Cluster Session 3

Lecturer: Engr. Heide de Guzman

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- Vitamins are essential organic
nutrients, required in small
amounts

- They cannot be synthesized by the body. Must be

obtained by outside sources like diet, rumen
bacteria & sun.

- Required for growth, maintenance,

reproduction and lactation. 6
 A dioxygenase converts ß-
carotene of dietary origin to 2
molecules of Vit. A retinal.
They are precursor
forms of vitamins.
➢Carotene (Provitamin
form of Vit. A) In presence of ultra violet
➢7-dehydrocholesterol (UV) light provitamins of
vit. D are converted to
and
corresponding vitamins.
➢ergosterol
(Provitamin forms of
vit. D).
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 ❖ Avidin present in raw egg white
binds biotin and prevent its
absorption. This leads to biotin
deficiency.

• Antagonists of
vitamins.
• Cause vitamin
deficiency. ❖ Vit. K antagonists are used as anti
coagulants. Dicoumarol and
• Some anti vitamins warfarin are Vit. k antagonists
used as anticoagulants.
are used as drugs.
• Present in foods.
• Some drugs are anti
vitamins.
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 ❖ Isoniazid is used in treatment
of tuberculosis. It prevents
formation of pyridoxal
❖ Folic acid antagonists are phosphate. So pyridoxine
used as anti cancer drugs. deficiency is likely to occur in
They are aminopterin and isoniazid treatment.
amethopterin.
❖ Aminopterin and
amethopterin (Methotrexate)
– inhibit DNA synthesis
especially in cancer cells

❖ Thiaminase destroys thiamine

of foods. Hence thiamine
deficiency occurs.

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 Vitamins do NOT provide energy. They do NOT build the body physically. They
do perform very specific functions by working in compounds called ‘enzymes’.
Enzymes have two parts: the protein molecule and its helper…the coenzyme made
out of a vitamin.

PROTEIN
VITAMIN
MOLECULE
COENZYME The two parts, the
vitamin and the
protein, create this
enzyme.

The function of the enzyme is to speed up reactions, such as digestion, metabolism

and cellular reproduction. A deficiency of a vitamin does not stop the work of the
enzyme, but the enzyme will function must less efficiently. Long-term deficiencies
can result in cellular death, causing body damage difficult or impossible to repair.
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1. The amounts of vitamin that are considered
essential are much smaller.
2. Vitamins may be inactive by such factors as
oxidation, heat, exposure to light, presence of
alkalies, etc.
3. They may exist in an inactive form and need to
be activated by irradiation or enzyme action in
order to become physiologically effective.

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 The two types of vitamins are
classified by the materials in which
they will dissolve.

Fat-soluble vitamins -- vitamins A, D, E and K --

dissolve in fat before they are absorbed in the
blood stream to carry out their functions.
Excesses of these vitamins are stored in the liver.
Because they are stored, they are not needed
every day in the diet.

By contrast, water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored; they are
eliminated in urine. We need a continuous supply of them in our diets. The water-
soluble vitamins are the B-complex group and vitamin C.
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 VITAMINS A, D, E, & K.
Vitamins are organic substances
in food, that are needed in very
small amounts for growth and for
maintaining good health. There are
vitamins that dissolve in water, and
4 vitamins that dissolve in fat:
A, D, E, & K

The 4 fat soluble vitamins are absorbed

by fat globules, allowing them to travel
through the intestinal walls and into the
bloodstream. Largest amounts of fat-
soluble vitamins are found in fatty
foods and fish-liver oils. 13
 Absorption of fat-soluble Fat malabsorption
vitamins takes place in the syndromes or bowel
small intestine and diseases (e.g., cystic
depends on the presence fibrosis, ulcerative
of bile and pancreatic colitis, cholestatic
juices. Excess vitamins liver disease,
are stored in the liver and Crohn's disease) are
adipose (fatty) tissues of associated with poor
the body. Fat-soluble absorption of these
vitamins are generally vitamins.
excreted more slowly than
water-soluble vitamins.

Fat-soluble vitamins are not destroyed by normal

cooking methods. They are stable to heat and
light. They are destroyed by alkalis, such as
baking soda. Some cooks add small amounts of
baking soda when cooking vegetables to mellow
harsh flavors and brighten colors. 14
15
 Vitamin A
Anti-infective isanti-xeropthalmic
and also known vitamin
as
retinol.
It is present in many
Plants do not contain vitamin A,
animal products, and is
but many dark-green or dark-
readily absorbed from
yellow plants contain
those dietary sources in
carotenoids that are ‘precursors’
the small intestine.
of Vitamin A. They can be
converted to Vitamin A (retinol)
within the intestinal mucosa just
prior to absorption. Carotenoids
are yellow, orange, and red
pigments present in plants.
Green vegetables also contain
carotenoids, though the pigment
is masked by the green pigment
of chlorophyll. Beta-carotene is
the name of a carotenoid. 16
 They are also known as retinoids. These
❑ Retinol three form of vit A are derived from a 20
❑ Retinal carbon compound which contains ß-
❑ Retinoic acid ionine ring and isoprenoid side chain.
Double bonds are present in side chain.
1912: English biochemist Frederick Gowland
Hopkins - unknown factors present in milk that were
not fats, proteins or carbohydrates, but were required
to aid growth in rats
➢ Awarded the Nobel Prize in 1929

I918: these “accessory factors”

were described as fat soluble
1920: referred to as vitamin A.
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Vitamin A can be artificially added to milk
and fortified cereals.

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 Carotenoids are less easily absorbed than retinol and must be converted
to retinol by the body. The most recent international standard of measure
for vitamin A is retinol activity equivalents (RAE).
Life Stage Age Males Females
Adolescents 14 years 900 mcg RAE /day 700 mcg RAE /day
and adults and older 3,000 IU/day 2,333 IU/day

Type of Food Amount Vit A per serv. Vit A per serv.

Cod liver oil 1 tsp. 1350 mcg RAE 4,500 IU
Fortified breakfast cereal 1 serving 150-230 mcg RAE 500-767 IU
Egg 1 large 91 mcg RAE 303 IU
Whole milk 1 cup 68 mcg RAE 227 IU
2% fat Vit. A enriched milk 1 cup 134 mcg RAE 447 IU
Sweet potato, canned ½ cup mashed 555 mcg RAE 1,848 IU
Pumpkin, canned ½ cup 953 mcg RAE 3,177 IU
Carrot, raw and chopped ½ cup 538 mcg RAE 1,793 IU
Cantaloupe ½ med melon 467 mcg RAE 1,555 IU
Spinach, cooked ½ cup cooked 472 mcg RAE 1,572 IU
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Broccoli, cooked ½ cup cooked 60 mcg RAE 200 IU
 1. Maintains and strengthens the skin

2. Maintains health of specialized

tissues such as the retina of the eye

3. Maintenance of the mucosal

tissues and secretions, which in turn
are responsible for normal
functioning of the immune system;
4. Normal bone development

5. Maintenance of the reproductive system:

required for sperm production in the male and
regulate reproductive cycles in the female.20
 Visual Cycle
Visual cycle is the
sensory transduction of
the visual system. It is a
process by which light is
converted into electrical
signals in the rod cells,
cone cells and
photosensitive ganglion
cells of the retina of the
eye.
▪ George Wald

