Cla 106

CLA106
Introduction to Broadcasting
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

Open and Distance Learning Course Series Development
Copyright © 2017, 2023 by Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owner.
ISBN: 978-021-969-2
General Editor: Prof. E.B Omobowale
University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

University of Ibadan,
Nigeria
Telex: 31128NG
Tel: +234 (8061400584)
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.dlc.ui.edu.ng
Vice-Chancellor’s Message
The global switch to Open and Distance Education (ODE) is gaining considerable
acceptance in Nigeria. The Distance Learning Centre, over three decades of its
existence, has consistently built a system that makes Distance Education a viable
alternative for the teeming populace of Nigeria, seeking emancipation through
University education. The Distance Learning mode of study is not second-rated at the
University of Ibadan. Therefore, the university is committed to providing access to
higher education for many deserving Nigerians, especially those who because of
sundry reasons do not have the luxury of full time education in face-to-face setting.
The changing demographics of relatively young people seeking admission into the
UIDLC, which is engendered by the admission gridlock occasioned by minimal
access to the face-to-face mode of study has also contributed to the University‟s poise
to give the Distance Learning Centre the full complement of support to make it a true
flag bearer of ODL solution in Nigeria. Younger candidates are now being given
access to leverage on the distance learning mode of study as an alternative to the face-
to-face mode of study.
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One of the ways of ensuring that actual learning takes place is the production ODL
compliant course materials by writers who are specially trained in ODL course
delivery. They have made good efforts in providing up-to-date information, knowledge
and skills in the different disciplines and at the same time making them user-friendly.
In addition to the provision of course materials in print and e-format, a lot of

Information Technology input has also gone into the deployment of the course
materials. Most of which can be downloaded from the UIDLC Learning Management
System (LMS) platform while some are also available as Open Educational Resources
(OERs). They are also available in audio format downloadable to mobile phones, IPod,
MP3 among other devices to allow learners listen to the audio study sessions. We will
continue in our efforts to provide and review course materials for our courses.
Nevertheless, to take advantage of these formats, learners will need to improve on
their digital competencies and develop requisite distance learning culture which
requires them to be self-paced and self-learning. These course materials afford learners
the opportunity to learn at their own individual pace, space and time.
I hereby urge you to put these course materials to the best use.
Prof. K.O. Adebowale

Vice-Chancellor
Foreword
In fulfilment of its mandate to emancipate Nigerians through widening access to
tertiary education, the University of Ibadan, Distance Learning Centre has been
making intentional efforts to reposition its distance education delivery for more
effectiveness. It aims at embracing a holistic and all-encompassing approach to the
delivery of its Open Distance Learning (ODL) programmes and making it more
seamless for its learners.
The administrative and academic framework and support given to our learners are
tailored toward a sustainable drive for effective continuous learning. Besides this, we
are committed to providing educational course materials for the use of our learners to
fulfil the ideals of distance education. Without up-to-date, learner-friendly and ODL
compliant course materials, there can be no basis to assert that the Centre is a provider
of distance learning education that conforms to global best practice. Therefore,
provision of appropriate course materials in multiple formats is at the forefront of the
UIDLC drive to be the flagship of distance Education in Nigeria.
From the foregoing, the Centre has made the provision for credible, learner-friendly
and interactive course materials for all its courses a priority. Authoring of, and review
of course materials are commissioned to a team of ODL experts who have been trained
in-house. Professional consultation is also done from time to time to ensure that the
outputs of these course materials are subjected to rigorous peer review so that high
standards are maintained. This approach not only emphasizes cognitive knowledge,
but also, skills which are at the core of education, even in an ICT age.
The development of the materials which is on-going also has input from experienced
editors and illustrators who have ensured that they are accurate and current. They are
specially written and graphics are deployed with the distance learner in mind. It is
important to note that, for a distance learner to excel, there is the need to read relevant
materials apart from this course materials. Therefore, adequate supplementary reading
materials, as well as other information are suggested in the course materials.
Learners are advised to seek the assistance of course facilitators, especially academic
advisors during their study of the course material, even before physical interactive
session which is designed for revision. Academic advisors will assist them in using
convenient technology application tools which include: Google Hang Out, YouTube,
Talk Fusion, etc. among others. It is also going to be of immense advantage if they
complete their assignments as and when due so as to have necessary feedbacks as
guide.
Nonetheless, a learner has the responsibility to develop requisite distance learning

culture which includes diligence, discipline and consistent self-study habit in order to
maximize this mode of study. They can also seek available administrative and
academic support made available by the Centre. This is why they are encouraged to
develop their computer skills by availing themselves the opportunity of basic computer
training which the Centre‟ provides.
Consequently, it is envisaged that the course materials would also be useful for the
students in the face-to-face mode of study. This underpins the parity of esteem policy
of the University of Ibadan where particularly, the same facilitators are engaged for the
two modes of study. Therefore, it is a delight to present these modules to both our
distance learners and the university students in the face-to-face mode. We are
confident that the materials will be of immense value to all.
Best wishes.
Professor E.B. Omobowale

Director
Course Development Team
Content Authoring Louisa B. Andah Ph.D
Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade
Production Editor Prof. Omobola Adelore, O.F.W. Onifade Ph.D
ODL Material Converter Folajimi Olambo Fakoya
Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun
General Editor Prof. E.B. Omobowale

Table of Contents
About this course manual 1
How this course manual is structured............................................................................................................... 1
Course Overview 3
Welcome to Introduction to BroadcastingCLA106 ....................................................................................... 3
Course outcomes ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
Getting around this course manual 4

Margin icons................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Study Session 1 5
Overview of Broadcasting ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 5
Terminology ................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Definition of Broadcasting ................................................................................................................. 5
1.1.1 What is Narrowcasting? ...................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Broadcast Codes, Conventions and Standards ............................................................................ 7
1.2.1 What is Broadcast Code?..................................................................................................... 7
National Broadcasting Code.............................................................................................. 7
1.2.2 What is Broadcast Convention?........................................................................................ 8
1.2.3 Broadcast Philosophy........................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Responsibilities in Broadcasting...................................................................................................... 9
1.3.1 Why Do People Study Broadcasting?............................................................................10
Study Session Summary........................................................................................................................................10
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................11
Bibliography/References .....................................................................................................................................11
Study Session 2 12
The Broadcast Chain ..............................................................................................................................................12
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................12
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................12
2.1 Broadcasting and Communication Chain....................................................................................12
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................15
Study Session 3 16
Levels of Broadcasting ..........................................................................................................................................16
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................16
3.1 Types of Broadcasting .......................................................................................................................16
3.1.1 Public Broadcasting ............................................................................................................16
3.1.2 Private Broadcasting ..........................................................................................................17
3.1.3 Community Broadcasting .................................................................................................19
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................19
Study Session 4 21
Organizational Structure of Broadcast Establishment ..............................................................................21
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................21
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................21
4.1 What is Management?........................................................................................................................21
4.1.1 Board of Directors ...............................................................................................................22
4.1.2 Management Committee...................................................................................................22
4.2 Departments in a Broadcast Establishment ..............................................................................23
4.2.1 Administration .....................................................................................................................23
4.2.2 Programmes Department .................................................................................................23
4.2.3 News and Current Affairs .................................................................................................23
4.2.4 Engineering Department ..................................................................................................24
4.2.5 Marketing/Commercial Department............................................................................24
4.2.6 Finance Department ...........................................................................................................24
4.2.7 Legal Department ................................................................................................................24
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................25
Study Session 5 27
The Broadcast Program and Programming ...................................................................................................27
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................27
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................27
5.1 What is a Broadcast Programme? .................................................................................................27
5.1.1 Broadcast Philosophy ........................................................................................................28
5.2 What is Programming? ......................................................................................................................29
5.2.1 Factors that Affect Programming ..................................................................................29
5.3 Ethical Considerations in Broadcast Programming ................................................................30
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................31
Study Session 6 32
Classification of Programs ...................................................................................................................................32
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................32
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................32
6.1 Classification of Programmes .........................................................................................................32
6.1.1 Classification by Scheduling ............................................................................................32
Belt Scheduling................................................................................................................... 33
Programmes Belts ............................................................................................................. 33
6.1.2 Classification by Genre ......................................................................................................35
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................35
Study Session 7 36
Program Genres ........................................................................................................................................................36
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................36
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................36
7.1 Programme Genres.............................................................................................................................36
7.1.1 Informational Programmes .............................................................................................36
7.1.2 Educational Programmes .................................................................................................37
Formal Educational Programmes ................................................................................ 37
Informal Educational Programmes ............................................................................. 37
7.1.3 Entertainment Programmes............................................................................................38
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................39
Study Session 8 41
Broadcast Program Formats ..................................................................................................................................41
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................41
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................41
8.1 Programme Format ............................................................................................................................41
8.1.1 News Programme ................................................................................................................41
8.1.2 Variety Programme ............................................................................................................42
8.1.3 Magazine Programme ........................................................................................................42
8.1.4 Discussion Programme......................................................................................................43
8.1.5 Interview programme........................................................................................................43
8.1.6 Documentary/Feature Programme ..............................................................................43
8.1.7 Musical Programme............................................................................................................44
8.1.8 The Talk Programme..........................................................................................................44
8.1.9 Drama Programme..............................................................................................................44
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................45
Study Session 9 47
Sources of Program ..................................................................................................................................................47
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................47
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................47
9.1 Sources of Programmes ....................................................................................................................47
9.1.1 Locally–Produced Programmes.....................................................................................47
9.1.2 Foreign Programmes..........................................................................................................48
9.1.3 Network Programmes .......................................................................................................49
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................50
Study Session 10 51
The Broadcast Audience .......................................................................................................................................51
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................51
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................51
10.1 Definition of Broadcast Audience ................................................................................................51
10.1.1 Qualitative Audience........................................................................................................51
10.1.2 Quantitative Audience.....................................................................................................52
10.1.3 Interest in Broadcasting .................................................................................................52
Primary Interest ................................................................................................................. 52
Secondary Interest ............................................................................................................ 52
Momentary Interest .......................................................................................................... 52
Audience Analysis.............................................................................................................. 52
10.2 Audience Composition ....................................................................................................................54
10.2.1 Literates ...............................................................................................................................54
10.2.2 Semi-Literates....................................................................................................................54
10.2.3 Illiterates..............................................................................................................................54
10.2.4 Poor........................................................................................................................................54
10.2.5 Affluent .................................................................................................................................54
10.2.6 Sophisticated Urban Dwellers ......................................................................................54
10.2.7 Simple Rural Dwellers.....................................................................................................54
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................55
Study Session 11 56
Stages in the Program Production........................................................................................................................56
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................56
11.1 Broadcast Programme Production .............................................................................................56
11.1.1 Pre-Production Stage.......................................................................................................57
11.1.2 Production Stage ...............................................................................................................57
11.1.3 Post-Production Stage.....................................................................................................58
11.2 Video and Audio Special Effects in Production ......................................................................58
11.2.1 Split Screen .........................................................................................................................58
11.2.2 Freeze Frame......................................................................................................................59
11.2.3 Dissolve ................................................................................................................................59
11.2.4 Wipe.......................................................................................................................................59
11.2.5 Super .....................................................................................................................................59
11.2.6 Replay ...................................................................................................................................59
11.2.7 Rear Screen Projection....................................................................................................59
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................60
Study Session 12 62
Broadcast Operatives and Their Functions I ......................................................................................................62
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................62
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................62
12.1 The Broadcast Presenter................................................................................................................62
12.1.1 Requirements of a Programme Presenter ...............................................................63
12.1.2 Station Announcer ............................................................................................................64
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................65
Study Session 13 66
Broadcast Operatives and Their Functions II ....................................................................................................66
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................66
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................66
13.1 Broadcast Operatives ........................................................................................................................66
13.1.1 Programme Producer ......................................................................................................66
13.1.2 Director ................................................................................................................................67
13.1.3 Set-Men.................................................................................................................................67
13.1.4 Floor Manager ....................................................................................................................67
13.1.5 Lighting Personnel ...........................................................................................................68
13.1.6 Graphic Artists...................................................................................................................68
13.1.7 Tape Editor..........................................................................................................................68
13.1.8 Cameraman .........................................................................................................................68
13.1.9 Video Tape Recorder Man (VTR Man).......................................................................68
13.1.10 Audio Man .........................................................................................................................68
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................69
Study Session 14 71
Strategic Programming Techniques .....................................................................................................................71
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................71
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................71
14.1 Broadcasting Programming .............................................................................................................71
14.1.1 Block Programming .........................................................................................................72
14.1.2 Blunting................................................................................................................................72
14.1.3 Counter Programming ....................................................................................................72
14.1.4 Strip Programming...........................................................................................................72
14.1.5 Bridging................................................................................................................................72
14.1.6 Hammock Programming ................................................................................................73
14.1.7 Long-Forms.........................................................................................................................73
14.1.8 Spin-Off.................................................................................................................................73
14.1.9 Tent-Polling ........................................................................................................................73
14.1.10 Power Programming .....................................................................................................73
14.1.11 Set Control ........................................................................................................................74
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................74
Study Session 15 76
Historical Development of Broadcasting ............................................................................................................76
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................76
Terminology .................................................................................................................................................76
15.1 History of Broadcasting .....................................................................................................................76
Assessment................................................................................................................................................................81
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions 83

