Chemistry LO2

Directed by: SSC TEAM

1|Page
Let’s have a brief look at the history of chemistry before we start looking
closer.

History of chemistry
What may in the world concern an ancient Greek
philosopher and a 19th century Quaker and a noble prize
winning scientists, although they are separated over
2400 years of history?
Each of them contributed in asking an eternal question,
what is matter made of?
Chemistry has been important since ancient times. The Greeks were the first
to try to explain why chemical changes occur, by about 440 B.C.
Democritus of Abdera, a Greek scientist and philosopher, and Leucippus.
They asked themselves whether the matter is continuous so we can divide it
infinitely, or is it composed of indivisible particles. They both unlike the
others supported the fact that all matter is made of small and indivisible
particles. They most likely built their theory upon the work of past
philosophers. They used the term “atomos” (which later became known as
“atom”) to describe those ultimate and indivisible particles.
Democritus' explanation of the atom begins with a stone. A stone cut in half
gives two halves of the same stone. If the stone were to be continuously cut, at
some point there would exist a piece of the stone small enough that it could no
longer be cut. An indivisible particle surrounded by empty space and they
vary in shape and size according to the substance they are made of. So, he
actually thought iron was made of iron particles, clay was made of clay
particles and ETC…

2|Page
His explanation included the ideas that atoms exist separately from each
other, that there is an infinite amount of atoms, that atoms are able to move,
that they can combine together to create matter but do not merge to become a
new atom, and that they cannot be divided.
But he was opposed by the most famous philosophers then, they assumed that
all the matter consists of four elementary substances: fire, water, air and
earth. Duhhh!!
The next 2000 years in the history of chemistry were dominated by
pseudoscience called alchemy. Alchemists discovered several elements and
learned to prepare mineral acids.
The foundations of chemistry were laid in the sixteenth century with the
development of systematic metallurgy (extraction of metals from ores).
The first “chemist” to perform truly quantitative experiments was Robert
Boyle (1627–1691), who carefully measured the relationship between the
pressure and volume of air. the quantitative sciences of physics and chemistry
were born after he published his book. In addition, Boyle’s other major
contribution to chemistry consisted of his ideas about the chemical elements.
In his view, a substance was an element unless it could be broken down into
two or more simpler substances. As Boyle’s experimental definition of an
element became generally accepted, the list of known elements began to grow,
and the Greek system of four elements finally died.
The phenomenon of combustion was studied extensively in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. the gases carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, and
oxygen had been discovered. The German chemist Georg Stahl (1660–1734)
suggested that a substance he called “phlogiston” was stored inside all the
matter. Stahl postulated that a substance burning in a closed container
eventually stopped burning because the air in the container became saturated
with phlogiston. And his theory was accepted by others. Until,…..
Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), a French chemist finally explained the true
nature of combustion, thus clearing the way for the tremendous progress that
was made near the end of the eighteenth century. Lavoisier, like Boyle,
regarded measurement as the essential operation of chemistry. Lavoisier’s
quantitative experiments showed that combustion involved oxygen, how?

3|Page
According the “phlogiston” theory. The mass of the matter after combustion
should decrease as the phlogiston will be react with the oxygen leaving the
matter itself. He proved wrong as he carefully weighed the reactants and
products of various reactions, and suggested that mass is neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction (law of conservation of mass). So the mass
didn’t decrease which proved the “phlogiston” theory wrong.

Frenchman, Joseph Proust a chemist and one of scientist who followed

Lavoisier’s lead showed that a given compound always contains exactly the
same proportion of elements by mass (law of definite proportion).
Proust’s discovery stimulated John Dalton, an English schoolteacher to think
about atoms as the particles that might compose elements. Dalton was the first
to notice that compounds are collection of atoms. He reasoned that if elements
were composed of tiny individual particles, a given compound should always
contain the same combination of these atoms. This concept explained why the
same relative masses of elements were always found in a given compound. But
Dalton discovered another principle that convinced him even more of the
existence of atoms. When two elements form a series of compounds the ratios
of the masses of the
second element that combine with 1 g of the first element can always be
reduced to small whole numbers (law of multiple proportion).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Atomic models
In addition, He (Dalton) put his own atomic theory. Which is known as
Dalton’s atomic theory:
1.Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
2. The atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
While the atoms of different elements differs.
3.Chemical compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine
with each other. A given compound always has the same relative numbers and
types of atoms. For example, water is always H2O (it always consist of
hydrogen and oxygen “type pf the atoms” and their ratio is 2:1 “relative
numbers”), and that atoms compound In a ratio of small whole number (that

