection. It is crucial to acknowledge these inherent
complexities and manage them from the outset of the process.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by Suranaree University of Technology (SUT), Thailand
Science Research and Innovation (TSRI), and the National Science, Research and
Innovation Fund (NSRF) (NRIIS number 179263).
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research agenda for CLIL pedagogies. International journal of bilingual education
and bilingualism, 10(5), 543-562. https://doi.org/10.2167/beb459.0
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Nataliya Bilous
National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine,
Kyiv, Ukraine
Mykhailo Saiko
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
Kyiv, Ukraine
Svitlana Isaienko
State University of Infrastructure and Technologies
Kyiv, Ukraine
Svitlana Hurinchuk
State University of Infrastructure and Technologies
Kyiv, Ukraine
Oleh Nozhovnik*
State University of Economics and Trade
Kyiv, Ukraine
*
Corresponding author: Oleh Nozhovnik, [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction
The traditional approaches to translation education, primarily relying on
dictionaries and manual linguistic analysis, have long been foundational methods
for imparting language structures and vocabulary. However, these methods often
fall short of adequately preparing learners for the multifaceted challenges of real-
world translation tasks (Liu, 2013; Muttalib M. Jawad, 2020). Notably, they
struggle to address context-specific nuances, accommodate cultural differences,
and keep pace with the dynamic evolution of language (Zainudin & Awal, 2012;
Zhao, 2023), thus revealing a significant research gap within existing translation
education methodologies. This gap poses a considerable hindrance to learners in
acquiring the necessary skills to meet the demands of contemporary translation
tasks effectively.
The escalating demand for skilled translators in professional settings underscores
the urgency to bridge this gap by equipping learners with adept skills and tools
aligned with modern requirements (Abdel Latif, 2020; Al-Qinai, 2010; Kobyakova
& Shvachko, 2016). Consequently, there is a pressing need for alternative
approaches capable of effectively addressing these shortcomings and better
preparing learners for the challenges posed by modern translation tasks. AI-
assisted app design and training emerge as promising solutions to fill this research
gap within traditional translation education (Chaudhry & Kazim, 2022; Kopp &
Thomsen, 2023). Leveraging the capabilities of Artificial Intelligence, these
applications can analyse extensive linguistic data, including corpora, parallel
texts, and online resources, thereby providing learners with comprehensive and
up-to-date information. By doing so, they address the deficiencies of traditional
approaches and contribute to bridging the identified research gap.
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2. Literature review
Conventional approaches and challenges in translation education methods
The theoretical framework guiding this study is grounded in the exploration of
conventional approaches and challenges in translation education methods, as
delineated in the existing literature. Traditionally, translation education has relied
heavily on established methods such as dictionaries, manual linguistic analysis,
and classroom instruction (Zanettin & Rundle, 2022; Man et al., 2022). These
methods have played pivotal roles in establishing a robust linguistic foundation,
enriching vocabulary, and imparting theoretical knowledge of language
structures (Boulton & De Cock, 2017; Malmkjær, 2017; Abdel Latif, 2020).
Nonetheless, they often fail to sufficiently equip learners for the intricacies of real-
world translation assignments, especially in handling context-specific subtleties,
cultural distinctions, and the evolving nature of language (Marais & Meylaerts,
2018; Stoian & Șimon, 2018).
Industry demands for more agile and innovative approaches to translation
education highlight the imperative for a paradigm shift (Massey, 2018; Wu et al.,
2019). Wang (2023) suggests that integrating technology, particularly artificial
intelligence (AI)-assisted app design and training, holds promise for addressing
these challenges and redefining translation education. Therefore, the theoretical
framework of this study is informed by an acknowledgment of the limitations of
traditional educational methodologies and the potential of AI-assisted
approaches to bridge the gap between theory and practice in translation
education.
Informed by this theoretical perspective, the research questions and methodology
of the study are designed to explore the transformative potential of AI-assisted
app design and training in translation education. By investigating the impact of
AI-assisted methodologies on students’ motivation, reflective practices, academic
performance, and the quality of written translation, the study aims to address the
shortcomings of traditional approaches and contribute to the ongoing discourse
on technology integration in education. Through this lens, the theoretical
framework informs the formulation of research inquiries and guides the selection
of appropriate research methods, emphasising the importance of bridging theory
with practical application in translation education.
In expanding the discussion to relevant empirical studies, it becomes evident that
several investigations have examined the intersection of technology and language
education, shedding light on various aspects of AI’s role in enhancing learning
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outcomes. For instance, Schmidt and Strasser (2022) delve into the potential of AI
in addressing the shortcomings of traditional language teaching methods,
emphasising its adaptive, personalised, and real-world relevance. Similarly, Dai
and Wu (2023) explore the impact of AI-driven language learning applications,
highlighting their capacity to provide tailored content and exercises, leading to
improved language proficiency.
Moreover, Hellmich and Vinall (2021) investigated innovative approaches
integrating AI technologies into translation education, such as translation
exercises augmented by AI feedback and virtual language labs with AI-assisted
simulations. Their findings underscored the potential benefits of these
approaches, including improved student engagement and more dynamic learning
experiences. In contrast, studies by Rebolledo Font de la Vall and González Araya
(2023) highlighted some of the challenges associated with AI-driven language
learning applications, such as the need for careful consideration of user experience
and potential ethical concerns. These empirical studies collectively contribute to
our understanding of the research topic by providing insights into the potential
benefits and challenges of AI integration in language education. While some
studies emphasise the positive impact of AI on learning outcomes and student
engagement, others stress the importance of addressing potential drawbacks and
ethical considerations. Aligned with the objectives of the current study, these
findings emphasise the importance of examining the transformative potential of
AI-assisted methodologies in translation education and provide valuable context
for interpreting the results of this research.
Role of AI in language learning and translation education
The role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in language learning and translation
education has garnered significant attention within the academic literature,
emerging as a transformative force in educational practices (Brenda, 2019; Wang,
2023). Schmidt and Strasser (2022) highlight AI’s potential to address the
limitations of traditional language teaching methods by offering adaptive,
personalised, and real-world relevant learning experiences. AI applications in
language-related contexts, such as machine-translation services and language
learning apps with AI-driven personalised recommendations, leverage vast
linguistic datasets to provide dynamic and effective educational experiences (Dai
& Wu, 2023; Zou et al., 2023).
In the domain of translation education, innovative approaches integrating AI
technologies have been introduced, extending beyond conventional methods
(Hellmich & Vinall, 2021). These approaches incorporate AI-driven tools into the
curriculum, including translation exercises augmented by AI feedback and virtual
language labs with AI-assisted simulations (Zhao & Jiang, 2021). Studies
evaluating these approaches reveal potential benefits alongside challenges that
necessitate careful consideration (Jiang & Lu, 2021).
Existing AI-assisted language learning applications demonstrate promise in
enhancing language proficiency by tailoring content and exercises to individual
learners’ needs and learning styles (Praktika.ai Company, 2023; Woo & Choi,
2021). The ability of AI to provide instant feedback and adaptive challenges
contributes to a more immersive learning experience, leading to improved
language outcomes and increased student engagement.
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3. Methodology
3.1. Research design
This study used a mixed-methods research approach employing a two-group
(Experimental and Control Groups) post-test-only design. The investigation
employed a quantitative approach to address the first research question and a
qualitative approach to address the second research question. The integration of
these approaches facilitated the contextualisation of findings, providing richer
detail to the study’s conclusions. The use of qualitative data allowed for the
illustration of quantitative findings (George, 2022). The choice of this study design
was grounded in the advantages of a two-group design, allowing for a direct
comparison between the experimental group receiving AI-assisted training and
the control group following traditional methods. The post-test-only design with
two groups enhanced the ability to infer causality, reducing threats to internal
validity compared to pre-test-post-test designs, thus minimising potential biases
introduced by pre-test sensitisation and enabling a clearer examination of the
immediate effects of the intervention. The visualised outline for the timeline of the
study is presented in Figure 1.
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Integration of
3. February 2023: App Students begin the design of First training session Practical sessions on
translation rules into
Design and First Round of their AI-based translator conducted by an IT generating prompts
the app design
Training assistant using Imagica.ai. professional for app design. for app training.
process.
4. April 2023: Midterm evaluation to Feedback session to Administration of a closed-book translation test to assess
Midterm Evaluation assess the progress of app address any challenges the quality of students' translations that used some rules
and Feedback design and training. and provide guidance. under study.
7. October 2023: Administration of Collection of quantitative data related to Collection of qualitative data
Closed-Book Test a closed-book motivation, reflection, academic through focus group discussions to
and Data Collection. test. performance, and translation quality. gauge student perceptions.
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familiarise EG students with the app’s interface and basic functionalities, guiding
them through app navigation, text input for translation, and feedback
interpretation. Practical exercises involved EG students translating sample
passages using the app and receiving real-time feedback, facilitating a controlled
environment for app usage practice and confidence enhancement. Advanced
training modules, progressively introduced throughout the course, addressed
complex translation scenarios and provided in-depth training on advanced app
features such as contextual analysis, grammar checking, and vocabulary
enhancement.
Development and Utilisation of AI-based Translation Apps
The development and utilisation of AI-based translation apps in this study were
facilitated through a structured approach aimed at engaging all participating
students effectively. Figure 2 presents key components of app design and use.
Rotational Engagement
•Students engage in rotational activities to interact with multiple apps developed
by their peers.
•Rotational approach ensures exposure to a wide range of app functionalities and
translation techniques.
b) Post-Test Administration
The research procedure entailed actively involving experimental groups in the
design of the AI-based translator assistant and its subsequent training during the
translation course. Conversely, the control group received training through
conventional translation education methods. In this study, the independent
variable was the integration of AI-assisted app design and student training, while
students’ motivation, reflective practices, academic performance in the translation
course, and the quality of written translation were considered dependent
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Qualitative research data drawn from focus groups were analysed using the
Speak web-based thematic analysis tool, powered by artificial intelligence and
specifically tailored for the examination of unstructured language data (Speak AI
Inc, 2023). The selection of this tool was deliberate, given its explicit design for the
analysis of data derived from interviews and focus groups. It operates by
transcribing audio files and subsequently conducting an automatic,
comprehensive analysis with features such as extraction, visualisation, and
prompting functions. A thematic analysis involved the identification of emerging
common themes and patterns within the discussion data. Pertinent areas were
systematically coded for further study. The perspectives and experiences of
individuals were subsequently compared to uncover commonalities,
inconsistencies, and contradictions within the qualitative findings.
Ethics Statements
Before focus group discussions, students were briefed on the study’s purpose and
objectives. Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee for the
Board of Academics at Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv.
Participants were assured of voluntary participation and confidentiality. Details
on data use and handling were provided, emphasising research purposes.
Potential risks and benefits were discussed. Contact information of the moderator
was shared for queries. Each participant confirmed voluntary participation and
understanding of study terms.
4. Results
This section unveils the impact of AI-assisted app design and training on students’
motivation, reflective practices, academic performance, and quality of written
translation in the translation course. The results below are derived from the quick
motivation and reflection scales for both the experimental group (EG) and control
group (CG), as well as from the analysis of intervention participants’ academic
performance in the translation course and the quality of their written translations
using the Independent Samples t-test. Students’ perceptions regarding the
integration of an AI-based and student-trained translation assistant into
translation courses are presented through the thematic analysis of data drawn
from the focus groups.
Impact of AI-Assisted Training on the Variables Under Study
The results obtained from the Independent Samples t-test and the assessment of
normality distributions across all variables consistently affirmed the effectiveness
of the intervention in the experimental group (EG). This led to notably elevated
levels of motivation, reflective practices, academic performance, and the quality
of written translation when compared to the control group (CG). The considerable
effect sizes underscore the substantive significance of the observed discrepancies,
implying that the intervention yielded meaningful and substantial effects on the
assessed outcomes. Despite acknowledging concerns regarding normality, the
robust statistical significance and substantial effect sizes across all variables
suggest that the observed differences possess practical significance and are not
solely attributable to deviations from normality. These findings underscore the
potential of AI-assisted training methodologies to positively influence students’
learning experiences and performance within translation courses.
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As shown in Table 1, the extremely low p-values (< 0.001) in the Independent
Samples T-Test results indicate statistically significant differences between the
two groups for all variables. The relatively large effect sizes (Cohen’s d) suggest
that the observed differences are not only statistically significant but also
practically significant.
For Motivation, the t-test indicates a highly significant difference between the EG
and CG, with a substantial effect size (Cohen’s 𝑑 = 1.98). The positive mean
difference of 0.587 suggests that participants in the EG had significantly higher
motivation levels than the CG. The 95% confidence interval (CI) further supports
this, ranging from 0.383 to 0.791. The potential departure from normality (𝑊 =
0.963, 𝑝 = 0.0273) does not undermine the strength of the significant results.
The t-test for Reflection reveals an extremely significant difference between the
EG and CG, with an exceptionally large effect size (Cohen’s 𝑑 = 6.22). The
positive mean difference of 1.589 indicates that participants in the EG
demonstrated substantially higher reflective practices than those in the CG. The
95% CI (1.413 to 1.765) reinforces the robustness of this finding. Despite the
potential departure from normality (𝑊 = 0.983, 𝑝 = 0.0086), the extremely
significant results and the substantial effect size emphasised the practical
importance of the observed differences in reflective practices, indicating a strong
impact of the intervention.
The t-test for Academic Performance uncovers a highly significant difference
between the EG and CG, with a notable effect size (Cohen’s 𝑑 = 3.71). The
positive mean difference of 17.141 suggests that participants in the EG exhibited
significantly better academic performance in the translation course compared to
the CG. The 95% CI (13.966 to 20.315) reinforces the substantial impact of the
intervention. The potential departure from normality (𝑊 = 0.968, 𝑝 = 0.0391)
does not diminish the strength of the highly significant results.
The t-test for the quality of written translation demonstrates a highly significant
difference between the EG and CG, with a considerable effect size (Cohen’s 𝑑 =
3.91). The positive mean difference of 16.846 indicates that participants in the EG
produced significantly higher-quality written translations than those in the CG.
The 95% CI (13.885 to 19.808) reinforces the substantial impact of the intervention.
Despite the potential departure from normality (𝑊 = 0.960, 𝑝 = 0.0225), the
highly significant results and the substantial effect size highlight the practical
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3.37%
9.55%
5.62% 45.51%
25.28%
10.67%
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Neutral Perspective: “So, the AI tool was pretty user-friendly overall, but I did hit a few
bumps. Those advanced features? A bit tricky to navigate, I won’t lie.”
Critical Perspective: “Eh, it was a bit hit or miss for me. Sometimes it did the trick, other
times, not so much. Kind of kept me on my toes.”
The keyword analysis offers valuable insights into the prevalent themes and focal
points discerned from participants’ comments concerning the AI-assisted
translation intervention. The identification of ten specific themes was facilitated
by examining the frequencies of keywords. These themes encompassed learning
and improvement, effectiveness, the translation process, AI assistant, guidance
and refinement, complexity, usual learning routine, overall comprehension and
coherence, transformative experience, and appropriateness.
Figure 4. Results of the Keyword Analysis Obtained from the Participants’ Comments
Related to the AI-assisted Translation Intervention
As illustrated in Figure 4, the recurrent appearance of terms such as “Learning,”
“Improvement,” and “Training sessions” suggests participants perceived the AI-
assisted translation tool as a contributory factor to their learning experiences and
skill enhancement. The repetition of the term “Effectiveness” three times implies
that participants likely engaged in discussions about the efficacy of the AI tool in
facilitating their translation tasks. The frequent mentions of “Translation,”
“Translation process,” and “Translations” indicate that participants shared
reflections on the tool’s impact on their translation activities. Moreover, the
prominence of terms like “AI assistant” and variations such as “Assistant”
underscores the central role of the AI assistant in participants’ comments.
Expressions like “More guidance” and “Refining prompts” suggest that
participants may have provided feedback on the level of guidance and prompts
offered by the AI tool. Terms like “Complex translation rules” and “Complex
translation tasks” indicate participants’ perceptions of the tool’s ability to handle
intricate translation challenges. The inclusion of “Usual learning routine” implies
a comparison between the AI-assisted approach and participants’ regular learning
methods. Additionally, the terms “Overall comprehension,” “Coherent
translations,” and “Conveying meanings” reflect discussions on how well the AI
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5. Discussion
The integration of an AI-based translation assistant into a university-level
translation course demonstrated transformative effects on students’ learning
experiences and outcomes, aligning with the research objectives. The study
explored the impact of AI-assisted app design and training on students’
motivation, reflective practices, academic performance, and the quality of written
translation within the translation course. Key findings revealed significant
improvements in motivation, reflective practices, academic performance, and
translation quality among students in the experimental group (EG) compared to
the control group (CG). Robust statistical significance and substantial effect sizes
underscored the transformative impact of AI-assisted training. Thematic analysis
using the Speak web-based tool revealed an overall positive sentiment (0.224),
emphasising Positive and Very Positive sentiments. The Neutral category
suggested a balanced perspective, while the combined Slightly Negative and
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Appendices
Appendix A. Focus Group Discussion Guide
Introduction:
1. Please share your overall perception of how the integration of the AI-based and
student-trained translation assistant influenced your learning experience in the
translation course.
2. How would you describe your experience in using the AI-based translation
assistant during translation exercises? Was it easy or challenging?
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3. Share your thoughts on the training sessions for developing prompts and using
the AI assistant. How did these sessions contribute to your understanding of
translation rules?
Impact on Learning Outcomes:
4. In what ways do you believe using the AI-based translation assistant improved
your ability to translate idiomatic and phraseological expressions?
4a. Did you find the AI-based translation assistant helpful in transforming
idioms during the translation process? Please provide examples from your
experience.
4b. Share your insights into the effectiveness of the AI assistant in translating
participial constructions/complexes.
4c. How do you think the AI-based translation assistant contributed to a better
understanding of conveying meanings of subjective modality?
Collaboration and Peer Learning:
5. Discuss how sharing prompts within the group facilitated collaborative
learning and improvement of the app-generated translations.
5a. How did peer interaction in designing the app and developing prompts
enhance your learning experience? Share specific instances or examples.
Perceived Challenges:
6. Reflect on any challenges you faced in understanding how to use the AI-based
translation assistant. What aspects were particularly challenging for you?
6a. Discuss your experience in developing prompts for the AI assistant. Was
this task challenging, and why?
Overall Satisfaction:
7. Share your overall satisfaction with the integration of the AI-based translation
assistant into the translation course. What aspects contributed to your satisfaction
or dissatisfaction?
7a. Would you recommend the use of an AI-based translation assistant to
future students in translation courses? Why or why not?
Closing:
8. Is there anything else you would like to add regarding your experience with the
AI-based translation assistant in the translation course?
8a. Do you have any suggestions for improvements or additional features that
could enhance the effectiveness of the AI-based translation assistant in future
courses?
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Fajri Ismail
Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah
Palembang, South Sumatera, Indonesia
Yunika Triana
Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Mas
Said Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia
*
Corresponding author: Mardiah Astuti; E-mail: [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction
Higher education plays a central role in the development of human resources,
serving as a key factor in enhancing individual capacities within society. The
understanding of the significance of higher education has been increasingly
underscored by the contributions of educational innovation to the success and
sustainability of a knowledge-based economy (Dill & Vught, 2010; Zulaiha &
Triana, 2023). Pramesworo (2018) also said the primary objective of higher
education is to equip students with fundamental knowledge and skills sufficient
to face real-world challenges. Therefore, universities function as educational
service providers with the aim of educating students with relevant knowledge
and skills.
The concept of higher education as a service can also be applied from a business
perspective, where institutions of higher learning can be considered as
producers generating the "product" of educated students. In this paradigm,
students are regarded as "customers" who utilize the educational services
provided by the university (Albulescu & Albulescu, 2014; Manea, 2014). The
influence of knowledge, both acquired inside and outside the classroom, is
acknowledged as a key element that shapes student performance (Wang et al.,
2011). Thus, a profound understanding of the dynamics of the relationship
between higher education institutions, educational services, and students as
customers is crucial in comprehending the role of higher education in fostering
human resource development and achieving sustainable economic success.
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2. Literature Review
2.1 Islamic-based Service Quality
In an effort to test the effects of Islamic-based service quality, this research
considers various aspects, one of which is student perceptions (Shahzad et al.,
2021). Customer perception states refer to beliefs regarding the delivery of
services that function as Islamic norms or references used to evaluate
performance in the context of Islamic universities (Zeithaml et al., 2013).
Evaluating service quality involves comparing student perceptions with the
existing reality. Zeithaml et al., (2013) also said that understanding the
expectations of students as customers is considered the initial and most
fundamental step in providing quality, Islamic-based services. A profound
understanding of students' perceptions of these services provides a crucial
foundation for the development and enhancement of service quality aligned
with Islamic values, thereby supporting the achievement of religion-based
educational goals.
Negative student perceptions can lead to losses in a competitive market
(Zeithaml et al., 2013). As a result, resources, time and costs appear to have been
wasted. In other words, customers must feel that they are receiving negative
value for the money and time they spend. Value can mean the benefits of buying
a particular product or service. Today, it's important to sell value or benefits, not
just lower-priced products and services. Value and price show a positive or
negative correlation (Quareshi, 2017), but Islamic values can show positive
perceptions (Hadi, 2023; Rifa'i et al., 2021). From the customer's point of view, in
this case, price is not everything, but the time spent on educational services and
the effort put into obtaining information is a larger non-monetary sacrifice.
Customer expectation is an important point in higher education for customers,
educators, mainstream media, practitioners and researchers (Retnaningsih et al.,
2023). In accordance with Bitner et al., (2010), when student services do not align
with students’ expectations, it gives rise to a Gap. The gap refers to the disparity
between students' expectations or anticipations of student services and what
they actually receive. When there is a mismatch between expectations and
reality, it can lead to feelings of dissatisfaction or mismatch among students.
Consequently, the university is obligated to make efforts to eliminate such gaps.
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For a long time this religious character has developed as social integration
between lecturers and students (Ene & Barna, 2015). This social integration will
create a sense of sensitivity and empathy for lecturers, staff and students. With
religious integration, this strategy is actually character education that is able to
improve religious social pedagogy skills and is able to increase student
discipline at Islamic universities (Ismail et al., 2013). According to them,
education is an important instrument in carrying out an action. Recently there
was a study which stated that a religious workplace can influence the attitude of
lecturers at a tertiary institution (Soliman et al., 2021; Tahmasbipour & Taheri,
2011). Research reveals that a religious workplace can increase engagement,
commitment, workforce agility, trust, and empowerment of lecturers. This
proves that this research is very likely to be developed further which makes
students as research subjects. Like research conducted by Chiang et al., (2020)
which showed that spiritual education in non-religious studies classes can in fact
increase spiritual competence. In addition, in Islamic religious character
education, higher education does not only place lecturers as teachers but also as
good role models and mentors (Jaafar et al., 2012). In this way, students are
expected to be able to increase self-efficacy in integrating Islamic religious
knowledge in everyday life. However, if observed more deeply, the role as a
good role model is not only aimed at lecturers. Higher education as a whole also
has a big role in changing religious attitudes, values and behavior (Hartley III,
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Students’ Perceptions on
Religiosity
Islamic-Based Lecturer Services
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design
This study adopts a quantitative survey method as an analytical tool, employing
relationship surveys as its primary form. A category of relationship surveys is
specifically designed to inquire about various aspects of student interactions
with different university components, such as faculty and staff (Cresswell, 2012).
The survey approach is not only comprehensive but also aims to provide a
profound understanding of student interactions with various entities within the
university environment. Through this method, in-depth analyses of the
strengths and weaknesses in their relationships, aiding in the improvement and
development of more effective policies (Zeithaml et al., 2013). This relationship
survey serves as an effective instrument for gaining insights into the dynamics
of interactions between students and university components, with a focus on
elements that may influence the quality of these relationships. Thus, this
research has the potential to make a significant contribution to improving the
quality of relationships among students and various aspects of the university.
More specifically, this research can examine the gap between students'
expectations or anticipations of Islamic-based student services.
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students, but only 750 students was randomly selected from all study programs
as the respondents. The study programs included the Madrasah Ibtidaiyah
Teacher Education (PGMI) study program, Arabic Language Education (PBA)
study program, Islamic Religious Education (PAI) study program, and Early
Childhood Islamic Religious Education (PIAUD) study program. The instrument
used was an internal survey. Thus, the questionnaire consisted of 24 statements
using a Likert scale. The five-point Likert scale was divided into Very
Appropriate (5), Appropriate (4), Neutral (3), Inappropriate (2), and Very
Inappropriate (1). The questionnaire consisted of three dimensions, namely the
dimensions of the Islamic-based lecturer services, the Islamic-based academic
staff services, and student perceptions on religiousity. The Islamic character
dimension of the lecturer and academic staff is an aspect that is based on Islamic
values. While the dimensions of student perceptions were based on student
satisfaction. They are presented in table 1.
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Theoretical
Aspect Indicator
Basis
8 workplace. 2013)
Students’ The students have a close engagement with (Soliman et al.,
Y1
perception on the university 2021)
religiosity (Soliman et al.,
Y2 The students are committed to worship well.
2021)
The students are committed to Islamic (Soliman et al.,
Y3
behavior. 2021)
The students know the relationship between (Soliman et al.,
Y4
courses and religiosity 2021)
(Soliman et al.,
Y5 The students can empower knowledge.
2021)
(Soliman et al.,
Y6 The students increasingly trust the university.
2021)
The survey above was converted into a Google Form and then distributed to
students within the timeframe from August 2023 to October 2023.
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If the data has a moderate, strong, or very strong correlation, it is tested for
linearity. The linearity test serves as assumption test. If the deviation from
linearity shows a significance value of > 0.05, the data is linear. The data that is
declared linear is tested using linear regression test to determine whether
Islamic-based lecturer and academic staff services affects the dimension of
students’ perception. If the significance value <0.05, the X variable has a
significant effect on the Y variable. If the significance value is > 0.05, this shows
that the X variable has no effect on the Y variable. If the significance value = 0.05,
t-count is compared to the t-table.
4. Results
In this study, the questionnaire responses obtained from 750 respondents were
analyzed statitically. The aim of this analytical process was to provide a
comprehensive overview of the characteristics and response patterns of the
participants. The results of the descriptive analysis, presented in Table 3, offered
clear and structured information regarding the distribution and variability of the
data gathered through the questionnaire. This table serves as the foundation for
evaluating and drawing general conclusions from the respondents' feedback,
facilitating a better understanding of specific aspects investigated in this study.
Table 3. Students' perception on the Islamic-based lecturer and staff services at the
Faculty of Educational Sciences
Description Islamic-Based Islamic-Based Students’
Lecturer Academic Staff Perception
Services Services on
Religiousity
Minimum Value 1 1 1
Maximum Value 5 5 5
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4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9
Based on the results presented in figure 2, most students considered that Islamic-
based lecturer and service was appropriate. The results indicated that the
Faculty of Educational Sciences has good Islamic-based lecturers services.
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0
X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15 X16 X17 X18
0
Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6
After descriptive analysis, the data were tested for correlation to determine the
relationship among aspects. The first correlation test was between the aspects of
Islamic-based (lecturer and academic staff) services and students’ perception.
Table 4 presents the results of the correlation test between Islamic-based lecturer
services and students’ perceptions.
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Table 4. Correlation test results between the aspects of Islamic-based lecturer services
and students’ perception on religiousity
Islamic-based Students’
lecturer Perception on
services Religiousity
Students’ Correlation
.655** 1.000
Perception on Coefficient
religiousity
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .
N 750 750
Spearman's Correlation
1.000 .812**
rho Coefficient
Students’ Correlation
.812** 1.000
Perception on Coefficient
religiousity
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .
N 750 750
The results of the Spearman's rank correlation test showed a significance value
of 0.00, which was smaller than the significance level of 0.05 or 0.01. This
indicated a correlation between the aspects of Islamic-based lecturer services
and students' perception on religiousity. The correlation coefficient of 0.812
derived from this test suggested a strong or high correlation between the two.
This positive correlation confirmed that there was a unidirectional relationship,
meaning that an improvement in the aspect of Islamic-based lecturer services
was associated with an increase in students' perception on religiousity, and vice
versa. In other words, as the quality of Islamic-based lecturer services improved,
students' perception tends to increase, and conversely.
Furthermore, the results of the linearity assumption test were presented in Table
5. This test aimed to ensure that the relationship between the aspect of Islamic-
based lecturer services and students' perception on religiousity could be
explained linearly. The outcomes of this test provided additional information
about the conformity of the data with the assumption of linearity, which was
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Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
* Islamic- Deviation
based lecturer from 48731.291 43 1133.286 .650 .960
services Linearity
Table 6 presented the results of the linear regression test, providing additional
information on how much the variable of Islamic-based lecturer services can
predict or influence students' perception on religiousity. These results aided in
understanding the significance level and direction of the relationship between
the two variables.
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Islamic-based
lecturer .950 .023 .829 40.598 .000
services
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The next step in the data analysis involved assessing the relationship between
the reliability aspect, which included Islamic-based academic staff services, and
students' perceptions on religiousity. As an initial step, a correlation test was
conducted as a method to measure the interconnection between these two
aspects. The information related to the results of the correlation test was then
revealed through the presentation of data in table 7, providing an initial
overview of the extent to which there was a connection between service
reliability and students' perceptions.
Table 7. Correlation test results between the aspects of Islamic-based staff services
and students’ perception on religiousity
Islamic- Students’
based perception
staff on
services religiousity
Kendall's Tau Islamic-based staff Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .581**
services Sig. (2-tailed) . .000
N 750 750
Students’ Correlation Coefficient .581** 1.000
perception on Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .
religiousity
N 750 750
Spearman's Islamic-based Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .740**
Rho academic staff Sig. (2-tailed) . .000
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Based on the results of the correlation test shown in Table 7, a significance value
of 0.00 was found, which was smaller than the significance threshold of 0.05.
This indicated a correlation between Islamic-based academic staff services and
students' perception on religiousity. The correlation coefficient value of 0.740
indicated a strong or high correlation between the aspects of Islamic-based
academic staff services and students' perception on religiousity. This positive
correlation signifies that the relationship between the two variables is
unidirectional, meaning that an increase in Islamic-based academic staff services
will be followed by an increase in students' perception, and vice versa.
In the data analysis, a significance deviation value of 0.100, which was greater
than the significance threshold of 0.05, indicated that the data regarding the
aspect of Islamic-based academic staff services and students' perception on
religiousity was linear. In other words, the pattern of the relationship between
these two variables could be explained linearly. As a subsequent step, a linear
regression test was employed to assess the extent of the influence of Islamic-
based academic staff services on students' perception on religiousity. The
results of this test were then presented in Table 9, providing detailed
information on the significance level and the impact of this linear relationship.
From the results shown in Table 9, we can comprehend the outcomes of the
linear regression test, offering an overview of how the variable of Islamic-based
academic staff services can predict or influence students' perception on
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Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Islamic-based acedemic
.849 .027 .750 30.998 .000
staff services
The table above provided an overview that the aspect of reliability (Islamic-
based academic staff services) serves as the independent variable, while
students' perception was used as the dependent variable. The significance value
of 0.000, which was less than the 0.05 significance level, indicated that the
reliability aspect, particularly the Islamic-based staff services, has a significant
influence on students' perception on religiousity. This implied that changes in
the reliability aspect have the potential to had a significant impact on how
students perceive the provided services.
The regression equation Y = 74.354 + 0.849X formulated from the analysis results
illustrated the relationship between the aspect of students' perception on
religiousity (Y) and the variable of Islamic-based staff services (X). In this
equation, 74.354 represented the intercept, indicating the value of students'
perception aspect when the variable of Islamic-based academic staff services (X)
was equal to zero. The regression coefficient of 0.849 implied that each one-unit
increase in the variable of Islamic-based staff services will result in an increase of
0.849 units in the aspect of students' perception on religiousity. This information
provided a deeper insight into the extent and direction of the development of
this relationship.
5. Discussion
The findings from the completion of data analysis indicated that Islamic-based
lecturer services had a significant influence on various aspects of student
perception on religiousity. This influence could be quantified through the
regression equation discovered, namely Y = 12.674 + 0.95 X, where Y
represented the variable describing the aspect of student perception, and X
represented the variable reflecting Islamic-based lecturer services. The
regression equation can be interpreted to mean that each increase of one unit in
Islamic-based lecturer services would be followed by an increase of 0.95 units in
the aspect of student perception on religiousity. This demonstrates a positive
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From the regression equation, it could be concluded that an increase of one unit
in Islamic-based educational staff services would be followed by an increase of
0.849 units in the aspect of student perception. This implies that the
implementation of Islamic-based educational staff services also had a positive
impact on student perception. The results of this research indicated that Islamic-
based lecturer and educational staff services play a crucial role in shaping the
perceptions of both students and pupils. These findings can serve as a
foundation for educational institutions to enhance the quality of Islamic-based
services, aiming to elevate the overall experience and positive perceptions of
both students and pupils.
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Furthermore, students' awareness that life is not just about worldly affairs but
also involves contemplation of the afterlife reflects their commitment to religious
values. This is manifested in the intensity and discipline they exhibit in
practicing worship (Savickaya et al., 2022). The increasing involvement with
worship indicates the positive impact of religious services in the campus
environment, which not only creates an academic setting but also shapes the
spiritual and moral dimensions of students' lives. Thus, it underscores the
importance of the roles of lecturers, academic staff, and religious services in
shaping the character and behavior of students in the Islamic educational
environment.
6. Conclusion
Islamic universities are considered primary agents in transforming the character
and values of students, as they provide a supportive environment for practicing
and integrating Islamic values into everyday life. Based on the recent research,
Islamic-based lecturer and academic staff services had a considerable influence
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©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction
Learning at all levels of education must be directed towards making a continuous
contribution to sustainable life and development. Stakeholders must make the
creation of a beneficial learning design their greatest concern (Jayantini et al.,
2022a; Purandina & Sari, 2022; Suastra et al., 2017). The need to strive towards
sustainable life and development must be brought into every field of study,
including foreign language learning (Choi, 2019; de la Fuente, 2021; Prabawani,
2021). In the case of language learning, opportunities must be given for students
to express critical thinking regarding the socio-cultural phenomena,
environmental issues, and all aspects of life relating to the dynamics of the
community and sustainability (Iakovos, 2011; Vdovina & Gaibisso, 2013). Critical
thinking can help students to increase their participation in society by
communicating more effectively (Vdovina & Gaibisso, 2013). Schools and
universities should focus on providing quality education that takes into account
the students’ backgrounds (Komisi Nasional Indonesia untuk UNESCO [KNIU],
2014). This can be done by integrating learning activities that align with the
knowledge and cultural values of the community, including the aim of living a
sustainable life by seeking to understand the local wisdom on which people’s lives
are based ( Sriartha et al., 2017; Surata et al., 2015).
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topics that are less contextual and rarely touch upon local values to be raised in a
global context (Jayantini et al., 2022a). In the foreign language classroom, the
introduction of local culture can be a means of incorporating current socio-cultural
contexts so that learning brings added value in supporting character-building,
critical thinking, respect for local wisdom and attention to the environment (Aglasi
& Casta, 2017; Wirahyuni et al., 2021). Authentic topics that are chosen for course
materials may have a positive impact on students’ motivation, depending on each
student's individual motives for learning, as well as the teacher’s classroom
management practices. Although the degree of progress may vary, authentic
materials may motivate EFL students to talk more readily (Hoang, 2022).
Planning for language learning, especially in the EFL classroom, can also consider
the involvement of other fields of studies related to environmental contents,
including the cultural values being respected by the local community, so that the
learning becomes more relevant and supportive of ESD. This concept aligns with
the potential for developing ESD in Indonesia, according to the Indonesian
National Commission for UNESCO, Ministry of Education and Culture (KNIU,
2014). The commission members pointed out several opportunities for the
application of ESD in Indonesia, such as the likelihood of Indonesian students
feeling more immersed in a local culture-based learning model.
EFL learning involves productive skills, reflecting speaking and writing abilities.
These two productive skills are easily recognized in terms of accuracy and fluency.
For accuracy, linguistic competence must be improved, while fluency can be
enhanced by undertaking more practical exercises that explore the students’
knowledge and insights into many different issues. Previous studies have focused
on the integration of local values in English learning and have recommended the
inclusion of local values to increase the value of learning English as the “global”
means of communication (Adawiah & Putri, 2021; Hasyim & Puspita, 2021; Laili,
2017; Purandina & Sari, 2022; Wirahyuni et al., 2021). However, no study to date
has applied participatory mapping to investigate the potential of local values being
utilized as teaching materials that explore the students’ knowledge and critical
thinking. Participatory mapping (PM) is a type of participatory action research
whereby participants collaborate to collect data in a certain place by producing a
map (Rubel et al., 2016); this gives students the opportunity to represent a socially
and culturally distinct understanding. PM can be utilized as a medium for
strengthening a community by spatially mapping themselves in terms of their
landscape and the values they attach to it; such aspects are commonly excluded
from mainstream maps (Lienert, 2019).
As the focus of this study, socio-legal topics explore the connection of legal aspects
with other fields – including sociology, anthropology, history, psychology, and
law – to report on the workings of law in people’s everyday lives (Irianto &
Shidarta, 2011; Irianto, 2012; Wiratraman, 2015). Meanwhile, eco-cultural studies
observe various aspects of the interaction of human beings with nature and their
environment. This study aims to show how socio-legal and eco-cultural
sustainability investigation can be reflected in EFL students’ writing. Writing has
always been a problem from English students, even though this skill is considered
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2. Literature Review
This section presents an examination of ESD in EFL learning. To clarify, the terms
socio-legal and eco-cultural aspects do not refer to a research design and approach
applied in this study. Instead, the terms are used to connect to the aims of the
study, i.e. mapping socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability topics in English
learning through participatory mapping, which is used as a method for
determining interesting discussion topics to be reported in the EFL writing
activity. Socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability are selected as topics to explore
the understanding of context interpretation in the Discourse Analysis course. The
two values are considered worth exploring for applying ESD to EFL learning since
they represent many aspects that could possibly enhance the students’ awareness
in maintaining social, legal, ecological and cultural values that are internally
connected with the local community to which they belong.
The learning design here takes into account the importance of selecting materials
for integrating ESD in EFL learning so that students can gain a greater benefit in
terms of opening their minds. Linking ESD to foreign language learning, this study
attempts to include several subtopics that can potentially be used to integrate
language learning and ESD. Planning relevant, high quality materials in EFL
learning must be done within a multidisciplinary framework (de la Fuente, 2021).
In order to insert ESD values into EFL learning, participatory mapping has been
widely used as a means of gathering data to encourage students to interpret their
area’s research findings. These results illustrate the participants’ achievements in
describing their perceptions, opinions and responses to various fields, providing
added value to sustainable development and education (Rubel et al., 2016; Surata
et al., 2014). The keyword for the inclusion of ESD in EFL learning is participation.
The learning activities can be designed as an effort to realise a "collaborative" and
"participatory” classroom. The application of these two characteristics is in line
with the utilization of local wisdom to evoke students’ awareness in EFL learning,
namely: (1) conducting a field study; (2) joining a discussion with community
members to gather meaningful data; (3) identifying values; (4) interpreting local
terms through their values; (5) elaborating local values to assess productive skills;
(6) reflecting on the impacts of collaborative work (Jayantini et al., 2022a).
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methods and the ways in which students learn. Instruction for ESD gives learners
the information, abilities, values and strategies to address the interconnected
worldwide challenges including climate change, misfortune of biodiversity,
unsustainable utilization of assets, and imbalance in resource management (KNIU,
2014). It also enables learners of all ages to make educated choices and partake in
individual and collective activities to change society and care for the planet
(UNESCO, n.d.). ESD should be a deep-rooted and necessary portion of quality
instruction. Furthermore, ESD improves the cognitive, socio-emotional and
behavioural outcomes of learning and includes learning materials and results,
instructional method and the learning environment itself (KNIU, 2014).
The socio-legal concept in this study adopts the interdisciplinary perspective that
combines social and legal studies, which is now a trend among legal studies. Socio-
legal issues include legal sociology, legal anthropology, legal history, psychology
and law, judicial political science studies, comparative science, and other
disciplines (Irianto & Shidarta, 2011; Irianto, 2012; Wiratraman, 2015). Practically,
the socio-legal term is needed to explain the workings of law in the daily lives of
community members. Socio-legal studies focus on the connection between the
legal and social aspects of human life. This approach considers that it is necessary
to know the contents of legislation and case of regulation implementation.
However, the approach does not provide an understanding of how the law works
in everyday life, or how the law relates to the societal context.