About this
About this
Introduction to BroadcastingCLA106 has been produced by University of
Ibadan Distance Learning Centre. All s produced by University of Ibadan
Distance Learning Centreare structured in the same way, as outlined
below.
How this is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
 If the course is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the course.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Course assignments and assessments.
 Margin icons.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into Study Sessions. Each Study Session
comprises:
 An introduction to the Study Session content.
 Study Session outcomes.
 Core content of the Study Session with a variety of learning activities.
 A Study Session summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
 Bibliography
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CLA106 Introduction to Broadcasting
Your comments
After completing Introduction to Broadcasting we would appreciate it if
you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of
this course. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Course content and structure.
 Course reading materials and resources.
 Course assignments.
 Course assessments.
 Course duration.
 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this
course.
2
Course Overview
Course Overview
Welcome to Introduction to
BroadcastingCLA106
Broadcasting globally is an institution that influences events into
areas of the society in which they exist such as family, religion,
politics, economy among others. The course Introduction to
Broadcasting is designed to provide entry level students of
broadcasting the basic knowledge, to pursue a career in the field of
broadcasting and communication generally. The lecture will focus
on broadcast programming, technology as well as the history of
broadcasting among others.
Course outcomes
Upon completion of Introduction to BroadcastingCLA106, you will be
able to:
 fully describe and define broadcasting codes, conventions and

standards
 Differentiate among levels of broadcasting
 Explain the ethical principles of broadcasting
Outcomes
 Classify programme types
 Identify programmes operatives and organizational structure
 Identify broadcast audience
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Getting around this
Margin icons
While working through this you will notice the frequent use of margin
icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a new
task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to find
your way around this .
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group Activity Help Outcomes
Note Reflection Reading Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
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Study Session 1Overview of Broadcasting
Study Session 1
Overview of Broadcasting
Introduction
In this study session, you will be introduced to the different aspects of
broadcasting and how to relate with them. The focus of this session will
be on Overview of Broadcasting.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to:
1.1 define broadcasting
1.2 discuss broadcast codes, convention and standard
Outcomes 1.3 explain responsibilities in broadcasting
Terminology
Broadcasting The distribution of audio or video content to a dispersed
audience via any electronic mass communications
medium, but typically one using the electromagnetic
spectrum (radio waves), in a one-to-many model.
Narrowcasting Targeting media messages at specific segments of the

public defined by values, preferences or demographic
attributes.
1.1 Definition of Broadcasting

Broadcasting is defined as the transmission of electromagnetic energy
intended to be received by the public (Brown & Quaal, 1998:1; Baran,
2002:238). This can be explained in any of these two ways:
1. Broadcasting is the sending of messages using the medium of radio
or television with no technical control over who receives them. That
is, anyone with an appropriate receiver – radio or television set – and
who is within the transmitter range can receive the messages.
2. Broadcasting is explained as the sending of messages via the
airwaves to the public comprising different types of people (i.e. mass
heterogeneous audience) to be received simultaneously. In other
words, the same message is received at the same time by a very large
number of people, male and female, young and old, enlightened or
not, in different locations for example in Ibadan at Ojoo, Molete,
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Bodija, Ring Road, Moniya or in Lagos, Jos, Enugu, Calabar and

even Kafanchan.
The emphasis is that people everywhere can receive the same message at the
same time if they possess radio and television sets and are within the
transmitter range.
Note
Broadcasting has a major objective and this objective is to offer the

audience a shared and adequate access to information as well as to meet
the communication needs of the society.
Apart from broadcasting, there is, also, what is known as narrowcasting.
1.1.1 What is Narrowcasting?

Narrowcasting is the opposite of broadcasting. It is the sending of
messages to distant but defined receivers such as cable, CCTV (closed
circuit television), DSTV (direct satellite television with channels such as
CNN, Africa Magic, National Geographic, History, etc.) or video. In
other words, it is the sending of messages to an audience which is
restricted by demand or interest rather than by technical capability i.e.
just having a radio or television set and tuning into it. In narrowcasting
what one watches is specifically desired and usually paid for in order to
have access e.g. going to the cinema to watch a film or buying a video
compact disk (CD) to watch a show at home. The narrowcast audience is
smaller and more demographically homogeneous (similar) because it is
defined by interest whereas the broadcast audience is large,
heterogeneous (mixed) and scattered.
ITQ
Question
In …….., what one watches is specifically desired and usually paid for
in order to have access.
A. broadcasting
B. narrowcasting
C. shortcasting
D. widecasting
Feedback
The correct answer is B.
In narrowcasting what one watches is specifically desired and usually
paid for in order to have access
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1.2 Broadcast Codes, Conventions and Standards

Broadcasting involves the use of broadcast codes and conventions
designed to serve as guide for practitioners in the profession as well as
other stakeholders.
1.2.1 What is Broadcast Code?

Broadcast Code is a body of laws or a systematic collection of statutes
put together so as to avoid inconsistency and overlapping in message
delivery. These laws or statutes also known as rules serve as the guide
for a broadcast process to arrive at a desired end. For example, rules
guiding political or religious broadcasting as well as ethical
considerations. The Nigerian Broadcast Code is the main guide for
broadcasting in Nigeria.
National Broadcasting Code
The establishment of the National Broadcasting Commission in 1992 led
to the introduction of this code in 1993. It is the first code established for
editing in broadcasting and it encompasses every area in broadcast
editing. The essence of this code is to ensure that broadcast contents are
packaged and delivered in the appropriate way that is in coherence with
social, cultural, economic, political and religious configurations. Below
are a few selections of some of the regulations that are contained in the
code:
 All programmes shall adhere to the general principles of legality,
decency and truthfulness, in addition to the specific guidelines for
their genre.
 Materials likely to incite or accuse the commission of a crime or lead
to public disorder shall not be broadcast.
 National transmission of programmes in a Nigerian language shall
have subtitles in the official language to allow a general audience
appeal.
 Any program or musical content classified as Not-To-Be-Broadcast
(NTBB) shall not be broadcast.
 The physically and mentally challenged shall not be exploited or
oppressed in a manner embarrassing to the challenged or members of
their families.
 Womanhood shall be presented with respect and dignity.
 Broadcasting is highly susceptible to imitation especially by children.
 Therefore, the portrayal of violence, cruelty, pain and horror that has
the potential of causing moral or psychological harm shall not be
broadcast before the watershed time-belt of 10:00 pm.
 The use of foul and blasphemous language should be avoided.
 Programmes presenting artistic and literary materials shall be
objective and respect the rights of the owner.
 Cultural subjects shall not be treated with unnecessary sensationalism
appeal to lewd interest or unwholesome curiosity, irrespective of the
subject matter.
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The Nigeria Broadcasting Code is viewed as representing the minimum

standard for broadcasting in the Federal Republic Nigeria. Therefore,
every broadcast organization in Nigeria are expected to abide by the
provision of the Code in terms of: licensing, programme standard,
advertising, community broadcasting, network broadcasting, technical,
reporting procedure and sanctions. For instance, the Nigeria Broadcasting
Code notes that in religious programming broadcast stations should
among other things adhere to the following:
1. Equal opportunity and equitable airtime, not less than 90 minutes of a
station‟s weekly airtime, shall be made available to all religious
groups in the community as a civil responsibility, without charge.
2. Religious programmes shall be presented respectfully and accurately.
3. Religious broadcast, over which content members of a specific
religion control, shall be presented by responsible representatives of a
given religion.
4. Religious broadcast shall not contain an attack on, or a ridicule of
another religion or sect
5. Broadcaster shall avoid the casual use of names, words or symbols
regarded as sacred by believers.
6. The NBC Code also adds that rites or rituals involving cruelty and
obscenity shall be avoided, except in programmes designed
specifically to teach the beliefs of a religion.
ITQ
Question
The NBC code was introduced in ……
A. 1991
B. 1992
C. 1993
D. 1994
Feedback
The correct answer is C.
The National Broadcasting commission was established in 1992 while
the NBC CODE was introduced in 1993.
Broadcast practioners must be aware of other ethical basis for mass

media in Nigeria and globally. This would enable them to carry out
their duty within legal limits.
Note
1.2.2 What is Broadcast Convention?

Broadcast Convention can be said to be something that is customary or
has become a tradition. It is a general agreement on social behaviour or
8
practice. In other words, it has to do with conformity. In broadcasting,

one of the conventions is to arrive at least half an hour before scheduled
air-time if on duty. In so doing, one can have time to familiarise self with
the duty requirements and demands for the day‟s transmission. Another
convention has to do with programme lengths - a half-hour (i.e. 30-
minutes) programme, for instance, is supposed to last 26-27 minutes at
the most, so as to make allowance for any advertisements or
announcements which may have been scheduled to be taken before the
commencement of a new programme.
Standard, according to the Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus 111 (Elliot,

J., Knight, A. &Cowly, C., 2001), is the degree of excellence or average
quality required for a particular purpose.
Note
Broadcast standards are derived from the application of the codes and
conventions as well as a strict adherence to professionalism in the
packaging of content. Brown and Quaal (1998:22) tell us
“professionalism implies specialised training, commitment to excellence,
a sense of ethics, community service and standards of practice.” These
are requirements in any standard profession.
1.2.3 Broadcast Philosophy

Broadcasting is considered a potent force for social change. With
broadcast programmes, radio and television explain policies to the people
and provide a forum for the people themselves to communicate with one
another and with government. With the performing of its responsibilities,
broadcasting broadens the horizon of the different audiences, acquaints
them with national and international issues and familiarises them with the
cultural environment and technological developments. It is able to create
an environment for equity and social cohesion. It fosters participation in
common life and helps to avoid social exclusion. Broadcast content must,
therefore, be relevant to the society. It must be related to the lives of the
people and must show considerable understanding of their circumstances
– their hopes, aspirations and fears, their living conditions and their
political environment. It is necessary to be cautious in the use of foreign
broadcast content on radio and television. It is said that a distinct society
produces a distinct broadcasting. This is in relation to the cultural,
economic, technical and social base of the country.
1.3 Responsibilities in Broadcasting

Life and society put different responsibilities on individuals and
institutions because of their existence. Broadcasting has her own
responsibilities also. They include:
1. Creating and projecting an image of the nation state i.e. displaying a
nation and her wealth and potentials to her citizens and to the external
world.
2. Reviving and sustaining its languages.
3. Preserving heritage in all its ramifications
9
4. Modernising attitudes and

5. Opening society to new cultural influences.
The broadcaster‟s task is to serve the people by educating them to their
rights and duties as citizens. Broadcast media set agenda for the
development of society through promoting issues of development in
economy, politics and other aspects of the peoples‟ lives
1.3.1 Why Do People Study Broadcasting?

