DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A DRONE FOR AGRICULTURAL

APPLICATIONS

BY

MAJOR DANIEL
2018/249057

Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Nigeria,

Nsukka in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering

MAY, 2024

i
 CERTIFICATION
I hereby declare that, to the best of my knowledge, this is an original work I submitted in

partial fulfilment for the award of the degree in Mechanical Engineering, University of

Nigeria, Nsukka. I certify that it has not been submitted in part or in full for the award of

the certificate of any other institution or this university.

MAJOR DANIEL

2018/249057 Signature Date

[email protected]

08142194603

(Candidate)

ii
 APPROVAL

This work title DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A DRONE FOR

AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES has been approved on behalf of the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka by:

ENGR. DR. PATRICK AKPAN Date

(Supervisor)

ENGR. DR. P.A. AKO Date

(Head of Department)

iii
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this project to GOD for His grace and help from start to finish of this project. I

also dedicate this project to my wonderful parents for all their support throughout my

years of study and their resolute care in seeing that this project comes to fruition.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to God, from whom all

good things come. His grace and guidance have been the cornerstone of this project.

I am immensely grateful to my Mum and Dad for their unwavering support, love, and

encouragement throughout this journey. Your belief in me has been a constant source of

strength. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my supervisor, Engr. Dr. Patrick. U.

Akpan, for his invaluable guidance, insightful advice, and continuous encouragement.

Your expertise and mentorship have been crucial to the success of this project.

Special thanks to my group members for their assistance with the project. Your technical

support and dedication were instrumental in the execution of this work.

Finally, I would like to acknowledge my siblings, friends, and coursemates. Your

companionship, encouragement, and understanding have been vital throughout this

journey. Thank you all for your support.

v
 ABSTRACT
This paper presents the design, development, and testing of a UAV (quadcopter) equipped

for agricultural fertilizer spraying over farmlands. Chapter One introduces the project's

background and objectives. Chapter Two details the literature review on UAV design

principles and agricultural applications. Chapter Three outlines the proposed UAV design,

system specifications, and component selection process. It also discusses the system

analysis, design methodology, and hardware specifications. Furthermore, it presents design

calculations and performance metrics. Chapter Four presents the results and discussions,

including computer-aided design, electronic connections, requirements for large-scale

drone operations, cost analysis, testing procedures, problems encountered, and the

reasoning behind flight issues. The study concludes that while challenges such as product

delivery delays and time constraints hindered full completion, the project demonstrates the

feasibility and economic viability for future implementation.

keywords: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, quadcopter, agriculture, pesticide, fertilizer

vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENT

CERTIFICATION........................................................................................................ ii
APPROVAL................................................................................................................. iii
DEDICATION ..............................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... x
TABLE OF FIGURES.................................................................................................. xi
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background Of Study ........................................................................................... 1
1.2 Significance Of Study........................................................................................... 1
1.3 Problem Statement ............................................................................................... 3
1.4 Objectives of The Study ....................................................................................... 3
1.5 Scope and Limitation of The Study ........................................................................ 4
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Concept Definition ...................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Prelude To Related Works ........................................................................................... 7
2.4 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................... 21
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 21
3.2 System Analysis and Design Methodology ................................................................ 21
3.3 Design Specification Selection ................................................................................... 22
3.4 Component Iteration .................................................................................................. 22
3.5 System Hardware Specification ................................................................................. 23
3.6 Design Calculations ................................................................................................... 29

vii
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................... 34
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 34
4.2 Results and Discussions ............................................................................................. 34
4.3 Computer Aided Design ............................................................................................ 35
4.4 Electronic Connections .............................................................................................. 36
4.5 Requirements For Large Scale Drone ......................................................................... 41
4.6 Cost Analysis for large Scale Drone ........................................................................... 43
4.7 Testing ...................................................................................................................... 44
4.8 Problems Encountered ............................................................................................... 45
4.9 Reasoning Behind Drone Flight Issues. ...................................................................... 46
CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................... 47
5.1 Conclusion and Recommendation .............................................................................. 47
5.2 Recommendation ....................................................................................................... 48
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 49

viii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AGV Automated Ground Vehicle

CPU Central Processing Unit

ESC Electronic Speed Controller

FC Flight Controller

GPU Graphics Processing Unit

IMU Inertial Measurement Unit

OS Operating System

PDB Power Distribution Board

SDK Software Development Kit

UART Universal Asynchronous Receiver

Transmitter

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 - Classification of UAVs Based on Weight and Range ................................... 14

Table 3.1 - Thrust to Weight Ratios for Different Component Combinations ................. 22

Table 4.1 - Cost Analysis for Large Scale Drone ........................................................... 43

x
 TABLE OF FIGURES

Fig. 2.1 - Various Drone Movements ............................................................................... 6

Fig. 2.2 - UAV Classification Based on Wing and Number of Rotors ............................ 11

Fig. 2.3 - UAV Classification System ............................................................................ 12

Fig. 4. 1 - CAD Drawing Side View .............................................................................. 35

Fig. 4. 2 - CAD Drawing Top View ............................................................................... 35

Fig. 4. 3 - CAD Drawing Angle View ............................................................................ 36

Fig. 4. 4 - Speedybee Flight Controller Connection Ports ............................................... 37

Fig. 4. 5 - Speedybee ESC Connection Ports.................................................................. 38

Fig. 4. 6 - Drone Electrical Connections ........................................................................ 38

Fig. 4. 7 - The Drone Pump ........................................................................................... 39

Fig. 4. 8 - Electrical Connection for the Pump Remote................................................... 40

Fig. 4. 9 - Pictures of the Drone ..................................................................................... 40

Fig. 4. 10 - Drone Assembly .......................................................................................... 41

xi
 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background Of Study

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are aircraft that do not have any pilot or crew on board

but are piloted using a remote control[1]. The use of UAVs in various sectors such as

agriculture, surveillance, military, entertainment, delivery logistics and so on, has grown

exponentially in recent years, giving rise to new possibilities and capabilities.

In today’s era, there are many developments in precision agriculture for increasing crop

productivity. Mostly in developing countries like India, around 70 to 75 % of rural people

depend upon agricultural fields[2]. This has led to the need for an increase in development

and innovation in the agricultural field. Agriculture is regarded as one of the most important

areas where different varieties with feature-packed facilities are required to overcome

several challenges of farmers for better crop yield[3].

This study is specifically focused on the development of autonomous, remote-controlled

UAVs for the spreading and application of plant-based fertilizers, pesticides and

insecticides.

1.2 Significance Of Study

The significance of UAVs in agricultural fertilization cannot be overstated. UAVs possess

a wide range of movement that allows for free movement in multidimensional spaces. They

are fast, reliable and easily maneuverable, allowing us to control and cover very large

distances over a short period[4]. These capabilities have the potential to solve numerous

1
problems in the agricultural sector that arise from the dangers that modern fertilizers and

pesticides pose to individual health[5]. Some of these health problems include breathing

problems (asthma and lung cancer), skin and eye irritation, water pollution and many more.

According to the ‘Agriculture in 2050 Project’, the world population will reach about 10

billion by 2050. Consequently, food production will require a 70% boost[6]. To raise the

food production rate, agriculture requires automation, robotics, information services, and

intelligence that combines information and communication technologies (ICT), robotics,

artificial intelligence (AI), big data, and the Internet of Things. Smart agriculture is an

active field that produces new opportunities for the future[7].

As the global population continues to grow, agricultural practices are under increasing

pressure to enhance productivity and sustainability. According to ‘facts.com’, the drone

usage rate in today’s market is estimated to grow by a compound annual growth rate

(CAGR) of 20.2% between now and 2028. The drone market was already estimated to be

at an impressive $10 billion valuation by 2022 and the usage of drones in the agricultural

space is estimated to grow by a CAGR of 19% between now and 2030 with over 200

companies already involved in the manufacturing and maintenance of agriculturally based

drones (companies like; Hummingbird Technologies, Sentera and Marut Drones)[8].