The term eco-culture seems to have been developed in response to the notion of
studying culture and the environment together. The study of eco-culture
investigates relationships between people and the environment, as well as
relationships among people. Additionally, it looks at the ways in which culture
affects these relationships. The eco-cultural approach is important for both
scholars and activists who are interested in understanding how culture and the
environment are connected (Ivakhiv, 1997; Surata, 2014). Because people are
starting to realize that the Earth's ecosystems are facing a significant problem, the
study of the environment has become more important. However, the
environmental problem is not merely a scientific issue. It is also a cultural issue
because it is thought about, talked about, and dealt with by people around the
world in terms of their own culture. Each particular group of people might
imagine and understand the crisis in a different way. A person’s knowledge will
determine how he responds to such a crisis. Cultural studies provide new
approaches to understanding the ways in which power and culture are connected
(Ivakhiv, 1997).
Eco-cultural studies are concerned with the ways in which people have power
over nature as well as the ways in which different cultures interact with the
environment (Ivakhiv, 1997; Surata, et al., 2022). Their focus includes issues such
as working with nature, enjoying nature, studying nature, and examining the
ways in which these interactions are controlled or repressed by politics.
Furthermore, eco-cultural students look at the ways in which ideas about nature
and the environment, the ways in which people interact with the environment,
and environmental politics and action are discussed and debated in different
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cultures (Ivakhiv, 1997). The focus of eco-cultural studies can also be promoted in
the EFL classroom to improve awareness of the ecological and cultural aspects of
life. Taking an eco-cultural approach to learning is similar to taking local wisdom
into English learning with a specific purpose, such as character-building
(Jayantini et al., 2022b). Similarly, it is expected that incorporating eco-cultural
values into EFL learning will be beneficial to the students; for example, by
providing them with meaningful topics that are related to their environment,
giving them an understanding of values and rules regarding cultural and
environmental management, and fostering cultural and environmental awareness
through exploring local values (Sukarno, 2012).
3. Method
3.1 Research Design
The concept of the research was primarily inspired by an exploration on ESD in
Foreign Language Learning (de la Fuente, 2022), which showed that teaching and
learning activities can contribute to authentic learning that fosters a different
atmosphere for EFL students. This was also done with a view to improving the
students’ language skills by presenting the specific topics on their cultural
backgrounds as well as mapping the cultural values that will help them to acquire
a deeper understanding of their culture, and specifically the socio-legal and eco-
cultural aspects. This study is a qualitative research through the triangulation of
methods; namely, the observation of participatory mapping (PM) conducted by
English students and representative community members prior to their writing
activity. This method was combined with content analysis to investigate the local
knowledge and insights that the students could use in their report writing to
identify how context in discourse is comprehended (Song, 2010). In-depth
interview accompanies the two methods for the students to reflect on their feelings
about the PM and the utilization of socio-legal and eco-cultural aspects to support
their understanding of legal and ecological values in their social and cultural
backgrounds.
The study was undertaken in a rural area, in a traditional village named Demulih.
The village is located in Susut District, Bangli Regency, Bali Province, which is very
rich in natural resources as a biocultural landscape. To conduct the participatory
mapping, the students acted as “researchers” by implementing the concept of PM,
involving representative community members to identify Balinese local wisdom
values as potential themes to be integrated into their English classroom. In their
participatory mapping, the English students interacted with community figures
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and members of the young generation, called sekeha teruna-teruni in Balinese, in the
village of Demulih, considering the richness of the village with its natural
resources, its sacred hill, religious ceremonies, and agricultural activities.
2. Implementation Phase
At this stage, PM was carried out by the English students. The students
had to explore and make a map of the research site before joining the
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with the village leaders and youth
groups. Several PM procedures were undertaken by the students,
namely: (1) preparing for the field study at Demulih village by identifying
socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability efforts to preserve the temple
networks and local wisdom values at the research site; (2) mapping the
borders of the village and checking Google captures of the village to
understand the geographical characteristics of the village; (3) facilitating
discussions with guided questions on the topic to be explored; (4) taking
photographs and video recordings (for documentation) and analysing the
sequences of events found at the research site; and (5) undertaking
interviews with the village leaders and youth group members.
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writing to show their feelings and perspectives on the local values related to
aspects of everyday life; for this study, socio-legal and eco-cultural awareness
were selected. Interpretation of the data was conducted using notes from the
discussions and recorded interviews using ATLAS.ti software. An output from the
software is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Word Cloud used to Map the Topics Discussed by the EFL Students
Figure 1 shows the word cloud produced on ATLAS.ti software after the final
reflection. This was compiled by formulating the concept of supplementary
teaching materials for the Discourse Analysis course based on the PM of local
wisdom values. The materials are useful not only to help students to improve their
language skills but also to increase their knowledge. The analysis was performed
through categorization using ATLAS.ti and was hoped to be relevant with the
approach of PM. The mapping emphasizes the active involvement of local
communities in utilizing knowledge about the space in which they live, with the
local values forming part of their natural landscape.
In summary, the results were interpreted in several stages, as follows: (i) observing
the students’ report writing; (ii) highlighting the use of local terms containing
socio-legal and eco-cultural aspects identified by the students; (iii) diving into the
village’s local values in assessing the students’ statements in their writing to evoke
their cultural and environmental awareness; and (iv) cross-checking the results of
the report writing with the in-depth interview to analyse the students’ reflections
on the importance of obeying the local rules and raising eco-cultural awareness.
4.1 Results
It is expected that the results of this research will contribute to the integration of
ESD in EFL learning, which was practically applied through several activities from
performing PM to reflecting on the identified values. By studying the local values,
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There are four aspects that show socio-legal values: (1) awig-awig, which is a
traditional law that is grown and respected by traditional communities; (2)
cuntaka, which refers to the existence of an unclean concept in carrying out sacred
activities that are believed in by the community and practiced in life; (3) bukit
(hill), whose sacredness is maintained; and (4) forests, which are also held sacred.
Meanwhile, the aspect of eco-cultural sustainability is contained in the written
report, in which four main terms indicate the relationship between humans and
the environment, which are further developed in the writing. The four terms
representing nature and culture, whose sustainability must be maintained, are: (1)
pura, which is a temple for people as devotees of Balinese Hinduism in Indonesia;
(2) setra, which is a cemetery for traditional communities, the purity and
preservation of which is maintained for holding cremation ceremonies or burials;
(3) ngusaba, which is a ceremony for expressing gratitude, love for nature and
God's work that has been given in human life; (4) srati, who is a person at the focus
of ceremonial activities, who helps to protect nature by regulating the use of
plants and ceremonial needs; and (5) wastra, which is sacred clothing related to
the naming of dances in ceremonies or the need to carry out ceremonies in
temples.
Table 1.
Socio-legal and eco-cultural aspects that show cultural values
Perspective of Local Values Values to be Adopted for
Sustainability ESD
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Table 1 highlights the socio-legal and eco-cultural values discovered following the
PM conducted by the English students. PM is a tool used by a community in the
exploration of a spatial map concerning the landscape and the values with which
people live. Thus, PM is very different from a normal map (Lienert J, 2019). When
utilizing PM in the EFL classroom, it is performed through a field study, with a
discussion involving the students in interviewing the community leaders before
making a map containing areas in the village that have specific rules and customs.
All of these activities are then outlined in their written reports. Content analysis
was particularly applied in analysing the students’ papers, which they had written
following the field study and their interaction with the village elders, traditional
community leaders, as well as the youth groups. To confirm the students’
perceptions on their own awareness of the values existing in the community, in-
depth interview was conducted to assess their comprehension. These activities
combined to make the study a worthwhile research design. The students’
identification of the socio-legal and eco-cultural values was performed based on
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the results of the students' writing and word clouds (see Figure 1). These were
obtained by entering words, phrases, clauses and sentences in the ATLAS.ti, which
is a software used for qualitative research that is relevant to the two sustainability
topics. The students were asked to express their ideas and write a report on the
results of the field study, which was to be categorized in two major topics; namely,
socio-legal sustainability and eco-cultural sustainability for topic development in
EFL learning.
The other values identified in the students’ report writing are cuntaka, sacred hill
and sacred forest. Cuntaka is a state of impurity, according to Balinese Hindus. It
is also known as sebel. People are said to be cuntaka for several reasons, such as the
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Extract 2 shows the socio-legal values that were identified by the students. In their
report writing, despite the grammatical errors and mechanical mistakes, the
students had to express their views regarding the existence of socio-legal values
in a society that thrives on local wisdom. The socio-legal sustainability of the local
community regarding regulations and awig-awig is the source of learning.
Supporting the socio-legal sustainability of Demulih Hill can be integrated as a
topic chosen for the EFL classroom as an effort to incorporate ESD.
Extract 1 (Student A)
There is a tradition in Demulih, a customary village with its protected and sacred hill.
Women in their period are forbidden to visit the hill that last for 12 days and 12 nights
Extract 2 (Student B)
The village of Demulih also has regulations both for carrying out ceremonies or for the
forest that the people there must obey. Among them are policies regarding ceremonial
facilities for temples, some are made in their respective homes, besides that during feast
day such as Purnama, Tilem, Tumpek and others, they are carried out at their respective
homes.
Ngusaba is one of the Hindu religious ceremonies. Ngusaba comes from the word
sabha. In Sanskrit the word sabha means to meet or gather. Thus, the ngusaba
ceremony is a ritual procession to remind humanity to constantly bring together
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various elements to improve the sources of life created by God. Ngusaba desa
(meaning village) is one of the major Hindu ceremonies, which involves the
sacrifice of one buffalo and one goat. Generally, this ceremony is divided into
three parts. The first is Ngusaba Gede, which is performed every fourth full moon
to save the earth and give people the spiritual strength to live according to
philosophical values as well as to maintain the preservation and function of the
elements of Panca Maha Bhuta (five great elements). The second is Ngusaba Alit,
which is held every fifth full moon; the last ceremony is Ngusaba Dalam, which
is held during the fifth month of Anggara Kasih (good Tuesday to conduct
ceremony).
Srati is part of the eco-cultural sustainability values for the role of srati (male or
female) in managing the use of natural resources needed for the ceremony. The
students were able to identify their significant role. The term srati banten (offerings
maker) usually refers to those acting as guides in the making of banten (offerings).
Srati is also needed to assist the pemangku (priest) or sulinggih (high priest) in
handling the banten during the ceremony. Finally, wastra is also known as busana
or pengangge (clothes). Wastra is a colourful cloth with its own meaning and
symbol. For example, the white colour represents purity, red symbolises the
existence of God, and yellow symbolises prosperity. To demonstrate the
identification of eco-cultural values, two extracts from the English students’
writing activity are presented to strengthen the mapping of eco-cultural
sustainability for topic development in EFL learning.
Extract 3 (Student C)
The rice fields in this village are shrinking every year as the land is used for housing,
livestock, and other purposes. As a result, the harvest is solely used for the village, and
owing to the enormous number of people who are not proportional to the harvest in the
village, the harvest must be purchased again from outside the village. In Bali, many
ceremonies are often conducted by the society. The ceremonies are also related to the
maintenance of the subak in this village.
Extract 4 (Student D)
The preservation of the upakara plants found on Demulih Hill is maintained. The
preservation of natural resources in Bukit Demulih can be well maintained until now, of
course, cannot be separated from the role of the village community. Although the people of
Demulih Village often pick leaves from this sacred plant, it does not make the natural
resources of Demulih Hills diminish or disappear. This is because the Demulih village
community takes leaves or plants that are used sparingly and not excessively. In addition,
the people of Demulih Village also cultivate several traditional plants in their yard. The
awareness that the people of Demulih Village have motivate them to continue their
dedication to preserve their culture.
Extracts 3 and 4 underline the importance of preservation and how to deal with
the challenges through the following statements: “The rice fields in this village are
shrinking every year as the land is used for housing, livestock, and other purposes” and
“The preservation of the upakara plants found on Demulih Hill is maintained”. In terms
of eco-cultural sustainability, the physical aspects of the hill and ways in which
people try to preserve the tradition and manage the use of natural resources for
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ceremonies are also good values to learn. The sacred forest, with its unique eco-
culture, including the plants for ceremonies, also illustrates the core points of
sustainability that can be potentially explored as teaching materials, with lessons
to learn and values to respect. The teaching materials can be taken from the results
of PM, which are subject matters that the English students could explore. In order
to convey the local concepts in the local language, i.e. Balinese, the students must
translate and interpret them well. The translation involves methods that need to
be applied as well as understanding the semantic relationships between the
English words, phrases, clauses and sentences, which are used as a means of
conveying meaning. These aspects of integration result in two benefits. On the
one hand, the incorporation of socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability will be
realized by including this as one of the topics to be explored in teaching the four
major language skills, which was specifically writing, in the case of this study. On
the other hand, it is expected that the students could succeed in conveying what
they have learned. The identified values are included in the report text, which
indicates their awareness of the local wisdom, particularly in terms of socio-legal
and eco-cultural sustainability.
5. Discussion
In EFL learning, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) encourages all
stakeholders to be creative in order to provide a better experience and support the
students to gain new knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that will foster a
more sustainable and equitable society for all. In this study, students participated
in participatory mapping in order to experience and explore potential topics
related to the issues of sustainability in line with ESD’s aims, i.e. to empower and
equip current and future generations to meet their needs using a balanced and
integrated approach to various issues, including the economic, social, legal and
environmental dimensions of sustainable development. By incorporating key
sustainable development issues into teaching and learning – for example, the
connection of people with environmental rules for their cultural preservation –
the English department students were able to share ideas, perspectives, and
opinions to develop and demonstrate their communication skills. This study has
illustrated how participatory teaching and learning methods can be applied to
motivate and empower learners to change their behaviour and take action
towards sustainable development. In this way, ESD consequently promotes
competencies such as critical thinking, visualising potential future scenarios and
making decisions collaboratively (University of Plymouth, 2014).
The findings of this study strengthen the argument for incorporating local values
into the EFL classroom. Introducing the element of community to the contextual
materials will provide students with additional values alongside their target of
enhancing the four major language skills. By providing them with various topics
related to many aspects of life that can enrich their knowledge, students are given
the opportunity to learn about sustainable development. In Indonesia, everyone
can work together to map their natural surroundings, including the phenomena
that teach people values. People can work together to map the issues they want to
investigate.
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This should involve all of the stakeholders. In Indonesia, teachers, students, and
experts can work with local communities to create a learning environment that
helps students to understand how to live together in a way that is good for
everyone as well as the environment. This could be done by choosing specific
subjects that will help people learn about culture, social life, and the environment.
When learning English, everything should be related to learning English that
gives added value (Nur, 2013; Suwastini et al., 2020). In this research, the
participants studied the ways in which socio-legal and eco-cultural sustainability
issues are relevant in an effort to incorporate contextual learning in the EFL
classroom in tertiary education as the main concept of ESD. This could be done
through participatory mapping when students are working with the community
to map their local values; the lecturer can then utilize the results of the mapping
as the topics for the students’ writing task. An assessment of the writing will then
reflect the knowledge and experience the students have gained. This could help
teachers to develop better ways of teaching that are more practical in real life.
When EFL learners are able to talk about issues outside of the language they are
learning – for instance, the environment and how to keep it safe and healthy – it
is worthwhile including different topics and issues recommended for ESD. The
learning design can help students to learn how to take care of the environment as
part of their education (de la Fuente, 2021; Prabawani, 2021; Purnamasari &
Hanifah, 2021).
Incorporating local values to support ESD in EFL at university level is in line with
the immersion program at the primary level. Immersion can help improve
academic and language development through the use of two languages as well as
developing students' appreciation of their own and other cultures. One of the
important keys to immersive education is knowledge of the language and culture
that could be used as a learning resource (Fortune & Tedick, 2003) so that the
relationship between language and national identity is strong and they are
inseparable from each other (Fishman, 1985). Thus, the students will become
proficient in the language, increasing their cultural awareness as well as achieving
high academic attainment (Supriyono & Dewi, 2017). Education that prioritizes a
local cultural approach, in addition to addressing global issues, must become a
priority for all stakeholders. As a source of learning materials for students, the
environment is perfectly rich, offering learning resources that may include
physical, social and cultural aspects. The environment can act as a learning
medium, but also as an object of study or learning resource. Moreover, children
often enjoy using the environment as a learning resource. Utilizing the
environment can help to develop a number of skills such as observing (with all
the senses), taking notes, formulating questions, hypothesizing, classifying,
writing, and making pictures/diagrams (KNIU, 2014).
6. Conclusion
Participatory mapping was utilized in this study to identify the local knowledge
that can be classified as portraying social-legal and eco-cultural values to support
ESD in various learning activities, including EFL learning in Indonesia. The
results can be useful for designing EFL programs that offer greater benefits to
students and allow them to enjoy contextual and enriching learning. In this
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1. Introduction
In the ever-evolving realm of education, the infusion of digital technologies has
sparked a revolution, reshaping age-old teaching practices and embarking on new
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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Even so, as teachers navigate this digital landscape, they find themselves at a
crossroads, grappling with the need to master these new tools to truly enhance
the learning experience (Kure et al., 2022). It's not just about using technology; it's
about weaving it seamlessly into the fabric of the classroom instruction.
Moreover, recent global events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have accelerated
the adoption of digital education, compelling educational institutions and
instructors to reassess and adapt their approaches to teaching literature (Triasanti
et al., 2022). This rapid transition has brought to the forefront various concerns,
including issues of digital equity, technological infrastructure, and the
development of digital literacy skills, underscoring the evolving dynamics
between conventional and virtual learning environments.
2. Methodology
This review has provided an in-depth investigation into the effects of digital
technology integration and implementation on the teaching and learning of
literature in ESL classrooms, as well as how it affects the course instructions. The
content analysis and article reviews were done by hand by the researchers. Based
on an initial search, there were 100 journal articles which were then filtered in
order to perform the systematic review where 10 research papers were selected
and assessed. This review also systematically included journal publications and
research findings from the last 10 years on digital tools in education such as video
conferencing and blogging related to the teaching and learning of literature in ESL
classrooms from both domestic and international scholars. A variety of databases,
including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Web of Science (WoS), and the
Education Resource and Information Centre (ERIC), were used to find papers on
related issues. Identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion were the four
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steps followed for this paper to be in compliance with the Preferred Reporting
Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach. The
selection process for the selection of the articles according to PRISMA is depicted
in Figure 1.
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3. Findings
The distribution of the selected papers published between 2016 and 2023 is shown
in Figure 2, which sheds light on the state of the field of study on the use of digital
technology in ESL literature instruction. Remarkably, there is a noticeable rise in
the quantity of publications released in 2022 and 2023, indicating the expanding
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scholarly curiosity in this field. To look at the state of current research on the use
of digital technologies in ESL literature instruction, how it affects literary teaching,
and the difficulties faced by teachers in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, this
paper conducted a systematic review of 10 key articles stated in the previous
chapter.
New avenues of digital technology tools in the teaching and learning of literature
in ESL classrooms include the usage of e-books and blogging platforms. Gurova
(2018) described current trends like e-books, blogs and other social networking
platforms as playing a crucial role in the teaching and learning of literature in ESL
classrooms in the digital age. In this sense, teachers now have more means to
encourage students to delve into the literature and express themselves creatively
through these tools. Gurova (2018) also emphasised how new technologies have
the ability to change lives, particularly by improving the students' writing and
reading skills. The results of the research reveal that incorporating blogs and e-
books into lessons greatly enhanced the writing and reading skills of the students.
Furthermore, the students could easily access a variety of literary texts and
interact with them through the use of e-books With the use of e-books, the
students had access to other resources including videos, audio files, and
interactive tests that improved their comprehension and analysis of the texts
(Felvegi & Matthew, 2012). In addition, by using blogs, the students were able to
express their ideas and opinions, engage in active participation in literary debates,
and get feedback from both their teachers and peers. The students' critical
thinking abilities were enhanced and their comprehension of the texts was
deepened by this participatory and team-based method of teaching literature in
ESL classrooms.
Google created Google Education (GE) tools for use as an aid for teachers in
conducting lessons, involving a variety of easy-to-use tools, and also to help
students enhance their skills. In a study done by Moorhouse and Wong (2022),
they pointed out GE tools as being one of the digital technologies used to assist
distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. In recent years, especially after
a sudden shift in the educational field caused by COVID-19, teachers began to
consider GE tools as a medium for teaching and learning. That being said, English
literature teachers are not excluded from making use of GE tools for their lessons,
particularly in the ESL classroom setting. A range of digital materials, including
Google Docs, Google Slides, and Google Classroom, are accessible to teachers
through the usage of GE tools. According to Andrew (2019), these tools can be
used to generate interactive and collaborative assignments, encourage debates,
and provide students with immediate feedback. Additionally, GE features give
students the chance to interact more actively and in an immersive manner with
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the content. Therefore, Moorhouse and Wong (2022) concluded that teaching and
learning English language, particularly literature, with GE tools fosters digital
literacy abilities as students learn how to operate and navigate a variety of digital
platforms. All things considered, there are many benefits to using GE tools in the
teaching and learning of literature in ESL classrooms including improved
teamwork, creativity, and digital literacy. The way literature is taught and learned
in ESL classrooms has also been revolutionised by the use of GE tools (Moorhouse
& Wong, 2022).
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Bui’s (2022) viewpoint is aligned with the aforementioned study. In her study, Bui
(2022) revealed that the English teacher’s competence with digital technologies
acts as one of the factors shaping the implementation of digital technologies in
teaching and learning. With the competence to handle digital tools in the
classroom, the teacher will be able to develop their self-confidence and
manoeuvre the tools while teaching. This will smooth out the whole instructional
process with the students. Even so, in some cases, teachers could feel discouraged
to implement digital tools while teaching due to the fact that the students are more
skilled and adapted to the technology from a young age. That being said, a
teacher's motivation and confidence are crucial in order for them to be able to be
competent at incorporating digital technologies in teaching and learning
specifically for literature in ESL classrooms.
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depending on various factors that either increase or decrease their resilience to the
stressors involved with online teaching.
Additionally, Lo (2023) pointed out that a number of teachers agreed that digital
technologies present numerous benefits related to their teaching approaches
where, despite their initial difficulties adjusting to their new virtual environment,
there were plenty of ready-to-use digital tools they could use in their teaching.
The teachers also believed that this lessened the need for them to carefully prepare
their courses, for example, by moving the information into interactive formats for
face-to-face teaching and learning (Lo, 2023). This proves that the teachers' digital
competency plays a huge role in ensuring the sustainability of the teaching and
learning of literature in ESL classrooms. In a recent study by Dai (2023), she
stressed that the teachers’ digital competency is crucial in teaching and learning,
and that it is important to enhance the teachers’ numeracy skills as well as help
them to adjust to cutting-edge technologies at the same time. To facilitate their
future professional growth, teachers ought to offer a set of well-organised,
customised digital competency self-evaluation processes (Dai, 2023).
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platforms. This has caused disruptions in the educational process by making the
learning curve high for both teachers and students (Zarei & Mohammadi, 2021).
Rababah (2020) noted that practising and evaluating specific elements of English
literature, including speaking skills, might provide challenges. It can also be
difficult for teachers to gauge their student's comprehension of nuanced literary
theories and concepts as well as their capacity for literary text analysis and
evaluation (Niu, 2020). Additionally, the lack of face-to-face interactions and
group activities can also prevent students from participating in important peer-
to-peer learning experiences and cooperative projects, which are crucial for
improving their comprehension and appreciation of literature in ESL classrooms.
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4. Discussion
A growing trend in the use of digital resources for teaching and learning literature
in ESL classrooms is presented by the review of the literature. On the other hand,
there is a significant research gap when it comes to investigating the greater range
of digital tools and technology that can be used for teaching ESL literature.
Previous research has primarily examined specialised tools such as virtual reality
platforms and online discussion forums, with little attention paid to other possible
digital resources. The emphasis placed on specialised digital tools suggests that a
larger range of accessible technologies should be included in future study
investigations. Additionally, a lack of comprehensive research on the
effectiveness and educational consequences of these technologies points to a
knowledge vacuum about their influence on literature instruction in ESL
classrooms. Further research is necessary in this area, as evidenced by the scant
research on the difficulties that instructors have while integrating digital tools.
The findings from this study underscore the significance of diversifying the scope
of research to include a variety of digital technologies beyond those that are
frequently examined. The more successful incorporation of digital resources in
the teaching and learning of literature in ESL classrooms can result from an
understanding of the pedagogical implications of these technologies and
resolving the difficulties that teachers confront. Furthermore, the dearth of
discussion regarding how digital technology affects student engagement,
motivation, and critical thinking highlights the necessity of more research into
these areas in order to improve the teaching and learning outcomes. Nevertheless,
it is pertinent to note that this review has limitations even if it offers insightful
information about the state of the field. This is because relying only on previously
published works could ignore cutting-edge digital tools and technologies that
haven't been thoroughly investigated in scholarly studies yet. Furthermore, it's
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possible that this review's scope left out important contributions to the area by not
including any relevant papers.
5. Limitations
As with the majority of studies, the design of the current study is subject to
limitations. For instance, the examination and analysis of previous research on the
use of digital tools for teaching and studying literature in ESL classrooms is the
primary focus of the present research. Therefore, it might not cover all pertinent
research papers or newly developed digital tools and technologies that haven't
been covered in scholarly publications yet. Additionally, the study may not
adequately reflect recent developments or shifts in the area because it only looked
at material published between 2016 and 2023. Beyond this timeframe, more recent
studies may provide new viewpoints or insights not included in the analysis.
6. Conclusion
To sum up, this systematic review of the literature clarifies the present status of
research on the use of digital technology in ESL classrooms for the teaching and
learning of literature. While the evaluation notes that there is a growing trend in
the integration of digital tools, it also points out that there is a large research gap
when it comes to investigating a greater range of digital resources and their
potential pedagogical implications. Although the majority of research to date has
concentrated on specialised tools such as virtual reality platforms and online
discussion forums, there is still a scarcity of information regarding the wider
range of technologies that are already accessible and how well they might be used
to improve literature instruction in ESL classrooms.
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7. References
Alakrash, H. M., & Abdul Razak, N. (2022). Technology-based language learning:
investigation of digital technology and digital literacy. Sustainability, 13(21),
12304. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132112304
Al-Nuaimi, M N., Al-Kabi, M N., & Al-Emran, M. (2021). Digitizing Learning During the
Outbreak of COVID-19 Pandemic: Lessons Learned from the Most Infected
Countries. 348, 291-303. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67716-9_18
Belmahdi, A., Li, J., & Muirhead, B. (2022). Youth English Language Learners’
Learning Outcomes and Experiences of Digital Technology-Based Writing
Instruction: A Literature Review of Key Empirical Evidence. Journal of Digital Life
and Learning, 2(1), 1-51. https://doi.org/10.51357/jdll.v2i1.166
Bui, T. H. (2022). English teachers’ integration of digital technologies in the classroom.
International Journal of Educational Research Open, 3, 100204.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2022.100204
Dai, W. (2023). An empirical study on English preservice teachers’ digital competence
regarding ICT self-efficacy, collegial collaboration and infrastructural support.
Heliyon, 9(9), e19538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19538
Du, M. (2023). The Impact of the COVID-19 on Digital Technology-based Teaching and
Learning in English Language Education: A Systematic Review. Advances in
Humanities Research, LNEP (2023), 2, 516-527. https://doi.org/10.54254/2753-
7048/2/2022366
Esa, I., Hashim, H., & Jamal, M. F. (2021). Pupils’ Perception on Online Games for ESL
Vocabulary Learning Among Primary School Pupils. International Journal of
Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 10(3), 254–264.
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Gürova, E. (2016). How Recent Trends Shape English Literature. Proceedings
of SOCIOINT 2016. 3rd International Conference on Education. Social Sciences
and Humanities, 536-538. https://www.ocerint.org/socioint16_e-
proceedings/abstracts/papers/112.pdf
Haden, E. (2023). Post-pandemic theatre: The transformation of the literary form through
the digital landscape. Theses and Dissertations, College of Human Sciences and
Humanities Projects, Theses, and Dissertations. Alfred R. Neumann Library,
University of Houston, Clear Lake. https://hdl.handle.net/10657.1/3020
Hidayat, M. T. (2019). The analysis of teacher’s belief on digital literacy in foreign
language teaching. English Education and Applied Linguistics Journal (EEAL Journal),
2(1), 36-41. https://doi.org/10.31980/eealjournal.v2i1.1080
Junaidi, Y., Hashim, H., & Ismail, H. H. (2022). ESL Teachers Perception And Attitudes
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1. Introduction
The ability to perceive refers to the mental capacity of an individual to process
information, solve problems, and make decisions. In the context of chemistry
education, cognitive ability plays a vital role in comprehending complex concepts
and applying them to real-world scenarios. Numerous studies have highlighted
the significance of cognitive ability in chemistry learning. The chemical cognitive
ability, which involves understanding and interpreting the language and symbols
of chemistry, is essential to help students comprehend the world around them
and make informed decisions regarding health and environmental issues (Yunita,
2017). Chemical awareness, that is, learning about the natural world from a
chemical perspective, and applying acquired knowledge and skills have been
identified as necessary competencies for students in the General Chemistry
Curriculum (Nha, 2018). In the scope of our study, we are interested in the concept
of chemical cognitive ability. This refers to the individual’s ability to be aware of
basic knowledge about substance structure, chemical processes, chemical
transformations, and some basic chemical reactions. Therefore, developing
chemical cognitive abilities for students is crucial in chemistry education. Various
methods can be employed to develop students’ chemical cognitive abilities,
aiming to promote active learning and critical thinking through hands-on
activities, group discussions, and problem-solving tasks.
and textual explanations (Enero Upahi & Ramnarain, 2019). These limitations
hinder students in their ability to fully grasp atomic concepts and hinder their
overall learning experience in chemistry education.
2. Literature Review
The integration of AR technology into science education brings forth a plethora of
advantages that significantly influence students’ motivation, engagement, and
learning outcomes. Studies by Khan et al. (2019) and Fearn and Hook (2023) have
illustrated that AR applications enhance learning motivation and stimulate
student interest in science, especially at the undergraduate and primary levels.
The immersive nature of AR experiences captures students’ attention, rendering
learning more enjoyable and effective. Particularly in science education, AR offers
visual and interactive representations of abstract scientific concepts, enabling the
comprehension of complex phenomena that are difficult to visualize in traditional
learning settings (Guo et al., 2021). Moreover, research has indicated that
incorporating AR enhances students’ comprehension and retention of scientific
information (Huang et al., 2019).
Innovative teaching methods promoting active learning are pivotal for enhancing
students’ cognitive abilities in chemistry. Technology-driven approaches, such as
virtual experiments, enable learners to simulate intricate phenomena and grasp
fundamental principles (Hoai & Thao, 2021). These experiments instill curiosity,
creativity, and a passion for scientific exploration, fostering cognitive
development among students. Additionally, the utilization of software to create
3D simulations in organic chemistry education aids students in mastering
complex concepts (Hoai et al., 2023). AR technology also fosters the development
of higher order thinking skills by engaging students in problem-solving and
decision-making processes (Moro et al., 2020). These benefits include increased
long-term-memory retention, enhanced content understanding, improved task
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engagement and understanding (da Costa Coelho et al., 2022). In high school
chemistry education, AR technology allows students to conduct virtual
experiments, observe reactions under a microscope, and comprehend chemical
equilibrium states through interactive AR cards (Tarng et al., 2022). AR
technology has also been utilized in chemistry education through the
development of an accessible AR application, Chemistry Access, aimed at
teaching atomic connections and compound formation to visually impaired
students. Furthermore, AR technology has been used to create a virtual
experiment to teach the principles of the Daniell cell in high school chemistry,
improving academic achievement, particularly for low-performing students
(Tarng et al., 2021).
Although there are numerous applications in education, studies have affirmed the
positive impacts of AR technology in education. However, further research is
needed to explore the specific advantages of AR in chemistry education,
particularly the benefits of AR in enhancing chemical cognition in chemistry
education. Therefore, this study aimed to address the following questions:
1. How is AR used in teaching chemistry?
2. How has AR technology supported the enhancement of students’
chemistry perception skills?
3. Methodology
3.1 Study Overview
Figure 1 presents a flow diagram of the study overview.
Selecting experimental
subjects
Pre-assessment of the
impact
Building simulations
using AR tools
Developing a teaching
plan and implementation
Post-assessment of the
impact
This experimental study was conducted in two classes in Hanoi, Vietnam with
similar proficiency criteria. The classes were designated by the school’s teachers.
We randomly selected one of the two classes as the experimental group, and the
remaining class served as the control group. The experimental group consisted of
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To conduct the experiment, we devised two teaching plans for both the
experimental and control group. We employed the flipped classroom method for
both groups, wherein the experimental group received additional simulations of
molecular structures and chemical bond formation created by an AR application.
The post-experiment survey, which employed a Likert scale with six options, from
1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree), focused on four issue groups: “Learning
Attitude”, “Satisfaction when Using AR Applications”, “Knowledge Absorption”,
and “AR Utilization Ability”. This survey was built upon the research of Hwang
and Chang (2011) and references the studies of Chu et al. (2010) and Cai et al.
(2014).
Regarding using the QuimiAR application directly in learning, the application can
be downloaded from the App Store or Google Play Store. The interface of
QuimiAR consists of two groups: covalent bonds and ionic bonds. Students select
these groups and then choose the chemical molecules they want to observe.
For the use of pre-built 3D simulations, the research group uses the QuimiAR
application to build some simulations of bond formation in certain molecules. The
stages of simulating bond formation include:
• Describing the structure of the atoms that will form bonds, including
valence electrons.
• Describing the process of bond formation, specifically the process of
giving and receiving electrons to form ion bonds and the process of
sharing electrons to form covalent bonds.
• Describing the molecular structure after bond formation.
The flipped classroom method was utilized in the lesson, where experimental
lessons were supplemented with simulations of chemical bonding and the
QuimiAR application. Students also used additional devices such as computers,
smartphones, tablets, etc. for learning.
The flipped classroom method involved three phases.
This study identified the chemical cognitive abilities that students need to achieve
in studying chemical bonding. This included students’ recognizing fundamental
knowledge about substance structure, chemical processes, some basic chemical
substances, and chemical transformations. Each criterion was quantified with four
levels of the Thinking Levels Assessment Scale proposed by Boleslaw Niemierko
to determine the level of thinking of chemical cognitive abilities (Level 1: poor;
Level 2: average; Level 3: good; Level 4: excellent) (Gajek, 2019).
Building the test. To assess students’ chemical cognitive abilities, the criteria were
specified to align with the content taught. We conducted an assessment of
students’ chemistry cognitive abilities through evaluating their learning process
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both during online and in-person classes, along with assessments using quizzes,
each consisting of 10 questions. The questions were presented in the form of
objective multiple-choice questions, with the distribution of levels as follows:
Level 1: recall/recognition (40%); Level 2: understanding (30%); Level 3:
application lower level (20%); Level 4: application upper level (10%). All tests
were conducted by students through Google Forms within a 15-minute time
frame.
4. Results
AR simulations of chemical bond formation provide visual representations,
assisting students in understanding and visualizing the interaction of atoms when
forming ion bonds and covalent bonds. This helps to form the concept of chemical
bonding. As a result, students become interested in learning chemistry and
develop cognitive ability in chemistry. The following assessment results confirm
that students’ chemical cognitive ability is enhanced after teachers use simulations
of chemical bonding designed on the QuimiAR software for student learning.
Table 2 shows that, in the experimental group, the sig. (2-tailed) value is
0 (t = 4.990, p = 0.000). When the p-value is < 0.05, the null hypothesis of no
difference is rejected. This means that the students’ scores after the experiment,
having used the AR tool in learning, are significantly higher than the scores before
the experiment, indicating the impact of the experimental process.
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The results show that the Cronbach alpha value of the questionnaire is 0.997,
indicating the high reliability of the questionnaire. The Cronbach alpha coefficient
of each issue group is greater than 0.70, demonstrating that each issue group is
consistent and internally reliable. The average scores for each issue group are
summarized in the chart in Figure 4. The results indicate that the “AR Utilization
Capability” group has the highest average value, while the “Learning Attitude”
group has the lowest average value.
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4.7 4.62
4.6
4.5 4.4
4.4
4.3
4.2
4.1 4.02 4.05
4
3.9
3.8
3.7
Learning Satisfaction Knowledge AR
Attitude with Software Absorption Utilization
Usage Capability
The descriptive statistics for each of the issue groups are presented in tables 4 to
7 and subsequently discussed.
The statistics show that the item “I find the content outside the textbook very
interesting” received the highest rating (M = 4.47, SD = 1.16). This reflects that the
students found the simulations created from the AR application interesting, which
simulations are not found in textbooks or other usual learning materials.
Additionally, the low standard deviation value indicates high consistency in
students’ responses. Conversely, the mean value for “I will search for more
information related to chemistry on the Internet” was the lowest (M = 3.75,
SD = 1.29).
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Table 5: Descriptive statistics for the “Satisfaction with Software Usage” group
Std.
No. Item Mean
deviation
2.1 AR software is very interesting 4.09 1.30
2.2 AR software helps me explore new knowledge 3.91 1.44
2.3 Using AR software allows me to see the microscopic world 4.69 1.23
2.4 I enjoy studying chemistry more when using AR software 4.87 1.10
2.5 AR is very interesting because it’s like a game 3.66 1.41
2.6 I hope many other subjects also use AR 4.06 1.29
2.7 I hope to continue using AR in studying chemistry 4.12 1.58
2.8 I will introduce AR to others 3.97 1.43
2.9 I am interested in other learning tools based on AR 3.66 1.43
2.10 AR is very suitable when studying “Atomic Structure,
3.75 1.29
Chemical Bonding”
2.11 AR allows collaborative learning 3.53 1.22
2.12 The design of the software is beautiful and attractive 4.53 1.27
2.13 AR software is easy to use 3.84 1.46
2.14 I think using AR software to explore the microscopic world
4.00 1.41
is essential
Level: strongly disagree = 1; disagree = 2; slightly disagree = 3; slightly agree = 4; agree = 5;
strongly agree = 6
The summary results indicate that the three highest rated items are: “I enjoy
studying chemistry more when using AR software” (M = 4.87, SD = 1.10); “Using
AR software allows me to see the microscopic world” (M = 4.69, SD = 1.23); and
“The design of the software is beautiful and attractive” (M = 4.53, SD = 1.27). This
suggests that students are more engaged in studying chemistry with the use of
AR applications, considering AR applications are very suitable for learning
content related to the microscopic world that is not visible to the naked eye.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that natural science is a highly practical
subject, with many experiments and practical activities stimulating learning
interest. However, content related to the microscopic world, such as atomic
structure and chemical bonding, cannot be observed with the naked eye, and
simulations built with AR applications can overcome this limitation. Conversely,
the factor “AR allows collaborative learning” received the lowest rating
(M = 3.53). Although group activities are suitable for classroom teaching, with AR
applications and the devices to operate them being easy to use, and most students
being able to use the applications, activities can be carried out individually,
without much emphasis on group learning.
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The statistics reveal that the item “AR helps me understand the essence of
chemistry better” has the highest average value (M = 4.94, SD = 1.11).
Understanding the essence of the subject is crucial in chemistry, as it enables
students to explain various related properties and deduce additional knowledge.
Meanwhile, the factor “AR tools are more effective than any tools I have used
before” has the lowest average value (M = 3.69, SD = 1.33).
The summarized results show that the average scores of the items for this
construct are quite high, indicating that the students have a good understanding
of technology. Installing and using applications on smart devices is easy for them.
Among the items in the “AR Utilization Capability” group, “AR is easy to use”
has the highest average value (M = 4.81, SD = 1.12). This can be attributed to the
combination of students’ good IT skills and the simplicity of using the AR
application.
Concerning the ability to absorb lessons, the use of AR in education has been
found to be effective in enhancing learning achievement, particularly appealing
to the younger generation (Ghobadi et al., 2022). S1 remarked: “I easily understand
how covalent bonds and ions are formed after watching the simulation.” Some student
opinions affirmed the effectiveness of 3D simulations in describing the formation
of chemical bonds: “Electron transfer is very clear” (S8); “Using shared electrons is
visually appealing” (S11); “So, the molecular structure of the compounds after bonding is
like that; I never thought of it that way” (S14); “Understanding covalent bonding is easy
when watching simulations of atoms sharing electrons” (S7); and “The simulation helped
me understand the theoretical content in the textbook easily” (S3). However, some
students expressed doubts: “How do we know the number of electrons involved in
bonds?” (S1); and “The simulation only describes the knowledge in the textbook” (S6).
5. Discussion
This paper explores the use of technological devices and applications as tools to
stimulate learning interest and develop cognitive abilities for students. We argue
that traditional teaching technologies are primarily used as a means of delivering
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A survey instrument with four issue groups was used for the experimental group
students to evaluate their chemical cognitive abilities after using AR in learning.