As part of communication studies, broadcasting is gaining more and more
ground as a field of study. The reasons for this are not far-fetched. They
include the following:
1. Broadcasting is the universal means of public communication
conveying four things in particular:
 Information (but often times it misinforms e.g. once, on NTA
News the false news of the death of now Late Dr Nnamdi
Azikiwe, the first Executive President of Nigeria, was
announced). It is important to guard against misinformation.
 Education
 Entertainment
 Persuasion/mobilisation.
All of these elements join to teach the cultural values of a people.
2. Another reason why broadcasting is a course is that, by its very
nature, broadcasting has consequences and effects that spread widely,
quickly and penetrate deeply. Many different types of persons act on
broadcast information when they receive it and the effect is good or
bad depending on their interpretation of the messages.
3. Thirdly, millions of people have radio receivers and television sets
and spend much time listening to and looking at broadcast materials
than some other activities. It is therefore imperative to study
broadcasting and its sensitive nature to package messages
appropriately for the audience.
Study Session Summary

In this Study Session, we looked at the Overview of Broadcasting. We
defined broadcasting and contrasted it with narrowcasting. Some
broadcast terms such as code, convention, standard and philosophy were
also been explained. Having looked at the responsibilities in
Summary
broadcasting, the study session was concluded with some reasons why
broadcasting is an important course of study.
10
Assessment
SAQ 1.1 (tests Learning Outcome 1.1)
Differentiate between broadcasting and narrowcasting.
Assessment SAQ 1.2 (tests Learning Outcome 1.2)

What is a broadcast code?
Why do people study broadcasting?
Bibliography/References
Baran, S. 2002. Introduction to Mass communication: Media Literacy
and Culture.USA: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Brown, A. J. &Quaal, W. L. 1998.Radio-Television-Cable
Management.USA: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Reading
Elliot, J., Knight, A. &Cowly, C. The Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus
III. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.
National Broadcasting Commission(2006) .Nigerian Broadcast Code
11
Study Session 2
The Broadcast Chain

Introduction
In this study session, we will look at the basic details relating to the
broadcast sector. More specifically, we will discuss the broadcast chain
and relate it to communication chain.
Learning Outcomes
2.1 discuss broadcasting chain
Outcomes
Terminology
Physical noise Any external or environmental stimulus that distracts us
from receiving the intended message sent by a
communicator
Psychological A person's internal preoccupations, prejudices, opinions

noise and other qualities that affect his ability to understand
and communicate in an environment.
2.1 Broadcasting and Communication Chain

In discussing the broadcast chain, let us remind ourselves of the
definition of broadcasting. Broadcasting is the sending of messages
through the electronic media of radio and television, with no technical
control on who receives the message. The opposite of broadcasting is
narrowcasting which only sends message to the homes of those that
subscribe to it. Example of narrowcasting is cable television, Internet.
Talking about the broadcasting media here, we are referring to only radio
and television. There is also print media e.g. newspapers, magazines.
Broadcasting is known to be a veritable instrument for public
enlightenment and mobilisation.
Broadcasting is a living communication process. There is what is called
the communication chain. There are different models that can be used to
explain the communication process and these include the Shanon and
Weaver Model, Gamble and Gamble‟s Model etc. (Gamble & Gamble,
12
Study Session 2The Broadcast Chain
2002:13-16). You may wish to look them up. All the models explain the
elements of communication and the way each element functions. Sambe
(2005) notes that communication is a two way process where the source
and receiver are independent. Basically, the elements of communication
as explained in the models that you may come across comprise the
following:
1. Information source – This is the entity that originates, encodes and
transmits the message. It can also be referred to as encoder or
originator e.g. human beings, broadcast house or programme like this
lecture on radio that you are listening to.
2. Transmitter/Channel – This is the medium through which the
message is sent e.g. verbal or non-verbal means or through radio or
television channels. The radio or television channels carry their
messages through a transmitter to the receivers in the homes and
society.
3. Message – The message is the information itself which is the content
of the communication act. Information is what is exchanged with the
outer world as we adjust to it and make our adjustments felt upon it.
A message is the core component of the broadcast communication

process.
Note
4. Context – is the setting, whether natural or otherwise, which

influences behaviour. In the broadcast context, this has to do with the
type of programme, which includes location, personalities involved,
language and so on.
5. Noise - This is anything added to the information signal but not
intended by the information source and therefore causing distortion
of the message.
There are three types of noise:

Physical noise-In a general sense, these include traffic noise, loud
speakers, fan in the room. In broadcasting, it has to do with poor
signals and background infiltrations in a programme such as hum,
being overdressed on a programme type and so on.
Psychological noise e.g. headache, fatigue, hunger, etc.
Language-related noise e.g. wrong pronunciation, poor grammar, etc.
One should be absolutely cautious and downplay these noise related

elements in the packaging of messages in order to enhance correct
interpretation by the audience.
Note
6. Receiver - This is the entity (individual, group, organisation) at

which the message is targeted i.e. the audience.
13
7. Destination-This is the human brain where the message is

processed for final use.
8. Feedback - This is the verbal and non-verbal signal relayed from
the receiver back to the source in reaction to the communication
message. With feedback, one can assess the level of
understanding and interpretation of the message received .It also
helps in the projection of responses as well as actions.
This is the way that the communication process takes place. It is also
known as the communication chain. How does this relate to
broadcasting?
In broadcasting the process is basically the same. However, in
broadcasting, the sensitivity of the communication process is at its
highest and directs the understanding of messages on radio and television
by the listeners or viewers. Thus extreme caution is required in message
packaging. However, feedback may not necessarily be immediate but
with advancement in technologies, the situation continues to change for
the better. Phone-in programmes, for instance, often provide immediate
feedback.
ITQ
Question
….. is the medium through which the message is sent.
A. Reciever
B. Feedback
C. Destination
D. Transmitter
Feedback
The correct answer is D.
Transmitter is the medium through which the message is sent.

In this Study Session, focus was on the communication chain and its
relevance to the broadcasting process. We explained the key elements in
the broadcasting chain. We talked about information source,
transmitter/channel and the message itself, context, noise, receiver and
Summary
feedback.
14
Study Session 2The Broadcast Chain
Assessment
With the aid of a diagram, illustrate the broadcasting chain.
Assessment
Gamble, T. K. & Gamble, M. (2002). Communication Works.USA: The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Sambe,J.A(2005).Introduction to Mass Communication Practice in
Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited
Reading
15
Study Session 3
Levels of Broadcasting
Introduction
In this study session, we will be discussing the different levels of
broadcasting. We will be looking at three different types if broadcasting
level; public, private and community broadcasting.
Learning Outcomes
3.1 state different levels in broadcasting
Outcomes
3.1 Types of Broadcasting

There are three (3) levels of broadcasting also known as tiers of
broadcasting. They are:
1. State or Public broadcasting
2. Private or Commercial broadcasting
3. Community broadcasting
These levels of broadcasting are also considered to be the ownership
patterns of broadcast establishments. Let us now discuss each of these
levels.
3.1.1 Public Broadcasting

Public broadcasting exists at two levels. The Federal Government owns
the first public broadcasting organ. These radio and television organs
operate network services because they are obliged by law to provide
national coverage.
Examples of the first tier public organs in Nigeria include the Federal
Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) and the Nigerian Television
Authority (NTA). The Voice of Nigeria (VON) is the country‟s
international radio broadcaster.
The second public broadcasting organ is owned by the state government

which is the second tier of government. These are regional stations which
cover their respective territories but the signals of some of the stations
can be received in neighbouring states.
16
Study Session 3Levels of Broadcasting
Some examples of the state/regional government stations in Nigeria are

the Broadcasting Corporation of Oyo State (BCOS) Radio and
Television, Ibadan, Cross River State (CRS) Radio/Television, Calabar
as well as Gateway Radio and Television in Abeokuta, Ogun State.
Radio Nigeria Operational Guidelines (2008) explains that the station, in

spite of commercial broadcasting, still focuses on serving as a public
organ of mass communication with public interest at the core of its
obligations to the audience. Some observers however argue that public
service media serve more as government media, promoting the activities
of government ahead of that of the citizens. Generally, the public
broadcast organ receives subvention from the supervising government but
it is also a partly commercial organ. This is because it must find ways of
generating funds for its sustainability.
Banda(2010)explains that coupled with the political and economic
liberation of many states in Africa, there was a tendency towards greater
commercialization of media ,especially those owned by the state.
Therefore state owned media facing paucity of funds now find
themselves competing with the private media for a chunk of commercials.
ITQ
Question
The following are state regional government stations in Nigeria except
……
A. Nigerian Television Authority
B. Gateway Television
C. Broadcasting Corporation of Oyo State
D. Cross River State Television
Feedback
The correct answer is A.
Options B, C and D are all state regional government stations, option A
is a Federal Government station.
3.1.2 Private Broadcasting

This includes broadcast services owned by private individuals or entities
and provided by some radio, television, cable and direct satellite
transmission. The intention for broadening the broadcast landscape to
include private ownership of stations in a country is to build democracy
(ON AIR, 2010:39). These stations are purely commercial and self-
sustaining.
17
Examples of private/commercial radio/transmission stations in Nigeria

include DAAR Communications - Raypower Radio and African
Independent Television (AIT), Channels Television, Galaxy
Television, Splash FM Radio, to mention only a few. You can mention
some others that you know.
All over the world, ownership of private stations comes from a diversity
of backgrounds such as politics, media, sports and business. Ariye,
(2010), explains that media ownership has an overbearing influence on
the content that the audience listen to, read or view. Therefore,
objectivity, balance or accuracy are issues that becloud the credibility of
the mass media in Nigeria. Media ownership in the broadcast media play
a pivotal role in content production, as such media practitioners and the
audience have minimal influence on content (media ownership theory)
Stations‟ orientation and programming. In Nigeria, the case is the same
for example, (see table below):
Table 3.1 Ownership Background of Some Major Private Broadcast
Stations in Nigeria. (Courtesy: ON AIR (2010:42).
No. Name of Type Identifiable owner Background

Station
1 African TV Dr Raymond Engineering/

Independent Dokpesi
Business/Politics
Television
2 Channels TV Mr John Momoh Journalism/

Television
Broadcasting
3 Galaxy Journalism/
Television
TV Steve Ojo Broadcasting
4 Brilla FM Radio Larry Izamoje Journalism/

Radio
Broadcasting
5 Rhythm FM Radio Ben & Guy Murray Business/

Bruce Entertainment
6 Hot FM Radio Senator Chris Journalism/

Anyanwu Politics
Think of some other examples of stations that you know in and outside
the country and the background of their owners and how it affects the
pattern in the station.
18
Study Session 3Levels of Broadcasting
3.1.3 Community Broadcasting

Community broadcasting is a not-for-profit grassroots (local) public
broadcast service medium through which community members are able to
contribute and foster civic responsibility and integration (Akingbulu, A.
&Busseik, H. 2010:44). It is also described as a key agent of
democratisation for social, cultural and economic development at the
grassroot levels. There are two types of community. The first is the
geographical community which refers to people living in a particular
place such as our towns, villages or a group of villages or towns that
share a common affinity. The second type is the community of interest
where people are united by particular interests that they share such as
music, farming or football. Any of these communities may wish to own a
broadcast station.
In Nigeria, so far, only the University Campus Community Radio stations
have been granted licenses to operate in the country. Programming on
the campus community radio is designed mainly to reflect the character
of the community with specially designed educational programmes
especially for her Distance Learning students target audience like you.
Religious organizations, political parties, individuals and profit-oriented
corporate bodies are yet to be granted community broadcast licenses.

In study session, we discussed the levels of broadcasting and their
importance. These levels include public broadcasting, private
broadcasting and community broadcasting. We also highlighted patterns
Summary of ownership of the broadcasting media stations.
Assessment
What is private broadcasting?
List the types of public broadcasting.
Assessment
19
Akingbulu, A. & Busseik, H. 2010.ON AIR: Nigeria. Open Society
Initiative for Southern Africa
Radio Nigeria Operational Guidelines (2008).
Ariye, E.C (2010).The impact of Private Broadcasting in
Reading
Nigeria.Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences.76.41-423.
Media Ownership Theory. Retrieved Dec 7, 2017 from http//
www.Ismee2006.blogspot.com.
Banda,F (2010)Citizen Journalism and Democracy in Africa. An
Exploratory Study. Grahamstown: Highway Africa.
20
Study Session 4Organizational Structure of Broadcast Establishment
Study Session 4
Organizational Structure of Broadcast

Establishment
Introduction
In this study session, we will be discussing the organizational structure of
broadcast establishment. We will start by explaining what management is
all about and align it to the broadcasting establishment. In the same vein,
we will highlight the department in a broadcast establishment.
Learning Outcomes
4.1 define management
4.2 list the departments in a Broadcasting Station
Outcomes
Terminology
Management The organization and coordination of the activities of an
orgnaization in order to achieve defined objectives.
Administration The group of individuals who are in charge of creating and

enforcing rules and regulations, or those in leadership
positions who complete important tasks.
4.1 What is Management?