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 Excess Vitamin A is stored in
the liver. In a well-nourished
person, there may be a 2 - 12
month supply stored at any
given time. A large surplus will
accumulate in the liver and
may be harmful. Such
excessive intakes are less
likely to result from over-eating Side effects of vitamin A
than through the over-use of excess/overdose include nausea,
manmade vitamin pills or itchiness, irritability, vomiting,
headaches, menstrual problems,
dietary supplements. dizziness, pimples, and birth
Overdoses of manmade defects. Long term vitamin A
Vitamin A is called overdose can lead to liver
‘Hypervitaminosis A’ damage, pain in the muscles 22 and
bone, and headaches.
 Xerophthalmia (zîr'əf-thăl'mē-ə) is a
major cause of preventable blindness in
children, especially in developing
countries. It is an inflammation of the
cornea (the clear covering of the eye).
Bitot's Spots (′bē·tōs ′späts) are
distinct elevated white patches on the
conjunctiva, the membrane that covers
most of the visible part of the eye.
Night Blindness or Nyctalopia
(nĭk'tə-lō'pē-ə) or is a condition making
it difficult or impossible to see in dim
Zinc deficiencies interfere with light.
Vitamin A metabolism. Vitamin A deficiency causes
Vitamin A deficiencies exacerbates hardening and roughening of the
iron-deficiency-anemia. Chronic skin, acne, birth defects, and
alcohol consumption depletes liver degeneration of mucous
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stores of vitamin A. membranes.
 Normal (on the right) and vitamin A-deficient rat (on the
left). Deficiencies result in a dryness and soreness which
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causes the eye lid to cake and to stick together.
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 Vitamin D is another fat-soluble
vitamin. It is essential for
maintaining normal calcium
metabolism. Vitamin D can be
synthesized by humans in the
epidermis of the skin upon
exposure to ultraviolet-B (UVB)
radiation from sunlight, or it can
be obtained from the diet.

Vitamin D works hand-

in-hand with calcium.
Neither can work alone. 26
 ➢ In 1919, Sir Edward
Mellanby in Great
Britain observed dogs
Two cholesterol derivatives who were fed a diet of
mostly oatmeal and
ergocalciferol also known as vit.
kept indoors away from
D2 cholecalciferol also known as the sun could be cured
vit. D3 exhibits vit. D activity. of the disease by
providing cod liver oil.
➢ In 1932, the structure of
vit. D was identified
when Askew et al. were
able to isolate vitamin
D2 from a mixture of
ergosterol
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 As little as 5-10 minutes of sun
exposure on arms and legs or face and
arms three times weekly between 7:00
am and 9:00 am should provide a light-
skinned individual with adequate
vitamin D

Vitamin D is found naturally

in very few foods: some fatty fish
(mackerel, salmon, sardines), fish liver
oils, and eggs. In the U.S. and Canada,
it is a common nutritional additive to
milk, orange juice, and cereals. Check
product labels.

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 The issue of sunlight exposure confounds the existing data on vitamin D
requirements, making it impossible to accurately calculate daily needs. The
Recommended Dietary Allowances, therefore, have be set with the assumption
that no vitamin D is being synthesized in the skin through exposure to sunlight.
Life Stage Age Males Females
Adolescents 14-50 5 mcg /day 5 mcg /day
and adults years 200 IU/day 200 IU/day
Adults 51-70 10 mcg /day 10 mcg /day
years 400 IU/day 400 IU/day

Food Serving Size Vitamin D (mcg) Vitamin D (IU)

Pink Salmon 3 ounces 13.3 530

Cow’s milk, 8ounces 2.5 98

fortified
with Vitamin D
Cereal, enriched 1 serving 1.0-1.3 40-50
Egg yolk 1 large 0.53 21 29
1. Vitamin D is essential for the efficient
metabolism and utilization of calcium by
the body. Maintenance of calcium levels
within a narrow range is vital for normal
functioning of the nervous system.

2. Works with calcium for bone growth

and maintenance of bone density.

3. Adequate vitamin D levels may be

important for decreasing the risk high
blood pressure.

4. Plays a role in insulin secretion

under conditions of increased insulin
demand. 30
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 Vitamin D toxicity, known as Hypervitaminosis D, induces
abnormally high calcium levels (Hypercalcemia), which
could result in bone loss, kidney stones, and calcification of
organs like the heart and kidneys if untreated over a long
period of time. Excessive exposure to sunlight does not
lead to vitamin D toxicity. Excesses are usually attributed to
overdoses of dietary supplements.
Like Vitamin A, a
surplus of Vitamin D
is stored in the liver
and body fat.

An individual experiencing vitamin D poisoning

may complain of weakness, fatigue, loss of
appetite, nausea, and vomiting. In infants and
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children there may be growth failure.
 In infants and children, severe
vitamin D deficiency results in the
failure of bone to mineralize, a disease
called Rickets. Rapidly growing bones
are most severely affected by rickets.
The growth plates of bones continue to
enlarge, but in the absence of adequate
mineralization, weight-bearing limbs
(arms and legs) become bowed.

Vitamin D deficiency causes muscle weakness and pain in

children and adults. In adults it may develop into osteomalacia, a
disease characterized by poorly calcified, softened bones.
Vitamin D deficiencies increase the risk of osteoporosis, which33is a
progressive loss of bone density.
 There are numerous factors that place people at a
higher risk of having a vitamin D deficiency:
1. Infants that are exclusively breast-fed
2. Individuals with dark skin, as they don’t synthesize
Vitamin D as well as those with light skin
3. Elderly individuals, as they have reduced ability to
synthesize Vitamin D when exposed to UVB
radiation and they stay indoors more.
4. Individuals covering all exposed skin or using
sunscreen whenever outside
5. People with malabsorption syndromes such as
cystic fibrosis or cholestatic liver disease
6. People with inflammatory bowel disease, like
Crohn’s disease
7. People who are obese.
8. People who live in cloudy climates or cities with The application of
contaminated air that may lack sufficient amounts sunscreen with an
of ultraviolet rays. SPF factor of 8
9. Individuals who consume mineral oil, and the fat reduces production
substitute Olestra, as they interfere with of vitamin D by 95%.
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absorption of Vitamin D.
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 The term vitamin E describes a
family of eight antioxidants.
Alpha-tocopherol (ăl'fə-tō-kŏf'ə-rôl‘) is the only form of
vitamin E that is actively maintained in the human body.
Alpha-tocopherol is the
form of vitamin E that
appears to have the
greatest nutritional
➢ Discovered by significance, and is found
Evans and Bishop in the largest quantities in
in 1922
the blood and tissue.
➢ 1930s revealed the
chemical structure
The acai berry (ah-sī-ē) is
and the biological
function of alpha- a source of omega 6 fatty
tocopherol. acids and alpha-
tocopherol.
The value of Vitamin E for topical skin care has not been verified. It may36have
some moisturizing qualities, but frequently causes an allergic reaction.
 Major sources of alpha-
tocopherol include vegetable
oils (corn, olive, sunflower,
safflower oils), nuts, whole
grains, dark berry juices, and
green leafy vegetables.

Cooking foods at high

temperatures destroys vitamin
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E.
 Life Stage Age Males Females
Adolescents 14-18 15 mg /day 15 mg /day
years 22.5 IU/day 22.5 IU/day
Adults 19 years 15 mg /day 15 mg /day
and older 22.5 IU/day 22.5 IU/day

Food Size of serving Alpha-tocopherol in mg

Olive oil 1 Tbsp 1.9
Soybean oil 1 Tbsp 1.2
Corn oil 1 Tbsp 1.9
Canola oil 1 Tbsp 2.4
Sunflower oil 1 Tbsp 5.6
Almonds 1 Tbsp 7.3
Hazelnuts 1 Tbsp 4.3
Peanuts 1 Tbsp 2.4
Spinach 1 Tbsp 1.8
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Avocado 1 medium 3.4
 The main function of Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) is that of
an antioxidant. An antioxidant is a substance that reduces or
prevents damage.
Free radicals are very reactive
atoms or molecules that
typically possess a single
unpaired electron. They are
formed in the body during
normal metabolism and also
upon exposure to
environmental factors such as
cigarette smoke, stress,
alcohol, lack of sleep, poor
diet, or pollutants. These free Fats and some proteins are the target of
radicals cause destruction by
free radical destruction. The result is
trying to remove electrons
from other molecules so they damage to the cell membranes and
will have a matched pair. This accelerated aging. It is also linked to
destruction is called Alzheimer’s disease, cataracts, heart
disease, Vitamin K usage, and cancer.39
oxidation.
 This is a free Now that the radical
radical with one This is the
has two electrons, he
unpaired electron. antioxidant is no longer free to do
He is destroying named Vitamin harm.
fat and some E. He prevents
More free radicals may
proteins, and the free radical
be created as a result
accelerating aging from continuing of tobacco, alcohol,
in a process called his destruction, stress, lack of sleep,
oxidation… while by giving him an poor diet, and
trying to find a extra electron to pollution. 40
second electron. hold onto.
 The risk of too much Vitamin E is low. Excess amounts
are stored or most likely excreted. Doses of over 800 IU a
day of vitamin E may interfere with the body's ability to
clot blood, posing a risk to people taking blood thinners
(anticoagulants).