Descriptive statistics for the “Learning Attitude” group show that the item “I find
the content outside the textbook very interesting” received the highest rating
(M = 4.47, SD = 1.16). This reflects that students are fascinated by simulations
created by AR applications, which are not visible in textbooks or other usual
learning materials. Additionally, the low standard deviation value indicates high
similarity in students’ responses. The average result of the “AR Utilization
Capability” group confirms that using AR is very simple and easy for students.
This is demonstrated by the students’ response to the item “AR is easy to use”,
which had the highest average value (M = 4.81, SD = 1.12) (Table 7).
Survey results from the “Knowledge Absorption” group indicate that using AR
has a positive effect on students’ learning. Students believe that AR is suitable for
learning content in the micro-world that is not visible to the naked eye, such as
cleavage and bond formation, electron sharing, or donation, the basis of chemical
transformations. The results in Table 6 show that the item “AR helps me
understand the essence of chemistry better” had the highest average value
(M = 4.94, SD = 1.11). Therefore, when students understand the essence of the
problem, this will help them explain many related properties as well as infer other
knowledge. Moreover, students can observe the detailed process of chemical bond
formation through AR applications. This evaluation result is consistent with the
results of interviews with students after the experimental learning. Participating
students affirmed: “I easily understand covalent bonding when watching simulations of
atoms sharing electrons” (S7); and “The simulation helped me understand the theoretical
content in the textbook easily” (S6). From our perspective, explaining properties and
inferring knowledge are fundamental elements in building chemical cognitive
abilities. Our viewpoint also aligns with that of Radloff and Guzey (2016),
ascertaining the importance of cognitive abilities for students pursuing careers in
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
Survey results from the “Satisfaction with Software Usage” group affirm that
students are more interested in learning when using AR applications, believing
that AR applications are suitable for learning content in the micro-world that is
not visible to the naked eye (Table 5). The item “I find the content outside the
textbook very interesting” had the highest average value (M = 4.47, SD = 1.16),
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The study also discusses the importance of giving students control over the
learning process when using support technologies. This can be achieved by
allowing students to choose the tools they want to use and to decide how they
want to use them. The opportunity to choose learning support tools empowers
students to self-learn, self-research, and problem-solve. The application of AR in
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6. Conclusion
This study investigated the use of AR in teaching natural science subjects through
the theme of “Chemical Bonding”. Three methods were used to assess students’
chemical cognitive abilities when using AR technology in teaching: tests, surveys,
and interviews. All three methods confirmed that using AR in teaching natural
science enhanced students’ chemical cognitive abilities. The interactive and
immersive nature of AR allows students to easily explore scientific concepts.
Through virtual space, students can observe atomic and molecular models as well
as the movement of electrons forming chemical bonds. This will help increase
students’ learning interest, actively engage them in learning activities, and
positively impact their cognition and learning motivation. AR creates a
connection between knowledge and the learning environment, providing
students with opportunities to interact with content in new, realistic,
understandable, rich, and engaging ways. It thereby fosters cognitive thinking
and promotes deeper understanding. Despite the potential benefits, the
implementation of AR in science education also poses challenges. Technical
limitations, such as the availability and cost of AR devices, may hinder
widespread adoption. Additionally, the need for teacher training and support to
integrate AR into the curriculum has been identified as an important factor for
successful implementation.
7. Limitations
This study tested only a relatively small number of students. Therefore, full
generalization of the findings regarding the role of AR applications in education
cannot be guaranteed. Currently, there are many AR applications, but this
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8. Funding
This research is based on work supported by the University of Education –
Vietnam National University for Research, under Grant Number QS.23.09,
awarded to Dr Vu Thi Thu Hoai (PI) in the project “Using Augmented Reality
(AR) technology in teaching substance topic and its transformation (Natural
science 7– Secondary school)”. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or
recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the University of Education – VNU.
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Binh Le Thi
Thai Nguyen University of Education
Thai Nguyen University, Vietnam
*
Corresponding author: Chuyen Nguyen Thi Hong, [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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education starting from early elementary school, with the optimal period
being before grade 3. These findings can help academics explore STEM
research ideas in new situations. However, the investigation was limited
by using only a Scopus catalog database; disregarding alternative sources
may have led to material being omitted.
1. Introduction
In a world that is becoming increasingly complex, it is vital for those who are
interested in pursuing careers in fields such as artificial intelligence,
biotechnology, and renewable energy, as well as for all citizens to adapt to the
rapid development that is being made in these fields in order to have a good
understanding of STEM subjects. Most of the anticipated increases in job
opportunities are expected to be concentrated in the STEM domains (Dasgupta &
Stout, 2014). Many countries prioritize STEM in education to develop the
important abilities required in the 21st century, including creativity, critical
thinking, cooperation, communication, and problem-solving (Bataineh et al.,
2022).
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STEM disciplines from a young age so that they can build the confidence to pursue
careers in these areas (Benavent et al., 2020).
STEM disciplines are intricately linked to our comprehension of the natural world
and the creation of the physical environment that surrounds us. Hence, the
absence of varied viewpoints might result in substantial losses and overlooked
prospects (Schmader, 2023). Multiple international research studies and
evaluations have recorded gender inequalities in the awareness and perception of
STEM fields (Mei et al., 2023). Indeed, the lack of female representation in STEM
occupations is apparent (Schmader, 2023) and gender disparities in STEM
learning are substantial. Gender stereotypes can also hinder women's capacity to
view themselves as appropriate, purpose-driven, and socially compatible in
STEM domains (Schmader, 2023), while cultural prejudices act as impediments to
student engagement in STEM education (Mei et al., 2023). Owing to cultural
influences, women's interest in STEM professions such as computer science and
engineering is relatively low. The barriers they face are, however, more deeply
rooted in systemic and societal cultural factors than in barriers related to
participation and literacy in STEM fields.
Research consistently shows that girls have lower confidence in their math
abilities, lower motivation in math and science subjects, and less interest in
pursuing STEM-related fields (Benavent et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2013). Female
students frequently encounter heightened degrees of nervousness and
apprehension in STEM-related circumstances in contrast to their male
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Efforts to reduce the disparity between genders should focus on various stages of
growth and progress. Dasgupta and Stout (2014) examined three developmental
stages and identified obstacles within each: (a) childhood and adolescence, (b)
emerging adulthood, and (c) early to middle adulthood (Dasgupta & Stout, 2014).
Furthermore, scholars have examined the attitudes and interests of students
toward STEM, which are associated with their gender perspectives. Additionally,
they have proven that the involvement of family, financial resources from family,
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2. Methodology
The PRISMA technique serves as a definitive guideline and standard for the
execution and documentation of publications pertaining to systematic reviews
and meta-analyses. It offers a methodical and clear-cut technique for conducting
a comprehensive search, choosing, evaluating, and combining studies involving
gender diversity in STEM education (Moher et al., 2010; Nguyen & Nguyen, 2022).
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chosen articles were written in English and (d) were published between 2013 and
2023.
Figure 1 presents a flowchart that demonstrates the data process involved in the
systematic evaluation according to the PRISMA technique.
Figure 2. Research trends in gender diversity in STEM education from 2013 to 2023
Figure 2 illustrates the quantity of publications pertaining to gender diversity in
the field of STEM education that were published between 2013 and 2023. The data
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Figure 3. Spatial placement of the authors of the study on gender diversity in STEM
education from 2013 – 2023
One approach to analyze the emerging research themes on gender disparity in
STEM education might be through studying the frequency of specific phrases.
The "word cloud" tool visualizes research publications by displaying keywords in
larger and bolder font size, indicating their higher frequency of occurrence (Dicle
& Dicle, 2018). Figure 4 provides a concise summary of 1791 relevant phrases. The
data from this figure indicated that STEM, gender, learners, women, female
students, education, science, and technology are the most commonly mentioned
phrases in the publications. Furthermore, previous studies have included
additional indexing categories, comprising scientists, careers, motivation,
cognition, and curiosity, which propose prospective areas of investigation for
future scholars.
Figure 4. Word cloud (based on keywords) in the field of gender diversity in STEM
education
In the sector of education, this research has revealed a strong focus on specific
issues in literature reviews. The study identified the most frequently used
keywords in research articles by selected writers globally. Figure 5 depicts the top
10 prevailing keywords found in the collection of articles analyzed in this study.
Aside from the keyword "STEM," which appears 244 times, authors frequently
employ additional terms such as "students" (147 occurrences) and "gender" (110
occurrences) as indexing terms for their works.
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Table 1.
Key Research Issues
Focus Areas References
Conducting research on strategies and initiatives to (Benavent et al.,
promote gender parity in the STEM sector 2020), (García-
Holgado et al.,
2020), (Gweshe &
Chiware, 2023),
(Reinking &
Martin, 2018),
(Rushton & King,
2020)
Interventions targeting the modification of female (Dönmez, 2023)
students' perspectives on STEM jobs
Conducting a study on the differences in confidence, (Chan, 2022)
interest, and goals across genders in the STEM fields,
and investigating how cultural and societal
expectations impact women's participation in STEM
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There is also a need for the identification of policies and strategies that will
promote gender equality in the STEM fields (Benavent et al., 2020; García-
Holgado et al., 2020; Gweshe & Chiware, 2023; Reinking & Martin, 2018; Rushton
& King, 2020) as well as research to determine the levels of awareness, interest,
confidence, motivation, engagement, advantages, and problems that women face
when working in STEM disciplines (Chiang et al., 2023; Kans & Claesson, 2022),
(Jiang et al., 2020; Kelly et al., 2019). Additionally there is a recognition that gender
is one of the elements that influence the outcomes of STEM learning (Anaya et al.,
2022; Wang et al., 2023), as well as investigation of the influence of external
factors, such as family and environment, on gender equality in STEM education
(Daniela et al., 2022).
3.3. What are the future research directions on gender diversity in STEM?
When carefully evaluating the papers in the collected data, of particular interest
were the research gaps highlighted by the authors in the limitations section or in
the article's conclusion. These can also be used to identify future study directions.
This study further investigated potential areas for future research or unresolved
issues that could be addressed in relation to gender diversity in STEM professions.
The outcomes of this exploration are as follows:
Table 2.
Future Research Directions on Gender Diversity in STEM
Potential future research directions References
Improving girls' access to STEM education by (Chan, 2022)
implementing enriched teaching programs and offering
extracurricular activities to address the gender disparity
in STEM
Promoting girls' self-efficacy in STEM fields and (Chan, 2022)
challenging traditional gender stereotypes among all
students
Formulating strategies to assist women in STEM and in (Corrigan et al.,
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Table 2 offers recommendations for areas of research that can assist researchers in
exploring and making progress toward reducing the disparity between genders
in the STEM profession. An effective strategy to solve the existing gender gap in
STEM is to establish integrated STEM curricula and teaching programs starting
from the primary school level (Bataineh et al., 2022; Benavent et al., 2020; Morales
et al., 2023; Stolk et al., 2021)). In addition, there are studies that discuss the ways
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4. Conclusion
This article presents an exhaustive analysis of the gender disparities that exist in
the STEM field. Following the extraction and application of a series of preparatory
procedures to data from the Scopus database, a total of 42 articles were selected
for analysis. According to the results, the United States appears to be the leading
country in terms of conducting research on gender equality in STEM fields,
understanding the evolution of instructional programs designed to promote
gender diversity in STEM, and proposing policies and strategies to enhance
gender parity in the field constituted the majority of STEM research. Following an
exhaustive examination of the extant body of literature, a multitude of research
domains have been identified that warrant additional inquiry in subsequent
investigations. An area that requires significant attention is the creation of STEM
curricula specifically designed for elementary school students, given the critical
role that this grade level assumes in reducing gender inequalities within STEM
disciplines. Therefore, the findings of this research can serve as a benchmark for
scholars seeking to identify relevant STEM topics in the current environment.
However, it is imperative to recognize that this research has limitations, as the
analysis was conducted exclusively using the database of materials indexed in
Scopus that commenced from 2013 to 2023; hence the number of articles is limited.
No other sources or studies from earlier years were considered. Therefore, the
generalizability of the research results is not significant.
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Thai-Viet Dang
Hanoi University of Science and Technology
Hanoi, Viet Nam
Thi-Thanh Nguyen
East Asia University of Technology
Bac Ninh Viet Nam
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
235
1. Introduction
The fundamental aim of Industry 4.0 is to forge integrations between the physical
and digital realms (Dang & Bui, 2023a; Dang et al., 2023). Virtual Reality (VR)
technology, which is widely recognized as a transformative advancement,
provides substantial technical support to a wide range of sectors, such as industry,
agriculture and individuals (Guo et al., 2020). Practice sessions are critical
components of engineering and technology education as they facilitate students'
understanding of theoretical concepts. Practical experience is an indispensable
means through which a learner can cultivate their technical expertise (Pérez et al.,
2022). Web-based and virtual laboratories have the capacity to captivate students
while providing them with an experience comparable to using lab equipment (Gil
et al., 2017). Conversely, conventional instructional approaches demonstrate a
lack of interactivity and neglect to actively engage students in the learning
processes, thus indirectly impacting their effectiveness (Garduño et al., 2021). VR
has the capacity to revolutionize the pedagogical process by facilitating
comprehension of intricate subjects and imparting profound insights, as well as
challenging and pertinent information. With the help of VR, even philosophical
theories can be brought to life (Shaukat, 2023).
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architectural tasks that are intrinsic to it (Solmaz & Gerven, 2020). Hence,
incorporating VR technology into the teaching process introduces a novel
paradigm to the field of engineering education (Duning, 1987).
2. Literature Review
Interaction in education has been the subject of numerous studies and
classifications, as well as numerous debates concerning these classifications.
Consider the debate between Pittman (1987) as an illustration. Students cannot
learn in a classroom without some kind of interaction between teachers and
students. Nevertheless, learner-instructor interaction (LII), learner-content
interaction (LCI), and learner-learner interaction (LLI) are the three main forms of
interaction in education. In Moore's Interaction Framework, LII refers to the
dynamic between the instructor and the learner. Motivation, instruction and
evaluation are all components. However, students expressed that they
encountered difficulties when acquiring verbal communication skills, specifically
in blended environments where LII interaction takes place. In a blended learning
environment, instructors assume substantial responsibilities in LII pertaining to
verbal communication instruction and learning (Ramalingam, 2023). In online
inquiry, the effectiveness of LCI is contingent on the degree to which students'
cognitive presence can be encouraged. The objective of this research was to
determine how scaffolding support improves cognitive presence during the
online LCI’s process (Igoni & Oluwuo, 2023; Mamun & Lawrie, 2023). LCI and LLI
are predicated on facilitating discussions among students regarding the material's
content as a means of self-education and self-interaction (Igoni & Oluwuo, 2023).
The researchers were particularly interested in LCI for the purposes of this
investigation. The effectiveness and efficiency of contemporary blended learning
systems are heavily reliant on interaction. LCI is the primary factor that
significantly influences the achievement of desired learning outcomes (Kumar et
al., 2021). Lanier et al. (2022) investigated and pointed out that instructors should
curate and present content in a way that engages students to foster good LCI.
Because the intellectual LCI stimulates the learner's understanding, the learners
improve their ability to interact and solve real-life problems. A sizable percentage
of adults also engage in self-directed learning (Confessore Confessore, 1992;
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Murugesan & Inrahim, 2022). Creating an effective LCI will also facilitate the
application of a crucial principle in education: cultivating enduring abilities for
lifetime learning. Formulating and implementing higher education policies can
enhance the development of inclusive and comprehensive frameworks that align
with the requirements and goals of higher education stakeholders (Cronholm,
2022; Tamez, 2014).
As for teaching at the college and university level, virtual worlds facilitate many
forms of interactions, either between users and virtual content or among the users
themselves, by providing the appropriate environment. Virtual worlds refer to 2D
or 3D computer-generated environments depicting aspects of the real world or
fictional landscapes (Mikropoulos et al., 1998; Pantelidis, 2009; Shaukat, 2023).
Specifically, users can engage in various interactions with the content of the
virtual world and other users (He, 2023; Mayne & Green, 2020; Reeves & Crippen.,
2021). These interactions include creating objects, manipulating them, adjusting
the terrain and engaging in synchronous or asynchronous chat. Chats can be
conducted verbally through voice or text chat, or through visual interactions
using avatar gestures and other forms of visual communication within the virtual
world (Dinis et al., 2017). Students gain a comprehensive knowledge of the
mechanical, electrical, electronics, information technology and technology
education employed in virtual simulations. Learners will develop awareness
through interactions and actively engage in learning activities aimed at
developing innovative engineering technicians. Xie et al. (2023) highlighted that
learners' capacity to exert influence, modify, and augment the content of the
virtual environment in which they learn enables them to construct cognitive
strategies and actively engage with the topics they are studying. Consequently,
learning becomes autonomous and focused on the individual student (Tamez,
2014), while educators assume the responsibilities of designing, facilitating and
guiding activities that aim to actively include students (Cronholm, 2022).
Second, concerning the degree to which students engage with the material being
taught, educators frequently encounter obstacles. Utilizing interaction in the
virtual world, which has been adapted to satisfy educational requirements, to
increase LCI and motivation is the central argument of this paper. More
interactivity within the virtual environment enhances learners' motivation to
acquire knowledge and facilitates the attainment of learning objectives. In this
research endeavor, the authors enable concurrent student engagement with
educational materials in both the physical classroom and the virtual environment,
while also identifying stimuli that may be associated with the content being
studied. Consequently, the hypothesis of this study is that if interactive learning
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The authors designed a method for developing virtual interactive programs for
use in the instruction of Mechatronics Engineering programs. The quantitative
evaluation approach, in conjunction with student self-assessment outcomes, is
implemented after the module's conclusion. The implementation of interactive
learning in virtual environments, combined with VR, has significantly improved
the students’ problem-solving abilities and the learning experiences of
engineering and technology students. This was achieved under the guidance of
instructors, ultimately assisting the students in meeting the required performance
standards.
The design of VIP process included the following steps as shown in Figure 1:
Step 1 - Select the VIP’s object to design a model: Build a
virtual interaction model of an IR arm picking up objects,
full virtual interaction via Oclus Go glasses and virtual
interaction via phone.
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Step 6 - 1st Check: Test to run the 3D model designed by Unity and if meeting the
requirements in accordance with the teaching content, continue to move to Step
7. If you see inappropriate joints or joint movements, go back to Step 5.
Step 7 - Code VIP: Use C++ programming language, program and control the
robot arm program according to Step 4’s requirements.
Step 8 - 2nd Check: When checking that the VIP has been programmed, if there is
an error, go back to Step 6 to edit. When the running program is complete, move
on to Step 9.
Step 9 - Apply: Complete the model to run the simulation independently and
include it in the lesson plan. Finally, finish the VIP design process.
Lesson 2: Inverse kinematics problem with GVS and torsional displacement rules.
The kinematic problem is inverse to the rule of torsional displacement in general
and the kinematic problem with teachers can easily control the moving
mechanism at an angle greater than 1500 through the designed virtual interactive
teaching method. on smartphones, using semi-immersive virtual interactive
teaching methods.
The snapshots in Figure 2 present the VIP-based sample lessons in the IR course.
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Overall
rotation axis
The suture
base
(a) (b)
Rotating joint
(c) (d)
Rotate 1800
The 4th Stage
Rotating joint
Rotating part
Fixed part
Rotating joint
(e) (f)
The grippers
(g) (h)
(i) (k)
Figure 2: The specialized lessons of IR course based VIP with (a): constructing the 3D
model; (b): the suture base; (c): the 2nd stage; (d): the 3rd stage; (e): the 4th stage; (f): the
ability of rotating 1800; (g): the gripper; (h): calculating the D-H matrix; (i): VIP-based
IR teaching; and (k): VIP-based lesson connecting to mobile phone
In Figure 2a, the students completely construct the 3D model of the IR under
lecturer monitoring. Then, according to Step 6, they tested the 3D model designed
by Unity software. Next, they checked the requirements in accordance with the
teaching content of three VIP-based lessons (see from Figure 2b to Fig 2g). Figure
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2h helped student to define the D-H coordinate system of the IR. Hence, the robot
control programming code ensured the robot’s operation, in Figure 2i. Finally,
Figure 2k shows the interface of a VR’s lesson via mobile phone.
Phase 2: uses virtual interactive teaching based on Phase 1. However, this phase is
heavily influenced by the intuition of teachers and learners. Then, the virtual
interaction device interaction is objectively affected in the experimental practice.
During this stage, three steps need to be carried out. Step 1: theoretical lectures
are conducted experimentally; Step 2: lecturers guide students through the VIP,
instructing them on how to control the sensor system manually as well as by using
the mode buttons in the VIP; Step 3: students interact with the VIP, students can
use Oclus Go glasses for immersive VIP classes and use phones for semi-
immersive VIP classes and start using the VIP.
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Based on feedback received after attending the VIP-based course, the researchers
came to the following conclusions: The implementation of suitable stimulation
techniques unquestionably increases students' interest in learning; Instructional
hours are vibrant; a considerable number of students engage in active and
enthusiastic study during lesson construction; and voices have a discernible
impact on student engagement (see Figure 5).
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Finally, the comparison process between the learning process score (LPS) and
course completion score (CCS) of the two classes (CC, EC) was conducted to find
differences as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: The comparison between the control and experimental classes with (a): Score
rating of two classes, (b): The comparison chart of LPS, (c): The comparison chart of
completion score, and (d): The comparison chart of overall learning process
In Figure 8a, both LPS and CCS of the two classes (CC, EC) were collected. Then,
the comparison chart is reflected in Figures 8b to 8d to show the better quality of
EC than CC based on the VIP IR course.
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Figure 9: The characteristic curve of students’ score with (a): The frequency curve
converges of the student’s scores Xi and (b): The popular Radar line of the student’s
scores Xi
Moreover, based on the obtained scores, the researchers performed the frequency
curve converges of the student’s scores Xi in Figure 9a and the popular Radar line
of the student’s scores Xi in Figure 9b. Hence, the characteristic curve of students’
score in the EC had a much higher rating than that of students in the CC without
VIP.
Table 3: Comparison table of statistical parameters
N EC N CC 40
where 2EC is squared standard deviation of EC’s score and CC 2
is squared standard
deviation of CC’s score, respectively; X EC is average score of EC and X CC is average
score of CC, respectively.
Then, choosing the level of significance = 0.05 in the student table. Next,
calculate the factor k in the student table in (2):
k = N EC + N CC − 2 = 40 + 40 − 2 = 78. (2)
As for k = 78, looking up the student relationship table, it yields t student = 2.
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The improvement in the overall academic score of VIP-based courses was better
than conventional courses.
Using Fisher's rule to calculate the F coefficient:
2EC 1.1
F= = = 0.5, (3)
CC
2
2.1
Because the coefficient F 1 proves that the scores of the EC and CC are stably
distributed around the value Xi . with a level of significance = 0.05, the student
relationship table yields Fstudent = 1.66. Because Fstudent F, the researchers showed that
the difference between 2EC and CC 2
is acceptable.
Based on Eqs. (1) to (3), in the two frequency graphs in Figure 9, the researchers
illustrated that the number of students scoring Xi or higher in the EC is always
higher than the CC. Hence, the VIP-based course actually supports and helps
students in studying and practicing specialized subjects.
Summing up, the researchers drew the following conclusions:
- The cognitive positivity of students in the EC was aroused and clearly
demonstrated. Lively, convenient hours attract attention and create
constructive debate with the virtual interaction of lectures.
- The quality of mastery, application of knowledge and intellectual
capacity of students in the EC is higher than that of CC, which is shown
by the higher average score of the EC in both lessons than the CC.
- The ability to reason and express the VIP-based course in virtual
interactive language and understanding of the EC is higher than the
CC.
Furthermore, to evaluate the effectiveness of the selected methods for the course
under consideration, in addition to conducting pedagogical experiments as above,
the researchers used another research method to collect students' opinions after
class to evaluate student satisfaction, the development of student skills, self-study
skills, teamwork skills. At the same time the researchers used expert evaluations
to confirm the effectiveness results of VIP-based teaching methods.
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After completing the class, students surveyed felt 100% interested, the lecture was
attractive 77.2%, the lecture was easy to understand 72.3%, the lecture was
intuitive 90.9%, the lecture was lively 77.2 %, in Table 4.
In Table 5, the increased skills that students have after class were: 91% critical
thinking, 98% observation, 85% memorization, 81% analysis and solution skills,
thinking skills logic 78%, dynamic 93%, creative thinking 93%. For the skills that
students self-assessed would increase, the highest level of agreement is 63% of
opinions completely agreeing about increased dynamic ability and 68% of
opinions agreeing with the ability to move. Creative thinking will increase if
students continue to learn VIP-based courses. Table 6 illustrates the student’s
feeling about the VIP-based IR such as follows: 75% exciting, and 85% interesting.
These results prove its attractiveness and create a happy and comfortable
atmosphere in student learning. Moreover, there were neutral or silent opinions.
Hence, positive student feelings will support their learning abilities. Futhermore,
Table 7 also presents the VRs necessary for the IR course with the following
indices: 52.5% understand; 62.5% practice; 95% observe and analyze; 87.5 %
understand motion and properties. Finally, the VR-based IR course achieved
positive results in training combined with practice in specialized technical
modules at universities and colleges.
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4. Conclusion
The integration of VR and VIP in virtual environments, under the supervision of
instructors, substantially enhanced engineering and technology students'
problem-solving skills and learning experiences, thereby facilitating the
attainment of the prescribed performance standards. Evaluating the effectiveness
of using VIP-based teaching for the IR course, 83.3% of the experts agreed that VIP
increased teamwork ability; 83.4% agreed that it increased problem-solving
ability; 85% said that it increased thinking ability; 83.3% said that it increased the
ability to acquire knowledge; 80% stated that it increased the ability to
concentrate; 79.9% said that self-control increased. In terms of robot control, 83.4%
said it increased the ability to interact with teachers; 90% said that increased the
ability to interact with digital control devices. From the results of expert
evaluation, we can state that VIP-based classes are effective for the IR course, with
increased learning skills such as increased teamwork ability, increased thinking
ability to acquire knowledge, increased problem-solving ability and increased
logical thinking ability. These are necessary skills for development not only for
acquiring knowledge of a difficult subject but can be used in acquiring knowledge
of any subject.
5. Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to Thai Nguyen University of Industry, the class
Mechatronics Engineering 1 and 2 with the specialized lecturers as MEng. Thi-
Thanh-Thuy Tran and MEng. Trung-Cong Do, and experts of education for
completed experimental teaching and survey.
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1. Introduction
Physics is one of the fundamental sciences that help in understanding the universe
and phenomena using mathematical context (Cleugh, 2018). Despite its
importance, many students find Physics difficult, specifically in grasping the
problem and utilising mathematical concepts (Sartika & Humairah, 2018; Reddy
& Panacharoensawad, 2017; Yusrizal, 2016. Physics teachers fail to measure the
student's ability in higher order thinking skills being exemplified in Physics
(Saepuzaman et al., 2022. One of the major reasons for the students’ perceived
difficulty in grasping the concepts of Physics is the difficulty students have in
connecting the principles of Physics to real-world phenomena (Nordin, 2019)
along with problems with the students themselves, the curriculum, and subject-
related factors (Wangchuk et al., 2023).
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2. Literature Review
2.1. Mathematical Proficiency and Performance in Physics
According to Turner (2010), mathematical proficiency includes a range of skills
necessary for applying mathematical knowledge in real-world situations.
Kilpatrick et al. as cited by Brijlall & Ivasen (2022) clarified the competencies to
include conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence,
adaptive thinking, and productive disposition, while Yulian and Wahyudin,
(2018) noted that students' ability to solve problems is greatly impacted by their
mathematical proficiency.
Students with a high-level reasoning ability perform at par for both the
algorithmic and concept-based problems, while those with average and low
reasoning abilities perform equally for the concept-based problems. The high
reasoners outperform the average and low reasoners; thus, their reasoning ability
relates to their problem-solving performance. Logically, the latter would indicate
that possessing more formal reasoning patterns would mean that the students do
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Metacognitive skills are rarely used, as is the strategy on how to use them (Rahimi
& Katal, 2012).
3. Methodology
3.1. Research Design
This research employed a quantitative design. Variables were defined, and
correlations between and among the variables were performed through Structural
Equation Modelling. The level of the students' proficiency in each variable and
their academic performance was determined.
Table 1: Population and sample size of the student respondents in the study
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The students began the examination by taking the Basic Skills Diagnostic Test,
which was intended to assess the student's level of mathematical knowledge.
Epstein (1997) designed the BSDT questions in the manner of the learner's
perspective. The BSDT Test was evaluated across institutions and was subjected
to the diversity in the demography of the students. More recently, the BSDT Test
was used by Nye et al. (2018) as a far-transfer test for the likely universal
improvements of mathematical skills. Similarly, Dame et al. (2019) have used this
test to gauge students' learning in Mathematics because the test contains problems
that critically engage the students in appraising fundamental mathematical
matters and employing basic mathematical skills in daily quantitative situations.
The instrument for basic skill diagnostic testing by Epstein (1997)was pilot-tested
with 47 Grade-10 non-participating students and had a Cronbach's alpha of 0.86,
which indicated good internal consistency, as shown in Table 2. In other words,
the items in Epstein's test are highly intercorrelated and measure the same
underlying ability or construct; therefore, all items in the test were retained.
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The second half was the Lawson Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning (LCTSR).
The first ten pairs of questions in the LCTSR followed the standard two-tier
pattern. In this construction, the first of the two questions required the
respondents to determine the outcome of a certain concept while the other
question was to be answered in such a way that the respondents’ answer in the
previous question was explained and rationalised. The last two questions
(questions 23–24) were experimental outcomes to be disproved with given
hypotheses.
This instrument was recently applied by Bao et al. (2018), who determined that
the LCTSR demonstrates good reliability, with Cronbach's alpha values greater
than 0.8 for the individual and pair scoring methods, particularly with the control
of the test length. The findings of this study on reliability through the pilot testing
of LCTSR showed that the instrument had a satisfactory level of internal
consistency.
The results of the pilot testing are presented in Table 3. Cronbach's alpha for 47
respondents was 0.74, indicating that there was an acceptable internal consistency
of the items; hence, all items were retained.
Table 3: Pilot testing result of the Lawson Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning
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The respondents’ answers were checked using a pair-scoring technique with one
point being awarded to each pair of questions. The scores of respondents were
analysed using Piaget’s system of formal operational, early and late transitional,
and concrete operational reasoners, as shown below:
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In a pilot study, the respondents completed the MAI to determine the internal
consistency of the indicators. Unlike the typical binary response style which
normally generates either disagreement or agreement, the questionnaire adopted
a Likert scale that resulted in a diversity of rating of the responses. The MAI tool
had participants rate the level of awareness of the statements.
A pilot test of 47 participants produced a Cronbach alpha of 0.95 showing that the
items had a strong internal consistency, as indicated in Table 5, hence, all items
were retained. The MAI items covered a wide spectrum of metacognitive
awareness areas, like cognition, understanding, and the ability to influence
thinking. This assessment consisted of 52 items measuring eight scales in which
participants were asked to describe their thinking processes: declarative
knowledge, procedural knowledge, conditional knowledge, planning,
information management strategies, monitoring, debugging strategies, and
evaluation of learning.
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Participants were asked to rate their level of awareness for each statement on the
MAI, allowing for a more detailed analysis of their metacognitive processes and
enhancing the instrument's sensitivity to variations in respondents' perceptions.
The respondents evaluated their metacognitive skills using the scale below:
Table 6: Respondents’ evaluation of their metacognitive skills
Scale Description Definition
4 Very highly aware This level indicates an exceptional degree
of 100% metacognitive awareness.
Individuals who are very highly aware
possess a deep understanding of their
cognitive processes, learning strategies,
strengths, and weaknesses.
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Figure 2: A portion of the Accepted Model reflects the direct paths from Mathematics
Proficiency, Scientific Reasoning Skills, and Metacognitive Skills to Academic
Performance in Physics
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Estimate C. R. p-value
Academic Performance Mathematics Proficiency 4.150 2.581 0.01
Figure 2 and Table 8 provide evidence that mathematics proficiency had the
greatest direct effect on the academic performance of the students, indicating that
the Grade 10 participants have a solid mathematical foundation and can
understand essential algebra concepts. The students' Physics performance was
improved owing to their mathematical skills; students who grasp basic algebraic
expressions and equations can solve physics issues appropriately. The student's
capacity to perform arithmetic in fractions, decimals, and percentages allowed
them to provide accurate answers in Physics. Furthermore, the students can solve
problems in Physics with confidence when they connect the learned mathematical
concepts to their Physics lessons.
In scientific reasoning skills, only formal operational, late transitional, and early
transitional reasoners had a direct impact on the academic performance of the
Grade 10 Physics students, indicating that students used critical thinking to
identify problems. Scientific reasoning skills enable them to analyse information,
recognise patterns, and draw conclusions. In addition, they were able to generate
hypotheses based on observation and to construct experiments to test
them. Students capable of scientific reasoning could systematically approach
problems, collect data, and apply appropriate concepts. Such reasoning implied
building models to represent systems in Physics. Meanwhile, students with
strong scientific reasoning skills might approach problems methodically, find
pertinent data, and apply the right principles. The higher reasoning skills of
students enable them to excel in problem-solving and algorithms in Physics
(Fabby & Koenig, 2014). Formal, logical, cognitive thinking is particularly
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required in studying Physics (Saayman, 1991), and students who exhibited critical
thinking, hypothesis formulation, and experimental design skills demonstrated
higher levels of academic achievement.
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Based on Table 9, Figure 3 presents the section of the accepted model depicting
the indirect connections of Mathematics Proficiency on metacognitive skills and
scientific reasoning skills toward Academic Performance in Physics. This means
that metacognitive skills: declarative, and scientific reasoning skills: formal
operational tend to influence the academic performance of the students with the
mediation of mathematics proficiency.
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Figure 4 shows the portion of the accepted model reflecting the indirect
relationships between scientific reasoning skills to Mathematics proficiency and
metacognitive skills toward academic performance in Physics as based on Table 9.
The path implies that the scientific reasoning skills of students: formal and early
transitional, greatly affected the mathematical proficiency of students in achieving
better academic performance in Physics. This suggests that the development of
scientific reasoning skills of Grade 10 students, particularly during the formal and
early transitional stages of cognitive development, could positively influence
students' mathematical proficiency and subsequently contribute to better
academic performance in Physics.
Cihlár et al. (2020) proved that scientific reasoning is correlated with mathematical
proficiency, and Tajudin and Chinnappan (2015) revealed that scientific reasoning
plays an important role in problem-solving in Mathematics while Singley and
Bunge (2014) show a positive relationship between scientific reasoning and
mathematical proficiency, which is evident in childhood. This indicates that
enhancing scientific reasoning is important to achieve mathematics proficiency
and better academic performance in Physics since formal reasoners have been
shown to achieve higher academic performance than transitional reasoners
(Rohaeti et al., 2019).
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Figure 4: A portion of the Accepted Model reflecting the Indirect Effects of Scientific
Reasoning Skills on Mathematics Proficiency and Metacognitive Skills toward
Academic Performance in Physics
On the other hand, the path implies that the scientific reasoning skills of students:
early transitional, greatly affect the metacognitive skills of students in the areas of
debugging and evaluation to perform better academically in Physics. This
suggests that the participants recognised and addressed errors, misconceptions,
or gaps in their thinking or problem-solving processes and these skills were
developed during transitional stage reasoning aided by effective debugging
techniques. Further, students who critically analysed information reflected on
problem-solving strategies and assessed the validity of their work. The emerging
hypothesis testing and analytical thinking in the early transitional stage aligned
with evaluation metacognition; thus, students with early stages of cognitive
transition could increase metacognitive abilities such as debugging and
evaluation, resulting in improved academic performance in Physics.
Based on Table 9, Figure 5 shows the portion of the accepted model reflecting the
indirect effects of metacognitive skills on scientific reasoning skills and
mathematics proficiency toward academic performance in Physics. The path
implies metacognitive skills of students: declarative directly affected the scientific
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reasoning skills of students: early and late transition to attain better mathematical
proficiency of Grade 10 students towards high academic performance in Physics.
This suggests that those students who were informed of their cognitive processes
and strategies were more likely to recognise their thought patterns, areas of
strength, and areas that needed development. These students continued to
improve their capacity for abstract thought and problem-solving. Metacognitive
skills, like declarative, encouraged students to consider their understanding,
identify misunderstandings, and fill in any gaps. A deeper knowledge of
mathematical proficiency was important to achieve high academic performance
in Physics. Moreover, the path implies the skills of students: planning and
evaluation were one of the factors on scientific reasoning skills of students: early
and late transition to attain better mathematical proficiency of Grade 10 students
towards high academic performance in Physics. Those students who set goals,
organised their approaches, allocated resources efficiently, critically analysed
their work, reflected on their understanding, and assessed the quality of their
solutions were those students who developed abstract thinking, systematic
analysis, and hypothesis-testing abilities which led to better performance in
Physics.
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This research implies that effective teaching and learning in Physics requires
heightened integration of mathematical competence, scientific reasoning ability,
and metacognitive skills within the teaching-learning process. Hence, Physics
curriculum planners need to consider the level of mathematical proficiency,
scientific reasoning skills, and metacognitive skills of the students in crafting the
Physics curriculum. Also, educators can develop interventions where these
competencies are enhanced; teachers can provide activities that are aimed at
enhancing scientific reasoning skills, integrating tasks to build metacognitive
abilities, and incorporating mathematical concepts into Physics instruction such
as game-based instruction. Lastly, the students need to learn strategies that can
enhance their mathematical proficiency, metacognitive skills, and scientific
reasoning skills as these can help them attain better Physics academic
performance. Students need to connect mathematical principles in learning
physics, analyse information, patterns, and data to further understand Physics,
and reflect on their learning process to gain more effective strategies in learning
Physics.
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7. Acknowledgement
This research is funded by the Commission on Higher Education – Staff and
Instructors Knowledge Advancement Programme (SIKAP) Grant and was
monitored and supported by the Nueva Vizcaya State University (NVSU) –
Graduate School and Ifugao State University (IFSU)- Potia Campus. Therefore,
grateful appreciation is extended to the CHED-SIKAP team, NVSU, and IFSU.
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Yreneo Cruz-Telada
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud,
Universidad Norbert Wiener, Perú
Raul Suarez-Bazalar
Facultad de Ciencias Administrativas,
Universidad Nacional del Callao, Perú
*
Corresponding author: Omar Chamorro-Atalaya, [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction
The COVID-19 health crisis forced a rapid adoption of virtual teaching in many
educational institutions (Mendoza, 2020). Despite the growing interest in
educational technologies such as e-Learning, M-Learning and B-Learning,
universities had not, however, foreseen a complete transition towards a virtual
pedagogical model (Mejía-Flores et al., 2020). Although some universities had a
long tradition of distance learning, the vast majority of institutions were
characterised by a marked tradition of face-to-face teaching (Álvarez-Herrero,
2020). Under this scenario, various challenges were evident in guaranteeing an
optimal online teaching-learning process (Avendaño et al., 2021). As such, the
greatest challenge was to link teaching practice with emerging technological
tools, which, in some cases, were very alien to teachers and students;
nevertheless, little by little, they became allies to enable the educational process
to continue (Cipagauta, 2021). Consequently, technology and educational needs
led to generating new forms of student-teacher interaction, with smartphones,
tablets and laptops being the technological devices that contributed the most
(Cerezo et al., 2023).
Microlearning and nanolearning address the need for methods that do not
cognitively overload the student (Ugalde & González-Cabrera, 2022; Velastegui,
2023), offering concise but complete audiovisual materials, for clear and specific
learning objectives (Gómez & Simón-Medina, 2022; Nivela-Cornejo et al., 2021).
Microlearning generates educational experiences with a modular structure and
short duration, such as webinars, workshops and seminars, focused on the
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The importance of these learning methodologies is that the student works with
techniques that are conducive and suitable for each of them, and which can be
used within class and their own homes, achieving learning through autonomy
and independence (Sanchez, 2023). That is, the student does not necessarily have
to be in the classroom, whether in synchronous or asynchronous classes, in face-
to-face processes or digitally, which is different from the concept of virtuality
(Pineda, 2022). This also facilitates training and improves knowledge retention,
since it is based on the assumption that short and dynamic content captures and
retains users' attention much better than traditional content, such as written texts
(Moreno, 2023). It also supports teachers in improving teaching practice in terms
of both methods and content (Hernández & Talavera, 2021). Among the
important factors in the design of these teaching strategies is the production of
digital content, particularly video (Leal, 2021). With duration being a very
significant indicator, it has been shown that a greater learning commitment is
achieved in students in videos of six to nine minutes in length (Yausen, 2022),
while nanolearning is based on the use of brief content with a duration of less
than five minutes (Núñez, 2023). That is to say, the secret lies in the use of short
portions of content (Filippi et al., 2023), the management of which is limited by
the capacity of the device used and the availability of the user's time, hence the
importance of synthesis to have an impact on the design and presentation of
information (Matute, 2022).