Learned scholars Brown and Quaal (1998: 21), describe management as
the spectrum of all those who have any authority or jurisdiction over
other workers or who participate in executive decision-making and
planning thus distinguishing them from all members of the labour force.
Management is also defined as a process, mental and physical, whereby
subordinates are brought to execute prescribed formal duties and to
accomplish certain given objectives. An establishment is a place of
business usually a public institution with staff or labour force who
operate in the place. A broadcast station is like any other establishment
and is operated with departments and units as well as a specific
hierarchical structure. Today, we are going to be looking at the typical
management structure and organisation of a radio or television station.
21
Media ownership in Nigeria includes government, private and

community. As such, the organogram or staff mix is expectedly different.
Even, at that the pattern of ownership of media in a country influence the
development strides in a country. For instance, if government mainly
controls the broadcast media, there is a possibility of news or other report
tilting in government‟s favour. On the other hand, private ownership
might focus on commercial interest to the detriment of development
issues.(Media ownership theory).
A proper and functional structure has immense impacts on the output of a
broadcast station. The organizational structure in a broadcast
establishment includes:
1. Board of Directors
2. Management Committee
3. Departments
Let us consider these groups one after the other:
4.1.1 Board of Directors

In a broadcast station, there is a Board of Directors whose membership is
headed by a Chairman. The Station ownership determines the
membership of the Board, which is usually by appointment of relevant
and capable members of the society. The Chairman of the Board and
his/her members are all responsible to the station‟s ownership body
whether private or government. The Board is the highest policy making
body in the station. It caters for the needs of the station and the welfare
of the staff. The General Manager of the station is a member of the
Board.
4.1.2 Management Committee

This body is directly responsible for the day-to-day running of the
establishment. Its membership consists of the General Manager and the
different Divisional or Departmental Heads in the broadcast station. They
are also known as broadcast executives and the General Manager is the
Chief Executive. Therefore, who is the broadcast executive? This
broadcaster holds or has held a position of authority and responsibility in
a broadcast system. He/she is a professional that society can rely on. The
General Manager is responsible for budgeting and financial matters,
corporate planning and matters pertaining to the station‟s license. This
role, according to Brown and Quaal (1998: 82) is the least able to be
delegated. Brown and Quaal also hold that, “the broadcast executive
should not be a faceless proprietor of an electronic money-making
machine, but a person responsible and responsive to urgent issues of the
time.” In other words, the broadcast executive should be able to take a
stand and comment on burning issues of the day be they local or
international. Of course, how this works will depend on the broadcast
station and/or department, the person and the „house style‟.There are
different departments in broadcasting and a Manager, along with other
categories of supervisors, heads these departments as the case may be.
22
ITQ
Question
The Board of Directors is headed by a _____________
A. General manager
B. Chairman
C. Group manager
D. Chief Broadcasting Director
Feedback
The board of directors is headed by a Chairman.
4.2 Departments in a Broadcast Establishment

Let us now take time to look at some of the departments in broadcasting
establishment.
4.2.1 Administration
This Department is a service arm that supports all the other core
departments in the station such as Programmes, News and Current
Affairs, etc. The Administrative department takes care of administrative
issues relating to staff recruitment, promotion, demotion, warnings,
travels and general staff welfare.
4.2.2 Programmes Department

This is the heart of the station. It is where programmes are produced and
packaged for transmission in order to justify the station‟s existence. It
does the quarterly programming. It is divided into different units for
proper coordination of its functions. The units may include Public
Enlightenment, Music and Light Entertainment, Drama, Community
Development, Special Productions all of which package the station‟s
programmes. Presentation Unit is where Announcers and Presenters are
while Production Services Unit takes care of the stations camera and
audio services as well as the library. The Design Unit is responsible for
the artistic and aesthetic inputs in the station‟s productions.
4.2.3 News and Current Affairs

Audience attention and credence generated by news service are important
for a broadcast station. A responsible, competent news service can benefit
a station in audience numbers and revenue. The News Department is
responsible for news gathering and reporting. It has three basic units:
1. The News Desk: This is concerned with the daily writing, editing,
producing and directing of news stories.
2. Reportorial: This unit is concerned with newsgathering.
23
3. Current Affairs and Sports: This department deals with the coverage
of sports events as well as analysis/discussion of current sporting
issues.
4.2.4 Engineering Department

Radio and television began as scientific and engineering phenomena.
Those who work in broadcast engineering today have inherited the
traditions established by great inventors and innovators such as Hertz,
Marconi, De Forest and Zworykin. Members of the engineering fraternity
and technologists apply engineering developments to storing, retrieving
and transmitting information, entertainment and commercial messages. In
an unobtrusive way, the engineering department provides technical
backing for all programmes, commercial and news production. It also
maintains the station‟s transmitters and sustains the control room
services.
4.2.5 Marketing/Commercial Department

This is the revenue-generating department. Commercials always go a
long way in paying the way for radio and television services. Generally,
revenue comes to stations from businesses or persons wanting to reach
potential consumers or audiences for their products, services and
necessary information. This department canvasses for social
announcements also called personal paid announcements (PPAS), shop
windows and sponsorship of programmes and events in the station and
much more. This would, however, depend on the type of station.
In Nigeria, community radio stations are not allowed to take commercial

jingles.
Note
4.2.6 Finance Department

Money is vital for the proper functioning of any system. The Finance
department plays a key role in the management of a station‟s funds. The
Finance department keeps records and disburses funds to all the
departments and the clients that come to the station. It pays the staff
salaries as well. These responsibilities affect and often determine a
station‟s course and condition the decision-making process.
4.2.7 Legal Department

Well-established broadcast networks have a legal department saddled
with the responsibility of handling matters that concern the activities of
the organization as relating to legal partners. Sometimes, issues
concerning copyright ownership of intellectual property, defamation,
sedition, contempt of court among others might arise between the
broadcast organization and its customers. Other departments that could
also be in a broadcast organization include the Information and
Communication Department and the Public Relations .The former
24
handles the social media or online streaming of the station, while the
later handles communication with the various publics of the organization.
ITQ
Question
_____________ is the revenue-generating department in a broadcast
environment.
A. Legal department
B. Finance department
C. Marketing department
D. Engineering department
Feedback
Marketing department is the revenue-generating department in a
broadcast environment.

In this Study Session, we looked at the broadcast station as an
establishment. We saw the breakdown of the hierarchy in a station and
dealt with the functions of each of the departments, which, altogether,
join to achieve the ultimate goals of the Station.
Summary
Assessment
State the functions of the Board of Directors and the management
committee.
Assessment
Study the table below carefully. Fill the empty columns appropriately
from the options below:
A. Finance department
B. News department
C. Engineering department
D. Legal department
E. Programmes department
F. Administration department
25
I.
is saddled with the responsibility of
handling matters that concern the
_____________
activities of the organization as relating
to legal partners
II.
is a service arm that supports all the
_____________
other core departments in the station
III.
is responsible for news gathering and
_____________ reporting
IV.
It is where programmes are produced
_____________ and packaged for transmission in order
to justify the station‟s existence.
V.
provides technical backing for all
_____________ programmes, commercial and news
production.
VI.
keeps records and disburses funds to all
_____________ the departments and the clients that
come to the station
Brown, A. J. & Quaal, W. L. 1998.Radio-Television-Cable
Management.USA: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Media Ownership Theory. Retrieved Dec 7,2017 from
www.Ismee2006.blogspot.com
Reading
26
Study Session 5The Broadcast Program and Programming
Study Session 5
The Broadcast Program and Programming

Introduction
In this study session, we will be explaining the broadcast program and
programming. We will define the term “Broadcast Program. We will also
look at what programming entails. Lastly, we will discuss the ethical
considerations in broadcasting programming.
Learning Outcomes
5.1 define Broadcast Program
5.2 explain broadcast programming
Outcomes 5.3 discuss some of the ethical considerations in broadcast programming
Terminology
Broadcast Any project that was produced specifically to be viewed
program and delivered to viewers via over-the-air, pay or basic
cable, satellite transmissions, or posting to the Internet.
Broadcast The practice of organizing and/or ordering of broadcast

programming media programs (Internet, television, radio, etc.) in a
daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly or season-long
schedule.
5.1 What is a Broadcast Programme?

A broadcast programme is a scheduled radio or television broadcast. It
is defined socially as the production offered to society by a broadcast
organisation (radio or television) in order to justify its existence or
purpose. In mechanistic terms, i.e. technically, a programme is a message
packaged in a series of time units, in other words, it has a specific
duration (half-hour, 1-hour, and so on). Its production, like other
communication, is intentional, with definite aims and objectives. Yet
another definition holds that a programme is a unified presentation on
radio, television or cable, which occupies a distinct transmission period
and has a beginning, middle and end. It is also transmitted at a specific
time to a predetermined target audience. Ideally, on a well-produced
programme, there should be a proper opening with appropriate
signature/call tune for proper programme identification. Often times, on
27
television, this programme call-signal may be laced with action shots

reflecting the general content and philosophy of the programme on a
regular basis. This is usually called a “montage”.
A montage may be expensive and time-consuming to produce but once
available it is attractive to viewers and adds much aesthetic value to a
programme. There should also be a presenter to introduce the programme
(„intro‟ or „sign in‟). This person should also serve as the anchor-person
linking all the segments until the time she/he closes the programme
(sometimes called „outro‟ or „sign out‟). Wrong methods such as padding
should be avoided in programmes. Padding is the extension of time in the
provision of a message item in a programme. It is unethical and reflects
the producer of a programme as lazy and incompetent.
When a programme is padded, there is not much depth or substance to it.
Note
Broadcast scholars have specified the general characteristics of a good

programme. According to Armstrong (1992 cited in Andah, 2010:32)
talking about television, a programme should have clarity of pictures and
sound with a creative application of production techniques. The
techniques of producing a programme will be subject for another day.
More qualities of a good programme can be listed as follows:
1. A good presentation/delivery – The presenter should be clear in
speech and knowledgeable and delivery should be distinct.
2. Rich content - Address the subject and be well researched and
comprehensive.
3. Adequate and clear visuals (for television) - This is self explanatory
in order to aid the visual needs of the subject matter.
4. Good technical quality - This is desirable for the ears and the eyes in
order to sustain attention.
5. Good pacing - A programme must not too slow and not too
fast.(McQueen, 1998 cited in Andah, 2010:32).
5.1.1 Broadcast Philosophy

The philosophy in broadcasting is that programmes should stimulate
positive national attitudes through the pursuit of excellence. They should
help the citizens to understand and take informed decisions on
developments in a constantly changing economic and socio-political
environment. A broadcast producer should, therefore, understand the
programme that he/she is handling i.e. the philosophy of the programme,
the type of programme and format as well as the target audience, in order
to know how to go about the production successfully. There are different
types of programmes, programme formats and different ways in which
programmes are classified. These will be discussed subsequently in other
lectures. For now, let us look at programming.
28
5.2 What is Programming?