4|Page
we don’t find an atom for example 0,5HO)
4. Atoms are indivisible particles which cannot be created, destroyed nor
changed in a chemical reaction. Chemical reaction involves reorganization of
the atoms (change in the way they are bonded together)

But Dalton also made a wrong assumption about many chemical formulas as
he thought nature should be a simple a possible. For example, he thought that
the water formula is HO. He also prepared the first table of atomic masses but
many of the masses were later proved to be wrong because of Dalton’s
incorrect assumptions, but the construction of a table of masses was an
important step forward. And also let’s not forget that he noted in his atomic
model that atom was indivisible like a solid ball, that’s why his atomic model
needed… to be changed.
Dalton’s atomic model

After Dalton’s atomic model, scientists discovered that the atom exist of even
more smaller particles (electrons and protons) but the question was how were
they arranged inside the atom? That’s what lead scientist to make “new”
atomic models.
Thomson, the British physicist who discovered the electron in 1897, proved
that atoms can be divided. He was able to determine the existence of electrons
by studying the properties of electric discharge in cathode-ray tubes. In 1899,
Thomson published a description of his version of the atom, commonly known
5|Page
as the "plum pudding model". Thomson's model of the atom included a large
number of electrons distributed randomly in something that produced a
positive charge giving the atom an overall neutral charge. He showed the atom
as a uniformly packed sphere of positive matter filled with negative charged
electrons. His model was and is still called plum pudding, a popular British
dessert that had raisins (represent electrons) in a round cake-like ball (the
positive charged matrix).
-although it wasn’t proofed that there is really positive charge substance in
the atom but this theory was accepted by other scientists which built their
theories on it. Until the discovery of protons.

The next scientist to further modify and advance the atomic model was
Rutherford, who studied under Thomson. In 1911, Rutherford published his
version of the atom, which included a positively charged nucleus (which he
discovered by using an extremely thin sheet gold foil and a screen coated with
zinc sulfide) orbited by electrons. The scientists noticed that a small
percentage of the alpha particles were scattered at very large angles to the
original direction of motion while the majority passed right through hardly
disturbed. Which disapproves with Thomson’s theory as it was thought that
all the particles should pass without any kind of deflection. He concluded that
the atom consists of mostly empty space with few electrons and a positively
charged nucleus which have almost all the atom’s mass. So as most of the
alpha particles passed through the empty space. Some of them rebelled with

6|Page
the nucleus which made them bounce back. It is known as Rutherford’s
atomic model or the nuclear model.

After discovering nucleus contained protons and electrons, Rutherford’s

atomic model was updated. However,
Niels Bohr, another one of Thomson’s students built upon Rutherford's model
to include properties of electrons based on the hydrogen spectrum.
Bohr knew that a particle in motion tends to move in a straight line and can
be made to travel in a circle only by application of a force toward the center of
the circle. Thus Bohr reasoned that the tendency of the revolving electron
to fly off the atom must be just balanced by its attraction for the positively
charged nucleus. But classical physics also decreed that a charged particle
under acceleration should radiate energy. Since an electron revolving around
the nucleus constantly changes its direction, it is constantly accelerating.
Therefore, the electron should emit light and lose energy and be drawn into
the nucleus. Bohr’s model gave hydrogen atom energy levels consistent with
the hydrogen emission spectrum.
He stipulated that electrons orbited the nucleus at fixed energy level and
distances. Able to jump from one level to another, but never exist in the space

7|Page
in between. Bohr’s atomic model is the most familiar atomic model. It is
known as Bohr’s atomic model or planetary model.