The current state of UAV technology is characterized by remarkable developments in

terms of its design, capabilities, and applications. Conventional methods cause a higher

cost of pesticide application and are less effective in controlling pests and diseases[9].

These improvements can be applied to the agricultural field to reduce the health and energy

risks that are related to the field. By exploring the integration of UAVs in the precise

2
dissemination of fertilizers and pesticides, this study directly tackles the dangers and

propounds solutions to these problems.

1.3 Problem Statement

The core problem is the need for a more efficient system for the dissemination (spraying)

of plant-based pesticides, insecticides and fertilizers. This problem is to be solved by using

a UAV that would be specially designed with autonomous navigation, precision landing,

and visual tracking capabilities to tackle this problem.

It is hoped that by developing this new system, issues surrounding the hazardous nature of

aerosol and liquid-based fertilizers and pesticides would be drastically reduced, allowing

for more ease and safety in dispersing them.

1.4 Objectives of The Study

The project aims at the development of an autonomous aerial vehicle that is capable of

spreading agricultural fertilizer and pesticide for a prolonged period over farmlands.

The objectives of the study are as follows:

i. Analyze and Design Drone Parameters

ii. Develop a Working Drone Prototype

iii. Design Spraying Mechanism

iv. Develop a Spraying Mechanism.

v. Conduct Real World Tests.

3
1.5 Scope and Limitation of The Study

Although this project aims at the development of an autonomous UAV capable of remote-

controlled flight for spreading fertilizers over a wide region, many limitations exist. One

of the major limitations is the lack of precise maneuverability and landing sensors which

may lead to rare accidents while trying to land the UAV on uneven or unstable terrain.

The limitations include financial restraints that could lead to difficulty in the purchasing of

materials and unavailability of materials in or around the local area which will lead to the

purchasing and importation of foreign goods that would take more time and constrain

progress to a certain extent. Crashes, bad weather, lack of expertise, and faulty parts are

also major concerns that could lead to a delay in the project.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Introduction

The emergence of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) popularly known as drones, has

brought about profound changes to the agricultural sector. Drones have allowed us to carry

out taxing and hazardous tasks without fear of health risks physical exertion or damage

[10].

The population is increasing tremendously and with this increase the demand for food. The

traditional methods which were used by the farmers were not sufficient enough to fulfil

these requirements[11]. Thus, new automated methods (Drone technology) were

introduced.

Technical analysis of UAVs in precision agriculture is to analyze their applicability in

agriculture operations like crop monitoring, crop height Estimations, pesticide Spraying,

and soil and field analysis[12]. However, their hardware implementations are purely

dependent on critical aspects like weight, range of flight, payload, configuration and their

costs.

Its multifunctional abilities capable of operating in many different terrains and climates, as

well as its other properties, like autonomous navigation, precision landing, and visual

tracking systems have unlocked a wide variety of applications and uses. Currently, almost

85% of drone technology is mainly utilized by the military and the rest 15% by civilians

for diverse applications[13].

This literature review seeks to explore the development, and deployment of versatile UAVs

across different agricultural industries, underscoring their transformative impact and the

technological progress that has facilitated this.

5
2.2 Concept Definition

i. Yaw: This is the motion of the head of the quadcopter either left (negative yaw) or

right (positive yaw).

ii. Pitch: This is the motion of the drone when it tilts forward (positive pitch) or tilts

backward (negative pitch).

iii. Roll: This is the tilting of the drone either left (negative roll) or right (positive roll).

Fig. 2. 1 Various Drone Movements

iv. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV): A UAV, or drone, is an aircraft piloted without

a human onboard. It is either remotely controlled or can fly independently based on

pre-set flight paths or more intricate dynamic automation systems[14].

v. Autonomous Navigation: This pertains to the UAV's capacity to traverse its

surroundings without human interference. This is typically achieved through the

use of various sensors and navigation systems, including GPS, inertial navigation

systems, and computer vision.

6
 vi. Precision Landing: Precision landing technology equips a UAV with the ability to

return to its launch point or another specific location independently with high

precision. This is crucial in many applications, such as package delivery or return-

to-home functions[15].

vii. Visual Tracking Systems: Visual tracking in UAVs refers to the use of cameras

and computer vision algorithms to detect, recognize, and follow specific objects or

features in the environment. This capability is essential in surveillance,

cinematography, and search and rescue operations[16].

viii. Crop Monitoring: Drones provide real-time monitoring of crops to help farmers

identify areas on the farm that require attention, such as nutrient deficiency or pest

infestation[17]. Continuous monitoring aids in the early detection of issues for

timely intervention.

ix. Tank Capacity and Payload: The capacity of the drone’s tank and its payload

capabilities are critical factors in determining how much distance and area can be

covered in a single flight and how much refilling is required[18].

x. Variable Rate Application: Drones can adjust application rates based on real-time

data and field conditions ensuring that each part of the field receives the appropriate

amount of fertilizer or pesticide[19].

2.3 Prelude To Related Works

2.3.1 Brief History of Drones

The development of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles started during the First World War. After

the first flight taken by the Wright brothers, developments in aviation accelerated and the

7
first Unmanned Aerial Vehicle was created[20]. It was difficult to replace lost airplanes

and pilots during the First World War and this happened frequently as a result of the mass

introduction of warplanes. This prompted the military leaders to consider using Unmanned

Aerial Vehicles in certain missions[21]. The American Elmer Sperry was linked to the

prototype of such a machine controlled by autopilot. The first test flights occurred in 1917

where a pilot who was responsible for take-offs and landings was present in the cockpit.

Other phases of the flight were however guided by autopilot[22]. In November 1917

another flying bomb, the Kettering Bug, was completed. It was constructed by Charles

Kettering. The fuselage was made by Orville Wright, and the control and navigation system

was developed by the topic’s expert, Elmer Sperry mentioned previously[23].

Following the First World War, Pilotless Target Aircraft (PTAs) were developed. This new

type of UAV was a breakthrough and innovation because it was the first system that could

return after completing a mission unless it was hit[24]. The advent of the Cold War saw a

significant increase in the development and use of UAVs. They were used for

reconnaissance missions, especially in areas which were too dangerous for manned

aircraft[25]. A very notable UAV from this period was the Ryan Firebee, a series of target

drones developed by the Ryan Aeronautical Company which were later modified for

reconnaissance missions[21].

After the Cold War, rapid advancements in UAV technology and UAV areas of application

were seen. In the 21st century, UAVs have been integrated into various industries such as

agriculture, real estate, delivery services, entertainment etc.[26].

8
It has been stated by multiple unreferenced sources that the first aerial application of

agricultural materials was in 1906 by John Clervaux Chaytor, who dispersed seeds on a

family farm in Wairau, New Zealand, using hot air balloons with mobile tethers[27]. Not

long after, in 1921, a plane was used in crop dusting by the US Agriculture Department

and US Army Signal Corps research station in Ohio. On seeing the advantages of using

aerial services in agriculture, there was an extension to other tasks such as top dressing and

application of fertilizers over farmlands from the air in 1940[11]. Yamaha was likely the

first to develop the first UAV applied to agriculture in 1997 by using a rotary-winged

aircraft [28].

2.3.2 Major Components of UAV’s

i. Brushless DC Motors: They consist of a permanent magnet and rotate around a

fixed armature which produces maximum torque. They are also known as stepper

motors because they are frequently stopped with the rotor in a defined angular

position. They have superior thrust-to-weight ratios compared to brushed DC

motors[29]. Its commutators are integrated into the speed controller whereas in

brushed DC motors, the commutators are directly inside the motors. They are

electronically commutated and have better speed vs torque characteristics, high

efficiency with noiseless operation and very high-speed range with longer life.

ii. Frame: The frame is the chassis of the drone on which all other components are

placed. It is important to use a lightweight frame that still possesses the required

strength characteristics to attain a good thrust-to-weight ratio for the drone[18].