In broadcasting, it is from the programming process that programmes
evolve. Programming is the entire decision making process pertaining to
the conception, planning, production, scheduling and promotion of a
programme over a radio or television station network. It involves the
participation of all the stakeholders in a broadcast station and the
application of specific techniques in order to attract and sustain audience
interest as well as withstand completion. In other words, what
programme does/should a station offer and how to package/produce it i.e.
what considerations for content, style, budget, resources (human and
material) and so on. Other considerations include what time of the day to
schedule the programme for transmission in order to reach the target
audience having considered their busy hours, leisure and free timesheet.
In addition, how many times to promote the programme after the
packaging in order to call attention to the scheduled time. Programming
is important in a station because it engenders good performance and
discipline in spending.
5.2.1 Factors that Affect Programming

Our lives and the way we live it is usually influenced by various factors
such as gender, age, status or wealth. In the same way issues in daily
living are influenced variously for instance, broadcasting. There are many
factors that affect broadcast programming and much consideration should
be paid to such factors in order to achieve optimum results. Being a
cultural institution, some of the factors that affect broadcasting are
context related and may include manpower, equipment, target audience,
politics, tradition, religion, budget, environmental factors such as PHCN.
Other factors include issues of momentary interest such as beauty
pageant, World Cup series or electioneering period as well as what is
known as supra-systemic factors such as stability in a system, turbulence,
diversity or uniformity. Think of all of these factors and many others
around you as well and try to explain their impact on the programmes that
you watch or listen to or even the packaging of the programmes
themselves. A programme is the key product of a broadcast station and a
station is judged by the quality of her programmes. A proper
programming process should be put in place and followed because when
transmitted, a programme should display the station, reach the target
audience and be well received.
29
ITQ
Question
The following are supra-systemic factors that affect programming except
….
A. Stability in a system
B. Turbulence
C. Diversity
D. Equipment
Feedback
The correct answer is D.
Option A, B and C are supra-systemic factors that affect programming.
Option D is a context related factor.
5.3 Ethical Considerations in Broadcast

Programming
Ethics is the plural of the word ethic. According to the Oxford Dictionary
and Thesaurus, ethics is a set of moral principles and such principles are
usually known to guide action. Because this is a profession that deals
constantly with all categories of people and the public, ethical
considerations are crucial in broadcast programming in order to achieve
good results and maintain cordial relationships especially with work
teammates. Thus for the making of any programme, producers should:
1. Mobilise all human and material resources required to achieve a
planned objective.
2. Book the necessary technical facilities.
3. Understand the specific duties of other operatives.
4. Ensure that all operatives and invited guests or artistes report
punctually for recordings or live transmission as specified.
5. Give all instructions in a professional, concise, polite and
unambiguous language. The language of the programme should be
simple, decent, correct and able to communicate. Ensure correct
pronunciation of all words – indigenous and foreign.
6. Ensure proper and decent dressing to match the character, mood and
philosophy of a programme.
7. Avoid any action capable of distracting or annoying the audience.
8. Seek to arrest and sustain audience attention at all times.
9. Ensure proper recording before you release persons on the
assignment.
10. Say “thank you” at every opportunity.
30

In this Study Session, we have looked at the definition of broadcast
programme as well as the qualities of a good programme. We have also
explained what programming is and mentioned some of the factors that
affect broadcast programming. Some of the ethical considerations in
Summary
broadcast programming have also been highlighted.
Assessment
List the qualities of a good programme.
Assessment What is programming in broadcasting?
List the ethical considerations that are crucial in broadcast programming.
Andah, L. 2010. Locally-Produced Children‟s Television Programmes
and the Socialisation Process in Ibadan. A Ph.D.
Thesis submitted to the Department of Communication and Language
Arts, University of Ibadan.
Reading
31
Study Session 6
Classification of Programs
Introduction
In this study session, we will be looking at the different classifications of
broadcast programs, vis-a-vis classification based on scheduling and
genre.
Learning Outcomes
6.1 discuss the classes of program
Outcomes
Terminology
Scheduling A plan of procedure for a proposed objective, especially
with reference to the sequence and time allotted for each
item of operation necessary to its completion.
Genre A class or category of artistic endeavour having a particular

form, content, technique, or the like:
6.1 Classification of Programmes

Broadcast media programmes on television and radio are a means of
disseminating information and entertainment to a large heterogeneous
audience. Programmes are usually classified in order to attract and
sustain an audience and boost the image of a Station. There are two
major ways of classifying programmes which, according to Head and
Sterling (1990:277), are:
1. Classification by scheduling and
2. Classification by genre.
6.1.1 Classification by Scheduling

An important aspect of programming is scheduling. The schedule is a
grid dividing the broadcast day into slots of fifteen minutes, thirty
minutes, one hour, or even three hours duration and so on. Each slot is
attributed a programme. In other words, scheduling is the placement of
programmes on the programme schedule at appropriate times for
32
Study Session 6Classification of Programs
transmission to an audience. Scheduling provides balance in

programming. It finds the best slots for already known programmes or
ones that have been more successful than their slots would seem to
justify, so that a station‟s budget on the programme will seem justified
and the programme will not be „lost‟ on the target audience. A
programme is considered „lost‟ when most of the target audience does not
get to hear or see it for some reason. Scheduling, therefore, involves an
intimate knowledge of the target audience, their work and leisure habits
and what constitutes prime time in a broadcast day. In addition, what is
competition doing right or wrong or not even doing at all, to take
advantage.
A programme schedule is divided into different segments in a day. The
most important segments are:
1. Prime Time: Also known as peak period, it usually features network
programmes. Prime time commands the most audience viewing.
2. Access Time: This is the hour prior to prime time.
3. Fringe-Time: Is the hour preceding access time and following prime
time when audiences, though quite large, are either building up to
prime levels or dropping from those levels.
Others are early fringe, late night and overnight segments. In scheduling,
broadcast periods are called „belts‟.
Belt Scheduling
Belt scheduling is what guides a station during programming for its
different target audiences e.g., children‟s belt, news belt, family belt,
educational groups belt and so on. Each belt determines where a specific
programme type should be and makes scheduling easier. The schedule
and programmes belts take care of various interest groups and tastes.
Different time ranges are allotted to different programmes that are
targeted at different audience or different categories of people. With
programme belts, a good mix and balance is achieved so that the
programmes shown at every point are suitable for the audience at those
times.
Programmes Belts
The belts are divided into three broad categories – daytime, evening-time
and early morning belts. Other aspects are incorporated into these three
broad categories:
1. Daytime Broadcasting: This begins at 6.00 or 7.00 am and runs until
4.00 p.m.
2. Evening Broadcasting: This runs from 4 .00 p.m. until close down
which is anything between 12 midnight – 1.00 a.m.
3. Early Evening Belt: (4.00 p.m. – 7.00 p.m.). This is generally the
children‟s belt and usually children and the whole family can watch
programmes like cartoons, debates/quiz, magazines, drama/comedies,
stories and educational programmes directed at such targets.
33
4. Evening Belt: (7.00 p.m. – 10.00 p.m.). This is usually for the family
with programmes such as musicals, drama, theatres, etc. Example of
family interest programme is “Kith and Kin”.
5. Late Evening Belt: (10.00p.m. till between 12 midnight – 1.00am)
6. Early Morning Belt: (1.00am – 6.00am)
ITQ
Question
_____________ commands the most audience viewing among the
segments.
A. Access Time
B. Fringe-Time
C. Prime Time
D. Early fringe
Feedback
Prime time commands the most audience viewing among the segments.
It also known as peak period, it usually features network programmes.
Problems with Scheduling

Some challenges have been identified with scheduling and it is
important to note them for proper attention. The problems identified
with scheduling are as follows:
1. There are direct competitor channels e.g. NTA, BCOS, Galaxy
TV, AIT, Channels TV and so on transmitting to the same
audience and competing for attention.
2. The emerging competitors e.g., satellite (DSTV, HITV, etc.),
cable. These ones bring new styles of television use.
3. The minority channels trying to „peel-off‟ i.e., counter programmes
for other audiences such as programmes that appeal to specific
targets e.g. Africa Magic.
4. The general television universe i.e., people want to see every good
offering on all the television channels for the day and then they
may keep swapping channels and may get too much.
5. The household‟s living and viewing patterns (personality clashes,
conflicting demands on sets and so on).
But even with these challenges, Ellis (2000) ,NBC(2006)hold that
classification by scheduling gives meaning to each programme. Often
times, however, the programmes are moved from their slots in order to
accommodate other programmes. This movement is sometimes
counter-productive, as the programme may be „lost‟ on the target
audience after all. Please be reminded that a programme is considered
„lost‟ when it is scheduled for transmission at a time when the target
audience is not available to watch it e.g., scheduling a programme for
school children when they are still in school.
34
Study Session 6Classification of Programs
6.1.2 Classification by Genre

Genre is a form of media content with standardised distinctive styles and
conventions. Programme genres, also known as types include
information, education and entertainment programmes. Classification by
genre helps to identify programmes in terms of duration, seriousness,
subject matter, usual approach, treatment, production method and
audience appeal. The different programme genres/types will be treated in
fuller details in the next lecture. Broadcast programme genres make their
way around the world and, once successful in one country, concepts are
adapted in different media cultures, translated and transformed according
to the supposed needs of different national audiences. Learning is broadly
defined as anything that is factual, instructive, explanatory and/or socially
useful. This could be in any kind of form under the different genres.
Programme forms include drama, variety, news, documentary, adventure,
talk show, game show, magazine and so on. Programme forms will, also,
be treated separately in another lecture. The foregoing suggests that there
is seriousness in programme classification. It is important to note that the
type of programme, its quality and the source station will affect the
number of viewers watching the programme and its appeal to them.

In this Study Session, we highlighted the reason for classifying
programmes. We also highlighted the two key classes of programmes
i.e. classification by scheduling and classification by genre.
Summary
Assessment
What is scheduling? Outline five different segments that you know.
Assessment
Ellis, J. (2000). Scheduling: The Last Creative Act in Television?
Media, Culture & Society. January. 22.1: 144 – 156.
Head, S. and Sterling, C. (1990). Broadcasting in America: A Survey of
Electronic Media.6th ed. Boston: Honghton Mifflin. Nigerian
Reading Broadcasting Code.2006. Abuja: NBC.
35
Study Session 7
Program Genres
Introduction
In this study session, we will be discussing program genres. We will
explain what the term Program Genre means. We will also look at the
informal, educational and entertainment programs.
Learning Outcomes
7.1 differentiate and compare the different program genres
Outcomes
Terminology
Educational A program that is designed to facilitate learning or skills
program acquisition.
Entertainment A program that holds the attention and interest of the

audience, with pleasure and delight.
7.1 Programme Genres

Programme genres are terms derived from the major functions of
broadcast programmes. Thus there are three major types of broadcast
programmes on radio and television and they include:
1. Informational programmes
2. Educational programmes
3. Entertainment programmes
The mobilisation function of the media is incorporated in these three
programme genres. These programme genres are geared towards
influencing a nation‟s social, political, economic and cultural life.
7.1.1 Informational Programmes

As humans, we live in a busy and complex world. The acquisition of a
large knowledge base is, therefore, critical to a person for the
development of expertise in any area of human endeavour. In fact,
notable scholars like Head and Sterling (1990: 277) believe that unless
36
Study Session 7Program Genres
there is a strong knowledge base, problem solving is unlikely to occur.

What, then, is information? Information is increasing the state of
knowledge of a recipient through all published and unpublished
knowledge about any given subject or a body of knowledge. Information
can be said to be the tool used to acquaint people with what goes on
around them. Aspects of information are also considered as educational.
There are four main functions of informational and educational
programmes. They are designed to:
1. Appeal to the intellect of the people.
2. Widen the frontiers of knowledge.
3. provoke thought on pressing national and international issues
4. Uphold the dignity of man.
7.1.2 Educational Programmes

To qualify as „educational‟, a programme must:
1. have education as its significant purpose;
2. the educational purpose and target audience must be specified in
writing in the synopsis.
Synopsis is a brief outline or summary of the expected content of a

programme package for a specified audience.
Note
Here in Nigeria, the following criteria are listed for broadcast stations in
their educational programming.
1. Educational programmes shall be presented with accuracy and
decency.
2. A person presenting an educational programme shall be reasonably
knowledgeable in the subject.
3. Educational programmes shall promote Nigerian curricula and
general knowledge.
4. Programmes presenting artistic and literary materials shall be
objective and respect the rights of the owner.
5. Treatment of cultural subjects shall avoid sensationalism, appeal to
lewd interest or unwholesome curiosity.
(Nigerian Broadcasting Code, 2006: 48).
Formal Educational Programmes
Formal educational programmes on radio and television include
instructional programmes, which deal with the principles and basis of
knowledge and follow specific subject curricula such as these distance
learning lecture series.
Informal Educational Programmes
Programmes in this category deal with topics generally. Examples of
programmes under the informal educational categories include public
enlightenment programmes, community development programmes,
government programmes and religious programmes and so on.
37
The thematic content of programming here include:

1. Informative programmes such as news, current affairs, parliamentary
debates.
2. Development programmes such as social, economic and educational
programmes.
3. Arts and culture with such programmes that reflect traditional culture
as well as popular culture.
People watch television and listen to radio because they have something
to gain in relation to information and education. Problems, aspirations
and achievements of the people should, therefore, be thoroughly
researched and communicated as necessary feedbacks to the government.
This should go a long way in enhancing development.
7.1.3 Entertainment Programmes

Entertainment programmes are programmes designed specially to provide
relaxation for the viewers. They relieve tension, take one‟s mind away
from pressures for a time, build up the morale, teach and may also, have
other positive effects on a person mentally, emotionally and, sometimes,
physically. Such programsare usually designed with a number of
objectives in mind such as:
1. To uphold social values.
2. To uplift the artistic taste of the people.
3. To promote the people‟s appreciation and enjoyment of the arts.
4. To mirror the society and foster national unity.
5. To create and promote social, political and economic awareness
among the people.
Entertainment programmes can also be informative and educative and
they usually feature drama, comedy, musicals, game-shows and so on. It
is also the most popular form of programming. Example of an
entertainment programme is Night of a Thousand Laughs.
Ekstrom (2000:465) has argued that entertainment is as essential as
informational programmes. He believes that the concept of entertainment
is vague, used routinely and frequently with negative connotations but
that information can be entertaining and entertainment informative.
38
Study Session 7Program Genres
ITQ
Question
The following are main functions of informational and educational
programmes except _____________
A. Appeal to the intellect of the people.
B. Widen the frontiers of knowledge
C. To uplift the artistic taste of the people.
D. Uphold the dignity of man.
Feedback
Options A, B and D are all functions of informational and educational
programmes. Option C is a function of entertainment programmes.