At first Bohr’s model appeared to be very promising. The energy levels

calculated by Bohr closely agreed with the values obtained from the hydrogen
emission spectrum. However, when Bohr’s model was applied to atoms other
than hydrogen, it did not work at all. So,
Three physicists Werner Heisenberg, Louis de Broglie and Erwin
Schrödinger. They developed became known as wave mechanics or, more
commonly, quantum mechanics. As we have already seen, de Broglie
originated the idea that the electron, previously considered to be a particle,
also shows wave properties. To Schrödinger and de Broglie, the electron
bound to the nucleus seemed similar to a standing wave. Erwin Schrödinger
developed the quantum model of the atom or also known as the electron cloud
model. As further experiments have shown that rather than simply revolving
in orbits, electrons behaved like waves. Not being confined with a particular
point in space. So, The electron in the hydrogen 1s orbital is not moving
around the nucleus in a circular orbit. How, then, is the electron moving? The

8|Page
answer is quite surprising: We do not know. So is the theory wrong? Not
necessarily. We have to take in consideration what Werner Heisenberg stated,
that There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we can know both
the position and momentum of a particle at a given time.
So till now we only know that the electron is not pinpointed but exist within
the range of possible locations.

History of the atomic models

9|Page
FINALLY, now we have taken a “brief” look to history of chemistry
we can finally talk about our actual concepts and see what we really
need and separate the ideas and being more detailed. And even add
some more information.
-------------------------------------------------------------

The Atom
The atom was one thought to be the smallest particle and that it is indivisible.
Which was later proved to be wrong.
As we said before that the word atom come from the word “atomos” from the
Greeks which means indivisible.
An atom isn’t a solid ball, it consists of smaller elements which are, Protons
and neutrons which are located in the nucleus at the center of the atom and
electrons which revolve around the nucleus in orbits. But this is not the whole
truth protons and neutrons also consist from a smaller substance which is
called quarks.
Protons and neutrons are much heavier than the electrons, thus
approximately all of the atom mass resides in its nucleus.

Quarks
Quarks were purposed by the physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George
Zweig in 1964, but there was small evidence for their existence. Until, the deep
inelastic scattering experience at the standard linear accelerator center in
1986.
Quarks beside the electron are the actual building blocks which build up
matter.
There are 6 flavors of quarks, but there are 12 type of them because every
flavor has one which is the same as it but with opposite charge, it even has the
same name “anti-quarks”. Quarks can successfully account for all known
mesons and baryons. Quarks are only observed to exist in combinations
10 | P a g e
whether it consist of two quarks (mesons), three quarks (baryons) or five
quarks (pentaquarks).
Mesons: are mass particles which are made up of a quark-antiquark pair.
Baryons: are three quark combinations, the most familiar baryons are the
protons and neutrons.
quark symbol spin charge
Up U 1/2 +2/3
Down D 1/2 -1/2
Charm C 1/2 +2/3
Strange S 1/2 -1/2
Top T 1/2 +2/3
bottom B 1/2 -1/2
Each of the six flavors can have 3 different colors.
Let’s not mention their masses because we cannot isolate them to measure
their masses directly.

-Atoms were created after the big bang 13.7 billion years ago. As the hot and
dense new universe finally cooled, conditions became suitable for the quarks
and electrons to form. Quarks came together making protons and neutrons
and these particles combined to form the nucleus. All of this happen in the
first few minutes of the universe existence. It took about 380,000 years for the
universe to cool enough to slow down the electrons so the nucleus could be
able to capture it forming the first atoms.
the earliest atoms were hydrogen and helium. Which are still the most
abundant type of atoms in the universe. And the gravity caused cloud gases to
merge and form stars. Heavier atoms were and are still formed within the
stars and sent throughout the universe when the star explodes (supernova).
-Atoms have an overall neutral charge because: neutrons have neutral charge,
while protons have a positive charge equal in magnitude to the negative
charge of the electron.
---------------------------------------------------------------------

11 | P a g e
 Nucleus
The nucleus was discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford, a physicist from
New Zealand.