9
iii. Electronic Speed Controller (ESC): They are used to change the speed of the

brushless DC motors and act as dynamic brakes of the drone. ESCs convert 2-phase

battery current to 3-phase power. The Esc has two functions, the first is acting as a

Battery Elimination Circuit (BEC) allowing both the motors and the receiver to be

powered by a single battery[30]. The second function is taking the receiver and

flight controller’s signals and feeding the required amount of current to the motors.

iv. Battery: The batteries used in drones are Lithium Polymer (LIPO) batteries which

are rechargeable batteries that have high specific energy and are light in weight.

v. Receiver and Transmitter: The Transmitter (Tx) and Receiver (Rx) are needed to

remotely control the UAV through wireless communication. The typical controls

would be throttle, pitch, roll, and yaw.

vi. Flight Controller: Stabilization and balancing of the UAV is done by the flight

controller. It continuously takes measurements from the sensors (IMU, barometer

etc.) and makes the required adjustments to the speed of the rotors through the ESC

to keep the body stable and carry out the required movement (pitch, yaw, roll)[31].

The flying capabilities consist of the following factors:

Gyro stabilization: The ability to keep the UAV stable and level.

Self-leveling: The ability to automatically adjust itself during any

orientation so the UAV stays level.

Altitude Hold: The ability to hover at a certain altitude over the ground.

10
vii. Propellers: Propellers are a type of fan that converts rotational motion to thrust.

The lift thrust of the UAV is obtained through the spinning of the propellers.

Propellers are measured by their diameters and pitch in the format (diameter x

pitch) [32]. Pitch indicates the amount of travel per rotation of the propeller, while

the diameter of the propeller indicates the virtual circle that the propeller generates.

It is necessary to select an appropriate propeller to yield the required thrust for the

hover or lift whilst avoiding overheating the motors.

Fig. 2. 2 - UAV Classification Based on Wing and Number of Rotors

11
2.3.3 Classification of Drones

Fig. 2. 3 - UAV Classification System

2.3.3.1 Based on Aerodynamics

i. Fixed Wing UAVs:

They have one rigid wing that is designed to look like an aeroplane. The wings are

what mainly generate the lift in response to forward accelerating speed. They

require a higher initial speed and a thrust load ratio of less than one to start the

flight[33]. Rudder, ailerons and elevators are used for yaw, roll and pitch angles to

control the orientation of the aircraft. These kinds of UAVs cannot hover in a place

and cannot maintain their low speeds.

ii. Flapping Wing UAVs:

These UAVs are inspired by animals and insects such as small hummingbirds and

large dragonflies. These types of UAVs have complex aerodynamics but as an

advantage can support stable flight in windy conditions and have good

maneuverability, unlike fixed-winged drones[4].

iii. Fixed/Flapping-Wing UAVs:

12
 This UAV is a hybrid of the fixed wing drone and flapping wing drone which is

aimed to increase overall efficiency and balance. The fixed-wing generates lift

whereas the flapping wings are used for propulsion[34]. This design of UAV was

inspired by dragonflies which use two pairs of wings to increase the lift and thrust

forces.

iv. Multirotor UAVs:

The rotor blades produce thrust which lifts and propels the UAV. These UAVs are

capable of Vertical Takeoff and Landing (VTOL) and also can hover in place unlike

fixed-wing UAVs hence they are suitable for surveillance and monitoring

purposes[35]. However, they have more power consumption. Multirotor

UAVs/Multicopters are further classified based on the number and positioning of

rotors which include mono copter (1 rotor), tri copter (3 rotors), quadcopter (4

rotors), hexacopter (6 rotors) and octocopter (8 rotors)[36].

2.3.3.2 Based on Landing

i. Horizontal Takeoff and Landing (HTOL):

They may be considered as an extension of the fixed-wing UAV. They have high

cruise speed and smooth landing.

ii. Vertical Takeoff and Landing (VTOL):

VTOL UAVs fly, land and hover vertically but have limited cruise speed due to the

slowing down of retreating propellers.

13
2.3.3.3 Based on Weight and Range

Below is a table showing how some researchers have classified drones based on weight

and range.

Table 2. 1 - Classification of UAVs Based on Weight and Range

Type Maximum Weight Maximum Range Category

Nano 200g 5km Fixed wing,

multirotor

Micro 2kg 25km Fixed wing,

multirotor

Mini 20kg 40km Fixed wing,

multirotor

Light 50kg 70km Fixed wing,

multirotor

Small 150kg 150km Fixed wing

Tactical 600kg 150km Fixed wing

MALE (Medium 1000kg 200km Fixed wing

Altitude Long

Endurance)

14
 HALE (High Altitude 1000kg 250km Fixed wing

Long Endurance)

Heavy 2000kg 1000km Fixed wing

Super Heavy 2500kg 1500km Fixed wing

2.3.4 Recent Technological Advancements In Agri-Based Drones

The developments and advancements that drones have undergone over the past ten years

have drawn intense criticism and unparalleled interest from many different sectors of the

world that have become interested in how this technology could be used to not only

advance the existing parts of the specific sector but also to develop new technologies and

innovations that could aid them[37].

But one of the major sectors that has found a use for this technology is the Agricultural

Sector.

The use of drones in precision agriculture, watering, fertilization and pest control has also

gained traction in the agricultural sectors[38]. The developments of spectroscopy and

thermography imaging have allowed us to reach a point where finding dry or infected areas,

underground as well as on plant surfaces to apply needed additives is no longer an

issue[13].

The accuracy and rapidity of drones will allow fertilizers and pesticides to be deployed to

specific areas if crops are not growing sufficiently and for pests and pathogens to be

eradicated[39].

15
Drones are also capable of acting as mechanical pollinators in place of natural pollinators.

Although insect vectors remain the most important pollinator variant, drones may play an

important supplementary role in supporting them, particularly with the decline of bees and

some other natural pollinators[40].

2.3.5 Challenges and The Future of Drone Technology

Although there are various benefits of drones in and around the agricultural sector, they do

not come without their challenges. Some of these challenges are small and negligible like

the lack of technical know-how needed to handle drones - which can be easily resolved by

training any potential user in the important aspects of drone usage, or the safety risks that

come along with done usage - like the tendency of drones crashing into plants and animals

around the farm or running into birds in flight[41].

However, some of the problems are substantial enough that they could potentially become

a hindrance to the general development and integration of drones in the agricultural market.

Some of these problems are Privacy concerns posed by those living in and around the

agricultural areas, the high cost of drones and drone maintenance, the regulations placed

on drones by different countries (especially since most developed countries use drones for

military surveillance) and the large dependence of the drones on the weather condition of

the area it will be operating in[42].

Other major challenges are the cost of technology, limited battery life of drones, vision

destruction, literacy about technology to end-users, and shortcomings of image processing

and data analysis[43].

UAVs in precision agriculture are still in their early stages and may have scope for further

development in both the technology and the agriculture applications. Providentially, it is

16
expanded with the development of UAV technology, improved image processing

techniques, lower costs, flying times, batteries, new camera designs, low-volume sprayers,

and nozzle types[44]. A significant number of experimental studies of UAV-based remote

sensing for agriculture applications. There will be more prominent advantages of these

systems in precision agriculture and environmental monitoring.

2.3.6 Review of Related Works

UAVs have many applications in the agricultural field and these applications have been the

subject of numerous literature write-ups. Some of them will be highlighted in the coming

sections.

i. Irrigation Management and Water Stress:

In crop production, the importance of water availability cannot be overstated.

Fertilizer usage and efficiency are also dependent on soil moisture. Multiple

crop monitoring and irrigation methods have been used by farmers and

companies to observe real-time crop status and schedule irrigation and all these

methods require frequent observation with proximal sensors, especially when

water is distributed onto fields[45]. These proximal sensing methods are costly,

tedious and time-consuming if field sampling is intense. Field elevation data

are useful in determining patterns and wet/dry spots and this helps in

determining more efficient watering techniques. UAVs have the capability of

capturing very accurate data on the spatial variability of soils and crops in the

field and these are critical in irrigation management[46]. The spatial resolution

of data for mapping crop water stress must be sufficient to distinguish between

17
 plant pixels and soil background and to avoid mixed soil/vegetation pixels[15].