In this Study Session, we treated the topic Programme Genres. There are
three specific programme genres namely that we discussed;
informational, educational and entertainment programmes. These three
programme genres may stand alone with their specific functions but they
Summary
are usually inter-related and their functions oftentimes overlap.
Assessment
List three programmes genres that you know.
What are entertainment programmes?
Assessment
39
Ekstrom, M.(2000).Information, Storytelling and Attractions Television
Journalism in Three Modes of Communication. In Media, Culture &
Society. July. 22.4: 465-492.
Head, S. and Sterling, C.(1990). Broadcasting in America: A Survey of
Reading Electronic Media.6th ed. Boston: Honghton Mifflin.
Nigerian Broadcasting Code.2006. Abuja: NBC.
40
Study Session 8Broadcast Program Formats
Study Session 8
Broadcast Program Formats

Introduction
In this study session, we will be looking at the different broadcast
program format. We will discuss news, variety, magazine, discussion and
interview programs. Other formats that we will consider includes
documentation, musical, talk and drama program.
Learning Outcomes
8.1 explain program formats
Outcomes
Terminology
Magazine A periodical publication containing articles and
illustrations, often on a particular subject or aimed at a
particular readership.
News program A regularly scheduled radio or television program that

reports current events.
8.1 Programme Format

A programme format, also known as form, is the individual structure of a
specific programme that is transmitted on radio or television. It is the
identity that is given to a programme genre or type. Programme formats
include the following:
8.1.1 News Programme

News is simply reports of fresh, important and interesting issues and
events happening around us that people are interested in hearing. It is
usually brought to us in form of a news bulletin. A typical news bulletin
is often composed of stories with elements that may broadly be
categorised as the 5-Ws and 1-H of a broadcast news such as who, what,
where, when, why and how. A news story is an account or report of an
event and contains nothing but facts. It is often defined by elements such
41
as timeliness, proximity, or significance/impact. Others are accuracy, and

prominence. Timeliness is about what is happening now, what happens in
the immediate present or what may happen. Proximity concerns
information about what happens close to us or affects those we know or
we can identify with in any way. Prominence relates to what happens to
famous people or peculiar people, places or things. Accuracy demands
that news shows people, issues and events as they are.
The basic function of news is to provide the audience/listeners with
accurate and comprehensive information about events at home and
abroad. It also seeks to explain stories in the news. Radio and television
stations provide a selection of the kinds of news items that they know
their audience/listeners are interested in. There are different types of
news items such as political news, entertainment news, sports news,
crime news, financial news, human-interest news, disaster and much
more.
8.1.2 Variety Programme

Generally, a variety programme is a segmented programme and the
duration for each segment would depend on the item featured, the pace of
the activity featured in the segment and the total duration of the
programme itself. This is in the effort to ensure balance, make the
contents attractive for the targets as well as to sustain their attention. A
variety programme is like a general magazine programme with a variety
of items and topics built into one. By its nature, its production is highly
demanding and tends towards education and vibrant entertainment.
Depending on the duration, variety programmes usually consist of five to
eight segments that treat aspects of living that the target audience can
enjoy and learn from. There are variety programmes for different target
audiences. Children‟s variety programmes, for instance, cover aspects
such as storytelling, dance, facts-file, talent hunt, news, games, workshop
and so on.
8.1.3 Magazine Programme

A magazine is a programme, which includes different kinds of items and
formats such as discussions, news, interviews, music, poetry, etc.
Because several items must be included, each lasts only a few minutes in
the entire duration of the programme. They are arranged in segments and
there is a theme for the production. For example, Ajayi (2006: 70-
71),explains that a typical one-hour magazine programme on examination
mal-practice can consist of a 3-minute drama package about examination
mal-practice, 3-minute vox-pop, 10-minutes studio discussion, 15-
minutes phone-in, 4-minutes documentary, 2-minutes songs or music and
so on. A magazine show/programme can, also, give instruction or advice
on a specific issue/topic e.g. a financial talk that may offer guidance on
investments.
A magazine programme may consist of a mixture of live and pre-
recorded items and the tone of each of the items can be from serious to
light. The duration of the programme often dictates the duration of the
items within it. The magazine programme is usually produced by team
effort that includes not only a producer but also a presenter and a host of
42
researchers. There is a close relationship between the magazine

programme and the variety format. The difference however is that,
whereas the magazine can be anchored by a knowledgeable and a
celebrity and role model usually anchor astute presenter, the variety
programme.
8.1.4 Discussion Programme

A discussion programme is a conversation between two or more people
on a particular topic in the studio. Listeners may be involved in the
discussion through a phone-in segment. In a discussion programme, a
moderator serves as host. He/she introduces the subject and the
speakers/discussants, takes calls from listeners where necessary, ensures
that all the speakers keep to the subject under discussion, maintains time
limits for each speaker and ensures that everyone has a fair opportunity to
contribute i.e. the moderator continues to refer to the speakers
periodically and by name, throughout the programme/discussion. The
objectives of the discussion programme include:
1. Encouraging expression.
2. Allowing listeners to voice their opinions.
3. Providing advice/possible solutions to specific burning issues.
8.1.5 Interview programme

The interview programme is essentially a form of question and answer
session with a guest on a radio or television programme. A typical
interview programme, like the news story, is often composed of elements
that may broadly be categorised as the 5-Ws and 1-H of a broadcast
interview such as:
1. Who will be interviewed and who will conduct the interview?
2. Why is the person being interviewed?
3. What is the focus of the interview?
4. Where will the interview be conducted - in the studio, office or
residence?
5. When will the interview be conducted – during or after an event?
When will it be transmitted?
6. How will the interview be conducted – what pattern will it take – live
or recorded? Will callers be allowed to ask questions?
There are different kinds of interviews, which include personality
interview, opinion or expert interview, news or issues interview.
8.1.6 Documentary/Feature Programme

A documentary is a film dealing with a natural history sequence usually
accompanied by an explanatory talk. It presents facts and information
about things and a political, historical or social issue - things that are
actually true and involve real people in real life. It is described as a
creative reproduction of reality. A documentary could be for 15 minutes,
half-hour or 1-hour while a feature can be as short as 3-5 minutes. The
intention of the documentary is not simply to register events and
circumstances but to find the most moving examples of them. It uses
materials such as archival films, photographs, slides, paintings, actualities
43
or all of the above. The following are the basic objectives of a

documentary.
1. To provide socially useful information and explanation.
2. To persuade the audience to take remedial/corrective action.
3. To inspire and to uplift.
There are two kinds of documentary: the actuality documentary and the
documentary-drama (otherwise called docu-drama). The actuality
documentary allows persons involved to tell their stories in their own
voices and settings. The documentary-drama uses actors to recreate real
events and real people. A typical documentary switches back and forth
between the voices of different people, sounds of different settings as
well as music.
8.1.7 Musical Programme

This is an entertainment programme used to relax the mind and soothe
the nerves. A presenter, or sometimes a deejay, introduces music either
on a particular theme or by a particular artiste or mix. The musical
programme is based on a play-list with track numbers and CD numbers,
music titles and information as well as the order in which every song
should be played during the programme.
8.1.8 The Talk Programme

The talk programme is a friendly chat built around one subject e.g.
inspirational talks. It is a spoken composition with a beginning, middle
and an end, using action words and every day speech. The talk
introduces a subject in an ear catching way, develops argument and
summarises what has been said. A talk programme has great authority in
addition to the warmth which comes from person to person contact. Talks
were the earliest form of spoken word programmes in broadcasting. It
can still be the most effective. Examples of the talk programme have been
discussed earlier include:
1. The straight talk
2. Discussion
3. Interview
8.1.9 Drama Programme

One of the many important broadcast forms is the drama programme.
When a story is acted out in words, it is called a play. When a play
shows how people react when caught up in a conflict it is called drama.
Drama is a story that is written to be “acted” out on radio or television
through various sounds. It takes us into the lives and thoughts of people.
It shows us their characters, how their characters change and take new
directions because of the conflicts, which they face in their lives, and how
they win in the end despite the hazards they have faced. Drama
programmes can be used to highlight social issues and to teach while also
entertaining. Through drama the media can also educate the citizens,
mobilize them for a particular purpose, such as environmental sanitation.
Ojenike and Adedokun (2006) note that the media educate citizens by
44
promoting knowledge, values and social norms from one generation to

another.
ITQ
Question
________________ is a film dealing with a natural history sequence
usually accompanied by an explanatory talk.
A. Discovery programme
B. News programme
C. Magazine programme
D. Variety programme
Feedback
The correct answer is a.
Discoveryprogramme is a film dealing with a natural history sequence
usually accompanied by an explanatory talk.

In this Study Session, we talked about some of the different programme
formats and their place in broadcast programming. Some of the
programme forms treated include news, variety, magazine as well as
discussion and interview programmes. We also discussed documentary
Summary
or feature programmes, the talk programme, musical as well as drama
programmes.
Assessment
SAQ 8.1 (tests Learning Outcome8.1)
Assessment A. News programme
B. Magazine programme
C. Variety programme
D. Music programme
E. Discussion programme
F. Interview programme
45
is essentially a form of question and answer

I. _________ session with a guest on a radio or television
programme.
may consist of a mixture of live and pre-

II. _________ recorded items and the tone of each of the
items can be from serious to light.
Its basic function is to provide the

audience/listeners with accurate and
III. _________
comprehensive information about events at
home and abroad.
is a conversation between two or more people

IV. _________
on a particular topic in the studio.
is like a general magazine programme with a

V. _________
variety of items and topics built into one.
is an entertainment programme used to relax

VI. _________
the mind and soothe the nerves.
Ajayi, W. (2006).Modern Radio Production. Lagos: Concept
Communication Series.
Ojenike,B & Adedokun. O (2006).Mass Media Practice and the
Nigerian Society. Ibadan: Akakom Publications.
Reading
46
Study Session 9Sources of Program
Study Session 9
Sources of Program
Introduction
In this study session, we will be highlighting the different sources of
broadcast programs. Our focus will be on the local, foreign and network
programs.
Learning Outcomes
9.1 mention the different sources of program
Outcomes
Terminology
Local program A television program made by a television station or
independent television producer for broadcast only within
the station's transmission area or television market.
National culture The set of norms, behaviors, beliefs and customs that exist
within the population of a sovereign nation.
9.1 Sources of Programmes

There are three major sources of programmes available to the broadcast
media. These sources are as follows:
1. Local productions
2. Foreign programmes
3. Network programmes
9.1.1 Locally–Produced Programmes