Many surgeons
recommend the
discontinuation of
Vitamin E
supplements prior
to surgery, to avoid
the risk of
uncontrolled
hemorrhage. 41
 Vitamin E deficiency has been
observed in individuals with severe
malnutrition, some genetic defects,
and fat malabsorption syndromes
such as cystic fibrosis or
cholestatic liver disease. Severe
vitamin E deficiency results mainly
in neurological symptoms,
including impaired balance and
coordination, injury to the sensory
nerves, muscle weakness, and
damage to the retina of the eye.

Vitamin E deficiencies are rare. In fact, a symptomatic

vitamin E deficiency in healthy individuals who consume
diets low in vitamin E has never been reported. Excess
Vitamin E can be stored in fatty tissues of the body.42
 People in some European
countries consume diets high in
saturated fats. The French, for
example, enjoy meals that
include heavy sauces made with
cream and butter. Their
incidence of heart disease,
however, is not nearly as high as
people in the United States. How
might you account for that?
One idea relates to the amount of
red wine they consume with their
meals. It would contain an anti-
oxidant… and perhaps
counteracts the effects of the 43
saturated fats.
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Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin. The "K" is derived from
the German word "koagulation." Coagulation refers to the
process of blood clot formation.
Vitamin K exists in six forms.
•Vit. K1 occurs naturally. It is called
phytonadione (phylloquinone).
•Vit. K2 also occurs naturally and called
menaquinone (farnoquinone). Vit. K1 is a yellow
oil, while vit. K2 is a yellow crystalline solid.
•Vit. K3 or menadione is a synthetic product. It
is about three times as potent as vit. K1.

In 1920’s, Henrik Dam noticed that chicks fed

in extracted with non polar solvents developed
hemorrhages.
In 1935 – concluded that the antihemorrhagic
factor was a new fat soluble, which he called
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vit. K
 Vitamin K is essential for
the functioning of several
proteins involved in blood
clotting.
When an injury occurs, the
protein molecules (with
names like Factor II or
prothrombin, Factor VII,
Factor IX, and Factor X)
rapidly assemble and form
the blood clot.

The term thrombus or thrombosis refers to a blood clot.

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 Life Stage Age Males Females
mcg/day mcg/day
Adolescents 14-18 yrs 75 75
Adult 19 years 120 90
and older

1 cup dark green or green leafy vegetables per day would provide
an adequate supply of vitamin K.
Food Serving Vitamin K (mcg)

Olive oil 1Tbsp 8.1

Soybean oil 1 Tbsp 25.0
Canola oil 1 Tbsp 16.6
Broccoli, cooked 1 cup, chopped 220
Spinach, raw 1 cup 145
Parsley ¼ cup 246
Leaf lettuce, raw 1 cup, shredded 62.5 48
 The best dietary sources of
vitamin K are green leafy
vegetables such as spinach,
broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
cabbage and lettuce. Other rich
sources are certain vegetable oils.
Good sources include oats,
potatoes, tomatoes, asparagus
and butter. Lower levels are found
in beef, pork, ham, milk, carrots,
corn, most fruits and many other
vegetables.

A portion of the body's vitamin K

is produced by bacteria living in
the jejunum and ileum of the
intestine rather than by dietary
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sources.
Although allergic reaction is possible, there is
no known toxicity associated with high doses You can overdose on
of the dietary (K1) or intestinally-produced synthetic Vitamin K (K3).
Vitamin K (K2). Large doses of this form
break down red blood cells
and can lead to a jaundice
condition and possibly
even brain damage when
given to infants or
pregnant women.

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Vitamin K deficiencies are rare for two reasons... 1. part of the body’s
needs of this vitamin are produced in the intestinal tract 2. Vitamin K
is “conserved” in the body. That means it is recycled… it can be used
over and over. The process is called the Vitamin K cycle.

Easy bruising
associated with
Vitamin K
deficiency.

Adults at risk of vitamin K deficiency include those taking vitamin K

anticoagulant drugs (warfarin, coumadin, heparin) that may be
prescribed for blood clots in the legs and lungs. Individuals with
significant liver damage or disease, and individuals with disorders of
fat malabsorption may also be at increased risk of vitamin K
deficiency. Large doses of vitamin A and vitamin E have been found to
counteract the function of vitamin K and interfere with Vitamin K
absorption. Long-term use of antibiotics may destroy the bacteria in
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the intestine that produce Vitamin K.
 Symptoms of a Vitamin K
deficiency include easy
bruising and bleeding that may
be manifested as nosebleeds,
bleeding gums, blood in the
urine, blood in the stool, tarry
black stools, or extremely
heavy menstrual bleeding.
Spontaneous subcutaneous hemorrhages in a
chick fed a vitamin K deficient diet for 15 days.
Vitamin K deficiency frequently
The bottom chick was fed an adequate diet occurs in newborn infants.
Many babies in the U.S. get an
injection of vitamin K at birth to
and is the same age. avoid hemorrhagic disease,
which is characterized by
uncontrolled bleeding within
the skull. Babies depend on
this long-lasting injection until
vitamin K-producing bacteria
become established in their
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digestive tracts.
 Excessive intake of vitamin K rarely
occurs. Excess doses, those greater
than 1000 times the requirement, can
promote thrombogenesis (formation of
blood clots) and hemolysis (red blood
cells are destroyed faster than bone
marrow can produce new ones). These
doses of vitamin K can also increase
risk of jaundice.
Unless medically prescribed, Vitamin K
should be consumed only from food
sources to prevent toxic levels.

Blood clot pictures:

Top: Swelling and discoloration of the leg are signs of deep vein
thrombosis, also known as a blood clot.
Bottom: A blood clot that travels to the lungs is called pulmonary embolism,
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and can be fatal without emergency treatment.
 Water-soluble vitamins are easily destroyed
or washed out during food storage or
preparation. Proper storage and
preparation of food can minimize vitamin
loss. To reduce vitamin loss:
1. refrigerate fresh produce; eat raw if
possible
2. keep milk and grains away from strong
light
3. use as little water as possible when
cooking vegetables
4. use a lid when cooking to prevent
evaporation of cooking liquids
5. and use the cooking water from
vegetables to prepare soups
6. avoid alkalinity during cooking such as
the use of baking soda
7. use whole grains, with as little processing 54
as possible
Eight of the water-soluble vitamins are
known as the B-complex group:
thiamin (vitamin B1), riboflavin
(vitamin B2), niacin, vitamin B6,
folate, vitamin B12, biotin and
pantothenic acid. Note, some of the B
vitamins are known by number, others
by name, and still others by name or
number.

Vitamin C is the only other water-

soluble vitamin.
This label from a ready-to-eat cereal shows
that several B vitamins and Vitamin C are
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either naturally or artificially added.
56
➢ Ascorbic acid is a hexose
derivative.
➢ The least stable vitamins,
especially in aqueous solution
➢ Has a strong reducing property and is readily oxidized.