Several factors need to be considered for accurate temperature retrieval such as

sensor calibration and humidity control because thermal images can be affected

by factors like the characteristics of the thermal camera, weather conditions and

different emitted and reflected thermal radiation sources[25]. It is therefore

important to note that crop water stress estimation using UAVs, particularly in

large areas should be carried out carefully and effectively. UAVs can also

monitor water flow in irrigation channels and the distribution of water.

ii. Crop Monitoring

Crop monitoring is done to predict the yield and quality of crops through

analysis of crop data and it is essential in crop production as it helps to identify

potential problems at early stages and correct them on time. Crop monitoring

on large farms requires considerable time and effort. UAVs are used as a

remedy for this by collecting high-resolution data images to evaluate soil

conditions, and crop growth status and provide information about plant and crop

stress[47]. This helps in decision-making, risk management and sustainable

crop management.

iii. Pesticide and Fertilizer Spraying:

Using drones for pesticide and fertilizer spraying is an emerging application in

agriculture, known as precision agriculture or precision farming. This

18
 technology offers several advantages over traditional methods, including

increased efficiency, reduced environmental impact, and improved

accuracy[48]. Here are some key points to consider:

iv. Precision Application:

Drones equipped with specialized sprayers can precisely target specific areas,

delivering pesticides and fertilizers with greater accuracy. This targeted

approach minimizes waste and reduces the overall amount of chemicals

used[49].

v. Reduced Environmental Impact:

Precision application helps minimize the environmental impact of pesticides

and fertilizers by ensuring that they are applied only where needed. This can

reduce runoff and contamination of nearby water sources[50].

vi. Time and Cost Efficiency:

Drones can cover large agricultural areas quickly, saving time and labour costs.

This efficiency is particularly beneficial for large farms where traditional

methods may be time-consuming and labor-intensive.

vii. Data Collection and Analysis:

Drones can be equipped with various sensors and cameras to collect data on

crop health, soil conditions, and other factors. This data can be used for real-

time monitoring and decision-making, allowing farmers to adjust their spraying

strategies based on actual field conditions[30].

19
 viii. Flexibility:

Drones can navigate through fields with ease, reaching areas that may be

challenging or impossible for traditional equipment. This flexibility allows for

more comprehensive coverage of the entire field.

2.4 Chapter Summary

This chapter provides a comprehensive discussion on Autonomous Unmanned Aerial

Vehicles (UAVs. It includes detailed descriptions of their roles, functions, and processes,

which offers a complete understanding of expected outcomes in UAV operations.

Additionally, it considers existing research and projects that delve into the overall

functionality of UAVs, their distinctive advantages, and the existing gaps that need to be

addressed in the current body of knowledge.

20
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Introduction

This chapter provides a detailed description of the proposed UAV design, the system

specifications, and the components used in designing the project. Furthermore, it provides

a thorough overview of the proposed methodology for the UAV design, performance, and

testing[51]. Before a UAV is designed, its requirements and aim must be well defined to

guide the design process. The system specifications describe the characteristics of the UAV

that enable it to perform the minimum requirements[29].

3.2 System Analysis and Design Methodology

The methodology of the project begins with an Arithmetic Analysis of the drone properties

and components, as well as a detailed iteration to determine the optimum drone size and

weight necessary to handle the payload required.

Once it is determined that all parts work properly, the simulated design will then be

transferred over to a real design concept and developed to work in real-life scenarios. The

precision, maneuverability, battery life, and stability of the UAV will be tested in an

environment that very closely resembles the environments in which the UAV would most

likely be used (windy and humid areas that have a lot of obstructions from trees and animals

(birds and livestock)) to ensure all functions are properly calibrated[52].

21
3.3 Design Specification Selection

It was determined that the drone would carry 0.75L of fertilizer. The average density of

many liquid fertilizers tested came around 1300 kg/m3 and this translates to a mass of

0.975kg. This means the drone is to be able to carry a payload of 0.975kg.

3.4 Component Iteration

A general rule in drone design is that the ratio of the thrust produced by the drone to the

weight of the drone together with its payload should be at least 2:1 to have good control of

the drone[53]. It is therefore necessary to find a combination of components whose weight

and specifications would give this ratio. A series of component combinations were iterated

through to identify the resulting thrust-to-weight ratio. The necessary parameters and

equations were inputted into an Excel sheet which gave the resulting thrust-to-weight ratio.

Table 3. 1 - Thrust to Weight Ratios for Different Component Combinations

Component Weight of Drone Thrust Thrust to Weight

Combination with Payload Produced Ratio

(N) (N)

Combination 1 28.090 29.830 1.062

Combination 2 28.090 38.824 1.240

22
 Component Weight of Drone Thrust Thrust to Weight

Combination with Payload Produced Ratio

(N) (N)

Combination 1 28.090 29.830 1.062

Combination 3 28.090 187.235 6.666

Combination 4 28.090 55.104 2.023

As seen in the table above, combination 4 gives the required thrust-to-weight ratio of at

least 2:1 and was therefore selected. The specifications of the hardware used in

combination 4 can be seen in the next section.

3.5 System Hardware Specification

The complete set of hardware components and software functionality and purpose. It

includes a technical overview of the system units and their usage. The primary hardware

components (without which you won’t have a guaranteed successful flight) and their

specifications are listed below:

3.5.1 Brushless DC Motor

The motor is a very crucial part of the drone design as it is responsible for generating the

downward thrust that would propel the drone. With that, determining the specifics of the

motor that is to be gotten is very important so it would be able to produce sufficient

thrust[54]. 4 XXD A2212 1000KV brushless outrunner motors were used. A brushless

23
motor was chosen over a brushed motor because it reduces torque ripples, vibrations and

noise, they also have low energy consumption and high efficiency. The specifications of

the motor can be seen below:

KVA 930

Current Capacity 12A/60S

No Load Current @ 10V 0.5A

Motor Diameter 27.5mm

Motor Length 27mm

Shaft diameter 3.17mm

Weight 48g

The 930KV specifies the rotational speed of the motor per voltage input from the battery.

We went for the 930KV motor specifically because it provides a good balance of thrust

and manoeuvrability, allowing us to lift heavier loads for a long period while still being

able to move about as freely as we wish to.

3.5.2 SpeedyBee Flight Controller

The Speedybee FC is a lightweight high-performance flight controller that is manufactured

by the Speedybee company. It possesses numerous features that make designing and

configuration of flight vehicles very easy. The Speedybee FC possessed wireless

configuration, onboard battery indicators, an SD card slot and a built-in barometer[55].

There are 9 groups of 5v output ports and 2 groups of 8-volt output ports. It can support up

24
to 8 motors at once and receive power from 3S to 6S LiPo batteries. The full specifications

of the flight controller are:

Built-in Barometer YES

Bluetooth YES

Power Input 3S to 6S LiPo battery

MCU STM32E405

Dimensions 41.6(L) x 39.4(W) x 7.8(H)mm

Weight 9.6g

Firmware Target Name SPEEDYBEEF405V3

The FC comes as a pair, and it is attached to the Electronic Speed Control - also from

SpeedyBee.

3.5.3 SpeedyBee Electronic Speed Controller

The SpeedyBee ESC is the second part of a pair that comes along with the SpeedyBee

Flight controller. An electronic speed control (ESC) is a device that helps control how fast

an electric motor spins[56]. It receives signals from a controller and adjusts the power

going to the motor, which changes the motor's speed and strength. ESCs have small

electronics inside them like MOSFETS, Resistors, Capacitors, and more that make this

control possible. The SpeedyBee ESC was built to work seamlessly with the Flight

controller, so there will be no issues in the configuration and connection of the ESC to the

FC. The SpeedyBee ESC comes with side ports that allow connections of up to four

different motors[57]. Each motor is provided with power and current from each branch and

25
the ESC can provide a maximum 50A during use. The full ESC specifications are shown

below:

Firmware BLHeli_S JH50

Continuous Current 50A * 4

Burst Current 55A (5s)

External Capacitor 1500uF Low ESR Capacitor

Power Input 3-6S LiPo

Power Output VBAT

Dimension 45.6(L) * 44(W) * 6.1(H)mm

Weight 13.8g

There were many ESC and FC options available on the market, but the speedy bee ESC

and FC were chosen because of the high reviews and good usage infrastructure available.