These refer to the programs, which are home-grown and are transmitted
on local broadcast stations, including the network service. The aim of the
locally produced programme is to affect individual attitudes, tastes,
interests, beliefs, opinions and behaviour in relation to local cultures and
traditions. It has to do with the increasing diversity of local cultures and
social groups being represented to wider audiences. The important factors
are national culture and national identity. In broadcasting, locally
produced programmes are also aimed at promoting social unity. The
47
focus of local productions is on local newscasts and public affairs

programmes such as face-to-face interviews, variety programmes,
magazine programmes, sports, discussion programmes, drama, musicals
and documentaries. Four main strategies explain the advantages derived
from local programmes. According to Barca (1999: 200), they are:
1. Promotion of one‟s own culture – this is an opportunity to
2. Display a people and their way of living.
3. Realisation of potentials within the environments – this happens with
the discovery of local talents when they are given the opportunity for
exposure.
4. Marketability of the programmes – it is a platform for programme
assessment and exchange programming.
5. Increase of power on the market – as a programme gains
6. Attention of the audience, it also gets a stronger hold on the market.
Usually, there are rules and regulations guiding locally produced
programmes. In Nigeria, among other objectives, locally produced
programme content has the following regulations:
1. To promote and sustain Nigeria‟s diverse cultures, mores, Folklores
and community life;
2. To provide diversity in types of programming content for the widest
audience through the limitless variety in the cultural landscape of
Nigeria;
3. To promote Nigerian content and encourage the production and
projection of Nigerian life within and outside its borders;
4. To ensure that every terrestrial free-to-air station attains a local
content minimum of 70 percent;
5. To establish a dynamic, creative and economically vibrant Nigerian
broadcast production industry.
(This is found on page 42 of the Nigerian Broadcasting Code, 2006 edition) .
The producer must recognise the need to build respect for other cultural
values and should bring in some bits that are foreign. In Nigeria, 30
percent foreign content is allowed. Some examples of locally produced
programmes include Children’s Playtime, NTA Newline, Superstory and
one-time drama programme Koko Close on NTA Ibadan. There are many
more. Think of some examples yourself.
9.1.2 Foreign Programmes

These are programmes which are produced outside Nigeria and
transmitted on stations but are aimed at educating, informing and
entertaining viewers in relation to foreign ideals and values for example
the very popular American children‟s television workshop programme
Sesame Street for the children target audience, Oprah Winfrey Show (you
can name many more).
Foreign programme is also referred to as syndicated programme
Note
48
Study Session 9Sources of Program
The debate on foreign programmes hinges on the issue of cultural

imperialism because of the way foreign cultural and extraneous values
affect the local audiences. However, the defenders of globalisation of
culture see in foreign programmes the potential for expansion of
opportunity for both the sending and the receiving cultures (Baran, 2002:
493). This debate rages on continually and to some extent, it influences
programming. You can say that the fear of cultural imperialism is another
factor that influences programming. Do you remember some of the other
factors that affect programming? Please refer to Lecture 5 in your course
manual for answers.
9.1.3 Network Programmes

Networking in broadcasting is the centralisation of the business functions
of programme production, distribution and decision-making that are
national in scope. Network programmes are usually viewed nationwide
because local affiliated stations hook on simultaneously for the
transmission of network programmes. Such network programmes include
news, sports, features, drama, special events, informative programmes,
documentaries and varieties of other programmes that could be of interest
to the target audience. They may include locally produced and foreign
programmes. According to a notable communication scholar, Baran
(2002: 283), “the national media are pivotal to the State‟s needs in the
sense that national media are used for the promotion of social unity
through cultural programming i.e. national culture and identity.” Network
programmes are therefore, useful for national growth and development.
Network controls the programme process from idea/concept stage to
scheduling and decides how long a show stays on its line-up. Few local
stations, including private stations, can match the promotional efforts of,
and few locally produced programmes can equal the budget, glamour and
audience appeal of the network. The major advantage of network
programming is the considerably low cost to the affiliate stations. Such
stations may save costs by not producing programmes „at home‟ but
simply hooking on to the network service for their daily offerings.
ITQ
Question
_____________ are programmes which are produced outside Nigeria
and transmitted on stations.
A. Network programmes
B. Local programmes
C. Foreign programmes
D. Semi local programmes
Feedback
Foreign programmes are programmes which are produced outside
Nigeria and transmitted on stations but are aimed at educating,
informing and entertaining viewers in relation to foreign ideals and
49
values.

In this Study Session, we pointed out the different sources of
Programmes. There are three major sources of programmes namely –
locally produced programmes, foreign programmes and network
programmes. Generally, locally-produced programmes have four major
Summary
advantages. Specific concerns for the production of these programmes in
Nigeria were also highlighted. Foreign or syndicated programmes and
network programmes were also treated. While all these programmes
have their advantages, they have some disadvantages too.
Assessment
List the three major sources of programmes available.
Assessment Outline the advantages of local produced programmes.

What are network programmes?
Baran, S. J. (2002).Introduction to Mass Communication: Media
Literacy and Culture.2nd ed. New Aster: R. R. Donnelyey & Sons,
Company.
Barca, F. (1999).The Local Television Broadcasting System in Italy:
Reading Too Few Sources For Too Many Companies? In Media Culture &
Society. January. 21.1: 109-122.
The Nigerian Broadcasting Code.2006 edition.
50
Study Session 10The Broadcast Audience
Study Session 10
The Broadcast Audience

Introduction
In this study session, we will be discussing the broadcast audience. We
will start by asking ourselves what a broadcast audience is. We will also
look at the different audience composition.
Learning Outcomes
When you have studied this session, you should be able to
10.1 explain broadcast audience
10.2 list the composition of the broadcast audience
Outcomes
Terminology
Broadcast The set of people whom mass communication messages
audience are channeled to.
10.1 Definition of Broadcast Audience

A broadcast audience is the other partner in the mass communication
process (Baran, 2002: 28). It refers to the unknown individuals towards
whom mass communication messages are directed. They comprise active
individuals and members of social groupings such as the family,
workplace and other communities who consume media products in the
context of their personal and social goals. In broadcasting, they are
known as the destination of the signals transmitted in the electronic media
i.e. listeners and viewers, the ultimate in reach measurement. For
example, the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) used to say that 30
million viewers watch the network news daily. The general media
audience is as varied as the population itself hence the term target
audience. There are 2 types of audience:
10.1.1 Qualitative Audience

Qualitative audience deals with the composition of members of the
audience such as children, youths, adults, professionals, family and so on.
51
10.1.2 Quantitative Audience

This relates to numbers in the coverage area and the reach whether
regional, national or international. When the Nigerian Television
Authority (NTA) talked about its 30 million viewers, it was referring to
its network service, which extends its capacity nationwide and even
beyond and thus attracts many more viewers than the regional stations.
10.1.3 Interest in Broadcasting

Different people make different uses of the broadcast media. Age, sex,
socio-economic status and the likes may influence an individual‟s use of
this media. In addition, predispositions like attitudes, aspirations, hopes
and fears, in a way, may influence the use of the broadcast media.
Programmes production is done in relation to the interests of the audience
and it is important for stations and their producers to understand the
requirements in these thematic areas of interest. Interest in broadcasting is
divided into three (3) parts:
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Momentary
Primary Interest
This includes the basic concepts of life that are essential for the people‟s
welfare, growth and development such as health, shelter, food, clothing,
etc.
Secondary Interest
Secondary interest is the interest that influences thought and action but is
not vital to existence for example hobby, anniversaries (birthdays, etc.).
Momentary Interest
This relates to issues mainly concerned with happenings of the day. It
varies from one individual to another, community to community, season
to season e.g. a health talk on how to keep one‟s self and children warm
in the rainy season plus other environmental factors such as sanitation
day, transition programmes, World up, etc.
Audience Analysis
Audience analysis is the breaking down of the total audience into
different segments and components. It is done to determine the choice of
language, topic, illustrations, materials and so on, to use on a programme.
It incorporates different elements such as:
1. Size – A broadcast audience is large and heterogeneous.
2. Age – Knowledge of the age range of the audience enables the
producer to plan what kind of motivation or persuasive technique to
apply e.g. if puppets are used on children‟s programmes, are they
inappropriate for other types? Cartoon, Apala music for adults and
pop for youths?
52
3. Sex – Gender guides the selection of topics and other materials but a
women‟s programme must not feature women only (for there is no
woman‟s world without a man, etc.).
4. Educational Level – Programmes must be adapted to suit the
intelligence level of the audience, never condescending i.e. do not
insult their intelligence for example; do not say, “This is a spoon” to
an adult who knows what a spoon is.
5. Knowledge Level – This subject has nothing to do with a person‟s
level of education but with the content of the subject matter. Your
audience might not know the difference between gastric ulcer and
peptic ulcer. It is important to give all the necessary information. Do
not assume that you have intelligent audience. Use illustrations that
will be understood by the less intelligent in the audience. To foster
understanding, use familiar simple and pictorial words particularly on
radio.
6. Socio-Economic Level - This represents the social status of members
of the audience. For occupation, a station features specialised
production for professional groups e.g. farming, commerce, stock
market. In this case, be familiar with the field and the technical
terms, etc., for example in farming, know the farming seasons; for
musicals, be familiar with the artistic style, etc.
7. Mood/Interest - A good producer must be able to analyse his
audience attitudes and be aware of the different moods and needs
e.g.
 time of joy/celebrations i.e. anniversaries like birthdays,
Workers‟ Day, Children‟s Day and so on.
 time of sorrow or bereavements like periods of national
mourning, disasters and so on.
 seasons (dry season, wet/rainy season, harmattan, winter,
Christmas, Easter, Ramaddan, Ileya).
ITQ
Question
Interest in broadcasting is divided into the following except
____________.
A. Momentary interest
B. Primary interest
C. Tertiary interest
D. Secondary interest
Feedback
Option A, B and D are all divisions of interests in broadcasting media.
Option C is not one of them.
53
10.2 Audience Composition

The broadcast audience comprises seven categories of peoples, which can
be described as follows:
1. Literates
2. Semi-Literates
3. Illiterates
4. Poor
5. Affluent
6. Sophisticated Urban Dwellers
7. Simple Rural Dwellers
10.2.1 Literates
These are the educated, intellectuals, academics, secondary certificate
holders, secondary modern, technical and trade school groups. They can
read and write. It also includes those literate in one of the several
languages spoken in the country.
10.2.2 Semi-Literates
These comprise primary school dropouts and those literate in one of the
languages in the country.
10.2.3 Illiterates
Under this, there is majority of market women and dropouts, labourers,
sweepers and farm workers.
10.2.4 Poor
These are labourers, sweepers, subsistent farmers and guards.
10.2.5 Affluent
These are business magnets, landed farmers, nouveau riche, top
executives in private and public sectors.
10.2.6 Sophisticated Urban Dwellers

These include students, youth (those who affect the society), market
women, businessmen, foreign nationals and professionals.
10.2.7 Simple Rural Dwellers

Farmers, hunters, farm-workers and artisans.
You can make out which category you belong. The audience of the
broadcast media is restricted as far as the station‟s wavelength is
concerned and also by the taste, interest, attitudes, motivations and
ideas of the public hence the target audience.
54

In this Study Session, we treated the broadcast audience and looked at
the importance of the audience in broadcast programming as well as the
thematic interests in broadcasting. We also treated the composition of
the broadcast audience and what audience analysis entails.
Summary
Assessment
Differentiate between Qualitative audience and Quantitative audience.