➢ In 1747, James Lind conducted a trial of six different treatments

for 12 sailors with scurvy
➢In 1928, Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated a substance from adrenal glands that he
called 'hexuronic acid’.
➢ In 1933, Norman Haworth deduced the chemical structure of vitamin C 57
 Also known as ascorbic acid,
the functions of vitamin C
are:
1. helps hold body cells
together

Cell
cement

2. aids in wound healing

3. assists in bone and tooth
formation
The main sources of Vitamin C are citrus 4. strengthens the blood
fruits and vegetables: oranges, lemons, vessel walls
limes, grapefruit, tomatoes, etc., in 5. is vital for the function of
addition to broccoli strawberries, melon, the immune system
dark green vegetables, and potatoes. 6. improves absorption 58 and
utilization of iron
 The recommended daily allowance of Vitamin C is 90 milligrams for males,
and 75 milligrams for females each day. 1 medium citrus fruit or vegetable or
½ cup citrus fruit or vegetable juice supplies that amount of vitamin C.
Environmental stress, use of certain drugs (such as oral contraceptives),
healing of wounds, growth (children and pregnant women), fever and
infection, and smoking are factors that may increase the
requirements of Vitamin C.

Bleeding gums (pictures at left show progression

of deficiency on gums and teeth); wounds don't
heal; bruise easily; dry, rough skin; sore joints
and bones; and increased infections are
symptoms of Vitamin C deficiency.

Diarrhea, bloating, cramps; and increased incidence

of kidney stones are symptoms of Vitamin C
overdose. Megadoses of all artificially-made
vitamins can be harmful. 59
60
Petechial (pə-tē'kē-al) hemorrhages (small, pin-point bleeding under the skin) and
corkscrew hairs are symptomatic of scurvy, the disease that can result from a
deficiency of Vitamin C.
In the past, scurvy was common among sailors and other people
deprived of fresh fruits and vegetables for long periods of time.
To prevent the disease on long voyages, sailors took along a
supply of limes, because they didn’t spoil as quickly as other
citrus fruits. For that reason, sailors were often called ‘limeys’. 61
 Ascorbic Acid vs Sodium Ascorbate
Sodium Ascorbate
Ascorbic acid • the sodium salt of ascorbic acid and is a
• acidic in nature common mineral salt.
• dissolves well in water to • produced through the reaction between
equal amounts of ascorbic acid and
give mildly acidic sodium bicarbonate with further
solutions. precipitation using isopropanol.
• it is buffered, less acidic than ascorbic
• an organic chemical acid.
compound with a • Usually, recommended for people who
polyhydroxy function that have gastrointestinal problems associated
with ascorbic acid. Sodium ascorbate is
gives it antioxidant considered mild and more abdomen
properties. friendly.
• when including sodium ascorbate in diet,
• used as a common it is important to keep in mind that the
antioxidant food additive. sodium is also being very well absorbed
• the pure form of Vitamin C by the body along with the ascorbic acid.
• has an ester function

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Ascorbic Acid vs Sodium Ascorbate

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64
Thiamine
• Composed of a substituted thiazole ring joined to a
substituted pyrimidine by a methylene bridge.
• Robert Williams synthesized thiamine in 1936.

Riboflavin
• From the molecules parts, ribitol and flavin
• First isolated from whey in 1879 by Blyth
• The structure was determined by Kuhn and co-workers in
1933
Niacin (Nicotinic Acid)
• Derived from nicotine
• In the body, it is converted into nicotinamide
• Synthesized in 1867 by oxidation of nicotine and widely used in photography.
• In 1915, Goldberger , concluded that pellagra is caused by the absence of
some factor that was lacking in corn but present in meat and milk
• In 1937, the chemical structure of that factor was subsequently discovered65by
the American biochemist Conrad Arnold Elvehjem.
Choline
• A trimethyl-ethanol ammonium hydroxide
• A stable compound with strong alkaline properties
• In 1849, Adolph Strecker was the first to isolate choline from pig bile.

Pantothenic Acid
• An aliphatic, long chain hydroxyl acid with
nitrogen in the linkage of carbon
• Pantothenic acid is an integral part of coenzyme A and plays the important
role of decarboxylating pyruvate in the citric acid cycle.
• It was discovered in 1933 by Dr. R. J. Williams and was found to be a true
vitamin shortly thereafter.

Pyridoxine
• A heterocyclic compound
• Pyridoxine – form that is found in plant was isolated in 1938
• Pyridoxal and pyridoxamine – form that predominate in animals, were
identified in 1945 66
Biotin
• an organic heterobicyclic compound that consists of
2-oxohexahydro-1H-thieno[3,4-d]imidazole having a valeric acid
substituent attached to the tetrahydrothiophene ring.
• Early 1900s – certain strain of yeast required a material called bios.
• In 1927, Boas and in 1931, Szent-Gyorgyi found substances in liver that were
capable of curing and preventing dermatitis, loss of hair that occurred in rats
• In 1936, Kogl and Tonnis first isolated biotin from egg
• In 1940, the structure of biotin was determined by Kogl

Inositol
• also called Cyclohexanehexol
• It is considered a pseudo vitamin as it is a molecule
that does not qualify to be an essential vitamin because even
though its presence is vital in the body, a deficiency in this molecule does
not translate into disease conditions.
67
Folic Acid
• Made up of yellow pigment,
paraamino-benzoic acid, and glutamic acid
which is a yellow solid slightly soluble in water.
• Folate and its role in human biochemical functioning was first identified by
researcher Lucy Wills in 1931.
• It was first extracted by Mitchell and others in 1941.
• Bob Stokstad isolated the pure crystalline form in 1943.
Cyanocobalamin
• Vitamin B12 occurs in several forms, called cobalamins;
cyanocobalamin is the principal one used in vitamin
supplements and pharmaceuticals.
• it contains a metallic ion, cobalt, has a complex chemical
structure
• In 1926, Minot and Murphy demonstrated that pernicious
anemia could be prevented by eating large quantities of
liver 68
• In 1948, Rickes and co-workers isolate vitamin B12
 Thiamin (thī'ə-mĭn, -mēn') is
Functions: Necessary for normal
also spelled thiamine.
carbohydrate metabolism (releasing
energy from food); promotes normal
appetite; important in function of
nervous system by transmitting high-
speed impulses.

The main sources of thiamin are

pork, liver, whole grains, enriched
grain products, peas, meat, legumes,
watermelon, and sunflower seeds..
69
 The recommended daily allowance of thiamin is 1.2 milligrams for males and 1.1
milligrams for females. Since excess amounts are eliminated from the body in urine,
no known symptoms of overdose exist.
Deficiencies of thiamin are characterized by mental confusion; muscle weakness, a
‘wasting away’; edema (swelling caused by fluid build-up); and impaired growth. The
thiamine deficiency disease is known as beriberi, which literally means "I can't, I
can't" in southeast Asia, reflecting the crippling effect it has on its victims.

Beriberi is more common where

white rice is the main food. The
polishing of the rice removes most
of the vitamin B1. In the United
States, beriberi is primarily seen in
people with chronic alcoholism.

70
Normal (left) and thiamine deficient rat (right). A very marked effect on growth as well
as a rough hair coat and weakness on the legs are apparent. 71
Functions: Important for growth; Necessary
for normal protein and carbohydrate
metabolism and tissue repair; promotes good
vision, healthy skin.

The main sources of riboflavin are

liver, milk, dark green vegetables,
whole and enriched grain products,
eggs. 72
 The recommended daily
allowance of riboflavin is 1.3
milligrams for males and 1.1
milligrams for females. Since
excess amounts are
eliminated from the body in
urine, no known symptoms of
overdose exist.

Riboflavin deficiency mostly manifests itself at the edge of the mucosa.

Frequently, there are painful fissures at the angles of the mouth, fissures of
the lips, an inflammation of the tongue, and a red, inflamed skin covered
by greasy or dry scales that may be white, yellowish, or gray affecting the
scalp, eyebrows, forehead, face, folds around the nose and ears, the chest,
armpits, and groin. The eyes may become sensitive to light.
73
 Niacin is also known as ‘nicotinamide’ or ‘nicotinic acid’.