3.5.4 Flysky i4 Radio Transmitter and AFHDS iA6 Reciever

The Flysky i4 is a widely used radio transmitter and receiver system designed for remote

control of hobbyist vehicles like drones, planes, and cars. It enables users to send control

signals from the transmitter to the receiver, which is installed on the vehicle[58]. The

receiver interprets these signals and activates the corresponding actuators and motors,

allowing users to wirelessly control the vehicle's movement and other functions. With a

range of up to 500 meters, the Flysky i4 transmitter is versatile and compatible with various

receiver models, making it a popular choice among hobbyists[59]. The transmitter and

receiver specifications are listed below:

26
Transmitter Specifications:

Power 6V 1.5AA * 4

Display mode LED indicator

Size 174 * 89 * 190mm

Weight 335g

ANT length 26mm * 2(dual antenna)

2.4G system AFHDS 2A and AFHDS

Band 142

RF range 2.405-2.475GHz

Bandwidth 500kHz

Channels 4

Receiver Specifications:

ANT length 26mm

Dimensions 45 * 23 * 9mm

Weight 13g

Power 4.5~6.5V DC

27
 Band sum 142

Bandwidth 500kHz

RF range 2.405-2.475GHz

Channels 6 Channels

2.4G system AFHDS 2A

It boasts a user-friendly interface equipped with multiple channel options, and adjustable

trims and switches to allow for seamless control over a variety of drone parts.

3.5.5 Propellers

A propeller is a rotating mechanical device used to provide thrust and generate lift for the

drone. There are various specifications and lengths of propellers available on the market,

but due to the design needs of our project, we decided to go with the 1045 specification of

propeller.

The Carbon Fiber Propeller has a 10-inch (25.4cm) length and a 4.5-inch (11.4 cm) pitch

angle. The 1045 propeller is known for its versatility and balance between thrust and

efficiency. The full propeller specifications are listed below:

Length: 10 inches

Pitch Length: 4.5 inches

Material: Carbon Fiber

It is designed to provide stable and efficient flight performance, making it suitable for

various applications in autonomous UAVs. The propeller's size and pitch allow it to

generate sufficient lift and thrust to carry the UAV and its payload, while also ensuring

smooth and controlled maneuverability.

28
3.5.6 LiPo Battery

The LiPo battery is an essential part of the drone responsible for [power distribution. The

weight, durability, capacity and voltage rating of the battery are all essentials when building

a drone and picking the wrong specifications could reduce the flight integrity and flight

time of the drone, leading to an unsatisfactory product.

In this project, a TCB 2200mAh 4S 14.8v 35C LiPo battery will be used. 4S represents

the number of cells whiting the battery, in this case, there are four cells and each cell

delivers 3.7v to the motors, which altogether delivers 14.8v to the motors.

The ‘35c’ rating gives us the discharge capability of the drone, which in this case the drone

can deliver (35*2200mAh = 77A) for continuous discharge. This current discharge

capacity is suitable for the large payload and slow flight needs of the drone. LiPo batteries

are known for their high energy density, low weight, and relatively low self-discharge rate

compared to other types of rechargeable batteries[60]. They are commonly used in a variety

of applications, including radio-controlled vehicles, drones, robotics, and portable

electronic devices. However, they can be more volatile than other types of batteries and

require special handling and care to ensure safe use.

3.6 Design Calculations

Static Thrust Calculations The power transmitted by the DC motors is

calculated first:

Power(P) = αN K … 3.1

Where:

29
 α ( propeller constant )= 0.015

K (power factor) = 3.2

N = rotational speed in a rpm

⸫ Power (P) = 0.015 x 14.83.2 =

66.08063W
π
Thrust T = 8 ρ2 D (DV)2 … 3.2

T = thrust

D = propeller diameter =1.225kg/m3

DV = velocity of air accelerated by

propeller (m/s)

T × DV
P
2
2P
DV =
T

π 2P 2
T = [ P 2 D ( ) ] … 3.3
8 T

1
π 3
T = ( P 2 DP 2 )
2
1
π 3
T = ( × 1.2252 × 0.254 × 66.080342 )
2

T = 13.77605 N per propeller

Hence for the four propellers:

T = 13.77605 x 4 = 55.1042N

Thrust to Weight Ratio Total weight of drone = WD

30
 WD = Mass x Acceleration due to gravity

Taking g = 9.81ms −2

WD = 2.7764kg x 9.81ms−2 = 27.23648N

55.1042
Thrust to weight ratio = 27.2364 = 2.023176

Battery Capacity Battery capacity= 2200mAh = 2.2 Ah

Battery output voltage = 14.8 V

Energy stored in battery Eb = Q v

Where Q = battery capacity

Eb = 2.2Ah x 14.8 V

= 32.56 watt-hour

Battery power Pb = battery energy x

discharge rating

Pb = 35 x 32.56 = 1139.6W

Total current output = battery capacity x

discharge rating = 2.2Ah x 35 = 77Ah

Hover flight time Batteryamp

Time = n ×Motorhoveramp × 60min

(Maximum flight time, 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

Maximum current rating = 10A

Thrust at maximum current per propeller =

13.77065N

31
Hover thrust per motor =

Maximumtake −offweight 27.23648

= =
number of motors 4

6.809121N

Motor hover Amp per one motor =

6.809121
× 10A = 4.942724A
13.77065

Hover flight time, Tmax =

2.2
= 6.676481min
4×4.942724

32
 Average flight time =
Average Flight Time At 50% Throttle:
BatteryAmp
× 60min
4×motoramp at 50% throttle

Knowing the current rating, thrust per motor

50
Thrust at 50% throttle per motor = ×
100

13.77065 = 6.888025
2.2
Motor Amp at 50% throttle = ×
13.77065

10A = 5A
2.1
Average flight time = × 60min =
4×5

6.2min

Average Flight Time At 100% Throttle:

Average flight time =

BatteryAmp
× 60min
4×motoramp at full throttle

Motor Amp at full throttle = maximum

current rating per motor = 10A

2.1
Full throttle flight time = × 60 =
4×10

3.1min

33
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 Introduction

In this study, a UAV (quadcopter) capable of spraying agricultural fertilizer over farmlands

is designed and fabricated. The objective was to test various flight speeds and fertilizer

combinations to enable the UAV to accomplish the requirement and be successfully tested

and deployed in real-world environments. This report presents the results and discussion

of the implemented UAV system.

4.2 Results and Discussions

The agricultural drone was developed using locally sourced materials and integrated with

a spraying system capable of spreading fertilizer over farmlands. After the drone was

designed, a series of test were carried out with multiple flight and pump tests in mind.

Although, unable to fully carry out a proper flight test due to time constraints and several

other factors that prevented us from completing the project, sufficient knowledge and data

were obtained that leads us to believe that the project is not only feasible but also

economically safe and cost-efficient.

34
4.3 Computer Aided Design

Fig. 4. 1 - CAD Drawing Side View

Fig. 4. 2 - CAD Drawing Top View

35
 Fig. 4. 3 - CAD Drawing Angle View

4.4 Electronic Connections

Flight Controller Connections

The FC (Flight Controller) was connected directly to the ESC using an integration wire

that passed information directly from the FC to the ESC to speed calibration. The detailed

description of the connection is labelled below.

As seen in the picture, there are ports specifically made to hose the receiver wires as well

as ports created for the installation of gyro meter, antenna, and GPS compass. These ports

are to help the drone builders to expand or repurpose their drone to make it carry out more

complication functions.

36
 Fig. 4. 4 - Speedybee Flight Controller Connection Ports

Electronic Speed Controller Connections

The ESC (Electronic speed Controller) was connected to the motors as well as the FC. This

seamless connection allows the ESC to be controlled using the Flight Controller without

needing to integrate a new flight controller that we would need to recalibrate before it can

be used. The Electronic Speed Controller also holds the battery and a capacitor that is

responsible of supplying for any excess current drags that might occur while the motor is

put into the thrust position.