It is located in the center of the atom with a diameter of about 10^-13 cm. It
contains positive protons and neutral neutrons (protons and neutrons are also
known as nucleons), which gives the nucleus and overall positive charge. they
are approximately the same mass (the proton is slightly less) and have the
same angular momentum, or spin.

The nucleus has small size compared with the overall size of the atom but it is
extremely high density, it accounts for almost all the atom’s mass. The nuclear
force is a natural force that holds protons and neutrons together. This force
keeps the subatomic particles nice and tight.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Working out the numbers of protons and neutrons,

No of protons = ATOMIC NUMBER of the atom, then we can say that the
number of protons is referred to as atomic number.

The atomic number is also given the more descriptive name of proton number.

No of protons + no of neutrons = ATOMIC MASS NUMBER of the

atom
The atomic mass number is basically the relative mass of the atom, because 1
proton have a mass of 1 AMU and 1 neutron have a mass of 1 AMU. The sum
of them will give the atomic mass number (AMU) of the atom.
The atomic mass number is also called the nucleon number.

12 | P a g e
Atoms usually have the same number of protons and electrons.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The relative charge of the protons, electrons and neutrons depends on the ratio
of each within the atom. In addition, …
Gram is not an appropriate unit for the calculation of such tiny subatomic
particles. So we use AMU (atomic mass unit), AMU is defined as precisely 1/12
the mass of an atom of carbon-12. The carbon-12 (C-12) atom has six protons
and six neutrons in its nucleus. Furthermore, protons and neutrons have a mass
that is nearly 1 AMU. So…

Relative mass Relative charge

Proton 1 AMU +1
Neutron 1 AMU 0
Electron 1/1836 AMU -1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Atomic structure
the atom is consisting of three main particles which are:

1.Protons
Protons are positively charged particles found within atomic nuclei. Rutherford had
also discovered them in experiments with cathode-ray tubes (we will talk about
this experiment later).

That were conducted between 1911 and 1919. Protons are about 99.86% as
massive as neutrons. Each element has a unique number of protons.

13 | P a g e
Elements are arranged in the periodic table according the increase of the atomic
number (number of protons).

A proton consists of fundamental particles called quarks and gluons. Gluons are
massless and they carry the strong nuclear force between quarks which held them
together. It consists of two up quarks and one down.

Absolute charge of proton: the positive charge 1.6x10^-19 coulomb.

The mass of a proton: 1.6×10 -24 g and is considered “1” AMU that is mass of a
hydrogen atom.

2.neutron
The existence of the neutron was theorized by Rutherford in 1920, but it was
discovered by Chadwick in 1932.

They were found during experiments when atoms were shot at a tiny sheet of
beryllium.

Neutrons are subatomic particles with no charge which can be found inside the
nucleus, (except for hydrogen).

Neutron helps in keeping the protons together in the nucleus without repelling.

neutron's mass is slightly larger than that of a proton.

Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks.

The mass of a neutron: 1.6×10 -24 g and is considered “1” AMU that is mass of a
hydrogen atom.

3.electrons
14 | P a g e
Electrons are tiny compared to protons and neutrons, over 1,800 times smaller than
either a proton or a neutron. Electrons are about 0.054% as massive as neutrons.

Joseph John (J.J.) Thomson, a British physicist, discovered the electron in 1897.
Originally known as "corpuscles".

Electrons have a negative charge and are electrically attracted to the positively
charged protons. Electrons surround the atomic nucleus in pathways called
orbitals. By Erwin Schrödinger model “quantum model” or the “electron cloud
model”.

An atom's electronic configuration refers to the locations of the electrons in a

typical atom. Using the electronic configuration and principles of physics, chemists
can predict an atom's properties, such as stability, boiling point and conductivity.

The absolute charge of an electron: negative charge of 1.6×10-19 coulombs.

The relative mass of an electron: 1/1836. Furthermore, the mass of an electron is 0.