From the above, the objective of this study is to explore and describe the
prevalence of thematic contents referring to scientific production developed
through microlearning and nanolearning in higher education, in the COVID-19
pandemic and post-pandemic context. The study is developed under the
bibliometric review method, on studies published in the Scopus database from
2020 to the present. Through this study, we seek to contribute to the
identification of predominant trends in the field of study in question, as well as
the identification of gaps and research opportunities in particularly less attended
sub-areas; representing this information is useful to guide future research that
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2. Methodology
2.1 Research approach
This study adopted a quantitative approach, based on the use of bibliometric
indicators, to describe and analyse scientific production related to microlearning
and nanolearning in higher education, in the COVID-19 pandemic and post-
pandemic context. In this way, an objective and systematic evaluation of the
bibliographic data will be carried out, appropriate to answer the research
questions posed. This approach is supported in some cases by the analysis of
secondary data, which were statistically examined, to identify results (Acosta,
2023; Huamán et al., 2021).
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and which have been rigorously evaluated under various criteria such as blind
peer review. This helps the study ensure that the information extracted is
reliable and relevant to the study. In this regard, Codina et al. (2020) state that
the Scopus database is used by the international scientific community because it
has vast coverage in all areas of knowledge. Furthermore, Auza-Santiváñez et al.
(2020) highlight that Scopus is established as the most extensive database of
global scientific literature, mainly made up of academic publications and
conference proceedings, these journals having been rigorously evaluated with
academic standards, particularly the peer review process.
Another important aspect to highlight in the data collection process was the
method used, which is an adaptation of the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) methodology and validated by the
scientific publication developed by Chamorro-Atalaya et al. (2023). This method
consists of three stages that lead to the selection of publications for the analysis
of bibliometric indicators. Initially, the topic to be investigated was defined, this
being microlearning and nanolearning in higher education. In this first stage, 135
publications were identified, as a result of applying the search equation in the
Scopus database, that is, without considering the publication period of the
studies during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The second stage consisted of
a screening of the manuscripts identified in the first stage, in which specific
criteria were applied such as the scope of the cases addressed in the studies must
be in higher education, and not in initial, primary or secondary education.
Another aspect was that the publications be open access in all their content; in
addition, it was also limited to publications during the years 2020 to 2024. In this
second stage, 94 publications were identified. Finally, in the third stage, a review
of the summaries and complete content of each publication selected in the
previous phase was carried out. In this way, we sought to determine that the
publications included in this final stage were suitable and consistent with the
topic under study, minimising the possible biases present in the research. At this
stage, 90 scientific publications were identified. Figure 1 shows in detail the
process of collecting scientific publications at each stage.
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identify that, before the pandemic and taking 2014 as the initial year of the
analysis, an increasing trend was observed in the number of publications, going
from one publication in 2014 to thirteen in 2019, thus evidencing that the annual
increase is relatively moderate, with an average annual number of publications
of 6.5. However, during the pandemic period, a significant increase in the
number of publications is observed from 12 publications in 2020 to 26
publications in 2022, thus reaching an annual average of 18.67. This shows
greater interest in research into learning methodologies as a response by higher
education institutions to the need to adapt to the challenges that have arisen as a
result of the COVID-19 pandemic, such as migrating towards online teaching
modalities online and remote. In the post-pandemic period, the upward trend
continues with a production of 33 publications in 2023 and so far in 2024 there is
already one publication, reaching an annual average of 17. Figure 2 shows the
annual scientific production in the pre-pandemic, pandemic and post-pandemic
scenarios of COVID-19. Focusing strictly on the pandemic and post-pandemic
period, a growing and sustained interest is evident, to a greater extent in the
application of microlearning than with respect to nanolearning, given its
effectiveness as a methodology in higher education. In addition to this impact
and positive influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on scientific production, it can
also be added that this increasing number of publications has been influenced by
the widespread use of mobile devices, greater access to the Internet and the
advancement of ICT.
35 33
30
26
25
20 18
15 13 12
10 7 6 6 6
5
1 1
0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Pre pandemic Pandemic Post
Pandemic
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that, while microlearning has been a more immediate option and has already
shown evidence of its effectiveness in learning to address educational
challenges during the pandemic, nanolearning is only now beginning to gain
attention as a valuable focus on the continued evolution of higher education in a
post-pandemic context, seen as a complement to microlearning. Figure 3 shows
the annual scientific production by field of study between microlearning and
nanolearning.
35 32
30 26
25
18
20
15 12
10
5 1 0
0
0 0 1
0
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Microlearing Nanolearning
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Table 1. The 10 best bibliographic sources with the greatest contribution in the field
of study
Quartile
Source NP TC PY_start h_index according
to SJR
Education and Information
5 67 2021 61 Q1
Technologies
Multimedia Tools and
1 45 2021 93 Q1
Applications
It was No
Journal of Work-Applied
1 40 2021 not assigned
Management
found quartile
Applied Sciences (Switzerland) 1 20 2020 101 Q2
Journal of Computing in
1 19 2020 47 Q1
Higher Education
Sustainability (Switzerland) 1 17 2021 136 Q1
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Communications in Computer
1 15 2022 62 Q4
and Information Science
Proceedings of 2020 IEEE
International Conference on It was No
Teaching, Assessment, and 1 13 2020 not assigned
Learning for Engineering, found quartile
TALE 2020
No
Education in the Knowledge
1 11 2020 18 assigned
Society
quartile
Asian Association of Open
1 10 2021 13 Q2
Universities Journal
Furthermore, when analysing the most relevant author who contributes the most
to the field of study based on the impact of his scientific work, it was identified
to be Aguilera-Hermida et al. (2021) and their study entitled “Comparison of
students’ use and acceptance of emergency online learning due to COVID-19 in
the USA, Mexico, Peru, and Turkey”. Likewise, the second author whose study
has the greatest impact is that of Redondo et al. (2021), whose publication is
titled “Integrating micro-learning content in traditional e-learning platforms”.
Another aspect that was identified in these studies is the metric called
“Normalized Global Citations” (NGC), which represents the total number of
citations that a scientific publication has with respect to the average citations of
all publications published in the field of study. This metric is used to compare
the impact of different publications across disciplinary barriers. In this way, the
study developed by Aguilera-Hermida et al. (2021) presents an NGC of 5.29, that
is, this study has been cited 5.29 times more than the average number of citations
in its field, thus reflecting a highly relevant and significant impact in the study
area. Table 2 shows the 10 authors whose publication have the highest number
of citations, with respect to the field under study.
Table 2. The 10 authors whose publications have the highest number of citations, with
respect to the field of study
Author Published document TC NGC
Comparison of students’ use and
Aguilera-Hermida et acceptance of emergency online
57 5.29
al. (2021) learning due to COVID-19 in the
USA, Mexico, Peru, and Turkey
Integrating micro-learning content
Redondo et al. (2021) 45 4.18
in traditional e-learning platforms
A review of the trend of
Leong et al. (2021) 40 3.71
microlearning
Automated Assessment and
Microlearning Units as Predictors
Skalka and Drlik
of At-Risk Students and Students’ 20 2.93
(2020)
Outcomes in the Introductory
Programming Courses
Using digital badges as goal-
Cheng et al. (2020) setting facilitators: a multiple case 19 2.78
study
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From the results obtained, it is evident that there is no scientific journal that
particularly presents a high number of studies on the application of
microlearning or nanolearning in higher education, in the COVID-19 pandemic
and post-pandemic context. Only the scientific journal Education and Information
Technologies presents five publications in the field of study, while the others have
only published one study. This result shows that there is a need to undertake
further studies concerning the topic in question, highlighting that the studies
reviewed show a high level of impact. In this regard, Gallent (2022) points out
that microlearning is acquiring greater importance in the university
environment, and, although this methodology is not entirely new, its application
in supporting students is still in its early stages, he specifies that he has not
identified experiences in other universities comparable to his study.
Likewise, along those same lines, Gill et al. (2020) point out that microlearning
represents an innovation that is booming and that contributed to addressing the
challenges in the teaching and learning process during the development of
online class sessions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Consistent with the need
to address more studies on microlearning and nanolearning, Chen et al. (2022)
point out that these educational strategies, although not very novel, were
emphasised due to the considerations caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Likewise Wang et al. (2020) state that, following the outbreak of COVID-19,
there has been greater exploration into the widespread adoption of
microlearning in various educational institutions. Abrego et al. (2021) point out
that, currently, studies on microlearning in higher education are relevant since
they will allow evaluating its impact in the university educational field,
recognising that educational innovation is crucial in modern times.
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3.3 What topics are the most prevalent in the existing literature on
microlearning and nanolearning in higher education, since the beginning
of the COVID-19 pandemic?
Prior to identifying the prevalent themes in the existing literature on
microlearning and nanolearning in higher education, the co-occurrence network
of keywords was generated through the VOSviewer software, with the purpose
of identifying the terms related to the field of study. In this way, it was possible
to identify, based on the nodes (terms or keywords) and their corresponding
sizes, that terms such as “e-learning”, “micro-learning”, “microlearning”,
“higher education”, “students”, “teaching”, “engineering education” and
“curriculum” present a level of occurrence greater than or equal to 10. Thus, the
three terms with the highest number of occurrences are “microlearning” with 38
occurrences, “e-learning” with 27 occurrences, and “micro-learning” with 20
occurrences. Figure 4 shows the co-occurrence network of terms or keywords on
microlearning and nanolearning in higher education, taking into account
publications from the Scopus database, during the pandemic and post-pandemic
period. It can be seen that the link strengths with greater intensity represent how
related the terms or key words are to each other. In this sense, the term “e-
learning” can be identified, showing a link strength of 89, “micro-learning” a
link strength of 74, “microlearning” a link strength of 59, as well as “students”,
while teaching presents a link strength of 58 and “engineering education”
presents a link strength of 57; these being the keywords with the greatest link
strength.
Another aspect analysed was the density network generated from the
VOSviewer software, in which the brightest and warmest points in the network
indicate the areas of greatest thematic concentration. In this way, it is possible to
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Based on the results, the prevalent themes are “effectiveness and adaptation of
microlearning in different areas of higher education, such as medicine and
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4. Conclusion
From the bibliometric review on the topic under study, it was possible to
identify that the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced scientific production in the
application of microlearning in higher education to a greater extent than with
respect to the application or use of nanolearning. This is because, as a result of
the pandemic, many universities found themselves having to adapt to online
and remote teaching modalities, which was also associated with the widespread
use of mobile devices, greater access to the Internet and the advancement of
information and communications technologies. Likewise, it was also identified
that there is no scientific journal that has published a high number of studies on
the application of microlearning or nanolearning in higher education, in the
pandemic and post-pandemic context. Only the scientific journal Education and
Information Technologies presents five publications, while the others have only
one publication. This result shows that there is a need to undertake further
studies concerning the topic in question. On the other hand, it was identified
that the most prevalent themes in the existing literature on microlearning and
nanolearning in higher education, in the COVID-19 pandemic and post-
pandemic context, are effectiveness and adaptation of microlearning in different
areas of higher education, such as medicine and engineering, development of
competencies and skills through microlearning in university students, and
evaluation of the impact of innovative teaching strategies such as microlearning
in higher education. Finally, it is concluded that, in the post-pandemic context, a
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1. Introduction
In today's educational landscape, inclusivity stands as a cornerstone principle,
heralding a paradigm shift towards environments that honor the diverse needs
of all learners. With a growing recognition of the importance of diversity and
inclusion, educational institutions are increasingly embracing inclusive practices
to create equitable learning opportunities. Inclusive education settings play a
crucial role in fostering an environment where individuals with hearing
impairments can thrive socially, emotionally and academically (Jungjohann &
Gebhardt, 2023). The challenges faced by deaf individuals extend beyond
communication and psychological aspects, often leading to social withdrawal
behaviors (Quirke & McGuckin, 2024). Researchers have highlighted the
multifaceted difficulties that deaf individuals encounter, emphasizing the need
for comprehensive support (Khasawneh et al., 2024). The impact of hearing
impairment on communication skills is profound, making interactions
challenging for those with hearing difficulties (Aguis, 2024). Moreover, the
psychological implications can contribute to feelings of isolation and hinder
overall well-being. Social withdrawal behaviors become apparent as a coping
mechanism, as individuals may find it challenging to navigate social situations
effectively (Nguyen et al., 2024). Recognizing the significance of inclusive
education, researchers like Masi et al. (2023) emphasize the pivotal role of peer
support in facilitating positive behavioral changes among hearing-impaired
individuals. Peer support in inclusive settings acts as a catalyst for personal
growth, allowing everyone to contribute to and benefit from the learning
environment (Fong et al., 2023).
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student can experience holistic growth (Chow et al., 2023). In this context, peer
support emerges as an inclusive model that not only accommodates the unique
needs of students with hearing impairments but also creates a space for the
collective development of all individuals involved. In this context, the role of
peers, as delineated by Rrofiah et al. (2023), is pivotal, acting as a core agent
capable of instigating transformative changes in a child's behavior. Hence, it
needs to be given due consideration in scientific inquiry. In addition,
Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory provides a theoretical framework to
understand the depth of peer influence within a child's environment (Navarro &
Tudge, 2023). Peers are conceptualized as a microsystem, a layer of influence
characterized by its intimacy, intensity, longevity, and profound impact on a
child's development across various domains, ranging from language and
nutrition to safety, health, trust, and social and emotional aspects (Nolan &
Owen, 2024).
This influence extends beyond mere academic realms; it permeates the intricate
fabric of emotional learning within a child's environment (Aguis, 2024). The
relationships formed between children and their classmates, according to this
perspective, hold the potential to shape and influence the proximal domains in a
child's developmental trajectory (Al-Rahmi et al., 2020). Simultaneously, these
relationships serve as catalysts for the enhancement of communication skills and
cognitive development, particularly in areas such as perspective-taking (Akrami,
2022). Research also shows that peer support within this microsystem operates
on the principles of respect, shared responsibility, and mutual agreement on
what is beneficial (Alamri et al., 2021). Within this framework, the study seeks to
unfold the layers of the peer perspective, exploring its depth and potential to
serve as a support system for students with hearing impairments. The
overarching goal is to elucidate the various dimensions of peer influence and
leverage this understanding to optimize the learning environment for students
with hearing impairments.
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positive views and acceptance of peers with disabilities (Jun, 2020). This
acceptance perspective triggers reciprocal relationships, functioning as a
microsystem for children with hearing impairments, subsequently impacting the
development of their proximal zone abilities (Rasheed et al., 2023). The
significance of peer relationships extends beyond the immediate social context.
These relationships contribute valuable experiences that go beyond the realm of
social interaction, offering opportunities for critical thinking, self-confidence,
creativity, academic ability, and motivation among peers (Kim et al., 2022). The
study positions itself to examine these intricate dynamics and their cumulative
impact on the developmental trajectory of students with hearing impairments.
The ultimate objective is to discern how positive peer relationships can serve as
catalysts for fostering a supportive microsystem within the classroom setting.
Hence, the current study aims to: (1) Investigate the nuanced impact of peer
support as a microsystem on the multifaceted development of students with
hearing impairments; (2) Delve into the intricate dimensions of the peer
perspective, aiming to understand its influence and potential within the
inclusive educational framework; (3) Identify and articulate effective strategies
to enhance social interactions within the classroom, creating positive
microsystems that actively support the development of abilities in children with
hearing impairments.
2. Literature Review
This study focuses on the multifaceted aspects of peer support within inclusive
education, particularly in the context of students with hearing impairments. This
comprehensive review spans various dimensions, including the role of peers in
inclusive settings, the impact of hearing impairments on social interactions, and
the potential of microsystems in facilitating the development of students with
hearing impairments. The review draws from a range of scholarly works to
provide a robust foundation for understanding the dynamics at play within the
inclusive classroom microsystem.
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The literature consistently supports the idea that inclusive education models,
bolstered by peer support, create an environment where students with hearing
impairments can thrive academically and socially (Grájeda et al., 2024). This
holistic approach to education not only addresses the academic needs of
students but also recognizes the importance of social interactions in shaping
well-rounded individuals (Liang et al., 2023). As the present study delves into
the perspectives of typical peers regarding the presence of hearing-impaired
students within the classroom microsystem, it builds upon this foundational
understanding of the symbiotic relationship between inclusive education, peer
support, and the overall development of students with diverse needs.
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This knowledge serves as the cornerstone for the present study, which seeks to
explore the perspectives of typical peers regarding the presence of hearing-
impaired students within the classroom microsystem (Kamran & Bano, 2023). In
delving into these perspectives, the study aspires to uncover nuanced insights
that can inform practical strategies to enhance inclusivity and positive social
interactions, thereby contributing to the overall well-being and development of
students with hearing impairments within the inclusive classroom setting
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Typical peers form an integral part of the inclusive microsystem, shaping the
socio-emotional landscape within the classroom: their attitudes, behaviors, and
interactions carry significant weight in influencing the overall experiences of
students with hearing impairments (Kamran & Bano, 2023). Thus, the need to
comprehensively understand and address the dynamics of typical peer
perceptions arises as a crucial aspect of fostering an inclusive environment. The
emphasis on positive peer contact aligns with the broader principles of
inclusion, emphasizing the creation of environments where students with
diverse abilities are not just present but actively engaged and accepted by their
peers (Efthymiou & Katsarou, 2024). Positive interactions during free play
periods not only contribute to breaking down barriers but also lay the
foundation for building meaningful relationships that extend beyond the
academic realm (Rocha et al., 2023). The study's focus on understanding how
typical peers perceive and interact with their hearing-impaired counterparts is
pivotal for several reasons. Firstly, it provides an opportunity to uncover any
existing misconceptions or stereotypes that might influence peer dynamics.
Secondly, gaining insights into the attitudes of typical peers can inform targeted
interventions aimed at fostering inclusivity and positive microsystem
development. Thirdly, understanding the perspectives of peers contributes to a
more holistic understanding of the social dynamics within inclusive classrooms.
Hence, the limited exploration of typical peer perspectives within the inclusive
classroom setting highlights a crucial gap in the existing literature. The study at
hand endeavors to bridge this gap by delving into the nuanced attitudes and
interactions of typical peers with their hearing-impaired counterparts.
3. Methods
This study utilized a mixed method approach to delve into the nuanced
perspectives of peers toward their hearing-impaired counterparts within
inclusive classroom settings. The chosen method involved distributing
questionnaires with open-ended questions, allowing for an in-depth exploration
of the rich tapestry of views and experiences of typical peers in their interactions
with students with hearing impairments. The participants in this study
comprised 121 students, reflecting the same age as their fellow students with
hearing impairments at regular elementary school levels in Banjarbaru City. This
sample included peers from six classes across five different elementary schools,
purposefully selected from learning classes where students with hearing
impairments were integrated. This intentional selection aimed to capture a
diverse and representative range of perspectives from peers actively engaged
with hearing-impaired students within the classroom environment. A
meticulously designed questionnaire consisting of open-ended questions served
as the primary tool for data collection. The questionnaire aimed to provide a
detailed understanding of peer perspectives on their hearing-impaired
counterparts, aligning with the research objectives. The questions were
structured based on a model considering various factors influencing peer
assessments of students with special needs in their class. The questionnaire, a
vital tool in collecting primary data, encompasses a total of 16 open-ended
question items. These questions utilize a combination of scales and subjective
inquiries to comprehensively explore various facets of the participants'
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The collected data were categorized into primary and secondary sources.
Primary data, obtained directly through the questionnaires, were complemented
by secondary data derived from observations and interviews. The questionnaire,
comprising 16 open-ended questions, was structured around five thematic areas:
peer perspectives on hearing-impaired peers in the class. The design of the
questionnaire is rooted in specific themes, such as age (1 item), gender (1 item),
self-esteem (3 items), academic ability (3 items), physical ability (2 items),
communication skills (4 items), communication style (2 items), and
understanding of special needs (2 items). This structured approach ensures a
systematic and thorough examination of the subjects' viewpoints. The
questionnaire incorporated a scale and subjective questions, delving into the
reasons behind the participants' responses. Each item was strategically designed
to capture a comprehensive view of the multifaceted factors influencing peer
perspectives. Furthermore, an interview protocol was implemented to
triangulate the qualitative data and enhance the quantitative findings derived
from the questionnaire.
The data collection process spanned a period from 1st April, 2023 to 31st
December, 2023, to ensure comprehensive coverage and representation of
various contextual factors. This timeline encompassed the distribution of
questionnaires, the collection of responses, and the subsequent phase of
interviews and observations. This research adhered to ethical standards,
ensuring participant confidentiality, informed consent, and respectful treatment
throughout the study. Ethical approval was obtained from the authors'
Institutional Review Board to guarantee the ethical integrity of the research
process. Several challenges were encountered during data collection, including
variations in participants' comprehension of certain questions and potential
biases in self-reporting. To address these challenges, additional explanatory
sessions were conducted, and participants were assured of the anonymity of
their responses. These measures aimed to enhance the accuracy and reliability of
the collected data. In-depth interviews were conducted with a subset of
participants, selected purposefully to provide deeper insights into specific
themes emerging from the questionnaire responses. A semi-structured interview
format allowed for probing questions and a more nuanced exploration of
participants' perspectives. Interviews were audio-recorded with participants'
consent and transcribed for further analysis. Thematic analysis was employed to
identify patterns, recurring themes, and outliers within the collected data. To
enhance the depth and breadth of the study, an interview protocol was
employed as a complementary method to triangulate qualitative data and enrich
the quantitative insights gathered through the questionnaire. The formulation of
interview questions was guided by a sociocultural framework, allowing for a
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more nuanced exploration of the social and cultural influences that may shape
the participants' perspectives on hearing-impaired peers in the educational
context. This dual-method approach not only facilitates a comprehensive
analysis but also ensures the validity and reliability of the findings by cross-
verifying information obtained through different channels.
4.1. Findings
This finding identifies the peer perspective as part of the microsystem of
students with hearing impairments in the classroom. The peer perspective on
students with hearing impairments is described in a questionnaire with four
indicator themes, namely: (1) understanding of the special needs of their peers,
(2) age, gender, self-esteem (self-efficacy), (3) academic and sports abilities, (4)
communication skills and style, (5) promoting empathy and emotional
intelligence.
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4.2. Discussion
4.2.1 Understanding of Special Needs
The thematic analysis illuminates the depth of awareness among peers
concerning the learning barriers encountered by their hearing-impaired
classmates. This heightened awareness, exemplified by an overwhelming 90% of
respondents, represents a pivotal stride toward fostering inclusivity within the
classroom microsystem. The significance of this finding cannot be overstated, as
it lays the foundation for a supportive and empathetic environment, challenging
preconceived notions and fostering a community where differences are not only
acknowledged but actively accommodated (Sirem & Çatal, 2023).
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2022). This extends beyond the immediate classroom setting, shaping a broader
culture of acceptance and support within the educational community (Al-Rahmi
et al., 2020). By actively engaging with and addressing communication
challenges, peers contribute to the creation of an environment where every
student, regardless of their hearing abilities, feels valued and heard.
Furthermore, the finding underscores the importance of educators fostering an
environment that encourages open communication about diversity and unique
learning needs. By recognizing and celebrating differences, educators can
contribute to the development of a positive microsystem within the classroom,
where students are empowered to support each other's growth and
development.
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Moreover, in a class setting, the level of education has become an absolute rule
in placing students in the class. This is to facilitate teaching in accordance with
their developmental milestones. Moreover, the negligible consideration of age as
a significant factor in peer relationships, attributed to predetermined grade-level
groupings, aligns seamlessly with the principles of inclusive education. In
classrooms where students are grouped based on academic levels rather than
age, the barriers traditionally associated with age-related differences diminish,
creating an environment conducive to diverse peer interactions. This aspect of
the findings underscores the importance of structural considerations within
educational institutions that consciously promote inclusivity, enabling students
to form connections based on shared academic experiences rather than age-
related stereotypes (Quirke & McGuckin, 2024).
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with other people, who they befriend, and how they think and feel about
themselves.
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6. Conclusion
This research is expected to contribute to students with hearing impairments by
presenting a rich and detailed picture of their peers' views of their presence in
the classroom. Peer perspective will form a microsystem that can influence
students' abilities. The level of potential development of a person's ability to
complete tasks and solve problems can be supported through adult guidance or
when collaborating with more competent peers (Downes et al., 2021). Peer
perspective can also be used to maximize learning activities in the classroom as
well as in collaborative classroom settings (Fu et al., 2022). This research can
provide a reference for teachers to make the best classroom arrangements that
are suitable for hearing-impaired students with their peers. Based on the
findings, peers have an important role in supporting the participation of
students with hearing impairments in learning in inclusive schools. However,
further research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness of
the recommendations in enhancing the learning participation support of
students with hearing impairments in the classroom.
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1. Introduction
In early 2020, the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2020) proposed school
closures as one of the first non-pharmaceutical ways to minimise COVID-19
infections and transmission. Simultaneously, governments and educational
institutions from around the world initiated policy initiatives to keep educating
*
Corresponding author: Sakyiwaa Boateng, [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
321
the citizenry. However, questions and disagreements persisted about the content
to be taught, how it should be taught, and implications for educational equity
(Zhang et al., 2020). Nonetheless, national initiatives on technology-enabled
remote, distance, and online learning programmes emerged and evolved rapidly
during the COVID-19 era. However, the literature underlines difficulties
including online education infrastructure, teachers’ lack of technological
knowledge, and the complexity of the home-based environment (Murgatroyd,
2021). Nevertheless, despite these constraints, action was needed to protect
student education.
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2. Literature Review
2.1 Blended Learning in Education
In the last few years of the COVID-19 pandemic, basic education and higher
education institutions have increasingly employed the term “Blended Learning”
(BL) (Nikolopoulou, 2022). BL is a combination of face-to-face and computer-
mediated instruction. BL is an educational method that integrates (or merges)
online learning with traditional classroom methods (face-to-face learning)
(Saboowala & Mishra, 2021). Various models of blended learning have been
identified (for example, flex, online lab, self-blended, etc.), each offering unique
benefits and strategies for implementation. One prevalent model is the flipped
classroom model, where students engage with online materials before in-person
classes, allowing for more interactive face-to-face sessions (Nida et al., 2020).
Another common model is the station rotation model, where students rotate
between different learning stations, including online activities and teacher-led
instructions (Nida et al., 2020). The fundamental principle is that face-to-face and
online components are optimally integrated so that the strengths of each are
blended to create a unique learning experience that is consistent with the context
and intended educational purpose (Larkin, 2010). By integrating delivery
modalities, BL aims to provide the most efficient and effective learning
experience. Therefore, in integrated learning environments, students and
teachers collaborate to provide realistic opportunities for independent, useful,
sustainable, and ever-expanding learning (Graham, 2005; 2016). According to
Garrison and Kanuka (2004), the facilitation of a community of inquiry makes
integrated learning particularly effective. This implies that the community
provides a platform for collaborative activities between teachers and students
through interactive sessions, which increase student satisfaction and academic
achievement (Khan et al., 2012). This implies that BL provides time flexibility for
online learning, which gives students access to information at all times.
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Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, this strategy has shown to be highly beneficial
as it was deemed the most effective means of fulfilling students' educational
requirements (Wahyuningsih & Afandi, 2023). A convergence of the literature
demonstrates that BL transforms pedagogy and has been linked to heightened
learning motivation in elementary school learners due to the provision of
autonomous learning opportunities and access to global learning resources
(Azizan, 2010; Hanum & Sari, 2022). Assessment is one of the most important
learning and instructional instruments during the pandemic. BL enables teachers
to deliver lessons and assess students' learning using creative and innovative
methods through online assessment platforms (Elmahdi et al., 2018; Khan et al.,
2012).
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3. Theoretical Framework
3.1 Social Constructivism Theory
This paper is framed according to Vygotsky's (1978) Social Constructivism
Theory of learning. Social constructivism emphasises the collaborative nature of
learning, where knowledge is constructed through social interactions and shared
experiences (Al-Qaysi et al., 2018). In the context of BL, this theory highlights the
importance of learners actively engaging with online materials and participating
in collaborative activities facilitated by teachers (Varthis & Anderson, 2016). The
integration of social constructivism theory in BL environments encourages self-
regulated learning and emphasises the role of learners as active participants in
the learning process (Varthis & Anderson, 2016). This approach aligns with the
principles of constructivism, which posit that learners build their understanding
of concepts through interactions with their peers and teachers (Al-Qaysi et al.,
2018). By incorporating social constructivist principles into BL models, teachers
can create a dynamic and interactive learning environment that promotes
knowledge construction through collaboration and discussion (Marzouki et al.,
2017). Furthermore, the application of social constructivism theory in blended
learning can enhance student engagement and foster a sense of community
among learners (Sokout & Usagawa, 2021). By encouraging collaborative
learning activities and providing opportunities for students to interact and share
their perspectives, teachers can create a supportive learning environment that
aligns with the principles of social constructivism (Marzouki et al., 2017). This
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approach not only enhances the learning experience but also promotes critical
thinking and active participation among students (Wei-yi et al., 2023).
4. Methods
4.1 The research approach
In this study, a qualitative research method was employed to guide the research
process. According to Creswell and Plano Clark (2018), qualitative research
allows the researcher to examine people's actions and report them in narrative
and descriptive ways. This study considered the opinions and experiences of the
participants and was conducted in a natural context. The qualitative research
method was deemed suitable for this study for two reasons: firstly, the objective
of the qualitative research method is "to better understand human behaviour
and experience" (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007, p. 43) which aligns with the goals of
this study, which was to investigate teachers’ perceptions of their experiences of
the implementation of BL. Secondly, the qualitative approach allowed the
researcher to examine teachers' experiences of implementing BL in a "holistic"
manner rather than in a "reductionist" fashion. Therefore, utilising qualitative
methods allowed multiple perspectives on reality and participants’ subjective
accounts of their personal experiences with the implementation of BL in their
classrooms during the COVID-19 era in a social context.
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5. Results
5.1 Biographical information of participants
Table 1: Participants’ Background Profiles
Teacher's Teacher's Gender Qualifications Teaching Subjects taught
school code Experience
HSA HSAT1 Male B.Ed (majoring in 6 years Mathematics and
Mathematics and Physical Science
Physical Sciences)
HSAT2 Female B.Ed (majoring in 8 years Mathematics and
Mathematics and Physical Science
Physical Sciences)
HSAT3 Female B.Ed (majoring in 10 years Mathematics and
Mathematics and Physical Science
Physical Sciences)
HSB HSBT1 Female B.Ed (majoring in 4 years Mathematics and
Mathematics and Physical Science
Physical Sciences)
HSBT2 Male B.Ed (majoring in 6 years Accounting and
Economics, Business Studies
Management
Science [EMS]).
HSBT3 Male B.Ed (majoring in 3 years Accounting and
Economics, Business Studies
Management
Science [EMS]).
HSC HSCT1 Female B.Ed (majoring in 19 years Accounting and
Economics, Business Studies
Management
Science [EMS]).
HSCT2 Male B.Ed (majoring in 8 years Accounting and
Economics, Economics
Management
Science [EMS]).
HSCT3 Female B.Ed (majoring in 10 years Economics and
Economics, Business Studies
Management
Science [EMS]).
Table 1 presents the background information of the participants. Out of the nine
sampled teachers, four have a B.Ed (majoring in Mathematics and Physical
Sciences) degree. Five possess a B.Ed (majoring in Economics, Management
Science [EMS]). Concerning experience, there were two participants with fewer
than five years of experience as teachers. The other seven participants had more
than six years of teaching experience. Concerning their major subjects, four
sampled participants majored in physical sciences and mathematics, while the
other five majored in EMS. There were four males and five females. Five
participants were in Post Level 1 (PL1) and four in senior posts (PL2). All
participants indicated they received some professional training on BL.
Participants were given pseudonyms as follows: HSAT1, HSAT2, HSAT3,
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HSBT1, HSBT2, HSBT3, HSCT1, HSCT2 and HSCT3. Table 2 presents the themes
and sub-themes that were generated from the data.
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This implies that participants engaged with their learners using virtual
discussion forums, and pre-recorded lessons to ensure accessibility using
various formats for materials.
This finding shows that teachers were equipped with digital tools to implement
the online component of BL during the lockdown in the COVID-19 era.
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The second strategy the four participants employed was to encourage their
learners to utilise online learning components by introducing them to the
significance of online learning and informing them of the available online tools
and software. They indicated that they posted many video lessons and audio
recordings of their lessons.
Three teachers thought that the term BL referred to online learning and thought
that some universities had implemented it before COVID-19. However, they
indicated that they learnt more about it in high schools during the COVID-19
era. These results indicate a need to assist teachers in gaining a more
comprehensive understanding of BL and be able to distinguish BL from general
computer-assisted learning.
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The majority of the participants agreed with HST1 that BL is simple, user-
friendly, straightforward, and offers a creative mode of instruction.
Most of the participants reported that some students do not even attempt to
complete online class activities and would rather ask their peers to complete
their online assignments for them. In addition, the participants indicated that
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some students who attempted to log in online simply selected the answers
without performing the exercises themselves. Furthermore, most of the teachers
indicated the students’ lack of access to digital tools. They were of the view that
students had limited access to internet connectivity at their homes which may be
far away from the schools or difficult to reach. For that reason, their students
had a negative attitude towards the online component of BL. HST5 reported:
“To me, I can see that my students do not have access to their tablets
and computers to study online whenever they desire. Most of the tablets
they received from DBE were mugged by thieves on their way home. So
they no longer have access to these digital tools.”
This implies that the participants viewed students’ lack of motivation and lack
of access as the most significant student-related challenges.
Teacher-related challenges
It emerged from the responses that most teachers lacked knowledge about
possible applications of a BL environment in teaching. Some teachers struggled
with the use of technology in teaching online despite the training they received
from the subject advisors during the COVID-19 era. Some participants cited
insufficient knowledge of technological tools as a factor that influenced the
implementation of BL in their classrooms. HST6 explained:
“Although I receive some training on online learning, I still experience a
lack of complete understanding of how to use a specific app and that has
prevented me from utilising some online tools for BL after the pandemic.
Going back to the online component of blended is a no-goal area for me
[laughs].”
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6. Discussion
The discussion is structured around three prominent themes and their
corresponding sub-themes, which emerged from the data. These themes are
explored in light of the relevant literature, with a specific emphasis on framing
the discourse within the social constructivism theory. Social constructivism
emphasises the collaborative nature of learning, where knowledge is constructed
through social interactions and shared experiences (Al-Qaysi et al., 2018). In the
context of BL, this theory highlights the importance of learners actively engaging
with online materials and participating in collaborative activities facilitated by
teachers (Varthis & Anderson, 2016). This approach aligns with the principles of
constructivism, which posit that learners build their understanding of concepts
through interactions with their peers and teachers (Al-Qaysi et al., 2018).
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In addition, the study revealed that teachers believed that students encounter
challenges relating to their desire to learn online, their lack of proficiency with
technological tools, and their difficulties navigating the online space due to the
urgency of the transition to the online platform during COVID-19. This implies
that students did not receive any formal training on the use of technology for
learning. According to Trucano (2005), the use of technology varies by school
and subject, and there is evidence that students are still in the initial
developmental phase. However, Vygotsky (1978) asserts that learning in
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In addition, the study found that both teachers and students faced limited
resources at the school level, such as a lack of internet access, power outages,
and insufficient computers and data. This result is consistent with Rasmitadila et
al.'s (2020) study, which identified the absence of internet access as a barrier to
BL. Despite improvements over the years, Echazarra and Radinger (2019) assert
that internet access remains a significant obstacle to the education of students in
rural school districts.
7. Conclusion
This interpretivist qualitative study set out to explore the experiences of rural
high school teachers’ implementation of BL during COVID-19 lockdowns in
their schools. In particular, the focus was on their experiences with BL. Using
social constructivism as a framework, this study has revealed that there were
attempts at the rural schools to make BL work during the COVID-19 era.
Teachers' perceptions of the ease of use impacts their implementation of BL in
their daily instruction, with the majority implementing it every day. The
findings confirmed that teachers consider BL useful in providing feedback on
student learning, giving students quick feedback, remediation, enrichment, and
engaging students in the learning process. However, the findings confirmed
that teacher technology competence and a lack of resources, internet access and
technology tools are barriers to the implementation of BL. In particular, the
study provided insights into the positive role played by BL during COVID-19
lockdowns by revealing the experiences of teachers with the implementation of
BL at the selected schools.
8. Recommendations
This study examined the implementation of BL by teachers during the COVID-
19 era. Therefore, the study recommends that schools implement BL in the post-
COVID-19 era to determine its teaching and learning benefits. According to this
study, the majority of teachers implemented the face-to-face component of BL
more than the online component. This study therefore recommends comparative
research using various BL models to determine which model is the most
effective for implementing BL in high school classroom instruction. In addition,
this study was limited to secondary school teachers in rural areas. Consequently,
the collection of data was restricted to the experiences of these teachers at the
selected schools. Hence, this study recommends that teachers' perceptions of BL
at all grade levels, from grade 1 to grade 12, be the subject of future research.
The study recommends that the Department of Basic Education increases the
supply of technological resources (computers, internet access, and Wi-Fi) to all
schools and provides teachers with professional training on BL so that they can
implement BL competently. The study recommends that teachers equip
themselves with relevant skills that include: computer literacy, techniques,
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Alice Kuyayama
University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
©Authors
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1. Introduction
The need for integration of Information, Communication and Technology (ICT)
in the curriculum the world over cannot be overemphasised. Any serious
engagement aimed at developing the twenty-first century skills would be
incomplete without the use of ICT. Technology is now the channel through which
knowledge is transferred in most countries. Grabe (2007) asserts that technology
has transformed societies in terms of the way they interact, produce goods and
services as well as their ways thinking. Educational institutions, therefore, are
obliged to adjust the way they interact with learners and integrate ICT as much as
possible in order to meet the demands of the new world order.
2. Literature Review
According to Khan et al. (2012), integrating technology in the curriculum is
dependent on availability of the ICT tools, the level of technical expertise and an
understanding of how children learn. In the same vein, Du Toit (2015) advocates
for pedagogical training in using ICT in the classrooms. This means teacher
professional development should equip pre-service teachers with skills to use
applications and meaningfully engage learners. Curricula changes related to the
use of ICT (including changes in instructional design) should also be realised. Pre-
service teachers (or student teachers) should also be conversant with different
technology tools and changes in teachers’ role when ICTs are integrated in
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learning and instruction (Jamieson-Proctor et al., 2013). Türel and Johnson (2012)
assert that technical problems cause serious challenges to such integration. Issues
like low connectivity, virus attacks and lack of printers will impede the
development of skills. These should be addressed in pre-service teacher
development programme and built on and enhanced by in-service teacher
professional development. This diverts ICT teacher development focus from ICT
literacy (instrumental skills) to using ICTs as instructional tools (pedagogical
function) (Khan, et al., 2012; Bhalla, 2014).
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the school (government, mission, council, and trust); which informs the
managerial structure (staff responsibilities, internal communication structure and
internal and external partners).
3. Methodology
This study employed the exploratory mixed methods research design (Creswell,
2014), following pragmatism as the paradigm.
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4. Results
It was critical for the study to solicit evidence on the following: the extent of
integration of ICTs in the teacher training programme and primary school
curriculum at ECE level, teachers’ competencies to integrate ICTs in the school
curriculum, and as well as technical support availed to teachers in primary
schools to enhance integration of ICTs.
120
100
100
78.3
80 68.2 70
% Skills
60
40 30
21.7 18.2 20
15 16.7
20 10 9.111.4 10 8.3 8.3
0
Government Council Mission Trust
Computer literacy skills
Using ICTs as instructional tools in Applied Subjects
Production of ICT models in professional studies
Using ICTs as media
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confirmed by school staff profiles and interviews with the ECE teachers. The
following were some teachers’ remarks during focus group interviews:
Mission schoolteacher: I have done a computer studies course. I can source information from
the internet, do word processing and make a PowerPoint presentation.
But using these skills in teaching and learning different subjects, hey…I
can’t.
Government schoolteacher: It is critical for me to become ICT literate; given that I am supposed
to use ICTs in teaching across subjects. I know how to operate
computers and several other ICTs. The challenge is to use these
operational skills to enable child-centred learning. We have to learn
these skills.
Figure 1 also indicates that very few teachers were trained to use ICTs as
instructional tools in Applied Subjects (subjects taught in all the primary schools)
regardless of the school type. These included Mathematics and Science, Physical
Education and Mass Displays, Family and Heritage Studies, Visual and
Performing Arts (Expressive Arts), Languages and Information Communication
Technology. The results showed that during pre-service training, most of the
teachers were not trained to use ICTs in teaching and learning. This was
confirmed in face-to-face interviews with the ECE teachers as depicted in the
following response:
Council schoolteacher: My pre-service training helped me learn about computers. I most often
use ICTs for routine tasks such as record keeping, lesson plan
development, information presentation and basic information searches
on the internet. I cannot use ICTs to engage learners.