37
Fig. 4. 5 - Speedybee ESC Connection Ports

Fig. 4. 6 - Drone Electrical Connections

38
Automatic Pump Connection

The pump was designed to work using infrared technology. Connection of the pump system

was done to the tank on the bottom of the drone to maximize the output of the pump.

Fig. 4. 7 - The Drone Pump

The pump system was then connected to a transistor, a switch, and an Arduino chip that

would allow it to be switched off and on with a remote control. This setup turned out to not

be ideal since the SpeedyBee was turning off the system on its own due to the high amount

of voltage that the pump was drawing in order to continuously run. To counter this issue,

the pump was connected directly to the battery, integrating a separate circuit that would be

responsible for stepping down the high voltage of the battery so that it would be suitable

for running the pump. This allowed the pump to be connected to the battery and the ESC

while still working as an independent system that would only work with the infrared

remote.

39
Fig. 4. 8 - Electrical Connection for the Pump Remote

Fig. 4. 9 - Pictures of the Drone

40
 Fig. 4. 10 - Drone Assembly

4.5 Requirements For Large Scale Drone

About 1666.7 kg of NPK 6:10:0 fertilizer is required to cover 1 hectare (10,000 m²) of land.

The density of NPK 6:10:0 is 1300 kg/m³. This gives a volume of 1.282 m³ of fertilizer

required. Considering the design of a drone that can take off with a payload of 25 liters

(0.025 m³) of fertilizer, below will be the required specifications needed for the drone:

Volume of Liquid Payload 0.025 m³

Battery Voltage 18.5 V

Propeller Constant 0.015

Density of Fertilizer 1300 kg/m³

Radius of 2045 Propeller 0.254 m

41
 Mass of Drone without Payload 16.62 kg

Mass of Payload 32.5 kg

Motor Rating 2600 KVA

Resulting Calculations:

Based on the equations used in Chapter 3, the characteristics of the drone will be:

Mass of Drone with Payload 49.12 kg

Weight of Drone with Payload 481.89 N

No Load Speed of Motors 48100 RPM

Power 3622.059 watts

Thrust per Propeller 250.45 N

Total Thrust 1001.803 N

Thrust to Weight Ratio 2.0789

The value of the thrust to weight ratio is 2, which is the requirement for a drone to fly

effectively.

42
4.6 Cost Analysis for large Scale Drone

Table 4. 1 - Cost Analysis for Large Scale Drone

COMPONENTS PRICES (₦)

Brushless DC Motors x 4 29,150

Speedybee Flight Controller 43,000

Speedybee Electronic Speed Controller 44,000

Carbon Fiber Propellers x 4 18,200

LiPo Battery 125,000

16 kg of Carbon Fiber (37,500 per kg) 600,000

Mini Pump 2,400

FlySky FS-i6 and AFHDS 2A Radio System Transmitter and Receiver 101,480

Arduino Uno 13,000

Transistor (BD437) 1,000

10,000 Ohm Resistor 800

Integrated Circuit 700

Switch 1000

43
 TOTAL 979,730

4.7 Testing

After the product was constructed, multiple tests were carried out to ensure that it worked

properly. The testing phases, problems encountered, and possible solutions to the problems

will be listed out below.

i. Integration Tests:

During this testing period, the SpeedyBee Flight controller and Electronic

Speed controllers were tested to ensure that they were working properly as a

single unit. It was ensured that there would be no issues with the motors chosen

for the drone and that they fit perfectly with the propellers we planned to use.

During this test, the main issue encountered was with the pump system. It was

nearly impossible to get it to work properly with the SpeedyBee, and an external

electronics engineer had to be enlisted to guide the team through the use of

Arduino for the integration.

ii. Functional Tests:

After the Integration tests, the next major tests carried out were the functional

tests. In these tests, each individual component was tested to make sure that

they worked independently of each other. The motors, flight controller, and

electronic speed controller, as well as the pump and landing gear, were all tested

to ensure there would be no issues with them during their performance tests.

There were no major issues encountered during this test period.

44
 iii. Performance Test:

Lastly, the performance test was carried out where all the components were

placed together and tested to ensure they interacted properly. Unfortunately, at

the time of this test, most of the available testing time had already elapsed, so

the proper number of tests could not be carried out, leaving the drone

unfinished.

4.8 Problems Encountered

There were a host of issues encountered during the course of the project. These problems

ranged from the lack of stipulated time for carrying out the project to the delay experienced

during the delivery of ordered products. Some of the more dire problems experienced are

listed below:

i. Delay in Product Delivery:

Many of the products used in the project were ordered from foreign distributors, therefore,

there was need to wait a minimum of two weeks before they arrived in the country for us

to begin integrating them into the drone.

ii. Time Constraint:

The time given to begin development and complete the drone was not sufficient to carry

out all the tests that needed to be conducted. Only being able to perform two major tests

before our time ran out and it was time for the project defense. The second test showed

much more promising results compared to the first test, with the certainty that if there was

45
enough funding and more time allocated towards the project, the drone would have been

finished completely.

iii. Faulty Material:

One of the motors bought from the foreign seller turned out to be slightly faulty - it was

not receiving as much power from the ESC as the other motors, making it slower than the

others. This prevented the drone from having a stable takeoff, and it only hovered slightly

before it crashed. Plans were made to buy a new motor, but the time constraint prevented

us from being able to do so.

iv. Unforeseen Accidents:

A high current flow during one of our tests led to our receiver burning and prevented us

from carrying out tests for a few days. The next option was, to reach out to the Department

of Mechatronics Engineering in order to borrow one of their receivers in order to perform

our second test.

4.9 Reasoning Behind Drone Flight Issues.

As stated above, there were various issues that prevented the proper completion of the

project. But with regards to the flight, this turned out to be the main issue as the lack of

proper thrust in one of the motors, which led to an imbalance and uneven weight

distribution in the arms.

There was a certain motor (motor 3) which seemed to receive less current from the battery

than the others, and therefore could not perform as well as them.

This prevented the drone from taking off properly and caused many crashes during the

testing phases.

46
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Conclusion and Recommendation

The aim of the project was to construct an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for agricultural

purposes which is capable of carrying and spraying fertilizer and pesticide over vegetation.

The drone parameters calculated satisfied the requirement for a drone to fly successfully,

which is to have a thrust to weight ratio of at least 2. The thrust to weight ratio of the design

was gotten as 2.023 meaning the drone is supposed to fly properly. Proper flying of the

drone was not achieved due to improper weight distribution on the drone as well as a motor

not functioning properly causing the drone to tilt towards the South-East direction. Equally

distributing the weight on the drone should lead to it functioning properly. Also, the

spraying mechanism of the drone functioned properly using a remote to switch it on and

off. This shows that a cost-effective drone that can be used for agricultural purposes is very

feasible and well within reach. This would greatly help in boosting the productivity of the

agricultural sector, cutting long term cost and reducing the health implications suffered due

to prolonged contact with these chemicals.

47
5.2 Recommendation

Although there was substantial progress in the development of the drone, there are still

many things that can be done to improve and develop the drone to make it more effective.

1. Proper weight distribution analysis:

Weight distribution should be properly done to ensure that the center of mass corresponds

with the center of gravity. This would prevent the drone from tipping to one direction when

flying, which would cause it to flip, lose control, and crash. The drone currently has a

centered mass, but the center of gravity is not centered, which prevents the drone from

taking off properly.

2. Ensure your flight controller and remote control have the same signal and are well

calibrated:

The issue that occurred with our remote controller due to the destructive interference it had

with our flight controller. This made it impossible for us to use the remote controller with

our flight controller. Before you get a flight controller, ensure that you do proper research

on which ones are compatible and how much power they can take before they are ruined.

3. Print a drone frame if you cannot buy one:

Although there is no regret in our choice of using local materials to create our drone, it

would have been much more balanced if the frame had been printed (or bought) rather than

handmade. There is a certain appeal that comes with creating something like this with your

own hands, but nothing beats the accuracy of a machine, and we would suggest you simply

buy a reusable frame to prevent any future hassles.