Functions: Necessary for normal

carbohydrate metabolism (releasing
energy from food); aids digestion,
promotes normal appetite; promotes
healthy skin, nerves.

The main sources of niacin are

liver, fish, poultry, meat,
peanuts, whole and enriched
grain products.
74
The recommended daily allowance of niacin is 16 milligrams in males and 14
milligrams in females.
Abnormal liver function;
cramps; nausea; and
irritability are symptomatic
of overdose.

Symptoms of niacin deficiency

include skin disorders; diarrhea; The deficiency disease of niacin is
weakness; mental confusion; pellagra, and is characterized by
and irritability. scaly sores. 75
Choline is considered an essential vitamin-like substance for dogs and
cats. Most animals are able to synthesize some choline endogenously during
degradation of phospholipids in the liver.
Choline is an important intermediary in
reactions involving methyl donation. It is also a
component of membrane phospholipids and
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Functions: Necessary for the transportation of

fats in the body and used in the treatment of
alcoholic fatty liver.

High concentrations of choline as phosphotidylcholine are

present in eggs, liver and soya. Free choline is found in
vegetables, such as cauliflower and dark leafy greens. The
choline metabolite betaine is found in beets, and in lecithin
which is used as an industrial emulsifier in many processed
foods (for pets and people).
76
Adequate intake (AI) of choline for adults is 550 mg per day for males, 425 mg
per day for females, 450 mg per day for pregnant females, and 550 mg per day
for lactating women. Daily Upper Intake Levels (UL) for choline, which is the
highest level of intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse effects, is 3.5
grams for adults.

May results in cirrhosis and fatty

degeneration of liver, hardening
of the arteries, Alzheimer’s
disease

Choline is LIKELY SAFE for most adults when taken in appropriate amounts.
Taking high doses of choline is POSSIBLY UNSAFE for adults due to the increased
risk of side effects. Doses up to 3.5 grams for adults over 18 years of age are not
likely to cause unwanted side effects. Doses over 3.5 grams daily are more likely to
cause side effects such as sweating, a fishy body odor, diarrhea, and vomiting. 77
 Pantothenic acid (păn'tə-thĕn'ĭk) is also known as Vitamin B5.

Functions: Necessary for normal

carbohydrate and fatty acid metabolism
(releasing energy from food); aids in
formation of hormones; healthy skin.

Sources: Liver, kidney, meats, egg yolk, whole grains, legumes; most
fruits and vegetables, and like biotin, it is also made by intestinal
bacteria. About half of pantothenic acid is lost in the milling of grains
and heavily refined foods. 78
 No recommended daily allowance for pantothenic acid has been determined, but an
ADQUATE INTAKE (AI) level of 5 milligrams for both males and females is
acceptable.

Deficiency of pantothenic acid

is uncommon due to
availability in most foods;
fatigue; nausea, abdominal
cramps; difficulty sleeping and
‘burning feet syndrome’ (when Pantothenic acid
the feet ache, burn, and throb). has been used
There are no known symptoms with some success
of pantothenic acid overdose. in the treatment of
burning feet
syndrome and
acne.
79
Pyridoxine (pĭr'ĭ-dŏk'sēn, -sĭn) is also known as Vitamin B6.
Functions: Aids in
protein and
carbohydrate
absorption and
metabolism; aids in
red blood cell
The main sources of
pyridoxine are pork, formation; helps the
meats, whole grains body use fats
and cereals, legumes,
green, leafy
vegetables.

80
 Normal vs. smooth tongue

Deficiencies of pyridoxine include skin

disorders, dermatitis, cracks at corners
of mouth; irritability; anemia; kidney
stones; nausea; smooth tongue. There is
evidence that some women in the third
trimester of pregnancy may have a
special requirement for vitamin B6 in
The recommended daily allowance of that its administration often relieves the
pyridoxine is 1.3 milligrams for males nausea of pregnancy. Some types of
and females. There are no known human dermatitis respond to local
symptoms of pyridoxine overdose. application of this vitamin.
81
 Biotin (bī'ə-tĭn) vitamin B7, also known as Vitamin H.

Functions: Necessary for

normal carbohydrate and fatty
acid metabolism (releasing
energy from food; healthy
skin, hair, and nails.

Sources: Liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk, and

most fresh vegetables. It can also be made by
intestinal bacteria, but it is unknown how
much can be absorbed from that process.
82
No recommended daily allowance for Biotin has been determined, but an
ADQUATE INTAKE (AI) level of 30 micrograms for both males and
females is acceptable.
Deficiencies of biotin are
uncommon under normal
circumstances.
Symptoms include
fatigue; loss of appetite,
hair loss, red rash around Hair loss from biotin
the eyes, nose, mouth, deficiency.
and genitals; nausea, The characteristic facial rash,
vomiting; depression; together with unusual facial
muscle pains; and fat distribution, has been
anemia. There are no termed the "biotin deficient
known symptoms of face" by some experts.
biotin overdose.

There is some evidence that biotin

83
therapy can strengthen fingernails.
 A biotin deficiency in a rat, shown in
the upper left picture, results in
dermatitis (skin rash) and resulting
alopecia (hair loss) producing a
characteristic "spectacle eye"
appearance. Upper right-same rat after
three weeks of biotin therapy. Lower
right-same rat after three months of
therapy.
84
 Inositol is often referred to as vitamin B8, but it is not actually a vitamin. It's a
type of sugar that influences the insulin response and several hormones associated
with mood and cognition. Inositol also has antioxidant properties that fight the
damaging effects of free radicals in the brain, circulatory system, and other body
tissues.
Functions: Though more research is
needed, inositol shows potential as an
alternative treatment option for mental
health conditions, including panic
disorder, depression and bipolar disorder.
-Inositol may help reduce blood
triglyceride levels, improve insulin
function, lower blood pressure and
promote ovulation in women with
Inositol is a substance found naturally polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
in cantaloupe, citrus fruit, and many -Inositol may help control metabolic risk
fiber-rich foods (such as beans, brown factors by helping lower blood
rice, corn, sesame seeds, and wheat triglyceride levels, blood pressure and
bran). blood sugar. It may also improve
85
cholesterol levels.
The following doses have been studied in scientific research:
•For panic disorder: 12 to 18 grams per day.
•For obsessive-compulsive disorder: inositol 18 grams per day.
•For treating symptoms associated with polycystic ovary syndrome:
D-chiro-inositol 1200 mg per day.
•For treating lithium-related psoriasis: 6 grams daily.
Vitamin B8 deficiency is extremely rare and can result in
many different symptoms. The most common first system
is conjunctivitis along with inflammation in patches around
the face.
One of the signature symptoms of a deficiency is the rapid
loss of hair color.

Inositol is generally considered safe in adults.

Side effects, if any, tend to be mild and may
include nausea, stomach pain, tiredness,
headache, and dizziness. Most side effects
occur with doses greater than 12 g per day.
86
Folic Acid is also known as folate, folacin, or Vitamin B9.
Functions: Aids in
protein metabolism;
promotes red blood
cell formation;
prevents birth defects
of spine and brain;
some evidence that it
lowers coronary heart
disease risk.
Sources: Folic acid is found in leafy green vegetables, beans, peas
and lentils, liver, beets, brussel sprouts, poultry, nutritional yeast, tuna,
wheat germ, mushrooms, oranges, asparagus, broccoli, spinach,
bananas, strawberries, and cantaloupes. In 1998, the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) required food manufacturers to add folic
acid to enriched bread and grain products to boost intake and to87help
prevent neural tube defects.
 The recommended daily allowance of folic acid is
400 micrograms for both males and females.
Deficiencies are Spina bifida is
characterized by anemia (low the result of
levels of red blood cells) ; improper
smooth tongue; and closure of the
spine, with a
diarrhea. There is evidence
varying size
that deficiency is a problem and location
on a worldwide scale, even of hole.
in western diets. The most
devastating result of the
deficiency is for pregnant
women, resulting in an
increased risk of spine and
brain defects in the
fetus…especially neural tube
defects such as spina bifida.
Overdoses of folic acid can mask
88 a
vitamin B12 deficiency.
The deficient chick (on the left) is severely stunted
and anemic. The control chick on the right was fed
the same food ration plus 100 micrograms of folic
acid per 100 grams of diet. 89
90
Vitamin B12 is also known as cobalamin (kō-băl'ə-mĭn).
Functions: Aids in
building of genetic
material; aids in
development of
normal red blood
cells; maintenance
of nervous system.