The figure also shows that a low average of 10% of teachers were exposed to
production of ICT models in professional studies. Professional Studies is a course
where student teachers are exposed to classroom practices that include the
different methods to teaching different subjects at ECE level. These results
showed that during pre-service training, not much was covered on application of
ICT skills in the production of teaching and learning media. Analysis of
documents and interview data also confirmed the teachers’ lack of skills in
production of ICT-based teaching and learning media.
Similarly, very few teachers used ICTs as instructional tools during teaching
practice (work-related learning) in all the school types. Teachers gave different
reasons for the limited use of ICT tools which ranged from scarcity of
technological tools to teachers’ lack of digital skills to effectively use the ICTs as
instructional tools. This was captured in the following responses during
interviews:
Mission schoolteacher: I cannot be just using the computer in my teaching. I have heard about
the projector, interactive board and digital camera but these gadgets are
not available at our school. During pre-service training, I was never
exposed to an ICT gadget other than the computer.
Trust schoolteacher: There is a problem of teacher training colleges producing teachers who
can’t use ICTs in teaching and learning when deployed at primary
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schools, whose ICT resources are better than the ones at college. I have
mentored such a student teacher who had never seen a digital projector,
interactive board and modem.
It emerged that the pre-service training of teachers was skewed towards computer
literacy not ICTs in teaching and learning (ICT pedagogy). It was also observed
that ICT tools available in ECE classes at school level, were not available at some
TTCs.
120
100 100 100 100
100
83.3
% Responses
80
Government
60
36.6 38.6 Council
40 33.3 30 30
25
20 18.3
20 10 106.810 Mission
6.8
1.7 0
0 Trust
Figure 2 shows that trust schoolteachers were more competent to use ICTs in the
different classroom activities (83.3-100%). This was however a complete opposite
of what happened in the other schools which have quite low percentages (below
40%).
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Trust schoolteachers: We can engage our learners in reading and listening tasks. They can
practise pronunciation using on-line audio dictionary. They can make a
recording of their own pronunciation. This whole learning process is
exciting. We learnt how to engage learners in such tasks during in-
service training funded by our school. We however perfected these skills
through assistance from more competent colleagues at this school.
Council schoolteacher: At our school, we enrolled at a private college to improve our ICT skills
so as to remain comparable to colleagues who are competent in using
ICTs in their teaching. We succumbed to peer-pressure. This has
transformed our teaching. We can use ICTs in some of our lessons.
Government schoolteacher: ICTs are excellent teaching tools. I got tuition from YouTube by
myself. I have also been assisted by a friend, who teaches at this school.
Now I integrate ICT tools in most of my lessons.
From these results it was found that in some schools (trust schools), the school
management made provision for teacher skills development so that they could be
competent in teaching twenty-first century learners. Such in-service teacher
development was important as pre-service teacher development failed to equip
teachers with the necessary skills sets. In certain instances, teachers sought to seek
development opportuinities themselves without the help of the school.
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Overall, teachers in the different types of schools concurred that technical support
assisted them to confidently use ICTs in teaching and learning. However, teachers
bemoaned the lack of technical support which undermined the effective use of
ICTs in teaching and learning. Such a problem was attributed to failure by teacher
training colleges to equip teachers with technical skills to use ICTs in classroom
instruction and basic maintenance skills. This meant that a technician on-site was
a priority. However, teachers at trust schools regularly received technical support
at their schools.
5. Discussion
This research found that the pre-service teacher training programme was skewed
towards ICT literacy rather than ICT pedagogy, which compromised the
integration of ICTs during teaching and learning in the ECE classes at primary
schools. This finding confirmed previous research in Zimbabwe which revealed
that the pre-service teacher training programmes had shortcomings in developing
teachers to integrate ICTs in teaching and learning (Konyana & Konyana, 2013;
Mukwananzi, 2016). Thus, integration of ICTs requires a substantial pedagogical
component in the Zimbabwe teacher training programme. Teaching ICT as an
isolated discipline at TTCs, resulted in incompetent teachers when it came to
integrating ICTs in teaching and learning of primary school ECE level learners.
It was noted that trust schools invested in empowering their teachers to use ICTs
in teaching and learning. This was done through providing ICT tools as well as
financing in-service training of teachers and teacher exchange programmes. This
went a long way in ensuring the integration of ICTs in teaching and learning.
Similarly, Muhammad et al. (2015) recommend that training programmes for
teachers should take on board ICT pedagogical practices to acquaint teachers with
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modalities on how to use ICTs in teaching and learning. The study found that the
majority of ECE teachers stationed at GCM schools lacked ICT pedagogy.
According to Ra et al. (2016), ECE being the foundation of all levels of education,
should be handled by teachers who have sound ICT PK. Though the ECE teachers
could manipulate computers, projectors and televisions among others, they could
not facilitate learner-interaction with these ICT tools to grasp concepts and skills
in different subjects. As a result, integration of ICTs for pedagogical purposes was
undermined. This confirms the TPACK model which indicates that if teachers lack
capacity, the implementation process suffers (Ling et al., 2014).
Some schools lacked ICT resources whereas others had resources, yet teachers
were not equipped to use the ICT tools effectively. Previous researchers e.g.
Tusiime et al. (2019) argue that ICT teacher pre- and in-service development
programmes should be aligned with existing ICT resources at school level. The
strategy adopted by trust schools to create an enabling environment for acquiring
ITC skills is consistent with the T-O-E model (Li &Jerry, 2020) which underscores
the relationship between ICT integration and the school’s organisational context
(resources and managerial structure).
In some schools, teachers did not receive in-service training on the use of ICTs in
teaching and learning. This finding was a setback in the realisation of the
Zimbabwe Government Vision 2030. This situation at these schools confirms
Mlitwa and Koranteng’s (2013) argument that the success of educational
innovations depends largely on the mechanisms put in place to assist teachers
sharpen their knowledge and skills in the execution of their duties. Similarly,
Bordbar (2010) argues that teachers’ pedagogical technology competence is a
major predictor of integration of ICTs in teaching and learning. Overall, the
Zimbabwe TTCs failed to facilitate provision for equal opportunities for learners
enrolled in different schools, in terms of integration of ICTs in teaching and
learning. This was contrary to the Zimbabwe Education Act (1987) as amended
(2020) and SDG 1 which emphasises access and equity to education for all
learners.
The study also found that some schools did not have technicians in post to provide
technical support to teachers. Technical support includes technical skills to use
ICTs in classroom instruction, basic maintenance and upgrading of ICT hardware
and software. The technical skills could be acquired through regular intra- and
inter-school and national staff-development workshops/programmes. According
to Karimi (2011), technical support to teachers should be on-going as ICTs
continuously develop such that teachers can be outpaced by the dynamism of the
technologies. This is affirmed by Tusiime et al. (2019) who state that successful
integration of ICTs in education depends on the continuous professional
development of teachers. This demonstrates the need to strike a balance between
ICT literacy and pedagogy as advocated by the TPACK model (Baker, 2012)
during both pre- and in-service training of ECE teachers.
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It is important to note that the ECE level lays the foundation for the future
education of learners. The teacher training programme should ensure that
teachers develop competencies to facilitate ECE learners’ acquisition of twenty-
first century skills. More so, the ICT provisions at TTCs should match those
available in the primary schools.
Therefore, there is need to transform both the pre- and in-service teacher training
programmes for ECE teachers, to strike a balance between ICT literacy and
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7. References
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technology (ICT) in teaching and learning computer studies in Ohaukwu local
government area of Ebonyi state-Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(7),
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Baker, J. (2012). The technology–organization–environment framework. In: Dwivedi, Y.,
Wade, M., Schneberger, S. (Eds) Information systems theory. Integrated Series in
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Bhalla, J. (2014). Computer competence of schoolteachers. Journal of Humanities and Social
Science, 19(1), 69–80.
Blum E, Stenfors T, Palmgren P. (2020). Benefits of massive open online course
participation: Deductive thematic analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research,
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Bordbar, F. (2010). English teachers’ attitudes toward computer-assisted language
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Cargill, S. S. (2019). How do we really communicate? Challenging the assumptions
behind informed consent interventions. Ethics & Human Research, 41, 23–30.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand
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Douglas, P. B., Barasa, P., Peter, L., & Omulando, P. (2020). Teachers' competency in
integration of Information Communication Technology in early learning in
Bungoma county, Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice, 11(30), 78–85.
Du Toit, J. (2015). Teacher training and usage of ICT in education. New directions for the UIS
global data collection in the post-2015 context. Paris. UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
Grabe, M., & Grabe, C. (2007). Integrating technology for meaningful learning (5th ed.).
Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Hennessy, S., Harrison, D., & Wamakote, L. (2010). Teacher factors influencing
classroom use of ICT in Sub-Saharan Africa. Itupale Online Journal of African
studies, 2(1), 39–54.
Jamieson-Proctor, R., Albion, P., Finger, G., Cavanagh, R., Fitzgerald, R., Bond, T., &
Grimbeek, P. (2013). Development of the TTF TPACK survey
instrument. Australian Educational Computing, 27, 26–35.
Karimi, H. A. (2011). Universal navigation on smartphones. New York: Springer.
Khan S. H., Hasan, M. and Clement, C. K. (2012). Barriers to the introduction of ICT into
education in developing countries: The example of Bangladesh. International
Journal of Instruction, 5(2), 60–80.
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*
Corresponding author: Samuel Jere, [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction
The adoption and integration of digital technologies (IDT) in science education
have been proven to improve the quality of teaching and learning through their
influence on conceptual understanding, learner engagement, motivation, interest,
and attitudes toward science (Olugbade et al., 2024). However, teachers in rural
communities encounter various obstacles in integrating digital technologies into
their lessons. As a result, the extent of IDT differs from school to school within the
same community and even from teacher to teacher within the same school
(Phillips, 2015). Some teachers utilise various digital technologies extensively,
while others hardly use any form of technology at all.
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In poor communities, low levels of IDT in teaching are caused by teachers’ lack of
digital competence (Lucas et al., 2021); lack of digital resources (Akram et al.,
2022); lack of professional development and technical support (Lomos et al., 2023);
absence of or poor implementation of policies on digital technology integration
(Lomos et al., 2023); and teachers’ resistance to the adoption of digital technologies
due to beliefs that are not in line with current knowledge of how children learn
(Tondeur et al., 2017). Despite the ever-increasing availability of digital resources
such as personal smartphones in communities, these resources have not yet been
widely adopted for the purpose of teaching in South African schools. For example,
it has been demonstrated that smart mobile devices, such as smartphones, smart
pads and tablet computers, have great potential for improving learning outcomes
(Leem & Sung, 2019). Nevertheless, it is disturbing to note that a study by
Mwapwele et al. (2019) revealed that in South Africa, teachers are resistant to
allowing learners to use personal smartphones in schools, despite their potential
for advancing learning.
Efforts have been ongoing to improve internet connectivity and increase the
availability of digital resources, such as tablets and computers, focusing on rural
communities in South Africa (Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, 2016). It
can therefore be expected that such efforts would increase teachers’ IDT in
teaching. In addition, the Professional Development Framework for Digital
Learning, a policy document, provides direction for teachers’ IDT in South Africa
(Department of Basic Education, 2019). Yet despite these efforts, the acceptance
and use of technology in teaching and learning remains inconsistent. Thus, it is
hoped that the findings of this study will provide both theoretical and practical
contributions to research on IDT in the teaching and learning of sciences. They are
intended to shed light on the factors that influence science teachers’ IDT.
Furthermore, this study has practical significance in enabling policymakers to
make informed decisions for improving learning outcomes. Hence, it is essential
to determine the extent to which science teachers are integrating digital
technologies and the factors that influence this.
To date, the extent to which teachers are integrating digital technologies in their
teaching and the factors influencing their decisions in this matter have remained
obscure (Fernández-Sánchez et al., 2022; Peng et al., 2023). There has been a
paucity of empirical studies to explore the combined effects of such variables as
self-efficacy, facilitating conditions or information and communication
technology (ICT) infrastructure on the IDT in teaching (Kundu et al., 2021).
Moreover, little empirical research has been conducted in South Africa on the IDT
in science teaching (Mwapwele et al., 2019). Therefore, this study is intended to
fill this gap by examining the extent of IDT and the effects of facilitating
conditions, social influence, and teachers’ self-efficacy on the IDT in science
teaching. To this end, the study sought to answer the following research
questions: To what extent are science teachers in rural communities integrating
digital technology into their teaching? What are the effects of facilitating
conditions, social influence, and self-efficacy on teachers’ IDT? The Unified
Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) guided the study.
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In science teaching, IDT occurs when the teacher selects and uses appropriate
digital technologies within the various phases of instruction. Learning in science
occurs when learners conduct scientific investigations, collect data, interpret
evidence, and develop explanations, models, and arguments (Hand et al., 2021;
Manz et al., 2020). This implies that science learning is enhanced by such enquiry
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Teaching strategies that foster active learning include the use of digital tools such
as interactive simulations, virtual laboratories, virtual reality, augmented reality,
animations, and other multimedia such as static or dynamic visualisations
(Fernandes et al., 2020). Teachers are recommended to use interactive digital
resources that create an engaging classroom environment in which learners
participate in discussion, reasoning, interpretation, reflection, and argumentation,
as these processes are essential in constructing scientific knowledge (Hand et al.,
2021). Moreover, teachers should select the teaching strategies depending on the
objectives of the lesson. When incorporating digital resources can help to achieve
the lesson’s objectives, teachers must consider integrating digital technologies
into their teaching. The presence of facilitating conditions in the school creates an
environment in which teachers can succeed in integrating digital technologies.
4. Facilitating Condition
The term facilitating condition refers to
“the degree to which an individual believes that an organisational and
technical infrastructure exists to support the use of the system.”
(Venkatesh et al., 2003, p.453).
Facilitating condition, therefore, refers to the teacher's belief that the conditions
within the school are conducive to the IDT in teaching. Teachers should have
access to computer hardware, software, and the internet. However, the literature
suggests that teachers working in rural communities often have insufficient access
to these digital resources (Habibi et al., 2020). In addition, such teachers may
suffer from a lack of technical support.
Schools should have technical support structures to catalyse the effective use of
hardware and software facilities (Teo et al., 2012). Unfortunately, insufficient
support has been provided to teachers, especially those working in schools that
are in rural areas (Habibi et al., 2020). Teachers require ongoing technical support
as well as professional development opportunities to develop their competence
and confidence in using digital technology for pedagogical purposes (Mannila et
al., 2018). Facilitating condition includes access to training programmes,
workshops, and mentorship opportunities that empower teachers to leverage
digital tools to enhance the teaching and learning within their classrooms.
Numerous studies have explored the effects of facilitating condition on ICT use in
teaching, producing contradictory results that justify the need for further
research. For example, Cabellos et al. (2024) found that improving facilitating
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condition increases the use of digital resources in teaching, and Teo et al. (2012)
found that facilitating condition indirectly affects technology acceptance. In
another study, Teo (2011) found that facilitating condition directly impacted
behavioural intention to use technology. It can therefore be expected that a lack of
facilitating condition would lead to diminished intention to use technology in
teaching. Based on the UTAUT, this study hypothesises that increased facilitating
condition increases the IDT in teaching (Venkatesh et al., 2003). In addition to
facilitating condition, self-efficacy plays a vital role in teachers’ decisions
regarding digital tools.
5. Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to individuals’ judgements of their ability to perform necessary
actions effectively (Bandura, 1982). Teachers who perceive themselves as being
capable of integrating digital technologies into their teaching are more likely to
persist and ultimately succeed in integrating digital technology. Moreover, a
teacher with high self-efficacy exerts more effort when facing obstacles, which
determines resilience, persistence and perseverance (Mannila et al., 2018;
Pearman et al., 2021). Thus, even when faced with barriers to integrating digital
technologies, teachers with high self-efficacy tend not to abandon their efforts.
High self-efficacy is required for teachers to explore novel pedagogies in teaching
with technology as new software becomes available.
6. Social Influence
Social influence, in this study, refers to the teacher's belief that their significant
others, such as the school principal, school management team and colleagues,
expect them to integrate digital technology into their teaching (Chávez et al.,
2023). If other teachers are integrating digital technology into their lessons, it is
deemed to be more likely that the teacher will follow suit. Venkatesh et al. (2003)
posit that a person’s behaviour is influenced by their belief of how others will
perceive them due to their use of technology.
If teachers feel that the school managers and other teachers value the use of
technology, then the IDT in teaching will be enhanced (Ifinedo & Kankaanranta,
2021). Studies have shown that support from school leadership and teacher
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collaboration increases the IDT (Xue et al., 2023). Therefore, this study
hypothesises that increased social influence will positively affect teachers’ IDT in
teaching.
8. Method
8.1 Research Design
The study used a cross-sectional survey design. A cross-sectional study is an
observational study that allows researchers to collect and analyse data from a
population at a particular point in time (Wang & Cheng, 2020). In this research, a
cross-sectional study was used as it is less time-consuming and inexpensive, as
the researchers were constrained by limitations on both financial resources and
time. This enabled us to study the associations between the outcome variable and
the predictor variables (Wang & Cheng, 2020).
8.2 Sampling
The study was conducted in a rural education district in Limpopo Province of
South Africa. The population was comprised of teachers who teach natural
sciences at the primary level (grades 1 to 7) or natural science, life sciences, or
physical sciences at the secondary school level (grades 8 to 12). Ethical clearance
was provided by the university ethics committee, while permission to conduct the
study was granted by the Limpopo Department of Education. Participants were
selected using convenience sampling, which is a non-probability sampling
technique. Convenience sampling was chosen as it enabled us to select
participants based on their availability and willingness to participate (Wang &
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Cheng, 2020). Researchers had no control over the selection of participants, due to
both practical and ethical considerations. Hence, random sampling could not be
employed.
There were 158 participants, of whom 53% were male and 47% were female. In
terms of their teaching qualifications, 20.2% had a diploma, 77.3% had a bachelor’s
degree, 1.9% had a master’s degree, and 0.6% had a doctoral degree. The
percentage of teachers with ten years’ experience or less was 52.5%, while 47.5%
had more than ten years’ teaching experience.
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All items were based on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly
disagree/never (1) to strongly agree/always (5). Self-efficacy had five items,
facilitating condition had six, and social influence had four. IDT had ten items.
9. Results
9.1 Extent of Integration of Digital Technology in Science Teaching
The extent to which teachers integrated digital technology in their teaching was
determined by analysing their responses to the items on the IDT scale on the
questionnaire. The items' responses included never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3),
often (4), and always (5). The findings are presented in Table 3.
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The overall mean of 3.07 for IDT implies that the science teachers’ IDT is only
implemented sometimes. There is no evidence that the teachers often use
technology in their science teaching. This indicates that the integration of digital
technology in teaching is at a moderate level. The teachers’ use of technology for
lesson planning, the creation of instructional materials and assessment was above
average, while their use of technology in presenting information to learners, using
content-specific educational software, simulations and gamification and creating
electronic templates to guide learners in using computers was below average.
Social influence had a mean of 2.94, which aligns with the overall mean. This
implies that the teachers believed that social influence was significant in their IDT.
The teachers moderately agreed that they used digital technology because other
teachers used it (SI1, M = 2.77). They also moderately agreed that the school's senior
managers supported them in integrating technology (SI2, M = 2.80), that the senior
staff members were very supportive of the use of digital technology (SI3, M =
3.23), and that their school supported the use of digital technology in teaching
(SI4, M = 2.96).
SE had a mean of 3.85, which was above the overall mean of 2.94. This implies that
the teachers believed that they could integrate digital technology into their
teaching. The respondents agreed that they could acquire digital technology skills
(SE1, M = 4.16), use digital technology effectively in their teaching (SE2, M = 4.09),
and overcome the difficulties of using digital technology in their teaching (SE3, M
= 3.49). They also believed they would overcome the difficulties of IDT with
assistance (SE4, M = 3.80). The participants agreed they could respond to various
digital technology uses in their teaching (SE5, M =3.75). Therefore, it was
concluded that the science teachers had high self-efficacy beliefs.
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After checking that the assumptions of multiple linear regression were not
violated, we used stepwise multiple linear regression to determine the
relationship between the predicted variable (integration of digital technology)
and the three predictor variables - facilitating conditions, social influence and self-
efficacy. We ran the multiple linear regression and used the Casewise diagnostic
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function in SPSS to identify outliers. One outlier was identified and deleted,
reducing the sample size from 159 to 158. Then, we reran the regression. The
results are displayed in Table 5.
The final regression model included all three predictor variables. The analysis
results indicate that 55.8% of the variance in teachers’ IDT is collectively
accounted for by facilitating conditions, self-efficacy and social influence. In
addition, the results reveal that facilitating conditions were a significant positive
predictor of the teachers’ IDT in teaching (β = 0.446, t = 6.088, p < .05). Based on
this, H1 was accepted. Self-efficacy was also found to be a positive significant
predictor of the teachers’ IDT (β = 0.295, t = 4.857, p < .05). Based on this, H2 was
accepted. Similarly, social influence was found to be a positive significant
predictor of the teachers’ IDT in science teaching (β = 0.160, t = 2.213, p < .05).
Hence, H3 was accepted.
The facilitating condition was the most critical predictor of teachers' IDT, as an
increase of ten units in facilitating condition was found to increase the teachers’
IDT by 4.46 units. In other words, improving facilitating conditions improves the
teachers’ IDT. Self-efficacy was the second most crucial predictor, as increasing
the teachers’ self-efficacy by ten units increases their IDT by almost three units.
This implies that it is essential to implement measures that improve the teachers’
digital self-efficacy in order to improve the IDT in science teaching. The least
significant predictor of the teachers’ IDT was found to be social influence, with a
β value of 0.160; this indicates that that increasing social influence by ten units
increases the IDT by only 1.6 units.
In order to test the fourth hypothesis that self-efficacy mediates the effect of
facilitating conditions on the teachers’ IDT, a moderation analysis was performed
using PROCESS SPSS macro (Hayes, 2022). In performing this regression, the
variables were centred, and unstandardised B coefficients were produced. As in
the previous regression, self-efficacy (B = 0.0341, t = 5.187, p < .05) and facilitating
condition (B = 0.548, t = 8.586, p < .05) were found to be positive significant
predictors of the teachers’ IDT. However, the interaction effect (p = 0.653) was not
found to be a statistically significant predictor of the teachers’ IDT (Table 6). Based
on this, H4 was rejected. We found no evidence that self-efficacy is a significant
moderator of the relationship between facilitating condition and the teachers’ IDT
in teaching science.
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The results suggest that social influence, self-efficacy, and facilitating conditions
significantly positively affect teachers’ IDT in teaching. The relationship between
facilitating conditions and the IDT is not mediated by self-efficacy.
10. Discussion
The study revealed that the extent of digital technology integration in rural
communities in science teaching is moderate, as the participants did not integrate
digital technology frequently. In line with previous studies (Valverde-Berrocoso
et al., 2021), the teachers reported that they used technology in lesson preparation
to gather information, in the creation of instructional and assessment handouts
and in record keeping, as well as using Microsoft Word for various purposes. The
study showed that there was a low frequency of technology use in terms of the
presentation of information to learners, the adaptation of activities to learners’
individual needs, and the integration of multimedia, simulations, and games in
instruction. This also supports the study by Guillén-Gámez et al. (2021), which
revealed that teachers have an excellent knowledge of digital tools, but that their
use in teaching is low.
The multiple linear regression analysis results revealed that self-efficacy has a
positive, significant effect on teachers’ integration of digital technology. This
finding supports the results of Peng et al. (2023), who found that self-efficacy
influences pre-service teachers’ ICT integration (β = 2.00, p < .05). However, in
addition to self-efficacy having a direct effect on ICT integration, Peng et al. (2023)
also found that self-efficacy was a mediator of ICT integration through attitudes,
digital competence, and digital tool utilisation. Our study did not support the
hypothesis that self-efficacy mediated the effects of facilitating conditions on the
teachers’ integration of digital technology.
The results of this study support the findings of Cabellos et al. (2024) that
facilitating condition has a significant positive effect on teachers’ integration of
digital technology. However, Teo (2010) found that facilitating conditions did not
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directly affect pre-service teachers’ intention to use digital technology. Our results
support the findings made by Teo (2011) and Sharma and Saini (2022) that
facilitating conditions directly impact teachers’ intention and actual use of digital
technology in teaching. In addition, we found that social influence significantly
impacts teachers' integration of digital technology, which aligns with the results
of Buraimoh et al. (2023). Improving facilitating conditions, self-efficacy, and
social influence will likely lead to enhanced integration of digital technology by
science teachers.
12. Conclusion
The extent to which science teachers are integrating digital technology in teaching
was found to be moderate. Facilitating condition, self-efficacy, and social
influence were found to be positively and significantly correlated with the
teachers’ IDT. Facilitating condition was the most critical predictor of IDT,
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followed by self-efficacy, with social influence being the least significant. Teachers
indicated that facilitating conditions were moderately available, indicating that it
is imperative to improve the provision of facilitating conditions in rural areas of
South Africa. Governments should invest in improving schools’ ICT
infrastructure, work with parents to equip learners with personal computing
devices and find ways to subsidise learners' acquisition of such devices.
Additionally, governments must implement initiatives to improve connectivity
and the availability of computing devices for learners to accelerate the transition
from physical classrooms centred on traditional knowledge transmission to
digital classrooms. Furthermore, in poor rural communities, support through
continuous professional development would help teachers to update their skills
and raise their levels of self-efficacy.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the participants for the contributions they made, the
University of Venda Research Ethics Committee for providing ethical clearance
and the Limpopo Department of Education for granting permission to conduct
the study.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that no conflict of interest exists.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all of the participants involved in the study.
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Rate the statements in Sections 1, 2, and 3 from Strongly disagree (1), Disagree
(2), Neither agree nor disagree (3), Agree (4) to Strongly agree (5)
1. Social Influence (Venkatesh et al., 2003)
SI1. I use digital technology because many other teachers use it.
SI2. The senior management of the school (principal and school management
team) has been helpful in the use of digital technology for teaching.
SI3. My supervisor (principal/deputy principal/HOD) is very supportive of the
use of digital technology in my teaching.
SI4. The school, circuit, and district have generally supported using digital
technology in teaching.
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*
Corresponding author: Peter Paul Canuto, [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
377
1. Introduction
Reading is one of the fundamental basic skills every student must possess. It
involves recognizing letters, improving literacy, enhancing comprehension,
refining communication skills, stimulating imagination and creativity, and
contributing to cognitive development and writing skills. It causes an expansion
in the knowledge of the reader, hence providing an avenue for the individual’s
growth and understanding of the ever-changing world (Nalantha et al., 2018;
Ningsih, 2017; van Erp, 2021).
Reading refers to the interactive process in which the reader utilizes effective
strategies to construct a meaningful text representation (Pourhosein Gilakjani &
Sabouri, 2016). Every student starts at elementary school, taking their first stage
of formal education. Hence, inscribing students with reading skills at an early
stage is crucial (Patpatga & Ersoy, 2016). Acquiring reading skills is relevant as it
results in understanding information (Ningsih, 2017) and instils a sense of
achievement among the students (van Erp, 2021). By reinforcing reading
capabilities, students will have more significant progress in all areas of learning,
since most disciplines involve reading (Nalantha et al., 2018).
The most recent results of the Program for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2022, conducted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD), determined that students from the Philippines garnered
347 points in overall reading literacy. This is a mere seven-point increase from the
340 points in 2018. It shows that the Philippines lags essentially globally, as do its
neighboring Asian countries. These scores indicate that 24% of the students have
basic reading proficiency skills. This further implies that only one out of four
Filipino students can identify the main idea of a moderately long text and
comprehend its meaning and purpose (Chi, 2023; OECD, 2023).
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were disconnected from learning during the pandemic, implying that their
reading fluency needs to be assessed. If no action is taken, long-term damage is
highly possible. Nevertheless, this need not be the case, since many children learn
to read upon returning to school. It is then the role of the school to promptly
identify effective techniques to alleviate reading skill issues (Domingue et al.,
2022).
2. Literature Review
2.1 Theoretical Framework
The Philippines is a culturally diverse nation, with at least 110 ethnolinguistic
groups and over 150 unique languages (United Nations Development
Programme, 2013). Aside from the mother tongue, it is undeniable that the English
language has been a vital part of the country’s education. Essentially, the
country’s constitution decreed Filipino and English as co-official languages,
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To assess ORF, the student must read an unpracticed passage within a specified
timeframe (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017). One component to measure ORF is the
measurement metrics of words correct per minute (WCPM). It is calculated based
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on the total reading rate or the number of words read subtracted by reading
miscues or mispronounced, skipped, and inserted words for one minute (Paige,
2020). ORF WCPM measures the student’s speed and fluency in reading texts. A
higher ORF WCPM score indicates that the student can read more words
accurately per minute, suggesting that they have better overall reading fluency.
Customarily, the ORF WCPM score is compared to specific benchmarks per grade
level to determine the reading fluency performance of the student (Hasbrouck &
Tindal, 2017; University of Oregon, 2020).
Another component used to measure ORF is the accuracy rate. The accuracy rate
measures the percentage of words the student reads correctly in a specified
timeframe. A higher ORF accuracy score indicates that the student can decode and
recognize words and has better reading accuracy skills. It is also compared to
specific benchmarks per grade level to describe the reading accuracy skills of the
student. Though WCPM and accuracy rate are vital components to determine a
student’s ORF, these components must be treated separately depending on the
purpose of the ORF assessment. It must also be noted that other factors, such as
comprehension, may affect the student’s ORF (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017;
University of Oregon, 2020).
Interpreting the ORF results depends on its purposes, that is, screening and
progress monitoring of students’ reading skills. During the screening process, the
teacher can compare the student’s ORF scores to that of their peers and identify
students at risk of reading failure. In monitoring, the ORF scores are used to
determine if the student is making expected progress or if the teaching supports
improving the student’s reading skills. For monitoring, ORF assessments must be
done frequently, such as weekly or bimonthly (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017). ORF
evaluations are based on the benchmarks indicated and measured three times a
year, beginning (fall/autumn), middle (winter), and end (spring) (Hasbrouck &
Tindal, 2017; University of Oregon, 2020).
Benchmark goals are used to measure the student’s achievements against specific
grade-level standards. Specifically, reading benchmarks indicate the reading
progress of students and are often focused on fluency, accuracy, and
comprehension (University of Oregon, 2020). For instance, the obtained WCPM
scores can be compared to the benchmarks and interpreted if the student is at risk
or has negligible reading risk. The students who are identified as being
significantly below the benchmark are the ones who are possibly at risk of having
reading difficulties (Hasbrouck & Tindal, 2017). Hence, these benchmarks may be
used to identify students who need intervention. With these outcomes, the teacher
can decide if there is a need to modify teaching methods or make a new decision
and integrate new approaches to catalyze students’ interest and motivation in
reading (Aldhanhani & Abu-Ayyash, 2020).
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Repeated readings can engage students when the passages are contained in Big
Books. Big Books contain specific themes in teaching, such as animals, plants, and
activities. Big Books have at least 10 to 15 pages and are composed of short stories
with simple yet engaging storylines, big pictures or illustrations, rhyming word
patterns, repetitive phrases, and vocabularies (Karges-Bone, 1992, as cited in
Colville‐Hall & O’Connor, 2006). Using Big Books with colorful illustrations can
increase students’ motivation. Students can learn through the texts while relating
them to the images. It has also been noted that big pictures combined with words
are adequate for reading accuracy and elevate superior word reading, reading
comprehension, spelling, basic decoding skills, and phonemic awareness
(Agustina, 2018; Kuşdemir & Bulut, 2018).
Big Books can significantly improve students’ reading achievement. This can be
seen from the increasing reading ability of the student from the beginning to the
end of reading learning (Nurani & Mahendra, 2019). There are no disadvantages
to Big Books but significant advantages across various literacy measures,
suggesting that utilizing it as a tool for literacy education is highly beneficial, with
few notable drawbacks. This balanced approach could be a model for finding
more effective ways to teach literacy to disadvantaged children who need it the
most (Tse & Nicholson, 2014).
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design
The study employed action research, a research design commonly intended for
educators to solve problems and improve classroom practices. It comprises
systematic observations and data gathering that the researcher can use to reflect
on, decide, and develop better classroom strategies (Gedzune, 2014). The study
mainly used practical action research to address the circumstances surrounding
students’ ORF in English. This design solves specific problems through four
stages: planning, acting, developing, and reflecting (Mertler, 2021; Tekin &
Kotaman, 2013).
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3.2 Participants
The study involved a Grade 4 class section at Tinoc Central School (TCS), Tinoc,
Ifugao, Philippines. TCS is one of the rural elementary schools in the Tinoc
District. Notably, the class involved 21 elementary students aged 9 to 11 years old,
with 10 (47.62%) being male and 11 (52.38%) female. The small number of
involved students was reflected in the small student population of the school. The
selection of only one class section allowed us to direct and focus the intervention
and monitoring of students’ reading progress. Moreover, the Grade 4 level
selection was based on the transition of the language of teaching at the elementary
level. The Philippine educational system allows the primary use of the mother
tongue as teaching medium, except in teaching Filipino and English subjects, in
grades 1 to 3. The primary use of English as a teaching medium to teach almost
all subjects starts at the Grade 4 level. This significant change in the use of
languages affects the students’ language proficiency and their English reading
skills.
3.3 Instrument
The data gathering instrument used in this study was the DIBELS 8th edition
Benchmark Goals ORF (DORF) test. This test was developed and published by the
University of Oregon (2020) and is one of the subtests used in DIBELS with its
own specific administering and scoring rules. It uses passages that must be read
aloud and are appropriate for each grade level. It is administered individually,
and its results are used to measure the fluency and accuracy of the reader with the
connected text. To determine the results, DORF uses two scores. The first score
measures the student’s reading speed and fluency, expressed as WCPM. The
second score measures comprehension, decoding skills, and reading accuracy as
determined by an accuracy rate based on dividing the WCPM by the total number
of words and multiplying it by 100.
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Data were collected for each student through use of a scoring sheet on which the
passage to be read was printed. The passage used in the DORF assessment is titled
“The Moth and the Flame”. This passage was adapted from the teacher’s English
module for the Grade 4 level. The same passage was used during the three
assessment periods, but not during the intervention. The passage was printed in
letter size (8.5 x 11 inches) and on bond paper. As suggested by DORF, the passage
font size was 14 points for the Grade 4 level. The font style of the passage was
Times New Roman, since it is one of the styles the students were more familiar
with (University of Oregon, 2020).
3.4 Procedure
Following an action research design and using the DIBELS − ORF assessment
procedures and guidelines, the planning stage began by assessing the students’
ORF WCPM and accuracy rates as pre-assessment screening to measure their
reading fluency. Based on the screening results, an action plan and designing of
Big Books and repeated reading interventions followed. This involved selecting
the appropriate passages and designing the reading materials graphically. The
students classified as performing below the ORF benchmark cut-off scores were
selected to undergo intensive and individualized interventions. The remaining
students who performed at or above the benchmarks underwent the same
intervention but with less guidance. After planning, we implemented a repeated
reading and Big Books intervention in the acting stage. After three weeks, the
middle assessment was done to evaluate students’ ORF skills development
through the intervention.
The reading materials were enhanced in the developing stage based on the results
from the middle assessment. The students were then reclassified; some students
continued to undergo individualized interventions, and others with less
guidance. The final assessment was done during the reflecting stage in order to
determine students’ reading fluency progress and development. In the middle
and end assessments, the same passage that was used in the beginning as
screening was used. Aside from providing feedback among the students, the
results were also used to evaluate the effectiveness of the Big Books and repeated
reading interventions.
For the interventions, the study implemented repeated reading using four Big
Books designed and produced by the researchers. The short stories used in
making the four books include The Carabao and the Cow, The Tortoise that Wanted to
Fly, The Three Little Wolves and the Big Bad Pigs, and When I Grow Up. These stories
were included as appropriate reading materials for the Grade 4 level and were
copied from the class adviser’s English teaching modules. The Big Books’ size was
formatted at 40 x 30 cm (approximately 16 x 12 inches), with large, colorful
illustrations (Tse & Nicholson, 2014). The books were 10 to 15 pages each and
utilized a font size of 32 points. Two of the books used the Berlin Sans FB font
style, while the other two used Comics Sans FB (University of Oregon, 2020). The
intervention lasted six weeks, with the middle and end assessments done after
three-week intervals.
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Parents’ consent was solicited to allow their child or ward to participate in the
study. To maintain anonymity and confidentiality, number codes were assigned
for the participating students and their assessment results were kept and stored
securely. The intervention was executed in the students’ classroom during class
breaks. It was conducted one-on-one for students with below-average ORF, and
in groups for those who fell under the at risk or some risk benchmarks (Samuels,
1979). Each session of the repeated reading lasted for about 20 to 30 minutes, as
Grade 4 students are expected to experience a change from “building the knowledge
to read, to reading for knowledge” (Scholastic Parents Staff, 2022). All results along
the three assessment periods were then gathered, tabulated, and analyzed to draw
conclusions and recommendations.
Table 2 shows the cut-off scores for ORF accuracy. The cut-off scores for ORF
accuracy were the same across the three periods. Moreover, the cut-off scores
allow the determination of the students’ ORF risk category and benchmark goal
or level.
Table 2: Cut-off scores for Grade 4 DIBELS − ORF in terms of accuracy rate
Students whose ORF WCPM score is at or above the benchmark have minimal or
negligible risk in reading and are performing significantly along the grade-level
expectations regarding speed and fluency. These students have low reading risk
and can read with a relatively high level of accuracy, have strong decoding skills,
and can accurately read and comprehend text for the expected grade level. Those
below the benchmark are at risk or some risk in reading and are at significant risk
for reading difficulties. These students read significantly below the grade-level
expectations regarding speed and fluency.
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The data gathered along the three assessments using the DORF were analyzed
quantitatively. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the
significant difference in the ORF accuracy of the students during the three
assessment periods. To determine the impact of the reading intervention, the
effect size for the difference between the students’ three mean ORF accuracy
scores was calculated using the partial eta-squared (η2).
4. Results
The participating Grade 4 students’ WCPM results during the beginning, middle,
and end assessment periods are shown in Table 3. The total number of words read
per minute (TWPM) by each student are also presented. The students were
arbitrarily assigned numbers from S1 to S21. Results show that almost all students,
except for one, had a noticeable progressive increase in their WCPM across the
periods. The WCPM of S5 decreased from the beginning to the middle period but
increased later at the end of the assessment.
Table 3: The DIBELS − ORF results of the students along the three assessment periods
Table 4 shows the individual risk categories of the students based on their ORF
WCPM score. Results indicate that across the three assessment periods, most
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students performed continually below the benchmark, at both at risk and some
risk categories. This is despite undergoing intensive and individualized teaching
through repeated reading and Big Books interventions during the middle and end
periods. Notably, a more significant proportion of the students achieved WCPM
results that were below the benchmark.
Table 4: Risk categories of the students based on their ORF WCPM score along the
three assessment periods
Beginning Middle End
Student Risk Risk Risk
WCPM WCPM WCPM
category category category
S1 11 At risk 15 At risk 28 At risk
Negligible Minimal Negligible
S2 141 157 197
risk risk risk
S3 5 At risk 29 At risk 46 At risk
S4 54 At risk 76 At risk 87 At risk
S5 16 At risk 10 At risk 18 At risk
S6 34 At risk 38 At risk 44 At risk
S7 51 At risk 69 At risk 78 At risk
Minimal
S8 78 Some risk 111 Some risk 125
risk
S9 61 At risk 69 At risk 105 Some risk
S10 59 At risk 82 At risk 107 Some risk
S11 80 Some risk 92 At risk 117 Some risk
Minimal
S12 74 Some risk 82 At risk 134
risk
Negligible Minimal Negligible
S13 143 155 188
risk risk risk
S14 66 Some risk 71 At risk 92 At risk
S15 77 Some risk 90 At risk 119 Some risk
S16 84 Some risk 110 Some risk 116 Some risk
S17 60 At risk 77 At risk 78 At risk
Minimal Minimal
S18 93 104 Some risk 132
risk risk
S19 59 At risk 69 At risk 95 At risk
Negligible Negligible Negligible
S20 152 174 184
risk risk risk
S21 74 Some risk 86 At risk 105 Some risk
Note: WCPM = words correct per minute; negligible risk = above benchmark; minimal
risk = at benchmark; some risk and at risk = below benchmark
Table 5 shows the risk categories of the students based on their ORF accuracy
during the three periods, noting that the cut-off scores for ORF accuracy during
the three periods were the same. Results show a noticeable increase in most
students’ ORF accuracy over the three periods.