4. Reintegrate the firmware to use ArduPilot rather than BetaFlight:

48
The firmware that your flight controller works on is probably going to be Betaflight, but it

will do you good to use ArduPilot instead since it is an easier firmware that supports

beginners more readily than Betaflight. If your Flight Controller already works with

ArduPilot, then there is no need to change it.

5. Don’t be afraid to crash. You will.

No useful drone has ever been built without one or two crashes during testing. That is just

a part of the process. Do not be afraid to crash because it is an inevitability. Rather, buy an

excess of plastic propellers and use those for the crash tests while protecting your drone as

much as possible.

REFERENCES

[1] H. O. Erkol, “Attitude controller optimization of four-rotor unmanned air vehicle,”

International Journal of Micro Air Vehicles, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 42–49, 2018, doi:

10.1177/1756829317734835.

[2] G. Dutta and P. Goswami, “Application of drone in agriculture: A review,” Int J

Chem Stud, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 181–187, 2020, doi:

10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i5d.10529.

[3] F. Veroustraete, “The Rise of the Drones in Agriculture,” EC Agriculture, vol. 2,

no. 2, pp. 325–327, 2015.

[4] M. F. F. Rahman, S. Fan, Y. Zhang, and L. Chen, “A comparative study on

application of unmanned aerial vehicle systems in agriculture,” Agriculture

(Switzerland), vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 1–26, 2021, doi: 10.3390/agriculture11010022.

49
[5] B. D. Vilela, K. Kokkera, A. Chapnevis, and E. Bulut, UAV Control Using Eye

Gestures: Exploring the Skies Through Your Eyes, vol. 1, no. 1. Association for

Computing Machinery, 2023. doi: 10.1145/3565287.3617619.

[6] S. G. Rajput, M. S. Thakur, C. V Wagh, and M. D. Mahale, “a Review on

Agricultural Drone Used in Smart Farming,” International Research Journal of

Engineering and Technology, pp. 313–316, 2021.

[7] S. Yoon, P. V. Diaz, D. D. Boyd, W. M. Chan, and C. R. Theodore,

“Computational aerodynamic modeling of small quadcopter vehicles,” Annual

Forum Proceedings - AHS International, pp. 371–386, 2017.

[8] E. Yilmaz and J. Hu, “CFD Study of Quadcopter Aerodynamics at Static Thrust

Conditions Electronics thermal management View project Quadcopter

aerodynamics View project CFD Study of Quadcopter Aerodynamics at Static

Thrust Conditions,” no. April, 2018.

[9] H. M. Kandeel, E. A. Abdelmaksod, and A. O. Elnady, “Modeling and Control of

X-Shape Quadcopter,” no. February, 2022, doi: 10.9790/1684-1901034657.

[10] A. N. Khan, L. Pandya, A. Kashyap, and R. Mehta, “A Design of Quadcopter with

Arduino-Based Air-Sensing Engine,” INROADS- An International Journal of

Jaipur National University, vol. 7, no. si, p. 98, 2018, doi: 10.5958/2277-

4912.2018.00018.8.

[11] J. del Cerro, C. C. Ulloa, A. Barrientos, and J. de León Rivas, “Unmanned aerial

vehicles in agriculture: A survey,” Agronomy, vol. 11, no. 2, 2021, doi:

10.3390/agronomy11020203.

50
[12] G. de Alteriis, D. Accardo, C. Conte, and R. S. Lo Moriello, “Performance

enhancement of consumer-grade mems sensors through geometrical redundancy,”

Sensors, vol. 21, no. 14, 2021, doi: 10.3390/s21144851.

[13] A. Rohan, M. Rabah, and S. H. Kim, “Convolutional Neural Network-Based Real-

Time Object Detection and Tracking for Parrot AR Drone 2,” IEEE Access, vol. 7,

pp. 69575–69584, 2019, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2919332.

[14] P. Kardasz and J. Doskocz, “Drones and Possibilities of Their Using,” Journal of

Civil & Environmental Engineering, vol. 6, no. 3, 2016, doi: 10.4172/2165-

784x.1000233.

[15] G. Ipate, G. Voicu, and I. Dinu, “Research on the use of drones in precision

agriculture,” UPB Scientific Bulletin, Series D: Mechanical Engineering, vol. 77,

no. 4, pp. 263–274, 2015.

[16] T. Kosch, M. Weise, M. Funk, T. Müller, D. Vietz, and A. Schmidt, “DronectRL:

A tangible remote input control for quadcopters,” UIST 2018 Adjunct - Adjunct

Publication of the 31st Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and

Technology, pp. 120–122, 2018, doi: 10.1145/3266037.3266121.

[17] V. Puri, A. Nayyar, and L. Raja, “Agriculture drones: A modern breakthrough in

precision agriculture,” Journal of Statistics and Management Systems, vol. 20, no.

4, pp. 507–518, 2017, doi: 10.1080/09720510.2017.1395171.

[18] D. Yallappa, M. Veerangouda, D. Maski, V. Palled, and M. Bheemanna,

“Development and evaluation of drone mounted sprayer for pesticide applications

to crops,” GHTC 2017 - IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference,

51
 Proceedings, vol. 2017-Janua, no. October 2017, pp. 1–7, 2017, doi:

10.1109/GHTC.2017.8239330.

[19] K. N. Baluprithviraj, P. Naveena, and R. Palanisamy, “Quadcopter based

Automatic Spattering of Pesticides and Fertilizers,” pp. 1–14, 2016.

[20] K. Borodacz, C. Szczepański, and S. Popowski, “Review and selection of

commercially available IMU for a short time inertial navigation,” Aircraft

Engineering and Aerospace Technology, vol. 94, no. 1, pp. 45–59, 2022, doi:

10.1108/AEAT-12-2020-0308.

[21] R. Noda et al., “Development of bio-inspired low-noise propeller for a drone,”

Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 337–343, 2018, doi:

10.20965/jrm.2018.p0337.

[22] D. Mohanraj et al., “A Review of BLDC Motor: State of Art, Advanced Control

Techniques, and Applications,” IEEE Access, vol. 10, pp. 54833–54869, 2022, doi:

10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3175011.

[23] A. Aabid, B. Parveez, N. Parveen, S. A. Khan, J. M. Zayan, and O. Shabbir,

“Reviews on Design and Development of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle ( Drone ) for

Different Applications,” vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 53–69, 2022.

[24] F. Md Ahmed, M. N. Zafar, and J. C. Mohanta, “Modeling and Analysis of

Quadcopter F450 Frame,” 2020 International Conference on Contemporary

Computing and Applications, IC3A 2020, no. September, pp. 196–201, 2020, doi:

10.1109/IC3A48958.2020.233296.

[25] K. Sayler, “A World of Proliferated Drones,” Center for a New American Security,

no. June, p. 40, 2015.

52
[26] J. Bright, R. Suryaprakash, S. Akash, and A. Giridharan, “Optimization of

quadcopter frame using generative design and comparison with DJI F450 drone

frame,” IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng, vol. 1012, no. 1, p. 012019, 2021, doi:

10.1088/1757-899x/1012/1/012019.

[27] K. N. Shah, B. J. Dutt, and H. Modh, “Quadrotor – An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle,”

International Journal of Engineering Development and Research (IJEDR), vol. 2,

no. 1, pp. 1299–1303, 2014.

[28] P. Wei, Z. Yang, and Q. Wang, “The Design of Quadcopter Frame Based On

Finite Element Analysis,” Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on

Mechatronics, Robotics and Automation, vol. 15, no. Icmra, pp. 1353–1356, 2015,

doi: 10.2991/icmra-15.2015.260.

[29] V. Carev, J. Roháč, M. Šipoš, and M. Schmirler, “A multilayer brushless dc motor

for heavy lift drones,” Energies (Basel), vol. 14, no. 9, 2021, doi:

10.3390/en14092504.

[30] M.-G. Yoon, “On Driving Signal of Electronic Speed Controller for Small Multi-

Rotor Helicopter,” International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology

(IJERT), vol. 4, no. 11, pp. 456–459, 2015.