Sources: Vitamin B12 is found only in animal foods such

as meats, liver, kidney, fish, eggs, milk and milk products,
oysters, and shellfish. Normally, ingested vitamin B12 combines
with ‘intrinsic factor’, which is produced by cells in the stomach.
Intrinsic factor is necessary for vitamin B12 to be absorbed in the
91
small intestine.
 No recommended daily allowance for Vitamin B12 has
been determined, but an ADQUATE INTAKE (AI) level of
2.4 micrograms for both males and females is acceptable.
Deficiencies of Vitamin
B12 include pernicious
anemia, anemia;
neurological disorders;
degeneration of
peripheral nerves that
may cause numbness,
tingling in fingers and
toes.
The enlargement and deformity of red blood
There are no known cells on the left (normal ones on the right)
prevents proper transport of oxygen.
symptoms of overdose Deficiencies of Vitamin B12 are often 92
created
of Vitamin B12. by absorption problems.
93
 • Made of atoms of

• Essential inorganic same element.

nutrients, required • Not destroyed by

in small amounts. heat, acid, O2, or
• As many as 20 UV light.
minerals may be
required! • Remain intact
• Required for during digestion.
growth,
• Do not change
maintenance,
reproduction and function.
lactation.
94
• Inorganic elements essential to Human Nutrition.
• 16 out of 92 are Essential to Body Function.
Very Important Roles in overall health and well-being
• Assist in Chemical Reactions in Cells
• Crucial to the Immune System Function
• Fluid Balance
• Nutrient Transport into Cells
• Help Skeletal Muscle Contract
• Maintain Heart Beat!
95
Minerals Maintain Fluid Balance
– Extracellular Minerals: Na+ and Cl-
– Intracellular Minerals: K+ and Ca2+, Mg2+, S

96
Minerals act as Cofactors - substance that binds
to an enzyme to help catalyze a reaction. They
serve as cofactors in:
• Antioxidant Systems
• Energy Production
• Muscle Contraction
• Nerve Transmission

97
Bioavailability - Degree the nutrient from food is
absorbed and utilized in the body –
Nutritional Status and Competing Minerals in GI tract -
can affect absorption.

Other Nutrients can Improve Bioavailability.

• Vitamin C enhances iron absorption.
• Vitamin D enhances calcium absorption.
• Animal Protein enhances zinc absorption.

Binders can Reduce Bioavailability.

Oxalates, Phytates, and Polyphenols
98
Factors Decreasing Bioavailability
1. Oxalates
Found many vegetables,
fruits, grains, legumes, spices,
herbs, and almost all nuts and
seeds.
If too much oxalate absorbed can associate with excess calcium
to form sharp calcium-oxalate crystals – wedging into tissue
in the body causing damage and inflammation.

Excess oxalate can deplete Glutathione, essential for

metabolizing toxic chemicals that enter the body.

Some examples of disease states from Oxalates:

99
Kidney Stones; Gallstones; Thyroid Disease; Vulvodynia; Cystic Fibrosis.
2. Phytates

Phytates (Phytic Acid) is a P store of plants.

Considered an anti-nutrient for humans -
interferes with absorption of nutrients.
(we do not have phytase!)

Chelators of:
magnesium, calcium, zinc and iron in your gut.
Found in Grains, Legumes, Nuts and Seeds:
Wheat has 720mg/100g phytic acid. Soybeans 1,433mg/100g;
Cashews 1,866mg/100g and Almonds 1,280mg/100g.

Sprout, Soak and Ferment out the Phytates 100

3. Polyphenols (e.g. tannins)
Are benzoid ‘phenyl’ rings and hydroxyl (OH).

Some are antinutrients, as they interfere

with absorption iron and other metal ions.
Also bind to digestive enzymes and proteins.

They are important to plants!

• Regulate plant growth hormones (auxin);
• Give coloration and provide UV sun-screen protection.
• Deter herbivores from eating plants.
• Prevent microbial infestation of plants (phytoalexins).
• Signal molecules in ripening. 101
 Macro/Micro Minerals
• Micro/Trace means you need a
small amount of these minerals
Macro-
Macrominerals
Calcium,Minerals
sodium, potassium,
magnesium, phosphorus,
chloride (chlorine), and sulfur
Micro/Trace
Calcium Micro/Trace-
minerals
Iodine, Copper, Iron,
Minerals
Selenium,
Manganese,

• Macro means you need a large

Iron
Molybdenum, Zinc

amount of these minerals

102
 Calcium (Ca2+)
• Most abundant mineral in body!
• Divalent Cation (has a + 2!)
• 99% of body's Ca2+ located in bones and teeth.
Some of the Top Foods for Calcium!
#1: Cheese (Mozzarella) - 961mg (95% DV)
#2: Milk & Yogurt - 125mg (13% and 49% DV)
#3: Dark Leafy Greens (Watercress, Kale) - 120mg
(12% DV)
#4: Cabbage (Bok Choy) - 105mg (11% DV)
#5: Okra (Cooked) - 77mg (8% DV)
#6: Broccoli - 47mg (5% DV)
#7: Green Beans - 37mg (4% DV)
#8: Almonds - 264mg (26% DV)
#9: Sardines (in Oil with Bones) - 383mg (38% DV)
103
#10: Pink Salmon - (8%)
Bioavailability:
Vitamin D and lactose 
absorption.
Low Protein intake  absorption.
Phytates and Oxalates  Ca2+
bioavailability.
Hormones
Regulate
Calcium Homeostasis
(Balance)

Calcitriol (Vit. D3)

Parathyroid
Hormone
and
104
Calcitonin
 Functions of Calcium
Ca2+ helps build strong bones and teeth.
Hard Outer Bone Surface
Trabecular Bone:
Inside of bone; more sensitive to changes in dietary
calcium

Calcium Functions: Many Important

Roles: Calcium May:
❑ Muscle Contraction Prevent Colon Cancer – by protecting lining of
❑ Nerve Transmission – release of tract from caustic and abrasive substances.
Neurotransmitter! Reduce the risk of kidney stones – Ca2+ binds to
❑ Regulating Hormones and oxalates in foods.
Enzymes Reduce the risk of obesity – by normalizing
interactions between hormones.
❑ Blood Vessel Dilation/Constriction:
Blood Pressure Inadequate Ca2+ shifts hormonal response of
❑ Blood Clotting PTH and calcitriol which may stimulate fat
production and storage. 105
 Daily Needs for Ca2+ Ca2+ Deficiency
AI for Adults: 1,000 to 1,100 mg/day Hypocalcemia: Blood Ca2+ levels
UL: 2,500 mg/day below normal
Bones less dense, weakened
Ca2+ Toxicity and brittle.
Hypercalcemia: Too much Ca2+ risk of Osteoporosis and
in blood Bone Fractures
Symptoms:
•Constipation
•Bone pain
•Muscle weakness
•Mental confusion
•Impairs absorption of Fe, Zn,
Mg and P. Do not take a calcium supplement at the
same time of day as an iron supplement!
106
 Phosphorus (PO43-)
2nd most abundant Mineral in Body

Most (85%) in Bone Tissue

the rest in muscle, cell membrane, ECF

Absorbed in the Small Intestine

Vitamin D enhances
bioavailability.