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Table 5: Risk categories of the students based on their ORF accuracy along the three
assessment periods
Beginning Middle End
Student Accuracy Risk Accuracy Risk Accuracy Risk
(%) category (%) category (%) category
S1 37.93 At risk 62.50 At risk 71.79 At risk
S2 100.00 Low risk 100.00 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
S3 27.78 At risk 74.36 At risk 79.31 At risk
S4 96.43 Low risk 97.44 Low risk 98.86 Low risk
S5 51.61 At risk 58.82 At risk 72.00 At risk
S6 85.00 At risk 84.44 At risk 89.80 At risk
S7 87.93 At risk 85.19 At risk 91.76 Some risk
Some
S8 96.30 Low risk 92.50 96.90 Low risk
risk
Some
S9 98.39 Low risk 94.52 100.00 Low risk
risk
Some
S10 95.16 98.80 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
risk
Some
S11 95.24 96.84 Low risk 99.15 Low risk
risk
Some Some
S12 93.67 94.25 100.00 Low risk
risk risk
S13 99.31 Low risk 98.10 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
Some
S14 98.51 Low risk 92.21 97.87 Low risk
risk
S15 96.25 Low risk 95.74 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
S16 96.55 Low risk 100.00 Low risk 99.15 Low risk
Some
S17 76.92 At risk 90.59 96.30 Low risk
risk
Some
S18 93.94 97.20 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
risk
Some
S19 96.72 Low risk 94.52 98.96 Low risk
risk
S20 100.00 Low risk 100.00 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
S21 97.37 Low risk 95.56 Low risk 100.00 Low risk
Some
Mean 86.72 At risk 90.65 94.85 Some risk
risk
Note: At risk = below benchmark; some risk = below benchmark; low risk = at or
above benchmark
Table 6 indicates the ANOVA results comparing the students’ ORF accuracy along
the three assessment periods. As seen in the table, the means of the ORF accuracy
scores of the students were significant along the beginning, middle, and end
assessments. These results indicate a significant improvement in the ORF
accuracy scores obtained during the three periods after students had undergone
the interventions. Furthermore, the results show a large effect size for the
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difference between the mean ORF accuracy scores of the students. The results
indicate a substantial improvement in ORF accuracy along the beginning, middle,
and end assessments.
Table 6: Analysis of variance comparing the students’ ORF accuracy along the three
assessment periods
Partial eta-
Source of Sum of Mean Computed Tabular F
df squared
variation squares square F (.05,2,40)
(η2)
Assessment 2 695.16 347.58
6.493* 3.232 .245
Error 40 2141.37 53.534
Note: df = degree of freedom; * = significant (F-computed > F-tabulated); η2 = .01 is
small effect; η2 = .06 is medium effect; η2 = .14 is large effect
5. Discussion
Considering that ORF is a vital component of the reading process, results indicate
that most of the participating Grade 4 students performed significantly below the
DIBELS benchmark goals, indicating that they were at risk in their English reading
skills. Conversely, only a few students were performing at or above the
benchmarks. The students’ ORF scores reflect the country’s minimum proficiency
in reading literacy as evaluated by PISA in 2018 and 2022, as reported by Chi
(2023) and OECD (2023). Below-benchmark scores imply that these students were
at risk regarding understanding and decoding words, affecting their
apprehension of the passage, as identified by Cotter (2012), DeWaard (2021), and
Gedik and Akyol (2022). They could not automatically decode the words and
struggled to read, as noted by Pikulski and Chard (2005) and Samuels (2007)
relative to the reading automaticity theory. This indicates that the students lacked
the proper reading skills for their grade level. This below-benchmark performance
may also indicate that the students have reading skills below their current Grade 4
level, based on the categorization of Hasbrouck and Tindal (2017).
Looking at the WCPM results from the beginning assessment, some students had
WCPM falling under the Grade 3 benchmark goals of at least 105 correct words
compared to the suggested ORF WCPM of 131 words by the University of Oregon
(2020). Some even had WCPM indicated for the Grade 2 level of at least 85 correct
words. Even more shocking, there were students with WCPM of at least 35 words,
indicating their ORF ability at the Grade 1 level. Not much changed during the
end period regarding the students’ WCPM grade-level benchmark. Some students
were still categorized at Grade 1, attaining at least 76 correct words; at Grade 2,
with at least 128 correct words; and at Grade 3, with at least 136 words. Only a
few were classified at their Grade 4 level during the beginning assessment, with
at least 131 correct words, and by the end period, they had at least 159 correct
words. Nonetheless, though some of the students’ ORF was still below the Grade
4 level, results indicate that their WCPM increased along the three assessments
due to the interventions.
Results of the ORF WCPM show that numerous students were at risk or had some
risk in reading. This signifies that most of the students had low English reading
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fluency skills. They could only read fewer words in the passage for a minute. They
could also not achieve the number of words indicated by the DIBELS benchmark
goals for their grade level. However, it is noticeable that the WCPM of all the
students progressed positively despite failure to attain the appropriate WCPM for
some of the students.
Regarding ORF accuracy, almost half of the students were at low risk compared
to those at risk or some risk during the beginning. It was observed that the
students’ accuracy improved optimistically during the middle and end periods,
although some were still at risk in these periods. The progressive results of the
students’ accuracy level show that their ability to read words precisely improved
(University of Oregon, 2020). The students were able to decode and recognize
words and had better reading accuracy skills at the end of the intervention.
Nonetheless, it must be remembered that even if WCPM and accuracy rate are
time-efficient ways to determine students’ reading fluency, it does not entirely
measure students’ overall reading skills, as Hasbrouck (2023) and the University
of Oregon (2020) emphasized.
One factor that possibly affected the below-benchmark ORF of the participating
students may be their late exposure to the English language. Notably, the
transition from the use of the native mother tongue to the English language as one
of the primary teaching mediums occurs in this grade level, based on the
curriculum of the Department of Education (2016). As such, these students may
still be experiencing or adapting to the language change. This reflects Brunette et
al.’s (2019) suggestion that Grade 4 students may progress in learning and
acquiring the English language, reflecting SLA. The effect of the pandemic may
also be considered to affect students’ ORF performance, considering the studies
of Domingue et al. (2022) and Ludewig et al. (2022). The pandemic affected regular
classes, causing a shift to distance and modular approaches, affecting reading
skills. Teachers could not involve themselves directly; students thus had to
depend on their family members. Though some of the students were able to learn
at home, there is still a noticeable decline in their reading achievement and
literacy. Other factors affecting the students’ ORF may include their other reading
skills, such as comprehension, vocabulary, sight words, and sound recognition, as
Hasbrouck (2023) suggested.
Repeated reading using Big Books was utilized to help address the decline in
students’ reading skills. The students’ reading accuracy was shown to have been
considerably impacted by these interventions. The interventions significantly
increased students’ ORF accuracy throughout the three periods, according to the
large effect size of the interventions. These findings demonstrate that repeated
reading using Big Books helped the students become more fluent readers in
English. The illustrations in the Big Books may also account for the impact on the
students’ reading. While reading the stories, students can relate the meaning to
the pictures presented, keeping them engaged until the end of the story, as
pointed out by Agustina (2018), Colville‐Hall and O’Connor (2006), and Kuşdemir
and Bulut (2018). Based on the suggestions of Colville‐Hall and O’Connor (2006),
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the stories also contain interesting plotlines that immerse the students throughout
the story.
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among students. Future studies may include other reading elements such as
comprehension, vocabulary, phonological awareness, and prosody to assess
students’ overall reading capability. Overall, this study underscores the reading
fluency and accuracy of students and the significant effect of employing repeated
reading using Big Books to improve their English reading achievements. We hope
that this study will stimulate further exploration and prompt positive changes in
reading among elementary school students.
Author Contributions
All authors contributed to the review-editing, literature review writing, and the
conduct of the research. All authors contributed to data collection, acquisition,
and analysis. All authors have read and approved the final version of the article.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to the TCS Grade 4 students for their participation, and
to their parents for their support in the conduct of the study.
7. References
Agustina, D. D. (2018). The use of double match picture media for teaching reading
comprehension. Premise: Journal of English Education, 7(2), 44−60.
https://doi.org/10.24127/pj.v7i2.1570
Aldhanhani, Z. R., & Abu-Ayyash, E. A. S. (2020). Theories and research on oral reading
fluency: What is needed? Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 10(4), 379.
https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1004.05
Almutairi, N. R. (2018). Effective reading strategies for increasing the reading comprehension
level of Third-Grade students with learning disabilities [Doctoral dissertation].
Western Michigan University.
https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/3247
Berg, K., & Lyke, C. (2012). Using repeated reading as a strategy to improve reading fluency at
the elementary level [Master’s research project]. Saint Xavier University.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED531173.pdf
Brunette, T., Punjabi, M., Pouezevera, S., & Cummiskey, C. (2019). Reading achievement
in the Philippines: The role of language complexity. RTI International.
https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00XBQ4.pdf
Chi, C. (2023, December 6). Philippines still lags behind world in math, reading and
science — PISA 2022. Philstar Global.
https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2023/12/06/2316732/philippines-still-
lags-behind-world-math-reading-and-science-pisa-2022
Colville‐Hall, S., & O’Connor, B. (2006). Using Big Books: A standards‐based instructional
approach for foreign language teacher candidates in a PreK–12 program. Foreign
Language Annals, 39(3), 487–506. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-
9720.2006.tb02901.x
Cotter, J. (2012). Understanding the relationship between reading fluency and reading
comprehension: Fluency strategies as a focus for instruction [Master’s thesis]. St. John
Fisher University.
https://fisherpub.sjf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1225&context=education
_ETD_masters
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*
Corresponding author: Jasiah; jasiah@iai -palangkaraya.ac.id
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction
The educational landscape in Indonesia is rapidly evolving, marked by the
implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in senior high schools. This
curriculum was introduced by the government through the Ministry of Education
and Culture in 2013. It aims to enhance the previous curriculum by providing
schools with increased autonomy, allowing for a more flexible and locally relevant
educational approach (Maipita et al., 2021; Marlina et al., 2023). The Merdeka
Curriculum is designed to foster a campus culture that is autonomous, not
bureaucratic, and an innovative learning system based on the interests and
guidance of the industrial world (Maipita et al., 2021). As such, it is crucial to
explore the dynamic interplay between Islamic teachers and the Merdeka
Curriculum, as the teachers play a pivotal role in shaping the educational
experience and imparting knowledge and Islamic values to students (Junaidi
et al., 2023; Kamila & Agus RM, 2023; Marlina et al., 2023). This research aims to
investigate the implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in integrated Islamic
schools and its impact on educational quality. It ultimately aims to contribute
valuable insights for policymakers, administrators, and educators seeking to
enhance the integration of Islamic values within the ever-evolving landscape of
Indonesian senior high schools.
The significance of the senior high school level in the context of the Merdeka
Curriculum and the integration of Islamic values is paramount, as it serves as a
critical stage for student preparation to meet diverse educational and societal
needs (Davenport Huyer et al., 2020). Senior high schools play a pivotal role in
developing quality education. They focus on the overall development of students
and their transition into Merdeka citizens, making it an opportune stage to explore
the impact of the Merdeka Curriculum on student preparation and the fulfillment
of diverse educational needs (Arwitaningsih et al., 2023; Iskandar et al., 2023;
Kusumawardani et al., 2022). Additionally, research has indicated that high
school students, including those in senior high schools, have the capability to
engage in rigorous programs and cutting-edge research, highlighting the
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This research faces both challenges and opportunities in exploring the role of
Islamic teachers in implementing the Merdeka Curriculum in senior high schools.
Challenges include the delicate balance between religious education and a
broader curriculum, as well as the need for increased autonomy and flexibility for
schools to adapt the curriculum to local needs (Fitra & Tiarina, 2023; Yuhastina
et al., 2020). Opportunities arise from the Merdeka Curriculum’s emphasis on
innovation and locally relevant teaching practices, which can be harnessed to
integrate Islamic values in a culturally relevant manner (High School Moms,
2021). By addressing these challenges and seizing the opportunities, this research
aims to provide valuable insights for policymakers, administrators, and educators
in enhancing the integration of Islamic values in the ever-evolving landscape of
Indonesian senior high schools.
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2. Literature Review
The implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in senior high schools in
Indonesia has presented unique challenges and opportunities for Islamic
education. The Merdeka Curriculum emphasizes educational autonomy and
curriculum flexibility, providing schools with increased autonomy and
promoting a more flexible and locally relevant educational approach (Ndari et al.,
2023; Nuridayanti et al., 2023). However, the delicate balance between religious
education and a broader curriculum remains a challenge, as does the need for
increased autonomy and flexibility for schools to adapt the curriculum to local
needs (Rahayu et al., 2021). Islamic teachers play a pivotal role in shaping the
educational experience and imparting knowledge and Islamic values to students
(Amin et al., 2022; Marlina et al., 2023; Rifa’i et al., 2022). According to research,
Islamic education is regarded as a subject whose function is to develop and instill
positive values in students through appropriate instruction (Rindayati et al., 2022;
Septiani, 2022). Innovative teaching and learning techniques that are enjoyable
and culturally relevant are essential for developing such qualities (Wannesia et al.,
2022).
By addressing these gaps in the literature, this research aims to provide valuable
insights for policymakers, administrators, and educators in enhancing the
integration of Islamic values in the ever-evolving landscape of Indonesian senior
high schools.
3. Methodology
The systematic review methodology followed a structured process, detailed as
follows:
1. Literature search
Conducting a thorough literature search using the Mendeley database and
other relevant sources, a comprehensive exploration identified studies
centering on Merdeka Curriculum implementation in integrated Islamic
schools, particularly at the senior high school level. Keywords such as
“Merdeka Curriculum”, “Islamic education”, “senior high school”,
“curriculum integration”, and “student preparation” guided the search.
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2. Article selection
Two independent researchers scrutinized titles and abstracts, applying the
inclusion criteria:
• Studies focusing on Merdeka Curriculum implementation in integrated
Islamic schools, particularly at senior high schools.
• Studies addressing challenges and opportunities encountered by Islamic
teachers in implementing the Merdeka Curriculum.
• Studies exploring the Merdeka Curriculum’s impact on student
preparation and diverse educational needs.
3. Data extraction
Thorough analysis of selected studies led to extraction of pertinent data,
including research design, findings, and conclusions. A standardized data
extraction form ensured consistency and reliability in information retrieval.
4. Data synthesis
Applying a systematic literature review method, the synthesis process
employed qualitative and quantitative research methods to analyze existing
literature (University of Nebraska, 2024). Emphasis was placed on identifying
overarching themes, patterns, and key findings, while addressing any
discrepancies or contradictions within the literature.
6. Report language
The methodology employed a structured process, replacing speculative terms
with reporting language to convey a sense of certainty in the execution of the
methodology.
The PRISMA method (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analyses) is a comprehensive and transparent guideline for systematic
reviews and meta-analyses (see Figure 1). It ensures methodological rigor by
guiding researchers through a systematic literature search, selection based on
predefined criteria, standardized data extraction, and clear synthesis. This
method promotes transparency in reporting, enhancing the reproducibility and
reliability of systematic reviews. Its structured approach contributes to the
credibility and quality of evidence synthesis in scientific literature. The entire
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The initial phase in the PRISMA literature review process involved the
identification of search results utilizing specified keywords, yielding a total of
214,200 articles. The subsequent step involved the screening of articles based on
the year of publication, resulting in 32,200 articles. Further refinement was carried
out by filtering articles based on their titles, resulting in a selection of 53 articles.
Another round of filtering, this time based on the type of article, eliminated 20
non-journal articles, leaving 33 articles for consideration. Subsequently, the
journal articles underwent a thorough examination for eligibility, focusing on the
target subject and content. Within this scrutiny, 24 articles were deemed irrelevant
and excluded. In the final phase, a total of nine articles that met the inclusion
criteria were identified.
4. Findings
Table 1 presents a summary of the nine articles that were reviewed. These articles
indicate that Islamic religious education teachers applied the Merdeka
Curriculum using various methods. Teachers in several schools attended
workshops or training to plan Merdeka Curriculum implementation. This has
resulted in an enhanced understanding of compiling teaching tools in alignment
with the Merdeka Curriculum. Teachers have successfully developed curriculum
operations, learning tools, learning objectives, learning objective flow, and
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teaching modules (Kusmaeni et al., 2022). Learning activities result in the creation
of teaching modules, which are designed in accordance with the flow of learning
objectives derived from predefined learning outcomes (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001).
Senior high
No. Source Method/s of implementation
school name
1 Zulfi and SMAN 3 Problem-based learning.
Khairat (2023) Batusangkar
2 Aryanti and SMAN 12 Implementation of intracurricular learning and
Saputra (2023) Bandar project implementation of strengthening
Lampung Pancasila student profiles through project-based
learning.
3 Zaini (2023) SMA 1 Attending workshop for preparation of learning
Simanjaya objective flow and learning modules;
constructing a Merdeka Curriculum document;
carrying out learning consisting of five elements
with a regular approach; performing evaluation
based on the aim of learning that has been made.
4 Danial and SMAN 5 Tana Using the five differentiated learning indicators:
Widodo (2022) Toraja (1) creating an enjoyable learning environment,
(2) clearly defined learning objectives,
(3) learning in favor of students, (4) effective
classroom management, and (5) continuous
assessment.
5 Sulastri et al. SMAN 9 Teachers socialized the Merdeka learning
(2023) Malang curriculum and prepared appropriate materials
and devices for learning. Teachers used the
project- and problem-based learning methods.
The evaluation methods applied by the teachers
are diagnostic tests, formative evaluation, and
summative evaluation.
6 Siregar et al. SMA Attending workshops, coaching from
(2023) Ar-Rahman supervisors, and teacher meetings.
Medan Helvetia Implementation of online learning is carried out
by increasing interactive and communicative
learning techniques.
7 Fitria et al. (2023) SMAN 7 The teacher gives freedom in choosing learning
Malang methods to students, adjusting to the
characteristics of students.
8 Dirjo et al. (2023) SMAS Bina Mapping the learning needs of students,
Putra-Kopo learning planning, implementation, and
evaluation are carried out by the teachers
individually or with other teachers.
9 Padang and SMA Implementation of the Pancasila Student Profile
Suhaeb (2023) Muhammadiyah Strengthening Project (P5) through project-based
4 Surabaya learning.
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5. Discussion
5.1 Understanding the Merdeka Curriculum in an Academic Context
The utilization of project- and problem-based learning among Islamic religious
education teachers aligns with contemporary educational theories, fostering
student engagement and active learning. Project-based learning, observed in
SMAN 3 Batusangkar, is a pedagogical approach emphasizing students’ active
involvement in real-world projects to build knowledge, enhancing creativity and
knowledge (Wicaksana & Sanjaya, 2022). The application of the problem-based
learning model, as evidenced in SMAN 12 Bandar Lampung, resonates with
constructivism theory, emphasizing students’ active participation in problem-
solving processes (Syamsidah et al., 2023). These findings suggest that the
implementation of project- and problem-based learning is not only widespread
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but also aligned with established educational theories. Islamic teachers’ choices
reflect an awareness of pedagogical approaches that promote deeper
understanding and critical thinking. The cited studies provide a theoretical
underpinning for the observed teaching methods, contributing to the ongoing
discourse on effective teaching strategies within the context of the Merdeka
Curriculum.
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6. Conclusion
The study sheds light on pivotal recommendations for the successful
implementation of the Merdeka Curriculum in senior high schools, particularly
within the domain of Islamic education. First, for stakeholders and practitioners
actively involved in Merdeka Curriculum implementation, it is paramount to
prioritize continuous professional development for teachers. This can be achieved
through tailored workshops and training programs, ensuring educators are well
equipped to navigate the complexities of the curriculum. Collaborative platforms
should be established to encourage knowledge-sharing among teachers, fostering
a culture of continuous learning. Regular curriculum reviews, featuring active
participation by educators and subject matter experts, are essential to address
emerging challenges and opportunities. Furthermore, allocating resources for
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7. References
Almarisi, A. (2023). Kelebihan dan kekurangan kurikulum merdeka pada pembelajaran
sejarah dalam perspektif historis [Advantages and disadvantages of the
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1. Introduction
Professional development (PD) for teachers has gained increasing significance on
a global scale. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO) introduced a framework titled the “International
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Corresponding author: Chowwalit Chookhampaeng; [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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Notes:
“three education reform” means the educational reform of vocational schools, which emphasises three core factors in the
vocational school: teaching materials, teaching methods and teachers.
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2. Literature review
Outcome-based education (OBE)
Outcome-Based Education (OBE) is a learner-centred and performance-oriented
pedagogical approach (Mokgaphame, 2001; Spady, 1994; Yasmin & Yasmeen,
2021). In the PD process, PD organisers act as a facilitator to empower trainees to
cultivate the competencies they anticipate through the creation and maintenance
of a conducive learning environment. Hence, OBE offers a powerful and
promising pathway for the transformation and management of PD.
OBE also emphasises the introduction of a clear picture of what participants can
do, and then uses these learning outcomes as a foundation for constructing
relevant curriculum and activities (Deneen et al., 2013; Morcke et al., 2013; Spady,
1994). Therefore, learning outcomes are significant in endowing learners with
observable and measurable objectives in the OBE education process (Spady, 1994;
Abd Majid, 2016; Senaratne and Gunarathne, 2019), which can significantly
stimulate learners’ motivation (Akhmadeeva et al., 2013; Kusurkar et al., 2012;
Spady, 1994) and performance (Camello, 2014; Macayan, 2017; Pradhan, 2021).
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As for PD design based on the OBE framework for vocational teachers, PD design
process is implemented as follows (see Figure 2). Compared with the PD design
framework mentioned above, this research aims to emphasise bringing the results
phase to the forefront of PD design process, the intended learning outcomes that
trainees can achieve when they finish the PD and revolving around the detailed
learning outcomes to design appropriate assessment activities. Simultaneously,
the design of training content and related activities should also be geared towards
facilitating the achievement of learning outcomes. Finally but not the least, the
learning outcomes in PD design will continuously improve until they align with
the participants’ capabilities at their utmost potential.
Figure 2: PD Design Process for Vocational Teachers Based on the OBE Framework
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Kirkpatrick’s model
Kirkpatrick’s model is a training evaluation method developed in 1959 and it
defines four levels (Reaction, Learning, Behaviour and Results) to evaluate the
efficacy of training design (Kirkpatrick, 1959). Kirkpatrick (2015) defines each
level as follows: (1) The first level (Reaction) emphasises the degree to which
participants find the training design has enough attraction and can meet their
needs; (2) The second level (Learning) emphasises the degree to which
participants can acquire the intended knowledge, skills and attitudes through the
training; (3) The third level (Behaviour) emphasises the degree to which
participants apply the training contents into their work when they return to the
workplace; and (4) The fourth level (Results) emphasises the degree to which
participants have achieved training objectives after training and following
support. This research adopts the level 1 (Reaction) measurement method in
Kirkpatrick’s model in questionnaire design to evaluate trainees’ training
satisfaction after they have completed the PD.
4. Methodology
In this empirical research, a PD programme was implemented to enhance
vocational teachers' curriculum design ability; for example, to evaluate the
efficacy of a PD design based on the OBE framework. The PD was conducted over
a period of one month and consisted of two groups: 40 secondary vocational
teachers and 40 higher vocational teachers from Guangdong Province, China.
The learning outcomes in this empirical research are divided into four modules,
aligning with the demands and the present state of curriculum design ability
among vocational teachers: needs analysis, instructional improvement, student
assessment and pedagogical reflection. Before trainees attend the PD, the PD
organiser informs them about specific learning outcomes they expect to achieve
upon completing the PD: (1) Trainees can apply the requirements of policy
documents and social needs in curriculum design; (2) Trainees can formulate
teaching objectives according to students' learning needs; (3) Trainees can
implement curriculums based on the concept of Gagne’s 9 Events of Instruction;
(4) Trainees can measure their students’ learning performance with appropriate
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Satisfaction and learning motivation serve as crucial indicators for evaluating the
performance of learners (Hong et al., 2019; Kirkpatrick, 1967; Li & Keller, 2018;
Medina, 2017; Moreira et al., 2019). Consequently, the questionnaire design in this
research uses the ARCS model to measure trainees' learning motivation before
and after the introduction of PD design and employs the level 1 (Reaction)
measurement method in Kirkpatrick’s model to evaluate trainees' satisfaction
after participating in the PD.
Before and after introducing the learning outcomes and training framework,
trainees’ learning motivation is investigated and compared through a paired
samples t-test. The learning motivation questionnaire is designed to assess
trainees’ expectations of the PD, PD's relevance for vocational teachers’
curriculum design ability, trainees’ recognition of the PD framework and the
trainees’ feelings about the PD arrangement. Upon completion of the PD, trainees'
satisfaction is assessed and results are analysed through a one-sample t-test. The
training satisfaction questionnaire is designed to evaluate trainees’ achievement
of both expectations and learning outcomes, the trainees' willingness to transfer
training contents into practice, the trainees' satisfaction with the PD, and the
trainees' adaptation to the training contents and activities.
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5. Results
To assess hypothesis 1, 80 questionnaires were distributed on the PD learning
motivation before and after the accomplishment of PD programme on curriculum
design for the secondary and higher vocational teacher groups. The research
questions can be summarised under Keller’s four dimensions: A (Attention), R
(Relevance), C (Confidence) and S (Satisfaction), assessed using a five-point Likert
Scale (1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Undecided, 4=Agree, 5=Strongly
Agree).
As depicted in Table 1, feedback across the four dimensions indicates that within
the secondary vocational teachers’ group, learning motivation increased
following the PD programme, with average levels rising by 16%-19%. According
to the results of the paired samples t-test in Table 2, the p-value of each question
is less than 0.05, indicating that there is a significant improvement in the feedback
on learning motivation from secondary vocational teachers following their
participation in the PD programme and the null hypothesis H0 is rejected.
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95% Confidence
Sig.
Interval of the
Dimensions Pairs Questions t df (2-
Difference
tailed)
Lower Upper
could assist you in solving
the problems in your daily
curriculum design?
To what extent do you agree
Pair that you could achieve the -
39 .000 -.735 -.415
6 learning outcomes specified 7.264
in this PD programme?
To what extent do you agree
Pair -
Satisfaction that this PD programme is 39 .000 -.687 -.363
7 6.565
useful for you?
As depicted in Table 3, feedback across the four dimensions indicates that within
the higher vocational teachers’ group, learning motivation increased following
the PD programme, with average levels rising by 16%-20%. According to the
results of the paired samples t-test in Table 4, the p-value of each question is less
than 0.05, suggesting that there is a significant improvement in the feedback on
learning motivation from higher vocational teachers following their participation
in the PD programme and the null hypothesis H0 is rejected.
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Improvement
Dimensions Questions Situation N Mean Std. Deviation
Rate
match your
expectations?
To what extent do Before 40 3.20 16% 0.992
you agree that the
learning outcomes
Relevance
outlined in this PD After 40 3.70 0.464
programme fit your
expectations?
To what extent do Before 40 2.85 18% 1.167
you agree that this
PD programme
could assist you in
solving the After 40 3.35 0.483
problems in your
daily curriculum
Confidence
design?
To what extent do Before 40 2.80 19% 0.823
you agree that you
could achieve the
learning outcomes After 40 3.33 0.474
specified in this PD
programme?
To what extent do Before 40 3.03 17% 0.698
you agree that this
Satisfaction
PD programmeis After 40 3.55 0.552
useful for you?
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95% Confidence
Sig.
Interval of the
Dimensions Pairs Questions t df (2-
Difference
tailed)
Lower Upper
To what extent do you agree
that you could achieve the -
39 .000 -.754 -.296
learning outcomes specified 4.640
in this PD programme?
To what extent do you agree
Pair -
Satisfaction that this PD programme is 39 .000 -.716 -.334
7 5.547
useful for you?
To assess the potential correlation between the PD programme based on the OBE
framework and trainees' satisfaction within the secondary vocational teacher
group, one-sample t-test was adopted to analyse their satisfaction levels after
attending the PD. Besides, a test value of 4 (i.e., 4=Satisfy) for analysis was selected
to evaluate the effects on satisfaction levels.
H0: µ=4
H1: µ≠4
The results in Table 6 revealed that the p-value of the satisfaction levels in each
question within the secondary vocational teacher group were all less than 0.05,
which rejects the null hypothesis. As indicated in Table 5, the average satisfaction
level in each question exceeded 4, with the 95% satisfaction level falling within
the range from 4.22 to 4.71. Consequently, the PD programme based on the OBE
framework significantly enhanced training satisfaction in the secondary
vocational teacher group.
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To assess the potential correlation between the PD design based on the OBE
framework and trainees' satisfaction within the higher vocational teacher group,
one-sample t-test was conducted to analyse their satisfaction levels after attending
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the PD. In addition, the same test value (i.e., 4=Satisfy) was selected for analysis
to assess the effects on satisfaction levels in the secondary vocational teacher
group.
H0: µ=4
H1: µ≠4
The results in Table 8 reveal that the p-value of the satisfaction levels in each
question within the higher vocational teacher group were all less than 0.05, which
rejects the null hypothesis. As indicated in Table 7, the average satisfaction level
in each question exceeded 4, with the 95% satisfaction levels falling within the
range from 4.09 to 4.69. Consequently, the PD programme based on the OBE
framework significantly enhanced training satisfaction in the higher vocational
teacher group.
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6. Discussion
According to the analysis of pre-training and post-training questionnaires from
both secondary and higher vocational teachers, several important findings can be
obtained in the PD programme based on the OBE framework.
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Although the results of this research show the improvement of trainees’ learning
motivation and training satisfaction among vocational teachers throughout
training, it is essential to delve into specific indexes for a more comprehensive
analysis. The improvement rate of the relevance dimension in learning motivation
research was lower than those of other dimensions in both secondary and higher
vocational teacher groups. This suggests that each trainee may have other
expectations that the design of the programme cannot match. Furthermore, the
mean score for Question 8, indicating the willingness to transfer training contents
into practice, is the lowest in both secondary and higher vocational teacher
groups, as shown in Table 6 and Table 8, indicating that each trainee may require
ongoing support or follow-up to encourage the implementation of learning
outcomes.
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7. Conclusion
In this research, the PD programme based on the OBE framework had a significant
impact on learning motivation and training satisfaction of vocational teachers and
confirmed the advancement of the OBE framework in PD design, which
emphasises trainee-centred, learning outcomes-oriented and persistent
improvement (Deneen et al., 2013; Morcke et al., 2013; Spady, 1994). These
characteristics are consistent with the findings from previous studies on the
effective factors influencing PD implementation (Desimone & Stuckey, 2014;
Hubers et al., 2022; Mouza et al., 2022; Yurtseven et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021).
Although this research assesses only trainees' learning motivation and training
satisfaction, the PD programme based on the OBE framework still had a beneficial
impact on trainees' learning behaviours, training models and training assessment
methods and among others.
In conclusion, there is a large amount of research that has adopted the OBE
framework in curriculum design around the world with great success, but the
research on PD programmes based on the OBE framework has not been fully
explored. The findings of this research aim to contribute to the exploration of the
OBE framework's application in teacher professional development.
9. References
Abd Majid, F. (2016). The use of reflective journals in outcome-based education during
the teaching practicum. Malaysian Journal of ELT Research, 4(1), 11.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2015.07.029
Akhmadeeva, L., Hindy, M., & Sparrey, C. J. (2013). Overcoming obstacles to
implementing an outcome-based education model: Traditional versus
transformational OBE. Proceedings of the Canadian Engineering Education
Association (CEEA). https://doi.org/10.24908/pceea.v0i0.4913
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Zhang, W., Wang, Y., Yang, L., & Wang, C. (2020). Suspending classes without stopping
learning: China’s education emergency management policy in the COVID-19
outbreak. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13(3), 55.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13030055
Zhang, L., Carter Jr, R. A., Zhang, J., Hunt, T. L., Emerling, C. R., Yang, S., & Xu, F.
(2021). Teacher perceptions of effective professional development: Insights for
design. Professional Development in Education, 1-14.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2021.1879236
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Appendix 1
Questionnaire Design for Trainees’ Learning Motivation
Part I Trainees’ information
1. Name:
2. Gender
Male
Female
3. Diploma
Higher Diploma
Bachelor’s degree
Master’s degree
Doctoral degree
4. Position:
5. Professional qualification:
6. Subject to teach:
7. Instructional Experience
1-3 years
4-6 years
7-15 years
16-25 years
More than 25 years
2. To what extent do you agree that the learning outcomes listed in the PD notice could
attract you to attend this PD design?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
3. To what extent do you agree that this Pd programme could match your expectations?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
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4. To what extent do you agree that the learning outcomes outlined in this Pd
programme could fit your expectations?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
5. To what extent do you agree that this Pd programme could assist you in solving the
problems in your daily curriculum design?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
6. To what extent do you agree that you could achieve the learning outcomes specified in
this Pd programme?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
7.To what extent do you agree that this Pd programme is useful for you?
Strongly Agree
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
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Appendix 2
Questionnaire Design for Training Satisfaction
Part I Trainees’ information
1. Name:
1. To what extent are you satisfied with the overall design of PD?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied
2. To what extent are you satisfied with the overall curriculum design in PD?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied
3. To what extent do you agree that attending this Pd programme is useful when you
return to work?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied
4. To what extent do you agree that attending this Pd programme could solve your
problems in your curriculum design process?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied
5. To what extent do you agree that the content in this Pd programme could be easily
integrated into your curriculum design?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied
6. To what extent do you agree that the content in this Pd programme could help
enhance the quality of your curriculum design?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied
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7. To what extent do you agree that the content in this Pd programme could help boost
your students' learning motivation?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied
8. To what extent do you are willing to adopt or refer to the contents of this Pd
programme in your curriculum design?
Very satisfied
Satisfied
Unsure
Dissatisfied
Very dissatisfied
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1. Introduction
Homeschooling, which is identified by some as "unschooling," is a unique
approach to education that can be viewed to embrace diversity and promote
cultural understanding. It has evolved from being perceived solely as an emerging
educational phenomenon to becoming an established practice with growing
popularity and significance in contemporary education systems. Once considered
*
Corresponding author: Mena Khairy Eldeeb, [email protected]
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
433
Similarly, in the context of the UAE, some families opt for homeschooling to offer
a customized educational experience in line with their cultural or religious
convictions. Additionally, expatriate families may choose homeschooling to
ensure continuity in their children's education (Ahbabi, 2021). Many other nations
have seen this rise in homeschooling's popularity. However, while
homeschooling offers flexibility and personalized learning, concerns exist about
its effectiveness in promoting multicultural education (Murphy, 2014). According
to Romanowski (2001), limited exposure to diverse and marginalized perspectives
may perpetuate stereotypes and biases among homeschooled students.
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In the upcoming sections, the rationale behind this study's research will be shared,
followed by the methods used to discover relevant information and combine the
findings. Our research adheres to established guidelines for META Analysis.
Finally, the implications and potential areas for future research will be addressed
in the concluding portion.
The main objective of this META Analysis is to study why parents and families
choose to be home-educated and to see if this type of education is suitable from
an academic and social view. To achieve this objective, a META Analysis will be
conducted of research that includes 18 studies, and the following research
questions (RQ) will be addressed:
RQ1. To what extent does homeschooling serve as an effective alternative form of
education in enhancing children's academic learning outcomes? How does
homeschooling compare to traditional schooling?
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2. Methodology
This precise method of collecting data is essential in synthesizing findings from
multiple studies to provide more robust conclusions. An interpretive method is
used in this meta-analysis, which aims to integrate the findings from qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed studies that examined the same or closely related topic.
The research topic was centered around homeschooling and its relationship to
motivation. A straightforward research question was formulated, and criteria for
selecting relevant studies were established. For example, the research question
posed was: "How is learning motivation influenced by homeschooling as an
alternative approach, and what factors contribute to an increased preference for
homeschooling by families?".
On October 7th, 2023, searches for English language articles were conducted in
the Web of Science database. The search string included three categories. Firstly,
the term covering education: (Homeschooling). Secondly, the term covering
education (OR "home education"). Thirdly, a term covering the context:
(motivation). The searches were not restricted to a specific document type and
included research conducted between 2003 and 2023. Other limitations included
considerations for open access studies, language, and country.
The Web of Science database was chosen due to its extensive coverage of
educational literature, and the specific time frame was selected to ensure the
analysis captured recent trends in homeschooling. Additionally, this timeframe
allows future submissions to specific databases while meeting the required date
range. The selection of this database was tailored to the particular needs of the
research, as not all databases address educational matters. Moreover, this
platform provides rich content from various regions and countries. The specified
date range was chosen to give a contemporary perspective on homeschooling,
given its historical significance as a method of education.
Additionally, 26 articles discussed unrelated matters, while two did not address
the relationship between homeschooling and motivation. Twelve articles were
deemed erroneous or inaccessible. Consequently, 18 studies were included in the
reference list for this review (See Table 2).
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The titles and abstracts of the identified studies were carefully reviewed and
evaluated, and only those meeting our criteria were selected for further analysis.
Relevant information was extracted, including parental perspectives on
homeschooling, specific homeschooling methods, and influencing factors. Our
team utilized a standardized form to ensure organized and accessible data
management. In addition, several studies presented varying perspectives on
homeschooling. Therefore, researchers ensured these divergent viewpoints were
incorporated into the analysis sections to capture a comprehensive range of
opinions and mitigate potential biases or discrepancies.
The meta-analysis was meticulously crafted and shared, adhering to our field and
journal's reporting standards and guidelines. A PRISMA diagram (Figure 1) and
a table outlining the characteristics of the included studies were incorporated to
enhance clarity (See Table 2). Proper citation of data sources and a comprehensive
description of the methodology were provided.
2.2. Analysis
Information was extracted from the studies regarding research questions,
theoretical approaches, countries, samples, and results. Extracting this data
necessitated a thorough re-reading of each study. During this process, awareness
was raised regarding potential differences in analysis depending on the context
in which they were conducted. Some studies focused on special needs home-
educated students, while others addressed parents' motivations for
homeschooling. In some instances, the authors did not investigate specific
contexts. Different connections were identified in the studies table (See Table 1),
leading to their inclusion in the data results and analysis.
Each article was meticulously condensed by the authors of this study, with
extraneous and irrelevant information carefully removed. The original research
was consistently referenced to identify the main topics under discussion. This
process involved working within each main category and bridging them to ensure
a shared understanding and agreement among all three authors.
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3. Results
3.1. To what extent does homeschooling serve as an effective alternative form
of education in enhancing children's academic learning outcomes? How
does homeschooling compare to traditional schooling?
Van Schalkwyk and Bouwer (2011) claimed that homeschooled students could
follow a customized curriculum, allowing them to explore subjects in-depth or
accelerate learning in areas of strength. Personalized curricula cater to individual
interests and foster a more engaged and motivated learning experience. This
engagement positively influences academic achievement as students connect with
the material more deeply. According to Ng et al. (2021), homeschooling provides
varied learning experiences through interactive games and virtual tours, which
enhance achievement in math and social studies, strengthening the motivation to
learn. There is no one-size-fits-all approach to homeschooling, and families
should choose methods that align with their children's needs and preferences.
Blok and Karsten (2011) agreed with the previous researchers. They argued that
one of the advantages of homeschooling is its flexibility in adapting teaching
methods to suit the student's preferred learning style. Homeschool educators can
enhance understanding and retention by tailoring lessons to accommodate visual,
auditory, or kinesthetic learners. This adaptability in teaching methods is a crucial
factor in contributing to improved academic performance. Moreover, O'Hagan et
al. (2021) noted that mainstream education can be challenging for some children,
such as autistic students with social communication difficulties, while home
education can offer a positive experience for those families as it establishes good
academic and social outcomes. With homeschooling, parents can provide flexible,
balanced, and individualized education, leading to positive outcomes.
Homeschooled students can also progress at their own pace, ensuring mastery of
concepts before moving forward. This flexibility in pacing, known as mastery-
based learning, contributes to a solid academic foundation. Students can be free
to spend more time on challenging subjects, fostering a comprehensive
understanding of the material (Merry and Karsten, 2010).
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setting that honors a child's uniqueness and cultivates a genuine passion for
learning. However, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, motivations for
homeschooling might have been shaped by various factors, including access to
digital tools, worries about remote schooling quality, and the necessity for tailored
support (Ng et al., 2021).
According to McCabe et al. (2021), a primary motivation for parents opting for
homeschooling is their wish to offer religious or moral guidance and education to
their children. Five of the 18 studies primarily discuss the positive effects of home
education that appear in the learners' feelings and social interactions (Chase &
Morrison, 2018; Cheng & Hamlin, 2023; Burke, 2022; Hartman & Huttunen, 2020;
Davies, 2015). Chase and Morrison (2018) pointed to the findings indicating that
adolescents engaged in various social encounters enhanced their social skills,
happiness, and self-assurance. This will foster a favorable social milieu, a sense of
community, and motivation for the adolescents to engage with diverse
individuals.