[31] C. Pérez-D’arpino et al., “Development of a low cost inertial measurement unit for

UAV applications with Kalman Filter based attitude determination,” 2011 IEEE

Conference on Technologies for Practical Robot Applications, TePRA 2011, no.

January 2014, pp. 178–183, 2011, doi: 10.1109/TEPRA.2011.5753503.

[32] I. Penkov and D. Aleksandrov, “Analysis and study of the influence of the

geometrical parameters of mini unmanned quad-rotor helicopters to optimise

53
 energy saving,” International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering,

vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 4730–4746, 2017, doi: 10.15282/ijame.14.4.2017.11.0372.

[33] C.-Y. Wang, T. Xu, S. Ge, G. Zhang, X.-G. Yang, and Y. Ji, “A Fast Rechargeable

Lithium-Ion Battery at Subfreezing Temperatures,” J Electrochem Soc, vol. 163,

no. 9, pp. A1944–A1950, 2016, doi: 10.1149/2.0681609jes.

[34] F. H. Wen, F. Y. Hsiao, and J. K. Shiau, “Analysis and management of motor

failures of hexacopter in hover,” Actuators, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 1–29, 2021, doi:

10.3390/act10030048.

[35] Z. Feng et al., “An efficient UAV hijacking detection method using onboard

inertial measurement unit,” ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems,

vol. 17, no. 6, 2019, doi: 10.1145/3289390.

[36] D. Nasution, D. Nasution, A. Putera, and U. Siahaan, “Uncertainty Estimation of

Drone Propellers Acceleration and Stability,” International Journal of Engineering

Development and Research Jend. Gatot Subroto Km. Imam Bonjol, vol. 4, no.

4179, pp. 2321–9939, 2016.

[37] K. D. Carey, N. Zimmerman, and C. Ababei, “Hybrid field oriented and direct

torque control for sensorless BLDC motors used in aerial drones,” IET Power

Electronics, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 438–449, 2019, doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2018.5231.

[38] Y. Choi and P. M. Schonfeld, “Optimization of Multi-package Drone Deliveries

Considering Battery Capacity,” Transportation Research Board 96th Annual

Meeting, no. January 2017, p. 16, 2017.

54
[39] Adam S. Hollinger, Dylan R. McAnallen, Matthew T. Brockett, Scott C. DeLaney,

Jun Ma, and Christopher D. Rahn, “Cylindrical lithium ion batteries for drones,”

Wiley Energy Research. pp. 1–6, 2020.

[40] A. K. D and A. R, “Drone Integrated Weather Sensors for Agriculture Purpose,”

International Journal of Electrical Engineering and Technology, vol. 11, no. 5, pp.

83–90, 2020, doi: 10.34218/ijeet.11.5.2020.009.

[41] W. Manamperi, T. D. Abhayapala, J. Zhang, and P. N. Samarasinghe, “Estimating

Drone Motor Related Acoustic Transfer Function: A Preliminary Investigation,”

2020 Asia-Pacific Signal and Information Processing Association Annual Summit

and Conference, APSIPA ASC 2020 - Proceedings, no. December, pp. 156–160,

2020.

[42] E. Cheng, Aerial photography and videography using drones. 2016.

[43] M. Perdana, P. Prastiawan, and S. Hadi, “Mechanical Properties of Composite

Waste Material Based Styrofoam, Baggase and Eggshell Powder for Application

of Drone Frames,” IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci, vol. 97, no. 1, 2017, doi:

10.1088/1755-1315/97/1/012034.

[44] Karan Kumar Shaw and Vimalkumar. R, “Design and Development of a Drone for

Spraying Pesticides, Fertilizers and Disinfectants,” International Journal of

Engineering Research and, vol. V9, no. 05, pp. 1181–1185, 2020, doi:

10.17577/ijertv9is050787.

[45] M. Islam, I. Husain, and R. Mikail, “Slotless lightweight motor for drone

applications,” 2017 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition, ECCE

2017, vol. 2017-Janua, pp. 5041–5048, 2017, doi: 10.1109/ECCE.2017.8096851.

55
[46] Kristen N. Mogensen, “Motor-control considerations for electronic speed control

in drones,” Analog Applications Journal, vol. Dynamic Mo, pp. 1–7, 2016.

[47] K.-Y. Choi, S.-A. Jang, and Y.-H. Kim, “Calibration of Inertial Measurement

Units Using Pendulum Motion,” International Journal of Aeronautical and Space

Sciences, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 234–239, 2010, doi: 10.5139/ijass.2010.11.3.234.

[48] M. Sato, M. Nirei, Y. Yamanaka, T. Suzuki, Y. Bu, and T. Mizuno, “Increasing

the efficiency of a drone motor by arranging magnetic sheets to windings,” Energy

Reports, vol. 6, pp. 439–446, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2019.11.100.

[49] Y. N. Cooper, R. K. Ganesh Ram, V. Kalaichelvi, and V. Bhatia, “Stabilization

and control of an autonomous quadcopter,” Applied Mechanics and Materials, vol.

666, no. December, pp. 161–165, 2014, doi:

10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.666.161.

[50] R. Katukam, “Design of A Quad Copter and Fabrication,” International Journal of

Innovations in Engineering and Technology (IJIET), vol. 4, no. 1, p. 59, 2014.

[51] I. Penkov and D. Aleksandrov, “Propeller shrouding influence on lift force of mini

unmanned quadcopter,” International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical

Engineering, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 4486–4495, 2017, doi:

10.15282/ijame.14.3.2017.7.0354.

[52] M. N. Boukoberine, Z. Zhou, and M. Benbouzid, “Power Supply Architectures for

Drones - A Review,” IECON Proceedings (Industrial Electronics Conference),

vol. 2019-Octob, no. October, pp. 5826–5831, 2019, doi:

10.1109/IECON.2019.8927702.

56
[53] S. Yadav, M. Sharma, and A. Borad, “Thrust Efficiency of Drones (Quad

Copter) With Different Propellers and There Payload Capacity,” International

Journal of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 18–23, 2017.

[54] M. F. Sani and G. Karimian, “Automatic navigation and landing of an indoor AR.

Drone quadrotor using ArUco marker and inertial sensors,” 1st International

Conference on Computer and Drone Applications: Ethical Integration of

Computer and Drone Technology for Humanity Sustainability, IConDA 2017, vol.

2018-Janua, no. March, pp. 102–107, 2017, doi: 10.1109/ICONDA.2017.8270408.

[55] Y. Patel, S. Krovvidi, A. Gaurav, K. Srinivas, and Y. Singh, “International Journal

of Advanced Production and Industrial Engineering A Review on Design and

Analysis of the propeller used in UAV International Journal of Advanced

Production and Industrial Engineering INNOVATIVE DESIGN &

COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING A Revi,” no. January, 2019.

[56] A. Gong and D. Verstraete, “Experimental testing of electronic speed controllers

for UAVs,” 53rd AIAA/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, 2017, no. July,

2017, doi: 10.2514/6.2017-4955.

[57] W. Pomeranian, “Łukasz PRZENIOSŁO, Marcin HOŁUB Efficient electronic

speed controller algorithm for multirotor flying vehicles,” pp. 2–3, 2018.

[58] D. Aleksandrov and I. Penkov, “Optimization of lift force of mini quadrotor

helicopter by changing of gap size between rotors,” Solid State Phenomena, vol.

198, pp. 226–231, 2013, doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/SSP.198.226.

[59] Y. A. Abd Rahman, M. T. Hajibeigy, A. S. M. Al-Obaidi, and K. H. Cheah,

“Design and Fabrication of Small Vertical-Take-Off-Landing Unmanned Aerial

57
 Vehicle,” MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 152, 2018, doi:

10.1051/matecconf/201815202023.

[60] P. Patel, “New battery tech launches in drones [News],” IEEE Spectr, vol. 55, no.

7, pp. 7–9, 2018, doi: 10.1109/mspec.2018.8389171.

58