Phytate, aluminum, magnesium

and calcium  absorption.
107
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
This hormones regulates P homeostasis.
– Stimulates resorption of P from bone
– Stimulates P excretion from kidney
Excretion – most P lost in Urine, some in Feces

108
Phosphorus Needs in the Body!
Formation of Bones and Teeth RDA Adult: 700 mg/day
Along with Ca2+ makes Calcium UL: 4,000 mg/day
Hydroxyapatite Americans consume 1,000 mg/day.

Food Sources of Phosphorus

Integral part of cell membrane
Phospholipids • Foods from animal sources
• Plant seeds – 50% of P is
Required for ATP and Creatine bioavailable due to phytates.
Phosphate • Soft drinks and colas contain
phosphoric acid.
Acts as a Buffer in acid-base
balance
“Phosphate Backbone” is part of
DNA and RNA in every cell!
109
P Toxicity
Hyperphosphatemia - Only with kidney disease

High intake of P with low Ca2+ intake can

decrease bone mass.

Can lead to Ca2+ deposits in soft tissue

P Deficiency is rare.
Hypophosphatemia
Muscle weakness, bone pain, rickets, confusion,
and death in extreme cases!
110
 Potassium (K+)
• Major Cation in intracellular fluid (ICF)
• Absorbed in Small Intestine and Colon
• Kidneys regulate balance excreting excess.
• Muscle Contraction and Nerve Impulse.
• Rhythmic Heart Beats.
• Regulate Blood Pressure when excreted.
• Acts as a Buffer in Blood.
• Preserves Ca2+ and PO43- in bones.
Minor amounts are lost in sweat.
111
 Daily Needs
Adults: 4,700mg/day.
May  Hypertension.
May  bone losses and risk of kidney stones.

Nutrient Rating for K

Food Source DV
Beet Greens 37%
Lima Beans 27%
Swiss Chard 27%
Sweet Potato 27%
Potatoes 26%
Spinach 24%
Avocado 21%
Pinto Beans 21%
Bananas 10%
112
K Toxicity K+ Deficiency
Hyperkalemia: Too much K+ in Hypokalemia: Too little K+ in blood.
blood! – risk of hypertension, kidney
Cannot occur from food intake – stones, and loss of bone mass.
but with supplementation or salt Caused by prolonged vomiting or
substitutes! diarrhea

This can lead to:

• Irregular heart beat Can lead to:
• Heart damage • Muscle Weakness and
Cramps
• Death
• Glucose intolerance
If kidneys impaired or
taking medications for • Irregular Heart Beat and
heart disease or diuretics  Paralysis
risk and need to be
cautious.
113
 Sulfate (SO42–)
• An Oxidized form of Sulfur (S)
• Sulfate is a part of other compounds in Body:
– Proteins
– Thiamin
– Biotin

Absorption
– Is absorbed throughout the GI tract
– About 80% SO42- consumed is Absorbed.
– Kidneys excrete excess.
114
 Metabolic Functions of Sulfate

Part of Amino Acids Methionine and Cysteine

Gives 3-D shape to proteins enables them to act as
enzymes and hormones and provide structure to body

115
Sulfur - Can be used as a Preservative
Sulfites prevents spoilage and discoloration in foods
e.g. Sulfites are found in wine - those sensitive may get:
Headaches, sneezing, swelling of the throat, hives
Food Sources of Sulfate
• Meat, poultry, fish, and eggs
• Legumes
• Dairy foods
• Fruits and vegetables
• Beverages: Beer, wine
No RDA, no UL! - No Toxicity or Deficiency symptoms 116
 Sodium (Na)
• Major Mineral => Na+ Electrolyte
• Cation usually combined with chloride (NaCl)
• Primarily in Blood and extracellular fluid (ECF)
• Regulates Blood Volume

Na also Located:
• Within Hydroxyapatite crystals in bone;
• In Nervous Tissue;
• In Muscular Tissue.
Table salt – accounts for 90% of our Na - part
of our problem? Please, use Sea Salt!
40% wt table salt = Na; 60% wt table salt 117
= Cl
Absorption, Transport, and Excretion of Na
• 95-100% absorbed in Small Intestine!
• About 5% Excreted in Feces.
• Blood levels Maintained by Kidneys.

Na Regulates Fluid Volumes:

High [Na+] signals need to Conserve Water.

Hypertonic (‘salty’) blood triggers Thirst mechanism in

Hypothalamus – signals drinking! Na loss through perspiration!

Also triggers Renin release, then Angiotensinogen

activation and also ADH release to urine excretion!
118
Sodium Balance Maintained by Kidneys
Na plays a role in nerve
impulse transmission and
participates in muscle
contraction
•Helps transport some
nutrients
•Preserves and enhances food
Aldosterone causes flavor!
kidney to retain sodium!

119
 Food Sources of Sodium Hypernatremia (excess Na in
blood) – when fluids not
Some Facts and Figures about Na replenished as water is lost (e.g.
use: vomiting or diarrhea)
•About 70% of Na is from processed * Or, from ingesting too much
foods.
Na+
Canned, processed meats, frozen or
pre-packaged meals Sodium deficiency is rare.
•Only 12% comes from natural food
sources Hyponatremia - from consuming
•About 5% added during cooking. too much water in a short time,
•About 6% added at the table. e.g. endurance athletes.
Symptoms: Headache, muscle
weakness, fatigue, seizures, as we
have seen, can cause death.

* Also occurs with Diuretic120

use.
 Chloride (Cl–)
• A Major Electrolyte
• An Anion bound to Na (NaCl Metabolic Functions
in foods)
• Primarily in blood (88%), the • Maintains Fluid
other 12% is:
Balance.
– in intracellular fluid (ICF)
• Assists in the
– part of HCl (hydrochloric
acid) in stomach removal of CO2 from
blood.
• After ingestion, dissociates in the stomach.
• Maintains normal pH
• Absorbed in Small Intestine - Excreted in
Urine range of blood.
• Not to be confused with chlorine, a • Part hydrochloric
powerful disinfectant, poisonous if inhaled
or ingested. acid (HCl). 121
 Chloride Daily Needs and Food Daily Needs of Cl
Sources
• Daily needs: AI Adults 50 is UL = 3,600 mg. Toxicity is very
2,300 mg/day. rare.
In general, Americans *Can occur with severe
currently consume 3,400 dehydration (hyperchloremia)
mg/day to >7,000 mg/day.
Food Sources:
•Deficiency - Rare
–Table salt
From prolonged diarrhea or
–Processed foods vomiting.
–Seaweed, tomatoes, olives, Diuretics can increase urinary
lettuce, celery, and rye losses.
–Salt substitutes
Symptoms: shallow breathing,
muscle weakness, muscle
spasms, and twitching

122
 Magnesium (Mg2+)
~60% in bones, 25% in Daily Needs for Mg
muscles, the rest in cells.
Adults: 300 to 400 mg/day
Bioavailability is about
50%.
Absorption
A high-fiber, whole-
grain, high phytates,
lowers absorption.

Intestinal absorption
and kidney excretion
adjusts based on diet
and need.
123
Mg2+ Toxicity - Consuming excess supplements
can cause intestinal problems.
Diarrhea, cramps, nausea

Mg2+ Deficiency Rare.

Some medications cause deficiency.
Poorly controlled diabetes and alcohol abuse.

Symptoms:
Muscle weakness, seizures, fatigue, depression, and
irregular heart beats.