The opportunity for children to interact with parents, siblings, and other members
of society in homeschooling can enhance motivation and learning outcomes,
especially in subjects like English (Permoser & Stoeckl, 2021). According to Cheng
and Hamlin (2023), facilitating collaboration and fostering social connections
among homeschooling students can be achieved through arrangements involving
participation in homeschool cooperatives or the engagement of private tutors. In
recent times, there has been a transformation in the approach to homeschooling
instruction. Through an increasing dependence on internet resources and digital
learning methods due to reduce in-person interaction with peers, homeschooled
students might experience altered social dynamics. Social interaction approaches
in homeschooling exhibit diversity due to their varied pedagogical nature,
tailored uniquely to each household (Burke, 2022). In homeschooling, the focus
on solid parent-child bonds and a positive atmosphere creates a supportive space
for social interaction. This environment hones a child's self-assessment skills, aids
in assimilating diverse information, and ultimately bolsters students' confidence
in social engagements (Hartman & Huttunen, 2020).
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holistic development (Merry & Karsten, 2010; Myers, 2022; Cohen, 2020;
McCabe et al., 2021).
5. Limitations
Our research has explored the topic by conducting a thorough Meta-Analysis of
existing studies. While this approach allowed us to comprehensively examine a
vast body of analysis, it also has limitations. Our search strategy was limited to
English databases, potentially omitting relevant studies from other languages.
The exclusion of non-English studies has omitted valuable insights from non-
Anglophone countries, which could provide a more global perspective on
homeschooling.
Other databases could not be included, which may have presented some
challenges for the researchers. Including more databases in the search would be
more confusing and complex, and it might take more time to exclude repeated
articles from each database. References in each cited paper were not thoroughly
or manually searched through journals and websites, which may have yielded
additional insights and studies relevant to our research questions.
Another significant constraint about accessing "open access" articles is that despite
having institutional access to the database, most of these articles required viewing
fees, leading to our decision to exclude them from our study. It is important to
note that our research questions were not the only aspects of this topic worth
exploring. Other valuable discussions and perspectives could have been covered
in this paper. Other questions could have yielded more ideas about the topic
discussed here.
Nonetheless, the analysis has carefully identified and focused on two specific
questions. Our team of three authors meticulously extracted and analyzed
utterances and descriptions, but it is acknowledged that there may have been
alternative interpretations. Overall, our research has provided valuable insights
into the topic, but it is recognized that other interpretations and perspectives
could have been included. Despite its limitations, our Meta-Analysis has shed
light on essential aspects of the research, and it is hoped that it will contribute to
further discussions and studies in the future.
6. Discussion
There is a general understanding of homeschooling as a parental choice to educate
children outside of traditional school settings. Myers (2022), in his latest work,
discusses the complex world of homeschooling, exploring its many definitions
and diverse nature. He highlights that homeschooling has no one-size-fits-all
meaning, as it can vary greatly depending on the family, country, and approach.
Myers emphasizes the wide range of interpretations and practices within this
umbrella term. While Myers accentuates the varied nature of homeschooling,
Farris (2013) contends that an essential uniformity exists, especially concerning
specific educational philosophies and methodologies. Farris argues that despite
apparent diversity, a core set of educational approaches prevails within the
homeschooling landscape. Light must be shed on the diversity of families who
homeschool and the various pedagogical methods they employ. To further
complicate matters, Myers humanizes the often misunderstood and
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Davies (2015), Choen (2020), Myers (2022), Ludgate et al. (2021), and Hartman and
Huttunen (2021) proposed the development of a more appropriate and effective
assessment model specifically designed for home education. They also shed light
on the various challenges parents face when educating their children at home.
With a wealth of data and information, they highlight crucial elements such as the
number of home-educated children, the legal requirements, the curriculum, the
funding, and the monitoring of home education's impact on children's well-being
and socialization. De Carvalho and Skipper (2019) agreed with what they said.
They mentioned the socialization issue for home-educated children as they found
that home-education networks provide a sense of community and identity, with
parents playing a crucial role in facilitating social opportunities. In interviews
with adolescents and their mothers, children reported feeling happier and more
confident than in a traditional school setting, with the authors suggesting that
home education allows for greater freedom and overall well-being regarding
socialization. Kraftl (2012) agreed with all the researchers and noted that parents
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7. Conclusion
In general, our analysis not only underscores the growing relevance of
homeschooling but also highlights the need for practice. Homeschooling
demonstrates significant variability based on geographical location, family
dynamics, and the chosen methodology. The rationale behind opting for home
education primarily revolves around catering to individual student needs and
fostering social development, with parents playing a pivotal role in granting
autonomy and flexibility. Previous research exhibits diverse perspectives
regarding the challenges homeschooling families encounter compared to those
adhering to traditional educational systems. Homeschooling achieves notable
academic advancements, surpassing the outcomes of students in conventional
education.
Moreover, homeschooling contributes to governmental support and cost savings
within the education sector. Ultimately, it provides families with the opportunity
to establish customized learning environments, nurturing not only academic
achievement but also holistic development. It can also enhance students'
emotional well-being and social interactions, mainly through participation in
cooperatives, online instruction, and private tutoring. Notably, homeschooling
offers advantages for children encountering difficulties in conventional school
settings, such as bullying or insufficient support for special needs, as it positively
influences families with autistic children, augmenting their academic and social
achievements.
Future research could explore several unexplored dimensions in light of the
complexities surrounding homeschooling. One area of inquiry could focus on the
long-term academic and socio-emotional outcomes of homeschooled students
compared to those in traditional schooling. Additionally, investigating the
effectiveness of different homeschooling approaches, such as structured versus
unstructured methods, would provide valuable insights. Moreover, exploring the
impact of homeschooling on parental well-being and family dynamics warrants
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Data availability
A review of research and articles from databases
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Mwanyumba Tweni, F., Wamocha, L., & Buhere, P. (2022). Academic outcomes of
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Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, DG., The PRISMA Group (2009) Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA
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# Authors Year Re Country Participants/ Article Research Thematic Issues/ Gaps Recommendations Relationship between
f. Data source Type Method Focus Homeschooling &
Motivation
1 Van 2011 1 South primarily Journal Qualitative Homeschooli The limited Diverse curricula: there is Each homeschool
Schalkwyk Africa homeschool paper ng, Learning focus of no one-size-fits-all educator and learner
& Bouwer educators and homeschooling approach to brings their values,
and Assessment research is on homeschooling, and perceptions, and
homeschool the perspectives families should choose experiences to the
learners. of homeschool methods that align with homeschool situation,
educators. their children's needs and which can influence
The paper preferences. motivation and the
recognizes the Flexibility: flexibility may teaching and learning
importance of imply that homeschooling process.
heeding can be suitable for children
homeschool with specific educational The homeschool
learners' voices needs or desires. educators in the study
to gain a Support: homeschooling were often unaware of
trustworthy can be a collaborative their learners' particular
understanding effort, and involving other needs, which impacted
of the family members can be motivation.
homeschooling beneficial.
context. Families who homeschool
often find it successful and
continue with it over time.
2 Tweni, 2022 2 Kenya Children Journal Quantitative Homeschooli The limited Homeschooling can be an Homeschooling
Wamocha, & pursuing the paper ng, exploration of effective educational motivates parents to
Buhere Accelerated education, homeschooling option in Kenya. develop moral and
Christian ACE as an religious values in their
Education curriculum. educational Homeschooled children children while offering a
(ACE) alternative in pursuing the ACE comfortable learning
curriculum in the Kenyan curriculum achieved atmosphere. It also aims
Kenya. context. academic results at a to maximize learning
similar or even better level experiences.
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6 Hartman & 2021 6 Finland Schooled and Journal Mixed methods Homeschooli Absence of Centralizing the Homeschooling practices
Huttunen homeschoole paper ng, standardized monitoring of all home- vary widely, with
d children. unschooling methods for educated children from the different approaches to
monitoring the municipalities to a few learning based on
progress of competent and well-
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8 PERMOSER. 2021 8 USA Hundreds of Journal Mixed methods Homeschooli The Homeschooling advocacy Homeschooling provides
& homeschoolin paper ng. transnational can be considered part of a a tailored learning
STOECKL. g advocates advocacy of broader effort to reframe environment that caters
from all over homeschooling human rights from a to the child's interests and
the world. by moral morally conservative needs, fostering a strong
perspective.
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15 Myers 2022 15 UK Homeschoole Article Qualitative Homeschooli Homeschoolers Freud's account of Many homeschoolers
rs ng identify their Unheimlich helps explain identify their fears of risks
fears of risks the fear and discomfort and failings in
and failings in that consistently underpin mainstream schooling as
mainstream debates about the reason they
schooling as the homeschooling. homeschool, suggesting
reason they Freud's reconciliation of that motivation can stem
homeschool. the conflation of from dissatisfaction with
This article homeliness and traditional schooling
explores how unhomeliness as a systems.
discomfort and particular form of fear or
fear are discomfort is a valuable
ingrained insight into
within the homeschooling.
meanings Homeschooling is readily
associated with mapped over the safe
homeschooling. spaces of many families'
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International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction
Although information and communication technology (ITC) has grown favourably
in reputation, it is a concern in educational settings in developing and developed
countries. As a vital tool, it needs to be seen as an important aspect of teaching in the
21st century, requiring developing countries to invest in it (Malik & Hooda, 2022).
Hence, teacher education institutions are expected to provide pre-service teachers
with the necessary tools and support for them to acquire the skills and knowledge
needed to learn how to integrate technology into their teaching instruction.
Equipping them with the necessary skills will help them make their lessons
interactive, while also preparing students for the technology-driven world. Since the
developments of ICT have changed society and the workplace, higher education
institutions are bound to restructure their teacher education programmes and
provide classroom facilities to decrease the teaching and learning gap with ICT
between now and the future (Ranta et al., 2022; Thephavongsa & Qingtang, 2018).
The use of ICT has gained a growing reputation and become a great concern in
educational settings globally (Aydın & Gürol, 2019; Heine et al., 2023; Pozas & Letzel,
2023). Studies have shown that the increasing interest in integrating ICT into teaching
practices has pressed teacher education institutions to incorporate 21st-century skills
in their training to help pre-service teachers integrate it into their classroom
instruction in the future (Heine et al., 2023; Sutton, 2011; Teo et al., 2015). The modern
educational system strives to provide pre-service teachers with more enhanced
learning opportunities so they may transfer these to their students. Another reason
for this growing interest is that students insist on having ICT so that they can access
information in their daily lives, connect with others, and share information within the
school learning environment through what is called e-learning (Aydın & Gürol,
2019).
Heine et al. (2023 further argued that lecturers (facilitators) and pre-service teachers
are also expected to develop new informal learning and entrepreneurial skills to
maintain continuous learning. These are the skills needed in the 21st century and
which give meaning to learning business education. Having observed the increased
rate of unemployment among business education graduates, I can conclude that there
is a mismatch between the world of work and what is taught, which calls for revision
of the curriculum to meet the demands of employees. Since ICT has the potential to
accelerate, enrich, and deepen the acquisition of 21st-century skills, motivating and
engaging pre-service teachers in learning can help them relate school experiences to
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work practices in the future (Ranta et al., 2022; Sutton, 2011). This would mean that
pre-service teachers can now determine which applications can be used in teaching
and learning and how much time to spend on them.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
This study is framed by the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK)
which was introduced by Mishra and Koehler in 2006. This model is built upon
Shulman’s pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) framework of 1986, furthering its
interrelation with content, pedagogy, and technology (Soong & Tan, 2010). According
to Mishra and Koehler (2006), this framework is used to describe how technology can
be effectively used to promote a better understanding and retention of information.
The domains of TPACK are that PCK deals with how to teach content-based material;
technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) deals with how to use technologies in
teaching; and technological content knowledge (TCK) is concerned with selecting and
using technologies to communicate content knowledge. TPACK empowers pre-
service teachers with a profound understanding of how the using technology can be
harnessed and tailored to their needs.
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This framework identifies three domains of knowledge that pre-service teachers need
to possess to successfully integrate technology into the content to be taught. One
domain of TPACK is PCK, which incorporates content and pedagogy into
understanding topics, problems, or issues organised for the diverse interests and
abilities of the learners. In other words, it refers to learning how to teach the content
of a particular subject matter, which requires the development of appropriate
instructional strategies and skills for the learner (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). According
to Mishra and Koehler (2006), TPACK theory focuses on designing and evaluating
teachers’ knowledge, emphasising effective student learning in various content areas.
Thus, it is used to frame thinking about what knowledge pre-service teachers must
have to integrate technology into teaching and how they might develop this
knowledge. The theory is relevant to this study as it informs the reader (and teacher
education) about the knowledge pre-service teachers must possess to integrate ICT
into the teaching and learning process. TPACK is also used in this study to
understand pre-service teachers’ professional competence in integrating technology
into teaching and learning and how this has impacted the professional development
experiences of pre-service teachers. Teacher education must, therefore, consider
strategies that will effectively prepare pre-service teachers to integrate technology
into their teaching.
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equipment for teaching business education effectively. The argument that teaching
business education with a focus on ICT skills can develop valuable competencies that
are in demand in the job market is quite valid (Ratheeswari, 2018). As technology
continues to play a significant role in business operations, having a strong foundation
in both business principles and ICT skills can indeed make students more competitive
and prepared for the workforce. Overall, integrating ICT into business education can
not only enhance students’ learning experiences but also contribute to the
development of essential skills that can drive entrepreneurship and economic growth
in countries. Institutions and policymakers need to address the challenges in
implementing ICT effectively to ensure that students are well-equipped for the
demands of the modern business world.
3. Methodology
This is a qualitative study that adopted a systematic literature review to examine pre-
service teachers’ ICT professional competence focusing on the factors that influence
its usage. Hence, the systematic review was determined to be an appropriate method
to closely examine the ICT integration of pre-service teachers as a mode of instruction.
The study was a systematic review of literature that has been organised thoroughly
and systematically, effectively conveying important insights that can guide various
stakeholders in improving the integration of technology, particularly in the field of
business education. This study provides a comprehensive examination of the factors
influencing the competence of pre-service teachers to integrate ICT into their teaching
and learning practices. The study adopted an integrative literature review by Souza
et al. (2010); Grove et al. (2013); Smith et al. (2011); and Whittemore and Knafl (2005).
The process commenced by using a research question formulated to identify the gap
in the literature.
The next step was to refine and narrow down the search of studies. This was done to
ensure that only relevant and unbiased studies were included in the selection to
extend the precision of the search (Cronin & George, 2023; Grove et al., 2013). A
critical analysis was done using a comprehensive tool to appraise thoroughly each
relevant study selected (Cronin, 2023). This means studies that did not meet the
criteria of inclusion were considered irrelevant to the current study based on their
abstracts and titles which included, in some cases, reading the full text.
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The final selected studies were thoroughly read and the findings of each, the focus of
the study, and conclusion were considered as the criteria for inclusion. Data synthesis
included summarising the findings from individual studies integrated to form new
findings or constructs (Whittemore & Knafl, 2005). A total of 25 studies were
identified and grouped thematically, resulting in five major categories (named
themes) that were presented and discussed as new knowledge generated. Finally, the
findings for this study were presented and discussed as available evidence as a means
of documenting the entire integrative literature review (Cronin, 2023; Grove et al.,
2013).
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When the integration of technology, pedagogy, and content is left to the discretion of
individual lecturers, it limits ICT integration for instructional purposes and there are
inconsistent interpretations of how it can best be used in the classroom (Zyad, 2016).
This implies a revision of the training programme to adequately equip pre-service
teachers with relevant skills for integrating ICT in business education. However, pre-
service teachers feel challenged to effectively integrate ICT in the classroom because
it requires the application of complex TPACK that needs to be incorporated into the
training programmes.
This finding agrees with Heine et al. (2023), Ramirez (2020), Uslu and Ersan (2020),
and Mishra and Koehler (2006), that facilitators are challenged to foster learning that
helps pre-service teachers to meaningfully integrate content and pedagogy. In other
words, they fail to nurture 21st-century skills in these pre-service teachers. As such,
the effectiveness of pre-service teachers in the future can be blamed on the rigid
training and impactful preparation they receive. Hence, teacher education
programmes need to be designed in such a way that they equip pre-service teachers
with knowledge and skills on effective technology integration in their future
classrooms. As indicated by Peng et al. (2023) and Mishra and Koehler (2006),
different strategies of content and delivery can be used to prepare pre-service
teachers for TPACK.
Sometimes, laboratories for teacher education may lack computers and software for
the pre-service teachers to practise and this can seriously limit what they can do in
the classroom with regards to integrating ICT. This proves that there is a need for
teacher education institutions to improve their infrastructure so that it allows pre-
service teachers to practise, as well as the required support from their facilitators.
Restructuring and facilitator support can help pre-service teachers to easily integrate
ICT into the content of their teaching subjects and, hence, their ICT competencies can
also improve. This coincides with Ersoy et al. (2016), who explained that integrating
ICT into teaching and learning not only requires the acquisition of up-to-date
technology but also needs to consider various variables, including administrative,
educational, and institutional policy on the use of ICT.
When all these factors are in place, the quality of teacher education can be improved,
which in turn helps lecturers perform their duties. This implies that pre-service
teachers must be competent and possess several skills and techniques for providing
successful teaching (Bhattacharjee & Deb, 2016; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Evaluating
teacher education training helps to identify which ICT tools need to be included at
which stages of training activities by teachers and the competency levels within the
training process. This is why pre-service teachers are still struggling to integrate ICT
into teaching and learning. Without these initiatives, pre-service teachers will still be
immersed in challenges of this sort when trying to integrate ICT into learning.
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When pre-service teachers are not provided with proper training to use recent
technology in the classroom, they feel challenged in their teaching profession and fail
to prepare students for the workplace. This means that they can only commence their
roles as competent teachers when their competencies as teachers have been
developed adequately. Hence, their training has to be improved, as inadequate
training has the potential to limit pre-service teachers’ ability to integrate ICT into
their instructional practices. It is, therefore, crucial for pre-service teachers to learn
and acquire the TPACK of the subject they will be teaching in the future.
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The study also identified that, due to irregular use of ICT, pre-service teachers’
professional competence is low because of inadequate training received. Sometimes,
the inadequacy results from instructors who lack technological skills and just upload
notes or materials with the assumption that they have used ICT in teaching and
learning (Zyad, 2016). This implies that they will not use or integrate it in their
teaching and learning in the future. Consequently, the students of these teachers are
likely to seldom use ICT, like their teachers. This coincides with Akaadom (2020) and
Peng et al. (2023), who found that pre-service teachers are not able to use technology
for instruction during their training because of their instructors or lecturers’
incompetence in using technology. They do not possess the knowledge of how to use
ICT skills for instructing pre-service teachers. This deficiency is reflected in the pre-
service teachers’ low professional competence in using technology because they are
not well trained and, hence, they too do not know how to integrate it. The findings
also indicate that pre-service teachers have reported not being adequately competent
in integrating ICT into their learning during training because integration is not
discussed in depth during teacher education training. This is why pre-service
teachers still struggle to integrate ICT into their learning. Hence, this study was
conducted to close the gap between training and application.
As an element of TPACK, pre-service teachers would show that they possess PCK,
which refers to knowledge of how to teach particular content based on the materials
available. Being able to select appropriate content and tools for teaching using ICT
proves teachers’ competence in ICT integration and shows that their self-efficacy is
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high. In contrast, pre-service teachers with low self-efficacy in using ICT tools are not
eager to use them for learning or even to access ICT resources at university. This
shows that they are not likely to use it even during their teaching practice and in their
future practice. This means that various initiatives have to be established to better
prepare pre-service teachers for these challenges.
Sometimes, teachers need to take advantage of ICT and its integration as they have
the appropriate skills to incorporate it into teaching and learning. This is
substantiated by Ranta et al. (2022), that integration of ICT and its related changes in
education are dependent on a pre-service teacher’s ability to incorporate technology
into creative pedagogy. It also depends on the development of an active learning
environment that will integrate technology. Being able to integrate ICT into teaching
and learning implies that pre-service teachers possess TPACK, which refers to the
technical knowledge, skills, and content that are necessary for the integration. Pre-
service teachers’ failure to integrate ICT into teaching and learning demonstrates the
ineffectiveness of their training.
Since ICT involves the use of networks, expert systems controllers of ICT must be
trained to provide support and make it easy for pre-service teachers to use. This
agrees with what Teo et al. (2015) explained, that when pre-service teachers tend to
use technology more actively, they can find it easy to navigate and manage it.
Therefore, the perceived ease of use of ICT influences attitudes toward its use in the
classroom and, hence, it is a determinant of pre-service teachers’ professional
competence in integrating technology in learning. Consequently, this study agrees
with Jadhav (2011) that the effective integration of ICT in teaching and learning by
pre-service teachers lies in their capacities. This is about using ICT tools for
instruction, accessing information, and any other activity that relates to teaching and
learning, and not just accessing material from websites. Furthermore, when pre-
service teachers persistently use ICT tools, it can influence their knowledge about
their subject content and how ICT is related to it, to the extent that they can identify
areas that need ICT integration.
This study further identified that pre-service teachers can integrate ICT into teaching
and learning when they find it useful and easy to access. Integrating ICT in teacher
education training also helps pre-service teachers to be aware of technological tools
and how they can be usefully applied in the future for the benefit of their students
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(Heine et al., 2023; Jita & Sintema, 2022). Therefore, ICT tools have to be used in
teacher education to empower pre-service teachers with the knowledge and skills
that will help them teach their various subjects at schools in the future. These skills
are the fundamental requirements in teaching in the current period of the 21st
century. It also implies that pre-service teachers have to consider ICT as one of the
ways that enhance quality and effective teaching in schools. Studies have identified
that teaching using ICT tools helps students develop positive attitudes toward
learning and understanding concepts easily (Gülbahar, 2008; Jita & Sintema, 2022;
Harju et al., 2019). In this way, empowering pre-service teachers with the necessary
skills and knowledge will help them select the appropriate methods and content that
need integration. This will make it easy for pre-service teachers to integrate
technology into teaching as it makes teaching and learning interactive.
5. Conclusions
The study examined pre-service teachers’ professional competence in integrating ICT
into business education in Lesotho. The study findings revealed that as pre-service
teachers are the ultimate decision-makers on what to teach, they need training on
how to integrate ICT into the teaching and learning of business education. It was
highlighted that professional competence is influenced by the attitudes that pre-
service teachers hold about using ICT in teaching and learning in the future. The
findings revealed that they feel ill-prepared to integrate ICT into their learning
because of a lack of TPACK. A lack of technological knowledge can inhibit them from
easily integrating ICT. They are not used to interacting with ICT tools and do not
know which tools to use and when. The findings further revealed that they
sometimes do not integrate ICT because they do not know how to do so. This
influences them not to try integrating ICT into teaching and learning.
Lastly, inadequate training has also been identified as a factor influencing pre-service
teachers’ inability to integrate ICT into learning. Inadequate training results from
lecturers who are not knowledgeable about technology and who continue using
traditional teaching methods, which does not allow in-depth discussions of ICT
during training. In this way, pre-service teachers remain inadequately trained in the
use of ICT in learning. This affects their TPACK and the students they will be teaching
in the future. On this basis, teacher education needs to restructure its programmes
and redefine its mission to show that it has fully embraced the integration of ICT in
teaching and learning in preparation for quality teachers.
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6. Recommendations
Since the findings of this study cannot be generalised, we recommend that teacher
education should offer ICT as a compulsory course for all pre-service teachers. That
is, it should be included in the curriculum to enable pre-service teachers to develop
skills and technological knowledge to some extent since TPACK is associated with
effective teaching. Thus, pre-service teachers must also be provided with adequate
training to become competent enough to integrate technology into their learning.
Teacher education has to embrace and maintain the use of technology by
implementing appropriate strategies and policies to orient pre-service teachers’
professional competence in using ICT. Universities should therefore equip their
lecturers with ICT skills so that they can easily include ICT it in their teaching. The
curriculum should also include teaching through ICTs. Furthermore, they should
select schools that are well equipped with ICT tools to place pre-service teachers to
provide them the opportunity to practice and transfer their skills to learners. In
Lesotho, an effective control and management of management learning platforms
such as Thuto, are recommended to reduce chances of electricity cut-offs leading to
disconnection. Addressing infrastructure challenges such as having no ICT tools in
the classrooms is recommended as it leaves pre-service teachers with inadequate
technological skills, which also affects their self-efficacy in integrating ICT in business
education.
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1. Introduction
Education has a crucial function as a hub of excellence in shaping the human
character and a significant impact on cultivating individuals with high quality
and potential. Education provides individuals with a profound understanding of
knowledge, skills, and attitudes, with the ultimate goal of enhancing their well-
being and contributing to the betterment of their religion, nation, and country
(Rokhman et al., 2014). Education is a collaborative process whereby students and
teachers work together to explore their abilities and potential in the classroom. It
can also be regarded as the efforts made by educators to teach and improve
morals, and provide intellectual training to students (Sholihah et al., 2018;
Panggabean & Sitorus, 2021; Grajeda et al., 2024). According to Toomey (2023),
education is the act of modifying behaviour by integrating new knowledge into
current ideas and attitudes. Therefore, it is a crucial aspect of human existence
that should not be disregarded (Hakim et al., 2023). The primary objective of
Indonesia's national education system is to facilitate the development of students'
full potential as individuals who possess a strong belief in and reverence for God,
display virtuous behaviour, sustain physical well-being, obtain knowledge,
showcase proficiency, promote originality, cultivate self-reliance, and ultimately
develop into accountable individuals. The effectiveness of achieving educational
goals will depend on the implementation of the educational process. The
assessment of the education process is based on two factors: the excellence of its
components and the effectiveness of its administration (Ilham, 2019).
Enhancing the calibre and potential of each individual can be achieved through
education. This demonstrates that there is a significant level of interest in human
resource development, particularly in the current period of globalisation. The
challenges that may arise can undoubtedly be resolved by the presence of human
capital or the inherent abilities of individuals, particularly in the younger
demographic. In the field of education, such as in madrasah schools, it is necessary
for prospective educators to possess a high level of scientific competence in order
to carry out the process of teaching effectively and efficiently and helping learners
to acquire knowledge. This will ensure that the material is easily comprehensible
and enjoyable for students (Revola et al., 2023). It is necessary to maintain a
balance between the methods and the outcomes of learning (Junaedi, 2019). Put
simply, the level of scientific expertise possessed by potential madrasah teachers
will greatly influence the quality of their education (Anggraeni & Akbar, 2018).
Prospective teachers, who will later serve as facilitators, must guarantee that
learners have a pleasurable experience throughout the learning process, drawing
upon their knowledge and expertise. In order to ensure successful outcomes, it is
imperative for potential teachers to possess strong scientific proficiency since this
directly influences the learning process of pupils (Khairiah & Sirajuddin, 2019;
Fakhrurrazi et al., 2022). Insufficient mastery of scientific competency among
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Based on field research, it has been observed that current students, in general,
have a deficiency in scientific literacy abilities, particularly in the context of
science education. Hence, it is imperative for potential madrasah instructors to
possess scientific competency, particularly strong scientific literacy, as they would
assume the crucial position of educators responsible for comprehending the
subject matter they teach. Zuraini et al. (2021) assert that the effectiveness of a
teaching process hinges on the teacher's multifaceted position as an educator,
facilitator, administrator, and motivator for students in their learning (Payton,
2021). The success of the student learning process is influenced by the teaching
activities conducted by teachers (Insani, 2021).
2. Theoretical Review
The essence of science is commonly understood as the epistemology of science,
which refers to the methods and principles used to acquire scientific knowledge
and the underlying values and beliefs associated with its growth. Nevertheless,
multiple studies indicate that students across different educational levels,
spanning from kindergarten to university, generally lack a comprehensive
comprehension of the essence of science (Lederman, 1992). Moreover, Nurcholish
argues that the conflict between religion and social science mostly stems from
their contrasting approaches in interpreting and elucidating the state of affairs or
objective truth (Lahaji & Faisal, 2023). Social science differs from religion in two
key aspects when it comes to explaining reality. Firstly, social science is genuinely
committed to explaining reality. Secondly, many social sciences focus on
developing a paradigm; however, the scientific methods employed have not yet
been able to fully address empirical problems that remain unresolved
(Wallerstein, 2001). The rivalry between religion and science manifests in two
ways: firstly, social science compares itself to religion, and secondly, social science
presents itself as an alternative option for constructing a weltanschauung
(McGrath, 2020; Kurniawan et al., 2022).
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The teacher's strong scientific literacy abilities will foster student interest in
learning. Curiosity about a particular subject or activity sparks an individual's
interest in learning, leading them to desire to explore and engage in it (Yunitasari
& Hanifah, 2020; Zubaedi et al., 2020). The students' intrinsic motivation to study
will undoubtedly facilitate the teachers' delivery of instructional content (Rahayu
et al., 2023). Indeed, students' enthusiasm for learning in the field of science varies,
as many students are more inclined towards non-abstract subjects. This can be
attributed to teachers' lack of strong scientific literacy skills, making it challenging
to deliver material effectively, particularly in the domains of physics, chemistry,
and biology. To address and resolve these issues, one can employ the STEM
approach as a means of learning. Ibtida et al. (2020) and Twiningsih and Elisanti
(2021) propose that STEM, as an interdisciplinary educational approach, is a
method that allows educators to examine science from multiple viewpoints. This
approach leverages Internet technology to enhance scientific literacy. Science can
be defined as a systematic and organised collection of knowledge that is acquired
through certain techniques (Fatimah & Mufti, 2014).
STEM education fosters scientific attitudes (Fasasi, 2017) and promotes student
engagement in the learning process (Subali, 2018). By integrating STEM, students
can enhance their understanding of science by establishing connections between
scientific concepts and the immediate environment in which they live. Multiple
further studies have demonstrated that STEM education can enhance students'
scientific literacy, as evidenced by the research conducted by Ariningtyas et al.
(2017), Maesaroh et al. (2021), and Hariyadi et al. (2023). Prasetyo (2017) defines
natural science as a branch of knowledge. Science is a constituent of the broader
field of STEM . The STEM methodology was initially employed by the National
Science Foundation (NSF) throughout the 1990s. The STEM method serves
multiple functions such as instructing students in the integration of four distinct
disciplines: science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The aim is to
enable students to address problems that are relevant to their own experiences or
real-world situations (Rodriguez et al., 2021). Kang and Peters (2019) define STEM
literacy as the collective understanding, mindset, and abilities of an individual to
recognise and elucidate natural phenomena, and to make informed inferences
based on the empirical evidence pertaining to STEM subjects. An individual's
comprehension is derived from the attributes of STEM, which encompass human
knowledge, investigation, and design. STEM influences the material, knowledge,
and culture of the surrounding environment. Zaki et al. (2020) argue that those
who aspire to participate actively in STEM matters and approach these with a
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In the context of science education, the process of learning closely resembles the
experience of directly engaging with the natural environment and
comprehending it through scientific methods (Rubiana & Dadi, 2020). Science is
an academic discipline that investigates the natural occurrences and events
occurring in the world (Azhar, 2022). Science education plays a crucial role in
learning as it directly pertains to the systematic exploration of nature. Learning
science is more than just acquiring factual knowledge and concepts; it involves a
process of discovery that is rooted in scientific principles relevant to human
existence (Suharyati, 2022). The role of teachers in implementing STEM in
scientific education is expected to inspire students to comprehend their own
condition and the natural world in which they live. This, in turn, enables them to
impart lessons and knowledge that can be practically implemented in society
(Vennix et al., 2018).
3. Research Methodology
This study applied a quantitative research methodology and employed the quasi-
experimental design research method. This experimental design represents a
progression from traditional experimental design; however, it also presents
difficulties in its execution. This design includes a control group, but it lacks the
ability to regulate extraneous variables adequately that could impact the
implementation of the experiment. However, this design exceeds the pre-
experimental design. A quasi-experimental design is utilised in situations where
it is difficult to obtain a control group for the purpose of conducting research. This
study assessed the scientific competency of students in the elementary education
programme at Islamic universities in Bengkulu Province. The assessment was
conducted using a science literacy approach that incorporated Islamic values. The
study included four districts in Bengkulu Province: Rejang Lebong, Bengkulu
City, South Bengkulu, and Kaur. This study's objective was to determine the
scientific proficiency of potential madrasah instructors through the utilisation of
the STEM methodology.
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The samples in this study were second- and third-year students for both for the
experimental and control classes. They were selected by applying purposive
sampling. This is a one data source sampling technique with several implications.
The primary reason for selecting purposive sampling is that the sampled students
have completed their internship practice at school. The instruments used in this
study were observation sheets and tests. The test questions in this study were in
the form of multiple choice questions comprising as many as 50 questions. The
data analysis used descriptive quantitative analysis with statistics assisted by the
SPSS 22 application.
Table 1
Design of the Research
Group Pre-test Treatment Post-test
Experiment X 1 O X2
Control Y 1 - Y2
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IAIN Curup
IAIN Curup is situated in the Rejang Lebong Regency of Bengkulu Province,
Indonesia. It is an Islamic university that operates as a public institution and falls
under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Religious Affairs of the Republic of
Indonesia. Currently, there are three faculties available for undergraduate study,
five study programmes for master's degrees, and two doctoral study
programmes.
4. Result
Results of the Scientific Competency Test
By administering the pre-test and post-test to the experimental and control
courses, the study's findings regarding the scientific competency of aspiring
madrasah instructors were determined. The four Islamic universities in the
province of Bengkulu provided a sample for both classes. The information was
utilized to compare the experimental and control groups' madrasah teacher
applicants' scores on the scientific competency examination. Furthermore,
descriptive analysis—which includes describing the quantity of data, maximum
value, minimum value, average value, and the like—was used to describe
research data in order to ascertain the impact of the STEM approach on the
scientific competency of aspiring madrasah teachers from the four Islamic
Universities (PTKI) in Bengkulu Province, Indonesia. The pre-test results for the
experimental class have an average value of 66.63, according to the conducted
results where 40 is the lowest possible score and 87 is the maximum. The
experimental class's average score on the post-test is 79.00. where 98 is the greatest
possible score and 50 is the lowest. The average value of the control class pre-test
scores is 67.52. where 45 was the lowest possible score and 87 was the highest
possible. According to the post-test findings, the control class scored an average
of 70.85, with 89 being the highest and 49 being the lowest. Prior to testing
hypotheses, two prerequisite tests were administered: a normality test to
determine whether the prospective madrasah teachers' pre- and post-test results
were normally distributed, and a homogeneity test to determine whether the
prospective madrasah teachers' scientific competence was homogeneous.
a. Normality Test
This was utilised to ascertain the normal distribution of the research data. The
significance value (sig.) for all data in the Shapiro-Wilk test is more than 0.05.
Therefore, it can be inferred that the research data follows a normal
distribution. Owing to the normal distribution of the data, a parametric
statistical test, specifically an independent samples t-test, was conducted.
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b. Homogeneity Test
This method was employed to ascertain whether the data of a research study
exhibited homogeneity or not, specifically in terms of variance or variety. The
homogeneity test conducted on the experimental and control classes indicates
that the data is homogeneously distributed, since the significance value is
greater than 0.05.
Table 2
Independent Samples T-Test
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for Equality t-test for Equality of Means
of Variances
According to the data in Table 2, the t-test results indicate a significance value
of 0.002, which is lower than the threshold of 0.05 (sig: 0.002 < 0.05). Therefore,
it can be concluded that the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected and the alternative
hypothesis (Ha) is accepted, indicating a statistically significant difference
between the post-test scores of the experimental class and the control class. The
post-test for the experimental class was conducted after the completion of
learning utilising the STEM methodology, while the control class followed
their usual learning methods. Therefore it can be concluded that there is a
significant impact of the STEM approach on the integrated competence of
scientific literacy in the experimental class. The results of the scientific literacy
level of prospective madrasah teachers in this study were obtained through
questionnaires given to experimental and control classes. The data was used to
determine the scientific literacy test results of madrasah teacher candidates
between the experimental and control classes. In addition, the study
endeavoured to determine the impact of the STEM approach on the scientific
literacy of prospective madrasah teachers from the four Islamic universities in
Bengkulu Province, Indonesia.
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Table 3
Average Scores of the Experimental and Control Groups
Experiment Group Control Group
Pre Test Score (Mean) 57.63 61.70
Post Test Score (Mean) 74.90 77.30
d. Normality Test
The goal of the normality test is to ascertain the presence or absence of the pre-
test and post-test data obtained. The Shapiro-Wilk test was performed using
IBM SPSS 22 in this investigation. The statistical tests conducted on the control
class yielded pre-test results of 0.690 and post-test results of 0.116. In
comparison, the experimental class achieved pre-test results of 0.771 and post-
test results of 0.486. Thus, it may be inferred that both the control and
experimental classes exhibit a normal distribution, as the p-value is greater
than or equal to 0.05.
e. Homogeneity Test
The homogeneity test is employed to demonstrate that many sets of sample
data from the population possess equal variances. The homogeneity test is
conducted on the pre-test and post-test data collected from both the control
class and the experimental class. If the significance value (sig) is greater than
0.05, the data can be considered to be the same. However, if the significance
value is less than 0.05, it indicates that the data is not the same. According to
the statistical analysis conducted using SPSS 27, the homogeneity test yielded
a significance level of 0.429 for the post-test results. Based on these findings, it
can be inferred that the post-test result of 0.429 is greater than 0.05, indicating
homogeneity in the data.
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Table 4
Hypothesis Test
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means
Sig. (2-
F Sig. T Df tailed)
Result of Equal .632 .429 -1.267 78 .000
Scientific variances
Result assumed
Equal -1.267 75.322 .000
variances
not
assumed
Based on the statistical test results, the significance sig. (2-tailed) of 0.00 is
obtained. The significance of 0.00 is smaller than 0.05 (0.00 <0.05). Therefore the
difference in the level of confidence is 5%. This means that Ho is rejected and Ha
is accepted.
5. Discussion
This study aimed to assess the outcomes of a scientific competency test that was
combined with scientific literacy among prospective madrasah teachers.
Additionally, it sought to examine the influence of the STEM approach on the
scientific competence of prospective madrasah teachers, while also integrating
Islamic values-based scientific literacy. The study was conducted in Bengkulu
Province, Indonesia. This study involved the selection of prospective instructors
from four Islamic universities, with each university contributing a sample size of
up to 20 individuals. Moreover, the sample was divided into two categories,
namely the experimental group and the control group. In order to assess the
scientific proficiency of potential madrasah teachers, pre- and post-tests
consisting of multiple choice questions were administered, while a questionnaire
sheet was used to evaluate their scientific literacy. The purpose of administering
this pre-test is to ascertain whether there is a disparity in the initial scientific
competency between the two classes. The post-test is designed to assess the
impact of the STEM approach on scientific competence following the completion
of the learning process. The findings of the independent sample t-test indicate that
the sig. (2-tailed) values are 0.02 for scientific competence and 0.00 for scientific
literacy. Both of these values indicate that the sig. (2-tailed) is greater than 0.05.
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The data analysis reveals that the scientific competence and scientific literacy of
prospective madrasah teachers in the experimental class, who were taught using
the STEM approach, is superior to those in the class taught using a conventional
learning approach. This indicates that the STEM approach is more effective in
enhancing the scientific competence and scientific literacy of prospective
madrasah teachers. The success can be attributed to the alignment of the STEM
method with the criteria of 21st century learning, which include (a) an emphasis
on learner-centered instruction; (b) fostering collaborative work among learners;
and (c) connecting learning materials to real-life challenges. The concept of 21st
century education was developed and advocated by professionals, institutions,
and educational authorities in Indonesia and globally in response to these
concerns and situations (Davidi et al., 2021). The STEM approach is an educational
approach that aligns with the features of 21st century learning (Lestari et al., 2018).
The STEM approach enhances scientific competency and literacy by teaching the
application of real-world concepts, principles, and technology to problem-
solving. STEM education integrates multiple disciplines into a unified learning
approach grounded in real-world applications. STEM literacy encompasses the
acquisition of scientific, technological, engineering, and mathematical knowledge,
which is then used to issue identification and the generation of new information.
The attributes of STEM are regarded as a type of human undertaking,
encompassing design, inquiry, and analytical procedures (Eliana et al., 2021).
Furthermore, STEM is a multidisciplinary strategy that aids aspiring educators in
their learning process. This strategy entails the utilisation of science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics in a cross-school setting to enhance the proficiency
and scientific knowledge of future madrasah instructors (Maulidia et al., 2019).
Moreover, it has the capability to generate novel pedagogical approaches and use
STEM education to address a problem. Additionally, it may assist aspiring
educators in identifying, examining, and resolving difficulties, as well as
comprehending the interconnectedness of various challenges (Oktaviyani et al.,
2020). STEM abilities also cultivate problem-solving skills and foster a scientific
mindset, making STEM integration a constant pursuit of innovation. STEM
approaches play a crucial role in the field of education (Mu'minah & Aripin, 2019).