Electrons that move around the nucleus at an average distance of about 10^-8 CM
from it.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
An important question to consider at this point is, “If all atoms are composed
of these same components, why do different atoms have different chemical
properties?
The answer to this question lies in the number and the arrangement of the
electrons. The electrons constitute most of the atomic volume and thus are the
parts that intermingle when atoms combine to form molecules. Therefore, the
number and the arrangement of electrons possessed by a given atom greatly
affects its ability to interact with other atoms. As a result, the atoms of
different elements, which have different numbers of protons and electrons,
show different chemical behavior.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

15 | P a g e
 SOME EXPIRMENTS THAT SHOWS HOW THE
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES WERE DISCOVERED
----------------------------------------------------------------------
To understand some of the cathode-ray experiments,
we have to know the...
The behavior of protons, neutrons and electrons in electric fields:

What happens if a beam of each of these particles is passed between two

electrically charged plates - one positive and one negative? Opposites will attract.

Protons are positively charged and so would be deflected on a curving path

towards the negative plate.

Electrons are negatively charged and so would be deflected on a curving path

towards the positive plate.

Neutrons don't have a charge, and so would continue on in a straight line.

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Electrons discovery by J.J. Thomson in 1897
Thomson studied electrical discharges in partially evacuated tubes called cathode
rays’ tube (CRT) to discover electrons. What happened that rays from the cathode
(negative charge) were attracted to the anode (positive charge). So he was curious
what is this rays made of. So he asked a question, does this ray has a charge? He
put two metal plates one positive and the other one is negative each one at different
pole. The cathode rays bended towards the positive plate. He concluded that the
cathode rays are mode of substance with negatively charged. He then measured
this ray carefully, which gave him another important piece of information. That the
particles that make up the cathode ray are 1000 times smaller than the hydrogen
atoms (which are the smallest atoms). He used a variety of different type of metals
the data was constant. Then he concluded that cathode rays weren’t actually

16 | P a g e
“rays”. they are very tiny particles which exist in the atom, they have a negative
charge. Which he called “corpuscles”, we call “electrons”.

Nucleus discovery by Ernest Rutherford in 1911

He made his discovery using a piece of gold foil surrounded by a
detecting screen which flashes when it gets hit. He shot alpha particles
(tiny positive charged particles much smaller than an atom, we will talk
about in detail later) toward the gold foil. He wanted to determine what
happen to the alpha particles after they hit the gold foil. Most of the
flashes were directly behind the gold foil which indicates that the
particles penetrated right through the gold foil. But and although it
occurred with a small percentage, the flashes were deflected and
sometime at large angles. Which means that the alpha particles hit the
gold foil and rebound.

17 | P a g e
Which wasn’t expected because if the plum-budding theory was correct
the particles should have passed through the gold foil without any
disturbance, because he thought the positive charged matrix was so light
that the alpha particles would just penetrate it. So he concluded that the
atom consists of mostly empty space within this space there are some
electrons, and that the entire positive charge of the atom must be
concentrated in a small and a dense area he called the “nucleus”. And
this make sense because the alpha particles passed right through the
empty space which is the most, but sometimes they rebound because
they rebelled with the nucleus which is small so the percentage of the
particles hitting it is low.