124
 Micro/Trace Minerals
Iron Iron Absorption
• Ferrous (Fe2+)
– Reduced
• Ferric (Fe3+)
– Oxidized
• Chief functions in the body
– Part of the protein
hemoglobin, which carries
oxygen in the blood
– Part of the protein
myoglobin in muscles,
which makes oxygen
available for muscle
contraction
– Necessary for the
utilization of energy as part
of the cells’ metabolic
machinery 125
 Iron Iron: Heme vs. Nonheme
Sources – two forms of iron in
food
1. Heme iron – meats, poultry,
fish; readily absorbed
2. Nonheme iron – plants
foods;
less absorbed
a. Absorption enhanced by
Vitamin C
b. Absorption diminished by
phytates, oxalates, and
tannic acid

126
 • 2001 RDA

Iron – Men: 8 mg/day

– Women (19-50 years): 18 mg/day
– Women (51+ years): 8 mg/day
• Upper level for adults: 45 mg/day

127
 Iron • Deficiency symptoms
– Microcytic, hypochromic
• Iron deficiency is anemia (low Hgb & Hct):
the most common weakness, fatigue,
nutrient deficiency headaches
worldwide
– Impaired work performance
• Can occur if
inadequate intake
and cognitive function
or blood loss – Impaired immunity
• Females are prone – Pale skin, nailbeds, mucous
due to membranes, and palm
menstruation, lower creases
iron intake &
– Concave nails
pregnancy
• Preschoolers also at – Inability to regulate body
risk due to high temperature
milk diets – Pica (craving for ice, clay,
paste, and other non-food
substances) 128
• Both size and color
are normal in
these blood cells

• Blood cells in iron-

deficiency anemia
are small and pale
because they
contain less
hemoglobin
129
 Iron
• Toxicity – “iron overload”; more common
in men
-Hemochromatosis – genetic defect
-Hemosiderosis – chronic ingestion of too
much iron; more common in alcoholics
-Iron poisoning – acute toxicity from
overdose of iron supplements; can be
deadly in small children
• Toxicity symptoms
– GI distress
– Iron overload: infections, fatigue, joint
pain, skin pigmentation, organ damage
130
 Zinc
• 2001 RDA
– Men: 11 mg/day
Chief functions in the body – Women: 8 mg/day
• Part of many enzymes, esp. • Upper level for adults: 40
enzymes for transfer of mg/day
carbon dioxide • Significant sources
• Associated with the hormone – Protein-containing foods
insulin – Red meats, shellfish
• Involved in making genetic – Whole grains
material and proteins
• Important to wound healing,
taste perception, reproduction
(the making of sperm), vision
(transports and activates Vit.
A) & immune function

131
 Zinc • Toxicity – not likely,
unless supplement abuse
• Deficiency symptoms • Toxicity symptoms
– In children, growth – Loss of appetite,
retardation and impaired immunity,
delayed sexual low HDL, copper and
maturation iron deficiencies
– Impaired immune
function
– Hair loss
– Eye and skin lesions
– Loss of appetite and
abnormal taste
– Depressed immune
function and poor
wound healing
- Night blindness
132
 • Significant sources
Iodine – Iodized salt, seafood,
bread, dairy products,
plants grown in
• Chief functions in the
iodine-rich soil and
body
animals fed those
– A component of two plants (content of
thyroid hormones that iodine in soils affects
help to regulate food content)
growth, development,
and metabolic rate

• 2001 RDA for adults: 150

g/day
• Upper level: 1100 g/day
133
 Iodine
• Deficiency disease
-Simple goiter-enlarged thyroid;
affects 200 million people worldwide

-Creatinism- severe mental and

physical retardation in infants

• Deficiency symptoms
– Underactive thyroid gland, goiter

• Toxicity symptoms
– Underactive thyroid gland, elevated TSH, goiter (also
causes enlarged thyroid gland)
134
 • Deficiency symptoms
Selenium – Predisposition to heart
disease (cardiomyopathy)
Chief functions in the characterized by cardiac
body tissue becoming fibrous
• Defends against (Keshan disease)
oxidation • Toxicity symptoms
• Regulates thyroid -Highly toxic, esp. supplement
hormone abuse
– Loss and brittleness of hair
and nails
• 2000 RDA for adults:
– Skin rash, fatigue, irritability,
55 g/day
and nervous system disorders
• Upper level for adults:
– Garlic breath odor
400 g/day

• Significant sources
– Seafood, meat
– Whole grains, vegetables
(depending on soil content) 135
 Copper
• Chief functions in the body
– Component of enzymes
involved in the
absorption and use of
iron in the formation of • Significant sources
hemoglobin – Seafood
– Part of several enzymes – Nuts, whole grains,
necessary for collagen, seeds, legumes
healing wounds, • Deficiency symptoms (rare)
maintaining nerve fiber’s
– Anemia, bone
myelin sheath
abnormalities
• Upper level for adults:
• Toxicity symptoms-only in
• 2001 RDA for adults: 900
supplement abuse &
g/day
abnormal
10,000 g/day (10
storage in Wilson’s disease
mg/day)
-Liver damage 136
Manganese
• Chief functions in the
body
– Cofactor for several
enzymes • Significant sources
– Component of bones – Nuts, whole grains, leafy
and glands vegetables, tea
• Deficiency symptoms
• 2001 AI – Rare; requirements are
– Men: 2.3 mg/day low
– Women: 1.8 mg/day • Toxicity symptoms
– Nervous system disorders
• Upper level for adults: 11
– Has occurred in miners
mg/day inhaling large quantities of
dust causes brain damage
137
Fluoride
• Chief functions in
the body
– Involved in the
formation of bones
and teeth • Significant sources
– Drinking water (if fluoride
– Helps to make containing or fluoridated)
teeth resistant to – Tea, seafood
decay • Deficiency symptoms
• 1997 AI – Susceptibility to tooth
decay
– Men: 3.8 mg/day – Higher incidence of dental
– Women: 3.1 caries
mg/day • Toxicity symptoms
– Fluorosis (pitting and
• Upper level for discoloration of tooth
adults: 10 mg/day enamel) 138
 • Deficiency symptoms
Chromium – Diabetes-like
condition; mimics
• Chief functions in the symptoms of
body diabetes, especially
– Enhances insulin in elderly
action
– CHO & lipid • Toxicity symptoms
metabolism
– None reported
• 2001 AI
-Men: 35 g/day
– Women: 25 g/day
• Significant sources
– Meats (especially liver)
– Whole grains, brewer’s
yeast 139
 • Deficiency symptoms
Molybdenum - Molybdenum cofactor
deficiency causes brain
• Acts as a cofactor for four abnormalities, developmental
enzymes(xanthine oxidase, delays and childhood death.
Fortunately, it’s extremely
sulfite oxidase, aldehyde
rare.
oxidase, mARC). These
• Toxicity symptoms
enzymes are involved in
– In rare cases, high intakes of
processing sulfites and molybdenum have been linked
breaking down waste products to seizures and brain damage.
and toxins in the body. Initial studies have also
suggested an association with
• Chief functions in the body gout, poor bone health and
– Helps in preventing anemia decreased fertility.

– CHO & lipid metabolism

– Promote general well being
• Significant sources
– Organ meats
– Dairy foods, whole grains,
green vegetables 140
Vanadium
– It was named for the
Norse goddess of
beauty, Vanadis,
because of its beautiful
colors. • The best food sources of
– Used for treating vanadium are mushrooms,
shellfish, black pepper, parsley,
diabetes, low blood dill weed, beer, wine, grain and
sugar, high cholesterol, grain products, and artificially
heart disease, sweetened drinks.
tuberculosis, syphilis, a • Vanadium is LIKELY SAFE in
adults, if less than 1.8 mg per
form of “tired blood”
day is taken. At higher doses,
(anemia), and water such as those used to treat
retention (edema); for diabetes, vanadium frequently
improving athletic causes unwanted side effects
including abdominal discomfort,
performance in weight
diarrhea, nausea, and gas. It can
training; and for also cause a greenish tongue, loss
preventing cancer. of energy, and problems with the
141
nervous system.
THE END

142