Overall, the goals and advantages of the STEM learning approach are anticipated
to enhance critical, creative, logical, imaginative, and productive thinking
abilities, as well as fostering a sense of collaborative problem-solving.
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Scientific literacy is crucial for aspiring teachers as it enables them to educate and
mentor their students effectively. Scientific literacy holds significant importance
for potential instructors due to several reasons: Firstly, enhancing scientific
literacy will facilitate a deeper comprehension of scientific concepts, hence
enabling more effective teaching. Instructors have the capacity to instruct their
students on the scientific method, facilitate their comprehension of research
methodologies, and foster their critical thinking skills in relation to scientific
knowledge. Scientific literacy is crucial for cultivating essential critical thinking
abilities, particularly in the field of education. They will also have the ability to
discern bias, and pose pertinent questions. By possessing a strong scientific
literacy, they will be capable of assisting their students in comprehending the
significance of science in their daily lives. They will demonstrate the impact of
research on their lives and dissuade people from making decisions solely on
scientific data. By possessing a strong understanding of scientific concepts and
principles, instructors will be capable of formulating more effective methods for
imparting knowledge. They will further enhance their ability to facilitate access
for their students in a more efficient manner, while also facilitating their
comprehension of scientific topics. Their credibility as an educator will be further
enhanced by cultivating a strong foundation in scientific literacy. They will
possess the capability to furnish precise and current knowledge to their learners,
thereby assisting them in enhancing their comprehension of science.
By integrating Islamic principles with scientific study, students also gain a clear
understanding of the harmonious relationship between Islam and scientific
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6. Conclusion
The research findings indicate a significant disparity in the mean scores between
the pre-test and post-test outcomes in the experimental class. The results indicate
an increase in the competency and scientific literacy of prospective madrasa
instructors in the experimental group. This suggests that the STEM approach has
been demonstrated to have a substantial effect on the scientific competence and
scientific literacy of prospective madrasa teachers. Therefore, the research
hypothesis, which posits that the STEM approach influences the scientific
competence and scientific literacy of prospective madrasa teachers, can be
confirmed. This additionally substantiates the need of scientific literacy for
madrasa professors in an interconnected and progressively intricate world.
Teachers’ possession of strong scientific literacy enables them to comprehend and
value the scientific methodology, hence facilitating the ability to make more
informed decisions grounded in scientific evidence.
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Hamdy A. Abdelaziz
Hamdan Bin Mohamed Smart University; affiliated with Tanta University,
Egypt
Mohamad S. Shaban
United Arab Emirates University,
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
©Authors
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
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1. Introduction
Over the past decade, technological advances have led to a surge in remote or
online education (Abraham, 2014). This learning mode is widely considered a
useful tool that offers flexibility, quality education, and reduced long-term costs.
Despite its benefits, there is limited understanding of how instructors adjust to
online teaching and the support they receive from their institutions in academic,
administrative, technical, and social aspects.
Online education refers to delivering content through online channels, enabling
students to learn independently using digital resources. Instructors provide
teaching modules that enhance learning and interactivity in synchronous or
asynchronous environments (Hodges et al., 2020; Singh & Thurman, 2019). Some
scholars use online distance learning or remote teaching to describe online
education (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). Additionally,
technology-mediated learning, internet-based education, web-based learning,
and virtual learning are frequently employed in academic literature (Mishra et al.,
2021).
However, in the rapidly evolving landscape of online education, the pedagogical
design of virtual classrooms in higher education institutions is of top importance.
However, a lack of pedagogical design skills among instructors hinders the
effective implementation of online learning platforms, reducing learner
motivation and engagement and ultimately failing to achieve desired learning
outcomes (Meylani et al., 2015). To address this issue, there is a need for research
that explores how online virtual classrooms can be re-engineered and developed
based on best practices of pedagogical frameworks to enhance the quality of
online teaching and learning experiences.
This pedagogical design involves systematically planning educational activities
and content to achieve learning objectives and promote proximal growth among
learners. A well-designed virtual classroom can enhance and lead to effective
teaching and learning practices.
Re-engineering the pedagogical design of online virtual classrooms is a key factor
and actor in ensuring effective pedagogical planning and implementation of
online courses in online platforms. Mayes and de Freitas (2004) indicated that the
ideal eLearning model gives considerable attention to online learners'
engagement, gives rapid feedback, encourages reflection through dialogue with
instructors and peers, aligns assessment, and supports creating a community of
learners through discussion and other planned activities. The Community of
Inquiry (CoI) was selected in this research since it emphasizes the social,
pedagogical, and cognitive presences.
The virtual classroom in this research refers to a platform where students can
participate and interact with their instructor and classmates through different
communication tools. This type of virtual classroom provides synchronous
communication options, offering flexible and immersive learning experiences. In
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such a classroom, students and instructors engage in real-time, live sessions and
have access to pre-recorded or live materials and do pre-planned activities. This
approach to virtual education aims to provide the benefits of both live interaction
and flexible learning. Therefore, this approach emphasizes the importance of
social and technological presence to enhance the online learning experience.
Numerous studies have shown that technology adoption and integration into
education largely depend on its perceived benefits. The Technology Acceptance
Model (TAM) posits that the more benefits technology offers, the higher its
perceived value and the likelihood of adoption (Cobo-Rendon et al., 2021;
Kaewsaiha & Chanchalor, 2021; Granic & Marangunic, 2019; Mousa et al., 2020;
Scherer et al. 2019; Tarhini et al., 2017). Therefore, it is essential to identify and
communicate the benefits of technology to educators and learners to increase their
motivation and engagement with technology.
Previous studies such as Martin et al., (2019) and Otter et al. (2013) indicated that
an investigation of the benefits and challenges of Virtual Classrooms users face is
necessary to gain a deeper understanding of the preparation of instructors for
online courses. In addition, the outcomes of this investigation may provide
valuable insights and practical recommendations for higher education institutions
seeking to enhance their online teaching and learning environments using the CoI
framework, ultimately leading to improved learner engagement, motivation, and
achievement of desired learning outcomes. Learner engagement in this context
refers to the interaction and communication with the course instructor, peers, and
presented content. It exhibits active learning and participation by learners during
the class.
2. Research Problem
The Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has led to a significant
increase in the use of online virtual classrooms in higher education institutions
worldwide. However, instructors lack pedagogical planning and design skills,
affecting teaching and learning quality in virtual classrooms (Kibaru, 2018). The
lack of pedagogical design may result in less motivation and engagement of
learners with instructors in virtual classroom sessions, leading to not achieving
the learning outcomes. Therefore, there is a need to reimagine the pedagogical
design of online virtual classrooms in higher education institutions since the
adoption of online learning is there and will continue to expand across higher
education programs and disciplines.
According to Ally (2004), and Boud and Prosser (2002), the ideal pedagogical
practice in eLearning contexts is structured around five key processes: 1)
Engaging learners, 2) Acknowledging the learning context, 3) Challenging
learners, 4) Providing practice, and 5) Giving time and opportunity to reflect. The
skill of planning and designing interactive activities to deliver effective online
education was among the big six training needs for instructors in the United Arab
Emirates (Abdelaziz et al., 2023).
The CoI framework may have a structure to achieve the above five processes.
Therefore, the current research seeks to discover the potential of utilizing the CoI
framework to reimage the pedagogical planning and designing of online virtual
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3. Research Significance
This study seeks to investigate and propose effective strategies for reimagining
the pedagogical planning and designing of online virtual classrooms within a
higher education context. By utilizing the CoI framework as a guiding and
structured framework to support and promote cognitive, social, and teaching
practices, the research aims to support instructors in creating engaging and
interactive virtual classrooms. The CoI framework emphasizes the importance of
three interrelated dimensions: social presence, cognitive presence, and teaching
presence, which collectively contribute to meaningful teaching and learning
experiences. Virtual classrooms have become increasingly prevalent in various
educational settings, yet the approach has not been thoroughly investigated,
especially in the Middle East region.
4. Research Objectives
The main purpose of this research was to explore how online virtual classrooms
in higher education institutions can be designed and delivered based on the CoI
framework. Thus, the study aimed to:
1. Explore how the CoI framework can be applied to reimagine
the pedagogical planning and designing of online virtual classrooms in
higher education institutions.
2. Examine the benefits and challenges of utilizing the CoI framework to
deliver online virtual classrooms in higher education institutions.
5. Research Questions
The research questions:
1. How can the CoI framework be applied to reimagine the pedagogical
planning and designing of online virtual classrooms in higher education
institutions?
2. What are the benefits of utilizing the CoI framework to deliver online
virtual classrooms in higher education institutions?
3. What are the challenges of utilizing the CoI framework to deliver online
virtual classrooms in higher education institutions?
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6. Literature Review
6.1. Online and Virtual Classroom Benefits
Previous research has extensively examined the benefits of incorporating online
learning into higher education (Raspopovic et al., 2017). For instance, a survey
conducted by Learning House, Inc. and Aslanian Market Research in 2016 found
that 86% of 1,500 online graduate students believed that the value of their online
degree was equal to or exceeded the cost (Songkram, 2015; Aparicio et al., 2016).
Furthermore, the Brandon-Hall Group (2018) reported that online courses take
considerably less time to teach than traditional face-to-face instruction.
Additionally, online learning has been shown to offer several other benefits, such
as increased interaction between students and faculty, greater flexibility, the
convenience of learning anytime and anywhere, the potential to reduce anxiety,
and the ability to record video lectures for flipped learning (Singh & Hurley,
2017). Other studies have identified several advantages of online education,
including virtual classrooms, user-friendliness, effective time management, easy-
to-manage course resources, and the ability to generate reports (Al-Handhali et
al., 2020; Bolliger & Wasilik, 2009; Lloyd et al., 2012).
Other well-known and documented benefits of online learning include flexible
degrees, different eContent, and platforms for collaboration learning, deep
skilling through reusable learning objects, promoting lifelong learning
competencies, and gamification to enhance learning during online learning.
Virtual classrooms provide numerous advantages that improve learning
accessibility, flexibility, and safety, especially during health emergencies like the
COVID-19 pandemic. They provide a safe learning environment and enable
remote attendance from any location, removing geographical restrictions. The
opportunity to balance studies with other obligations, interactive technologies
that encourage participation, and self-paced learning that promotes
comprehension and retention are some of the main benefits. Virtual classrooms
(VCs) provide instructors benefits like enhanced digital literacy, pedagogical
abilities, and professional development possibilities (Dung, 2020; Ladia et al.,
2023; Vargas-Murillo et al., 2023). Similarly, learners can go back to materials
including recordings and discussion at their own pace and time.
6.2. Online and Virtual Classroom Challenges
While technology has numerous benefits for education, several obstacles still
prevent its widespread adoption (Almekhlafi & Almeqdadi, 2010; Goundar, 2015;
Neiterman & Zaza, 2019; Pazilah et al., 2019). One primary concern against online
education is the perception that it lacks quality. Virtual classrooms can present
certain challenges for instructors, such as eye strain from prolonged screen time,
trouble with social interaction, technical issues, and digital inequality that can
impair instruction quality and student performance (Arkorful & Abaidoo, 2015;
Hiranrithikorn, 2019; Dung, 2020; Ladia et al., 2023; Vargas-Murillo et al., 2023).
While many educational institutions have equipped their educators with
technology, factors such as time and staff development support can hinder or
facilitate its adoption (Ismail et al., 2010; Kafyulilo et al., 2015). Technology can
also create opportunities for cheating and plagiarism (Boudjadar, 2015). For
example, Pazilah et al., (2019) suggest that technology may limit students' critical
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thinking abilities by providing easy access to answers, which may hamper their
creativity.
Furthermore, research suggests that interaction is essential for students to have
positive learning experiences and become satisfied with their courses (Strandberg
& Campbell, 2014; Singh & Hurley, 2017). However, critics of online education
argue that one of the primary drawbacks of remote online education is the loss of
face-to-face interaction among instructors and students (Cho & Kim, 2013; Kang
& Im, 2013; Strandberg & Campbell, 2014). Many instructors consider the loss of
physical co-presence among students to be one of the significant challenges of
online learning (Fish & Gill, 2009; Fox et al., 2020; Korkmaz et al., 2021; & Zare-ee,
2011; Dung, 2020; Ladia et al., 2023; Vargas-Murillo et al., 2023).
6.3. Instructors' Technology Readiness
Vang et al., (2020) investigated the factors instructors perceived as essential for
success in online teaching. They found that network reliability, creation of online
assignments, grade management, time management, and technical competencies
were highly regarded. Similarly, Aytac (2021) identified network problems and
software and hardware issues as widespread concerns among instructors.
Instructors hesitated to embrace virtual teaching because they lacked basic
technological proficiency.
Many studies have emphasized professional development as a necessary aspect
of enhancing virtual learning environments (Kibaru, 2018; Maatuk et al., 2021).
AbuZayyad-Nuseibeh (2017) conducted an exploratory study that aimed to
investigate the perceptions of instructors toward the process of transitioning from
face-to-face to online instruction. The authors stated that instructors sought
additional technical and instructional design training and requested that this
aspect be a prerequisite to teaching online.
The literature review has established the benefits and challenges of virtual
classrooms as a teaching mode. This study extends the examination by focusing
on the benefits and challenges of virtual classrooms from university instructors'
perspectives in light of the CoI framework utilization.
6.4. CoI Framework
Garrison, Anderson, and Archer introduced the CoI framework in 2000 for online
higher education, highlighting its role in fostering a quality e-learning
environment through integrating social, cognitive, and teaching presence
(Garrison, 2007). The CoI framework is an instructional design model for
eLearning focusing on exploring, constructing meaning, and validating
understanding. It comprises three interdependent dimensions: social presence,
cognitive presence, and teaching presence. Social presence refers to students
feeling connected and engaged with their instructors and peers in an online
learning environment. Teaching presence refers to how the course instructor
shows up and manages the class. Cognitive presence refers to the degree to which
learners can construct and validate meaning through dialogue in a critical
community of inquiry (Garrison et al., 2010).
This research used the CoI framework to create compelling virtual classrooms.
CoI is an approach that facilitates interaction and collaboration among learners
and researchers, encouraging the sharing of ideas, discussions, and solution
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7. Research Methodology
This study aims to re-engineer the pedagogical planning and designing of online
virtual classrooms based on the CoI framework. The study was conducted at UAE
University, which has a well-established technology infrastructure that supports
eLearning.
7.1. Research Approach
To re-engineer the pedagogical planning and designing of online virtual
classrooms to achieve the purpose of this research, the researcher adopted and
implemented the procedures, stages, and steps of the second type of
developmental research. Type 2 developmental research is a generalized
approach focusing on design, development, and evaluation processes. It aims to
produce knowledge resulting in new or enhanced design or development models
Richey, Klein, and Nelson's developmental research (2004). According to Richey
and Klein (2005), the three main stages of this type of research are systematic
design, development, and evaluation. The following addresses each stage and the
steps that are implemented:
First: Systematic design of the online virtual classroom (OVC) based on the CoI
framework
This phase describes the general requirements and structure of the OVC-CoI and
includes the following steps: (1) Review educational research and literature
related to the CoI framework, (2) Review the pedagogical principles of virtual
learning through online classrooms, and (3) Map the CoI stages with pedagogical
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Acknowledgment and
Peer Support and Teaching
Reinforcement
Sustained reflection and
discourse
Communication and Empathy
Figure 1. The suggested pedagogical design and structure of virtual classrooms based
on the CoI framework
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7.2. Participants
The participants were 85 instructors from all colleges of the United Arab Emirates
University.
Table 1: Participants’ Distribution by College
Frequency %
Arts and Humanities 11 12.9
F Education 28 32.9
i Engineering 3 3.5
g Medical and Health Sciences 15 17.6
u Law, Politic, and Sociology 9 10.6
r Business, Economics, and Finance 4 4.7
e Natural & Life Science 11 12.9
4 Other 4 4.7
.
Approximately
A two-thirds (63.5%) were male, while the rest were females. All
instructors
n had experience teaching graduate and undergraduate students (30.6%
teaching
e Bachelor's Degrees, 7.1% teaching Master's Degrees, 41.2% teaching
Ph.D.,
x and 21.2% teaching varied levels). All participants had good experience
with
a teaching online and using virtual classrooms effectively. Approximately 94%
ofmparticipants had two or more years of experience using virtual classrooms (5.9%
p
l
e
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= one year; 30.6% = two years; 30.6% = three years; 41.2% = four years, and 16.5 =
five years). Notably, all participants experienced teaching online courses.
Approximately 70% experienced teaching three or more online courses.
Due to the nature of the study and the importance of instructors having
technology competencies to use the virtual classrooms to teach students
effectively, background data were collected focusing on instructors' technical
skills. Table 2 shows the readiness of instructors to implement virtual classrooms
efficiently from their perspectives.
As seen from the table, instructors were ready to utilize the virtual classrooms for
teaching in an online smart learning environment as they had the competencies
and skills needed for such type of instruction.
Table 2: Instructors’ Technology Competencies and Experiences
Item B I A E
Using learning management systems 2.6 36.8 55.3 5.3
Using system software (e.g., Windows, Androids, and 2.7 31.5 60.3 5.5
iOS)
Using application software (Office application) 4.5 25.4 62.7 7.5
Using email 1.8 14.0 61.4 22.8
Using hardware (microphones, cameras) 1.4 29.0 52.2 17.4
Using hardware (scanners, printers) 1.4 20.3 63.8 14.5
Using web technologies to exchange information with 8.4 20.8 59.7 11.1
others
Using web technologies to exchange files with others 5.6 29.6 54.9 9.9
Collaborating with others in virtual classrooms. 8.3 31.9 52.8 6.9
Using other Internet tools (blogs, social networking, 17.6 39.2 37.8 5.4
and forums).
Note: B = Beginner; I = Intermediate; A = Advanced; E = Expert
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and rephrasing certain items. The questionnaire utilized a 5-point Likert scale
from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).
The questionnaire was piloted on an online technology course that has multiple
sections. Cronbach's alpha was.92, indicating that the questionnaire was highly
reliable.
7.3.2. Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviation, and percentages,
describe the quantitative collected data. In addition, qualitative coding of themes
was conducted based on the responses to open-ended questions, following an
inductive process (Corbin & Strauss, 1990; Saldana, 2015). The following stages
were followed: open coding, axial coding and selective coding to ground the
major patterns and themes addressing concern, benefits or challenges perceived
by the participants to deliver and assess the virtual classrooms in the selected
higher institution.
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● Students' concentration.
Engaging Students Online
● Lack of feeling of belonging to the class
● This may decrease the motivation.
● Stimulating interactive thinking patterns was challenging for students with
special needs and low achievers.
Technical Challenges in Online Learning
● Different excuses due to technology.
● I would say disadvantages (cheating, etc..) may occur.
● Inability to conduct experiments or conduct practical activities.
8.3.2 Challenges of OVC-CoI
Table 9 shows instructors reported a few challenges while implementing virtual
classrooms. Although instructors highlighted technical and student interaction
challenges, these challenges could be overcome by increasing the social, cognitive,
and teaching presence during virtual classrooms. Instructors expressed how
difficult it was not to know the special needs students among the rest of the class.
Adonis (2020) mentioned that instructors suspected that the reduction in
participation was related to a poor internet connection as students struggled to
familiarize themselves with the new learning modality. Another instructor
member stated, "There is a need for designated technical personnel provided by
the institution to help the students." Another challenge was teaching the course's
practical parts in some specific subjects, making conducting experiments or
practical activities challenging.
However, these challenges can be solved or minimized dramatically. Some
solutions could be training instructors to use creative, innovative communication
tools to increase 'students' interactions with content and classmates. Although
attention to the challenges is essential in understanding how to support
instructors who are teaching virtually, possibly the similarly significant result is
that despite itemized challenges, instructors create ways in the virtual setting to
teach to the best of their abilities and always consider the future of their students.
This kind of human consciousness may have been the most seamlessly translated
to the online format, given that many online methods already exist, with
guidelines permitting some instructor path and built-in structure. Instructors
facilitated and provoked 'students' thinking through various methods. These
findings offer hope that a mentality can be shifted away from the belief that
learning and teaching in a virtual setting is "impossible." Instructors were
encouraged to best meet 'students' learning needs by providing the maximum
learning opportunities. With further assistance and coaching, those who may be
designated to teach virtually will be able to do so successfully and surely.
9. Conclusion
In this study, the virtual classroom designed based on the CoI framework was
perceived to be effective for teaching and learning, and the study shows that
virtual classrooms have benefits and challenges, as perceived by instructors. In
addition, virtual classrooms demonstrated the reflection on the quality of
educational outputs and the imparting of skills, experiences, and knowledge. This
was evident in transforming pedagogy from mere brain feeding to creativity,
interaction, and skill development. However, it can be used as the foundation for
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10. Recommendations
Based on the research findings, the following recommendations are made for
higher education institutions and future research:
● Virtual Classrooms should always be used hand in hand with PD training
sessions to guarantee effective use.
● Research should focus on qualitative data collection methods as well.
● The use of virtual classrooms should also be investigated in k-12 schools.
● Stakeholders should develop a set of measures and guidelines to regulate
the use of virtual classrooms in social communications within the
educational system.
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● There is a need for a replication of the study with students. This might
shed some light on the differences between instructors' perceptions
versus students' perceptions of the benefits and challenges of utilizing
virtual classrooms.
11. Limitations
One of the study's limitations is that the results mirror the setting of only a single
nation. Also, although the tool is influential and robust and covers instructors'
populations from different fields of study, it was applied to a sample from a single
higher education organization. In addition, students were not participating in
responding to the questionnaire, therefore, the findings of research is limited to
the instructors and instructors in higher education institutions.
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1. Introduction
In current times, possessing strong English-speaking skills is vital for
communication and negotiation (Adipat, 2023; Jalkute, 2021). Proficient English
speaking not only fosters multicultural relationships and deepens the
understanding of diverse cultures and ethnic groups but also enhances the
individual’s global perception and pride in their own culture (Nur & Riadil, 2019).
Strong English-speaking skills effectively open doors to various occupational
opportunities (Dewi et al., 2016).
Many non-native English speakers (NNES) can neither speak English for
communication nor speak it correctly and efficiently. This issue arises from a lack
of vocabulary, feelings of nervousness, an unsupportive environment, and a lack
of motivation (Amoah & Yeboah, 2021). As a result, these speakers tend to neglect
learning or using English for communication purposes. It is thus plausible that
proficiency in English is often limited to specific professions, with only specific
companies prioritizing English skills. Specifically, those who possess the ability
usually acquire English out of necessity for communication with foreigners.
Consequently, many NNES experience nervousness and fear when confronted
with the need to speak English and often face difficulties with vocabulary. This
leads them to limit their English usage to essential situations, such as in a
classroom setting (Ratnasari, 2020).
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access to learning content, and allowing them to choose when they engage with
different components of the microlearning module (Dolasinski & Reynolds, 2020).
This adaptability is why this learning method takes less time compared to
traditional approaches. Numerous studies have been conducted on the
effectiveness of microlearning, demonstrating its efficiency in the learning and
memorization of knowledge and skills. Microlearning is effective because
knowledge can be reviewed in small pieces daily. This is more beneficial
compared to traditional methods requiring longer review times, often resulting in
limited retention for students. With microlearning, students may select the most
suitable dates and times for self-study by using accessible and widely used
channels, such as flashcards, TikTok, YouTube, podcasts, and Facebook, which
are favored by younger generations presently.
The results of this research will contribute to the existing body of knowledge. This
may allow individuals interested in enhancing their English-speaking skills,
including university lecturers and agencies concerned with learning
management, to employ the findings as a guideline for more efficient English
speaking.
2. Methodology
The meta-analytic procedures conducted (Glass et al., 1981) in this study involved
the following: (1) gathering relevant scholarly sources; (2) categorizing the study
characteristics; and (3) calculating effect sizes for the outcome measures in each
study.
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The study used both a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the
impact of microlearning on university students’ English language proficiency.
The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis
(PRISMA) guideline, a widely acknowledged framework for conducting
systematic reviews and meta-analyses (Hasim et al., 2024; Page et al., 2021;
Vallespin & Prudente, 2024), was employed. The PRISMA flow diagram followed
in this study is presented in Figure 1.
57 studies excluded:
- do not fit definition of
Articles identified in the database by title
Screening
microlearning (n = 9)
and abstract
- no control/comparison
(n = 84) group (n = 14)
- no intervention: wrong
population, or not English-
speaking measures (n = 13)
- no full text available
Full-text articles were assessed for (n = 21)
Eligibility
(n = 10) (n = 2)
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3. Findings
The findings presented in Table 2 are based on the findings of 10 reviewed studies
that implemented a microlearning approach for EFL speaking classes.
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Dang et al. EFL freshmen Video recording Students’ oral The speaking User video recording can be used to improve a student’s
(2022) students (13/13) activities performance section of the speaking skills for the Cambridge B1 Preliminary Test
(18 weeks) Cambridge B1 by allowing them to review their performance, identify
Preliminary Test areas for improvement, and practice speaking tasks
(PET) repeatedly to enhance fluency and accuracy.
Pre-test: EG 5.20 ± 0.46; CG 5.15 ± 0.52
Post-test: EG 7.72 ± 1.09; CG 6.62 ± 0.85
Gao et al. Meetings, TikTok Oral proficiency Oral proficiency The use of TikTok in language learning positively
(2023) incentive travel, (12 weeks) test impacted the motivation and oral proficiency of MICE
conferences, and learners compared to those who only used traditional
exhibitions teaching methods. TikTok promoted students’
(MICE) learners motivation, created an engaging learning environment,
(30/30) and encouraged the development of skills such as
creativity and curiosity, leading to improved language
skills in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
Pre-test: EG 78.23 ± 6.89; CG 76.37 ± 8.77
Post-test: EG 89.47 ± 10.75; CG 56.20 ± 16.20
Hamad EFL students YouTubes and Speaking skills Speaking tests Utilizing the YATI technique enhances the speaking
et al. (2019) (24/24) audio tracks skills, fluency, and pronunciation of EFL learners.
imitation (YATI) Pre-test: −
(6 weeks) Post-test: EG 8.17 ± 1.10; CG 7.33 ± 1.51
©Authors
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Hanafiah Indonesian EFL Computer- Speaking skills Speaking test The experimental group surpassed the control group in
et al. (2022) students (30/30) assisted and Hughes’ the speaking post-test.
language speaking Pre-test: EG 14.30 ± 1.68; CG 14.16 ± 1.78
learning (CALL) checklist Post-test: EG 15.13 ± 2.08; CG 18.43 ± 1.71
(17 weeks)
Karpovich First year Monologue Speaking skills Monologue The experimental group participants outperformed
et al. (2021) students speaking tasks speaking tasks those in the control group in the speaking post-test.
(137/137) evaluation form Pre-test: −
Post-test: EG 2.00 ± 0.26; CG 1.5 ± 0.37
Laksanasut Students (41/40) Learning English- English- The speaking skills of the experimental group in the
(2022) activities with speaking skills speaking scoring post-test were significantly superior to those of the
TikTok rubric control group at a statistical significance level of .01.
(14 weeks) Pre-test: −
Post-test: EG 17.51 ± 2.02; CG 14.11 ± 3.20
Nur Aziz Foreign language TikTok Fluency of Fluency test Incorporating the TikTok application into teaching
and learners (EFL) students’ speaking can foster enhanced fluency in elementary
Sabella (20/20) speaking ability school students’ speaking abilities.
(2021) Pre-test: EG 79.00 ± 12.52; CG 84.50 ± 13.95
Post-test: EG 108.00 ± 8.34; CG 85.00 ± 11.47
Menggo EFL learners Video-assisted Speaking ability The speaking The participants in the experimental group
et al. (2022) (28/28) learning tasks scoring rubric outperformed those in the control group in the speaking
post-test.
Pre-test: EG 62.85 ± 4.60; CG 62.15 ± 4.56
Post-test: EG 80.29 ± 7.92; CG 67.57 ± 10.46
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Opas Non-English TikTok video English- English- Integrating TikTok as a supplementary tool in English
(2023) major students lessons for the speaking skills speaking test instruction has shown significant potential to enhance
(21/21) English for Work the listening and speaking proficiency of EFL learners.
Course Pre-test: EG 16.29 ± 3.12; CG 16.81 ± 3.60
(15 weeks) Post-test: EG 42.50 ± 5.19; CG 35.62 ± 4.23
Qisthi and EFL students The application Speaking skill Speaking skill There were notable discrepancies in speaking scores
Arifani (28/28) of project-based test between students instructed through project-based
(2018) learning via learning using Instagram and those undergoing
Instagram traditional teaching.
(4 weeks) Pre-test: EG 80.07 ± 3.29; CG 78.64 ± 2.96
Post-test: EG 82.68 ± 3.74; CG 79.61 ± 3.58
Note: EG = experimental group; CG = control group
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International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
536
The funnel plot representing the ten reports on overall English-speaking analysis
is presented in Figure 3. The symmetrical shape of the funnel plot suggests no
significant bias in the main analysis (p > .05).
The black dots represent the studies from the study sample, positioned based on
their estimated effect size and standard error.
Table 4: The effects of microlearning on teaching and learning as per reviewed studies
No Publication Findings
1 Dang et al. Both the control and experimental groups showed
(2022) enhancements in post-tests, with the experimental group
exhibiting superior performance in grammar, vocabulary,
fluency, pronunciation, and interactive communication.
Statistical analysis verified a notable disparity between pre-test
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No Publication Findings
and post-test scores. Employing video recordings for speaking
assignments emerged as a holistic enhancement approach.
Survey data indicate positive student perceptions and
effectiveness in enhancing speaking performance. Nevertheless,
constraints such as the quasi-experimental structure and limited
sample size imply that the results might not be widely
applicable. Future research recommendations encompass a true
experimental design with a larger sample and exploration of
microlearning through video integration with tools such as
Flipgrid or Padlet for easier submission of video assignments.
2 Gao et al. The study investigated the effectiveness of integrating TikTok
(2023) as a video aid in the education of meetings, incentive travel,
conferences, and exhibitions (MICE) learners. Sixty participants
were evenly split into control and experimental groups. The
experimental group received instruction via TikTok, whereas
the control group was instructed via traditional teaching
methods. Both groups underwent pre- and post-tests. Survey
outcomes reveal that MICE learners exposed to TikTok
experienced significantly increased learning motivation and
oral proficiency compared to those taught through conventional
methods. The research proposed integrating TikTok as a video
tool in MICE education to boost both learning motivation and
oral proficiency among learners in this domain.
3 Hamad et al. The challenge of formally teaching speaking skills advocates for
(2019) an immersive environment. Using microlearning, the YouTubes
and audio tracks imitation (YATI) method employed
smartphones and applications for enhancing speaking skills in
tech-savvy 16- to 20-year-olds. Despite initial slowness, YATI
promoted confidence, intonation, and fluency. Results aligned
with the positive impact of technology on language learning,
particularly in listening comprehension. YATI fostered talent
discovery and competition, being a successful microlearning
tool for aural and oral proficiency in EFL learners. The study
recommended incorporating YATI into curriculum design for
optimal learning outcomes.
4 Hanafiah et al. The study investigated the positive impact of integrating
(2022) microlearning into online education in computer-assisted
language learning (CALL) on Indonesian EFL students. This
approach enhanced students’ vocabulary and speaking skills
and reduced anxiety. Microlearning, facilitated by online
instruction, provided flexibility and diverse tasks, contributing
to improved language competencies. Despite challenges, such
as limited Internet access, the study suggested a blended
approach of online and face-to-face instruction in Indonesia.
The findings highlight the benefits of microlearning, namely
enabling flexible study schedules and reducing stress through
engaging online activities. Improved communication between
instructors and learners was also emphasized, fostering
individualized education. The study encouraged English
teachers to incorporate microlearning through technology-
based methods for enhanced educational outcomes.
Acknowledging limitations, such as small sample size, the
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No Publication Findings
study recommended that future research explore the broader
impacts of microlearning on different language skills and
contexts.
5 Karpovich The study addressed the need for adaptation during students’
et al. (2021) transition to advanced education, emphasizing self-
organization and the formation of universal competencies.
Specifically focusing on EFL instruction, the research examined
the use of microlearning-oriented monologue speaking tasks,
which presented challenges for first year students. To address
these challenges, microlearning instructions, including peer
assessment and additional guidance, were implemented. The
results show an improvement in the English-speaking skills of
first year students, highlighting the significance of
microlearning through preventive measures such as peer
interaction and assessment in enhancing the performance of
specific activities. In conclusion, the study suggested that
integrating microlearning-oriented speaking tasks with peer
interaction and assessment positively impacted the English-
speaking skills of undergraduate students.
6 Laksanasut In this study, TikTok was a valuable tool for ELT, specifically
(2022) for English for occupational purposes (EOP) among Thai high
school students, aiming to enhance their speaking skills. This
approach facilitated the development of EFL students’ speaking
proficiency and contributed to creating a lively learning
environment. Students not only improved their language
competencies, including fluency and pronunciation, but also
strengthened their content-based knowledge. The use of TikTok
allowed for the exploration of social non-verbal communication
and encouraged creative experimentation. Despite its potential,
the implementation of TikTok into the course curriculum was
limited. It is crucial for EFL teachers to carefully consider the
most appropriate approach for students.
7 Menggo et al. The video-based task technique significantly enhanced
(2022) vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency, grammar, and
comprehension in students’ speaking ability. The class using
this technique exhibited greater improvements compared to the
non-video-based task group. Furthermore, the video-based task
approach fostered learning flexibility, self-evaluation, and ICT
capabilities among students. This research suggested that EFL
teachers, particularly speaking instructors, should incorporate
video-based tasks into their teaching methods. The findings
emphasize the efficacy of this technique in enhancing speaking
skills and its positive impact on students’ learning approaches.
8 Nur Aziz and According to student feedback, when used effectively, the
Sabella (2021) Seesaw application had a beneficial effect on their proficiency in
technology use during speaking classes. Recognizing lecturers
as key influencers in this digital realm, students appreciated
how technology, particularly Seesaw, brought the real world
into language learning. This method not only teaches a new
language but also introduces cultural elements, enhancing
motivation and activity. While some students preferred a
traditional learning atmosphere, teachers were advised to use
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No Publication Findings
technology carefully, tailoring activities to students’ age,
language level, interests, and needs. Teachers played a crucial
role in guiding students and parents to appropriate websites.
Future research should explore the application of Seesaw in
teaching various language skills and genres, encouraging
methodologies such as classroom action research.
9 Opas (2023) This research laid the foundation for validation and referencing
in relevant research to promote English listening and speaking
for EFL learners and encouraged educators to integrate TikTok
for enhanced student engagement and performance. The
research underscored the effectiveness of TikTok as a
supplementary tool for language teaching, aligning with
existing research highlighting its positive impact on language
proficiency. Student feedback revealed favorable attitudes
toward TikTok, with students enjoying lessons and duet videos.
While acknowledging the benefits, some limitations and
negative opinions surfaced. Overall, TikTok proved valuable in
enhancing English skills, emphasizing its role as supplementary
material, though with considerations for potential drawbacks.
This paper suggests that future research explore integrating
TikTok into course syllabi for diverse EFL learner groups.
10 Qisthi and This research discovered that Instagram had a noteworthy
Arifani (2018) influence on EFL classroom instruction, particularly focusing on
its efficacy in enhancing speaking abilities through project-
based learning. Participants were assigned to create short
dramas portraying telephone conversations, which were
subsequently shared on Instagram. Utilizing a quasi-
experimental design and non-parametric tests for data
evaluation, the findings illustrate a substantial enhancement in
speaking skills, rising from 1.22% in the control group to 3.25%
in the experimental group. The study concluded by advocating
for further exploration of integrating mobile applications such
as Instagram into the EFL curriculum, given the promising
outcomes.
Taking a closer look at the findings, this report reveals four foci. First, across the
selected studies, the use of microlearning has shown a positive impact on post-
test scores in terms of speaking ability (Dang et al., 2022; Gao et al., 2023; Qisthi &
Arifani, 2018). The use of various innovative tools through the lens of
microlearning, namely video recordings, gamification, technology
implementation, and social media platforms, consistently allowed for
participants’ improvement in grammar, vocabulary, fluency, pronunciation, and
interactive communication. This finding suggests a promising avenue for English
language teachers and learners seeking comprehensive approaches to address the
multifaceted nature of speaking proficiency. In other words, integrating video-
based tasks and social media platforms for teaching methods through the
microlearning approach may significantly contribute to a more comprehensive
and effective approach to enhancing speaking skills.
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540
Second, some studies have further highlighted how the use of short video content
can shed light on innovative teaching strategies (Gao et al., 2023; Hamad et al.,
2019; Menggo et al., 2022; Opas, 2023). Gao et al. (2023) and Qisthi and Arifani
(2018) found that learners exposed to short-form videos on TikTok or engaged in
project-based learning through the Instagram platform displayed heightened
motivation and oral proficiency compared to those in control groups. These
findings underscore the potential of incorporating social media into ELT to
stimulate EFL student engagement and improve speaking proficiency. Similarly,
as discussed by Nur Aziz and Sabella (2021), the use of mobile applications such
as Seesaw has also emerged as a potential for future success. The positive impact
of Seesaw on tech-savvy students in speaking classes indicates the potential of
technology to bring real-world elements into language learning. However, it is
worth noting that instructors should tailor these methods to the specific needs and
preferences of their students as some students might still prefer a more traditional
teaching and learning approach (Nur Aziz & Sabella, 2021).
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interconnected digital era, ensuring that the curriculum remains relevant and
impactful.
5. Conclusion
The reviewed studies have provided compelling evidence for the effectiveness of
innovative approaches in enhancing speaking skills in EFL education. The
synthesis of these studies underscores the dynamic landscape of innovative
approaches to enhance speaking skills among EFL students. The findings suggest
that a diversified, technology-integrated approach holds promise for language
instructors seeking to enrich their pedagogical practices. Video-based tasks,
microlearning, social media platforms, and mobile applications offer promising
avenues for language instructors to enrich teaching methodologies and enhance
students’ speaking proficiency in many aspects. More importantly, the positive
outcomes observed across these studies not only contribute to the ongoing
discourse on effective language instruction. They also emphasize the need for
continuous exploration and adaptation to meet EFL students’ evolving needs in
the digital age.
5.1 Limitations
It should be noted that the microlearning method is not without limitations. It is
essential to acknowledge these limitations found in existing research. Three
obvious limitations of previous studies are the limited capacity of microlearning,
the small sample sizes, and the preferred traditional approach of English language
teachers and learners.
The first limitation is that microlearning has a limited capacity and is more
appropriate for less complex materials (Fitria, 2022). In this regard, EFL teachers
must deliberately provide suitable approaches and tools for specific groups of
students. Next, regarding small sample size (Hanafiah et al., 2022; Karpovich
et al., 2021; Qisthi & Arifani, 2018), although experimental and control groups
have been studied in prior research, the number of participants is limited with
respect to the large number of EFL students across all regions. Furthermore, some
learners have not yet been willing to use technology and microlearning as an
alternative approach to English language learning (Nur Aziz & Sabella, 2021;
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542
However, despite these constraints, the consistent positive trends observed in the
improvement of speaking skills across different methodologies underscore the
potential of these innovative approaches in EFL education. It is therefore perhaps
sufficient for future research to take these challenges into consideration before
choosing the most suitable teaching method that meets students’ needs and
preferences.
Second, we suggest that future research take the aspect “know your students” into
consideration. The data analysis of the selected studies has found that some EFL
learners and teachers were not pleased with the use or effectiveness of
microlearning due to its innovative approach (Menggo et al., 2022). Some findings
have revealed that learning new information in small chunks at a time through
digital devices and social media platforms, such as mobile phones and TikTok, is
not a suitable approach for ELT. This paper, on the contrary, asserts that it is
perhaps most important to understand the students’ needs and interests. The
positive outcomes from these studies suggest that a diversified instructional
strategy can cater to a broader range of learner preferences and styles (Nur Aziz
& Sabella, 2021). Accordingly, this paper assists teachers who are encouraged to
conduct student needs analysis and explore a blended approach, combining
traditional teaching methods with innovative approaches appropriate for specific
groups of learners.
Third, we suggest that future studies conduct research with the careful use of
technology. Previous studies have suggested incorporating videos, social media,
and technology into ELT to improve English-speaking skills, together with
English for specific purposes (ESP). Building on Dang et al.’s (2022)
recommendations, future research could explore the integration of microlearning
through alternative tools. Investigating different platforms and their impacts on
speaking skills may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the
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543
potential of microlearning in EFL education. This paper argues that this approach
may enhance learning motivation and oral proficiency among EFL learners.
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