18 | P a g e
 Protons discovery by Ernest Rutherford in 1920

Neutrons discovery by James Chadwick in 1932

At 1910’s and 1980’s, scientists had some clues that made them think that
something like the “neutrons” might exist. Some of them thought that all of these
protons in the nucleus which are positively charged, why don’t they repel and
explode the nucleus. They thought that they must be something else inside the
nucleus which helps keeping the protons from pushing away. Something that
create a force great than the rebelling force of protons. Which exactly what the
“neutrons” do but at that time they didn’t know. Another clue was that they knew
that each hydrogen atom has 1 proton which gives it 1 AMU, and a helium atom as
they thought contain 2 protons only without neutrons because they didn’t know
neutrons exist. So 2 hydrogen atoms should balance 1 helium atom, but it didn’t. in
fact, they needed 4 hydrogens to balance 1 helium. In addition, they were able to
determine the atomic number (number of protons) and atomic mass number (at that
time they thought that only protons have mass as the mass of the electrons is
negligible so it was only the number of protons) of the elements such as the
helium. They expected the atomic number and the atomic mass number to be equal
but that was incorrect. It turned out that helium has 2 atomic number and 4 atomic
mass number.
So James Chadwick, British physicist, did an experiment which proved the
existence of what he called “neutrons”.
He shot alpha particles on the atoms of beryllium, boron or lithium. It’s kind of
similar to what Rutherford did. Chadwick noticed that rays were released from
these atoms. He only knew one thing that these rays have no charge, so they can’t
be protons or electrons.
He then put a paraffin in front of these rays. He observed that when paraffin was
hit by these rays, protons were shot out by really high speed. He concluded that
whatever is coming out from the atoms must be fast and heavy enough to kick out
the protons form the paraffin atom. That’s why he also excluded that these rays
might be gamma rays because gamma rays are massless, so they can’t shoot the
protons. It had to be something with about the same mass as the proton to be able
to shoot it out from the paraffin like that. So with those information (that the
particles which make these rays have no charge and have about the same mass as
19 | P a g e
protons). Especially, with the scientists already thinking that there had to be
something inside the atom that keeps protons from rebelling. He discovered and
proved that these particles that were shoot from the beryllium, boron and lithium
are what he called “neutrons” which exist inside the nucleus with the protons.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
After knowing the structure and the history of the atom, let’s have a look
on the forces within the atom…
What keeps the atom together?
There are four natural forces that keeps the atom together and is
responsible for the behavior of the atomic particles:
1.ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES

A force that combines the effects of electrical charge and magnetism. The
electromagnetic force can either attract or repel the particles on which it acts.
Oppositely charged particles attract each other, while like particles repel one
another.

Electrons are kept in the orbit around the nucleus by the electromagnetic force,
because the nucleus in the center of the atom is positively charged and attracts the
negatively charged electrons.

2.The strong forces, the greatest of the four forces!

If all the protons inside the nucleus are the same charge and repel, what keeps them
from bursting and exploding the atom?

20 | P a g e
The strong forces oppose the electromagnetic force of repulsion between protons.
Like “glue” the strong force keeps the protons together to form the nucleus.

Proton-proton has repletion but the neutrons apply an even stronger force on the
protons in a nucleus. This force can only be applied over very small distances, so
neutrons have to pack very tightly against the protons in a nucleus, which is why a
nucleus is so dense.

3.Weak forces
Weak forces are important because they are responsible for stabilizing particles
through the process of radioactive decay, in which a neutron in the nucleus
changes into a proton and an electron.

4.The gravity
Gravity is the force of attraction exerted between all objects in nature. Gravity causes
apples to fall to the ground and planets to remain in their orbits around the sun.

Gravity is easily observed in the behavior of large objects. But inside the tiny
nucleus of an atom, the effect of gravity is small compared to the effects of the
other three forces. Therefore, gravity is the weakest of the four forces.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The atom has a lot of types, let’s discuss them…

Types of atoms

1.Radioactive element
Some atoms have too many neutrons in the nucleus, which makes them unstable.
They’re radioactive, giving off particles until they become stable.

21 | P a g e
2.Ions
Atoms with extra (by gaining) or missing (by losing) electrons in a chemical
reaction trying to be as stable as possible are called ions. They have a positive or
negative electric charge and are responsible for many chemical reactions.

Positive ions: when an atom lose an electron or more are called cations.

Negative ions: when an atom gain an electron or more are called anions.

3.Antimatter
Every atomic particle has a twin anti-particle, with an opposite electric charge.
Antimatter hydrogen atoms have been formed in the laboratory, containing an anti-
proton and anti-electron. Antimatter is very rare and fragile.

4.Isotopes
Same Element with the same atomic number (number of protons) but a different
mass number (number of protons + number of neutrons), so technically different
number of neutrons are defined as “Isotopes”. For example,

protons Neutrons mass number

carbon-12 6 6 12
carbon-13 6 7 13
carbon-14 6 8 14

The fact that they have varying numbers of neutrons makes no difference
whatsoever to the chemical reactions of the carbon. The exception to this case is
the isotopes of hydrogen because the numbers of neutrons have a major effect on
the size of the nucleus of a hydrogen atom.

The physical properties of isotopes in a particular element vary from each other.
This is because the physical properties of any isotope depend on the mass.

There are approximately 275 different isotopes of 81 stable elements. There are
more than 800 natural and synthetic radioactive isotopes present. A single element
present in the periodic table can have multiple isotopic forms.
22 | P a g e
How to calculate the relative atomic mass? As an element may have isotopes, so it
consists with different atomic mass, so we use this law to calculate its relative
atomic mass which is written in the periodic table:

Relative atomic mass= total mass of atoms / 100

Total mass of the atom= percentage of existence x atomic mass and you add all of
the atomic mass of each isotope, for example,

Bromine exist in two isotopes, 79Br which exist with 50% and 81Br which exist
with 50% also.

Relative atomic mass will be equal = [(50x79) + (50x81)]

So, the relative atomic mass of bromine is 80

5.Isobars
The name was given by Alfred Walter Stewart in 1918.

Different elements that have the same atomic mass (nucleons, or number of
protons + number of neutrons) . But different atomic number (number of protons),
thus different number of neutrons. An example of a series of isobars would
be 40S, 40Cl, 40Ar, 40K, and 40Ca. The nuclei of these elements all contain
40 nucleons; however, they contain varying numbers of protons and neutrons.

Isobars always have different atomic structure because of the difference in atomic
numbers. The number of neutrons makes up the difference in the number of
nucleons. Therefore, they are always different chemical elements having same
atomic masses. Thus, isobar has different chemical properties. By now we know that
the atomic masses in isobars are same. Therefore, they have similar physical
properties.
6.Isotones
Isotone, any of two or more species of atoms or nuclei that have the same number
of neutrons. Thus, chlorine-37 and potassium-39 are isotones, because the nucleus
of this species of chlorine consists of 17 protons and 20 neutrons, whereas the
nucleus of this species of potassium contains 19 protons and 20 neutrons

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
23 | P a g e
 The fundamental laws of chemistry
There are five basic laws of chemistry that govern the
chemical combinations of elements:
1.Law of conservation of mass:
Antoine Lavoisier, a French chemist in 1789. He carefully weighed the reactants
and products of various reactions. He observed that mass is neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction which was later known as then (law of
conservation of mass).

This law states that in all chemical changes. He observed the total mass of the
reactants is equal to that of the products (Mass is neither created nor destroyed).

We also refer to this law as the law of indestructibility of mass. The total sum of
the mass during any chemical change remains constant, even if the matter
changes its shape or form. Because the mass is interconvertible (can be changed)

By this way we concluded the balance of the chemical equation. For example,

It’s not H2 + O2  H2O, (oxygen and hydrogen always exist is pairs that’s why
it’s H2 and O2).

It’s actually 2H2 + O2  2H2O to be balanced.

2) Law of Constant (Definite) Proportion:

J.L. Proust in 1799, a French chemist, one of the chemist who followed Lavoisier’s
lead. showed that a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion
of elements by mass. Originally called “Proust’s law”, is now called (law of
definite proportion).

if a compound is broken down into its constituent elements, the masses of the
constituents will always have the same proportions.

For example, a sample of pure water from various sources or any country is always
made up of only hydrogen and oxygen. In a ratio 2:1 by mass

3) Law of Multiple Proportions:

24 | P a g e
Dalton discovered another principle that convinced him even more of the existence
of atoms rather than the (law of definite proportion). He noted that when two
different elements combine to form two or more chemical compounds, then the
masses of one of the elements which combined with a 1 gram of mass of the
second, bear a simple ratio to one another which is called (law of multiple
proportion).

Example on that:

Note: we divide the oxygen over the carbon because we want to know how many
oxygen grams are in 1 carbon.

Then we divide the one with least fixed element (carbon mono oxide) over the one
with most amount of fixed element (carbon dioxide). The fixed element is carbon.

In carbon monoxide, its 12C:16O by mass, then the mass of the oxygen combined
with 1 gram of carbon = 16/12 which is equal to 4/3

While in carbon dioxide, its 12C:32O by mass, then the mass of the oxygen
combined with 1 gram of carbon = 32/12 which is equal to 8/3

While in carbon monoxide, its 12C:16O by mass, then the mass of the oxygen
combined with 1 gram of carbon = 12/16 which is equal to 3/4

The masses of oxygen which combined with a 1 gram of carbon in carbon

monoxide and carbon dioxide are 4/3 and 8/3. These masses of oxygen make a
simple ratio, 4/3:8/3 or 1:2.

Taking another example of the Compounds of Sulphur and oxygen,

The element Sulphur also forms two oxides, Sulphur dioxide and Sulphur trioxide.
In Sulphur dioxide, 32S:32O by mass, then the mass of the oxygen combined with
1 gram of Sulphur = 32/32 which is equal to 1

In Sulphur trioxide, 32S:48O by mass, then the mass of the oxygen combined with
1 gram of Sulphur = 48/32 which is equal to 3/2

The masses of oxygen which combined with 1 gram of Sulphur in the two oxides
are 1 and 3/2. Which gives a simple ratio 2:3.

4) Law of Reciprocal Proportion:

25 | P a g e
 It is hard and complicated and actually it is not in the concepts and we
don’t need it. So I shouldn’t really explain it.

The law of reciprocal proportions was proposed by Jeremias Ritcher in 1792. It

states that, "If two different elements combine separately with the same weight of a
third element, the ratio of the masses in which they do so are either the same or a
simple multiple of the mass ratio in which they combine.

5) Gay Lussac’s and Avogadro’s Laws of Gaseous Volume:

Although not recognized for many years, the keys for determining absolute
formulas for compounds were provided in the experimental work of the French
chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) and by the hypothesis of an Italian
chemist named Amadeo Avogadro (1776–1856). In 1809 Gay-Lussac performed
experiments in which he measured (under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure) the volumes of gases that reacted with each other. They found out that…

2 volumes of hydrogen react with 1 volume of oxygen to form 2 volumes of

gaseous water. And other several examples but these results are represented
schematically.

In 1811 Avogadro interpreted these results by proposing that at the same

temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same
number of particles. This assumption (called Avogadro’s hypothesis) makes sense
because the distances between the particles in a gas are very great compared with
the sizes of the particles. Under these conditions, the volume of a gas is determined
by the number of molecules present, not by the size of the individual particles.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Alpha, Beta & Gamma

We won’t go deeply in the radiations as we will already study it in details in LO.6

Alpha particles:
They are particles made up of two protons and two neutrons, which is exactly the
same as a nucleus of a helium atom, so we normally represent alpha particles with

26 | P a g e
helium's nuclear symbol H E. importantly though alpha particles don't have any
electrons so they have an overall charge of two plus from those two positive
protons because they are relatively large alpha particles are easily stopped by
collisions with other molecules which means that they can't penetrate very far into
other materials. In fact, they can only travel a few centimeters in here and absorbed
by a single sheet of paper. However, their large size and a strong charge does make
them very strongly ionizing which just means they can easily knock electrons off
any atoms that they collide with.

Mass = 4

Charge = 2

Beta particles:
They are just electrons so they have a charge of minus one and virtually no mass.
Now the weird thing is that electrons aren’t emitted from one of the atoms shells,
instead one of the atoms neutrons decays into a proton and an electron the proton
stays in the nucleus but the electron is emitted out at high speed because beta
particles are pretty tiny they’re moderately ionizing and they penetrate moderately
far into materials for example it would take several meters of air or about five
millimeters of aluminum to stop them.

Mass = 0

Charge = -1

Gamma rays:
Gamma rays aren't particles at all they're actually waves of electromagnetic
radiation light lighters and they're often emitted after alpha or beta radiation as
aware of the nucleus getting rid of a bit of extra energy and they don't have any
mass or charge they tend to pass it straight through materials rather than colliding
with any of the atoms which makes them only weakly ionizing this means they can
penetrate really far into materials before being stopped so you can travel long
distances to err and it takes thick sheets of lead or more four meters of concrete to
stop them.

Mass = 0

Charge = 0
27 | P a g e