List the categories of people who make the broadcast audience.
Baran, S.J.(2002). Introduction to Mass Communication: Media
Literacy and Culture. 2nd ed. New Aster: R. R. Donnelyey & Sons
Company.
Reading
55
Study Session 11
Stages in the Program Production

Introduction
In this study session, we will be taken through the different stages in the
program production. We will discuss the pre-production, production and
post-production stages. Finally, we will discuss the video and audio
special effects in broadcast production.
Learning Outcomes
11.1 describe the different stages in the program production process
11.2 explain what the term „special effects‟ entails
Outcomes
11.1 Broadcast Programme Production

Every time we see a programme on television or hear it on radio, do we
wonder what process it undergoes to reach that final product which is the
programme. Let us again define what a programme is before we talk
about the process that makes it real. A programme is a conceptualised
idea neatly put together relative to the aims and objectives of its
programme type and in accordance to the medium of transmission. It is
also a production offered to society by a broadcasting house/organisation
in order to justify its existence in a cultural setting. It has a beginning,
middle and an end. To this, four points stand out:
1. A conceptualised idea;
2. There are aims and objectives of a programme type;
3. It is neatly put together; and
4. It has a medium of transmission.
Broadcast programme production is the packaging of cultural and other
information on radio and television in a colourful and interesting manner
to project truth and strength about a people and a cause. Bearing the four
major factors already mentioned in mind, one begins to process the
different stages of programme production. There are three stages of
production i.e.
1. Pre-production stage
2. Production stage
3. Post-production stage
We shall look at all three stages one after the other.
56
Study Session 11Stages in the Program Production
11.1.1 Pre-Production Stage

This is the stage where a conceived programme idea is considered. This
stage usually reflects the immediate environment, capturing the cultural
values and norms of the society. A producer may wish to package a
programme on any subject of either inter-personal, intra-personal or
group choice. Research is carried out to further determine whether the
idea is feasible or not. The aim of the programme for society (i.e. the
aspirations of the establishment) as well as the objectives of the
programme (needs to be fulfilled in society) will be expressed. If the idea
can be worked on to become a programme, and then the elements
involved will be worked out. These elements include the form and details
of content such as:
1. Making contacts in order to reach the key personalities required for
the programme
2. Feasibility to check out suitable locations
3. Budget (a realistic estimate of all costs associated with the
production)
4. Rehearsals and scripting to direct the production
5. Booking of all required facilities
6. Consideration of all the hospitality needs for staff and guests on the
programme.
11.1.2 Production Stage

Having painstakingly taken care of the necessary details in the pre-
production stage, the production stage is time to start actual production.
This is the real recording of the idea that is to be packaged into a
programme or full message for the audience. The message is recorded
with the actual persons in actual locations with necessary materials.
From the standpoint of production planning and organisation, Compessi
(2000: 386) explains that three critical factors are necessary:
1. Equipment necessary for the recording must be identified and put in
place.
Crew assignments must be clearly stated and responsibilities properly
delegated.
2. The material that is recorded must conform to the script and the
recording must proceed efficiently.
The recording may be a straight one or it may be in different bits to be
put together at the editing stage, which is the post-production stage. In
this production stage, tape labelling and logging are useful for keeping a
record of what happens. It is important to be able to quickly and easily
identify individual tapes and their content and labelling helps the
producer to keep track.
At this point, it is important to refer you to study session 5 in this

course series where we treated the broadcast programme and broadcast
programming. Please read up the ethical considerations in broadcast
programming again. These considerations, ten of them altogether, are
very essential for the broadcast producer during the programme
production process.
57
11.1.3 Post-Production Stage

This is the editing stage. According to Compessi (2000: 243), editing is
an invisible art. He defines editing as the process of selecting and
ordering shots or audio sequences (emphasis is mine). In programmes
production, editing is also the process of correcting any errors, which
occurred in the programme during the period of recording. When editing
is properly done, it is hardly noticed. The objective is to make a
wholesome package and the programme bright, fresh, good and
acceptable to the public. After editing, the programme is fully packaged
and ready for promotion and transmission to the target audience and all
others who may be interested in benefitting from it.
ITQ
Question
_____________stage is the stage where the real recording of the idea
that is to be packaged into a programme or full message for the audience
takes place.
A. Pre-production stage
B. Production stage
C. Post-production stage
D. Mid-production stage
Feedback
Production stage is the stage where the real recording of the idea that is
to be packaged into a programme or full message for the audience takes
place.
11.2 Video and Audio Special Effects in Production

Effects are fancy electronic transmission methods of combining video
and audio sources for programme embellishment and aesthetic value.
They are either video or audio and are treated with the video and audio
switcher on the console. Programmes production is oftentimes incomplete
without effects. There are different types of effects. Some of the different
types of effects are split screen, freeze frame, dissolve and many more as
explained following:
11.2.1 Split Screen

This is a special effect with the screen split into two or more sections,
with a picture from a different camera filling each portion of the screen.
In one of the video clips of Alhaji Kollington Ayinla for example, we see
him (the musician) singing in one part of the screen while another part is
showing his back-up dancers.
58
11.2.2 Freeze Frame

This is the repeated scanning of a single video frame while holding the
video tape stationery resulting in a still frame during playback. It is when
the picture on the screen is still.
11.2.3 Dissolve
This is the simultaneously fading out of one picture and fading in of
another picture, the dissolve pattern creates a temporary overlapping of
images.
11.2.4 Wipe
It is the act of pushing of one picture off the face of the screen and
replacing it with another. It is a highly stylised method of going from
onecamera to another. There are vertical wipes and horizontal wipes.
11.2.5 Super
This is a short form of imposition, which is when two pictures are
blended together and held in combination for a specific period.
11.2.6 Replay
This is bringing back on the screen an action that happened about 20 – 60
seconds earlier e.g. the moves that led to a goal in a football match.
11.2.7 Rear Screen Projection

This is when the talent or the newsreader is on focus and the activities
going on in his background could equally be seen.
Sound effects could be classified into three categories:
1. Actualities: These are effects recorded on the field e.g., location
activities and their sounds e.g. crowd effects.
2. Library: These are sound effects recorded on tape or compact disc.
For instance, waterfalls effects, airplane and train engine sounds,etc.
3. Spot: This is created in the studio at the time the programme is going
on for instance, segue; cross-fade, etc.
Segue:It is an audio transition in which one sound is completely faded

out and then a second source is immediately faded in.
Cross Fade: This is also an audio transition in which one sound is
faded out while another is simultaneously faded in. It is similar to a
video dissolve.
59

In this Study Session, we looked at the different stages in the broadcast
programmes production process and it highlighted the three different
stages in the process. These three stages are the pre-production stage, the
production stage and the post-production stage. In addition, we
Summary
discussed the factors that stand out in the process as well as what the
term „special effects‟ entails were treated. Some video and audio special
effects were explained using some examples.
Assessment
What is broadcast programme production?
Outline the three stages of production.
A. Dissolve
B. Super
C. Replay
D. Wipes
E. Screen split
F. Freeze Frame
I.
is a short form of imposition
II.
is a special effect with the screen split into
two or more sections, with a picture from a
different camera filling each portion of the
screen.
III.
is bringing back on the screen an action that
happened about 20 – 60 seconds earlier
IV.
is the repeated scanning of a single video
frame while holding the video tape stationery
resulting in a still frame during playback.
V.
Is made up vertical wipes and horizontal
wipes.
VI.
is the simultaneously fading out of one
picture and fading in of another picture, the
dissolve pattern creates a temporary
overlapping of images.
60
Compessi, R. J. (2000). Video Field Production and Editing. Allyn&
Bacon: Needham Heights, MA
Reading
61
Study Session 12
Broadcast Operatives and Their

Functions I
Introduction
In this study session, we will be pointing broadcast operatives and their
functions. We will focus on the broadcast presenter and station announcer
in this session.
Learning Outcomes
12.1 Explain the duties of a broadcast presenter
Outcomes
Terminology
Broadcast The public face, or voice, of programs broadcast on
presenter television, radio and the internet.
Station Someone who introduces programs on radio or television

announcer or who reads the text of a radio or television
advertisement.
12.1 The Broadcast Presenter

A presenter is an „on-air‟ personality and a key broadcast station
operative. This is because they are the link between the station and the
audience making a success or otherwise of the station‟s image and
programming. There are two types of broadcast presenters and they are:
1. The station announcer
2. The anchor person on a radio and/or television programme for the
duration of that programme
Usually, station programme presenters are trained in the style,
construction and delivery of scripts but sometimes they are natural
performers. Broadcast presenters may begin as announcers and then
graduate to specialised areas depending on the flair they demonstrate. But
62
Study Session 12Broadcast Operatives and Their Functions I
articulate experts outside broadcasting can, also, be used as programme

anchors/presenters.
12.1.1 Requirements of a Programme Presenter

There are many requirements a good presenter must meet up to. Some of
these requirements are discussed below:
Gift to Speak and Eloquence
This is the skilful use of language to persuade or appeal to the feelings of
the audience. In this wise, your voice as a presenter is your greatest asset.
Do not lose it by shouting or damaging your vocal chords. Do not keep
late nights and do not smoke to avoid the „frog in the throat‟ syndrome.
„Frog in the throat‟ syndrome is phlegm in the throat that hinders speech
(Ajayi, 2006:44).
Gift to Move the Audience Positively
A broadcast presenter must understand the message he/she is sending
across to the audience. Get the meaning of the message by identifying the
key words for emphasis, the pace, the purpose and the mood in order to
accurately convey the message e.g. Mary writes textbooks. Mary is
writing textbooks. Mary has written textbooks. (Can you tell the
difference in these sentences?) You must understand the meaning before
you can tell the difference and know the words to be emphasised. Make
your presentation concrete and specific with illustrations, analogies and
particular facts. This is important in programmes treating abstract issues
e.g. love, happiness, joy, sorrow and so on. You can do this if you have a
warm friendly personality with articulate, polished diction.
Creativity
To sell a programme, impress and entertain viewers or listeners, a
presenter must be intelligent, imaginative and enthusiastic with a quick
wit and a nice sense of humour.
Patience
A presenter meets many and different kinds of people in the course of
programmes presentation. He/she needs to be patient especially with a
live audience and with children. Children could be rude, noisy, stubborn,
provocative and irritating. As a presenter, do not lose your temper and do
not be harsh. Especially do not lose your smile!
Knowledge ability
This requires script rehearsals. Be familiar with the contents of scripts
and endeavour to deliver naturally without fluffing. Also, be familiar with
the correct pronunciation of words and names. A good presenter should
understand the producer i.e. try to get into the mind of the scriptwriter
and know his/her feeling at that particular point in time. This helps the
presenter to get the message across to the viewers in the most appropriate
way.
Humility
Humility that comes through sincerely will not show a presenter as stupid
but is a reflection of competence. There should be an apology by an
63
announcer on duty whenever there is a break in transmission or such

other transmission problems. It is important for the presenter to
demonstrate the effect of ease and intimacy on air in order to win or
cajole the friendly confidence of the target audience. However, he/she
must not be too intimate with the audience or be self-conscious. An
individual style is important in terms of writing, speech, rhythms and
personality. Other broadcast presenters include newscasters, deejays,
commentators (e.g. sports and other events), and master of ceremony.
Now, let us look at the station announcer as a typical broadcast presenter.
ITQ
Question
One of these is not a requirement of a programme presenter:
A. Humility
B. Pride
C. Creativity
D. Eloquence
Feedback
Option A, C and D are requirement a programme presenter must meet up
to.
12.1.2 Station Announcer

The station announcer is the charming personality who comes on
Radio/TV to identify a station, launch programmes for transmission
giving information to a large audience of people about what they are
going to hear or watch on the station and sign-off the programmes.
He/she promotes forth-coming programmes, reads government or public
service announcements and some other scripted communication
announcements as well like personal and paid announcements (PPAs).
The announcer gives time-checks, and ensures that dead air does not exist
while he or she is on duty thus maintaining continuity during the
broadcast day especially during a crisis for instance, during a transmitter
outage or power outage. The announcer is a corporate image-maker and
must be efficient in selling the station‟s programmes to the
audience/listeners. He or she must be aware of the station‟s policy. The
announcer can break in or interrupt a programme at any time. He/she
keeps a log of all materials broadcast and comments on timing, suitability
of content, technical and sound quality, faults and other relevant matters.
Very importantly, because he/she is a kind of role model, the announcer
endeavours to live up to audience expectations. The audience
expectations include:
1. Good command of language, official or local
2. Good diction/articulation
3. Rich vocabulary
4. Correct pronunciations
5. Good human relations
64
Study Session 12Broadcast Operatives and Their Functions I
6. Knowledge ability, sharpness and alertness

7. Familiarity with microphones
8. A sense of authority
9. Patience and job interest
In summary, he/she should be able to write good scripts and is

responsible for maintaining a station‟s broadcast scheme. Usually,
stations are judged as much by the professionalism of their „on-air‟
personalities as by the quality of their programmes.

In this Study Session, we looked at the broadcast presenter as a key
functionary in the station. We saw the two types of broadcast presenters
and the roles that each of them plays. We also saw the requirements for
Summary these two job roles.
Assessment
Who is a broadcast presenter?
List the types of broadcast presenters, you know.
Assessment Outline what the audience expects of a station announcer.
Communication Series
Reading
65
Study Session 13
Broadcast Operatives and Their

Functions II
Introduction
We will continue our discussion on the broadcast operatives from the last
session. In this study session, our focus will be on program producer,
director, set-men, floor manager and lighting personnel. We will also
consider the operations of graphic artists, tape editor, camera operators,
video tape recorder and audio man
Learning Outcomes
13.1 point out the roles of the operatives in a broadcast station
Outcomes
Terminology
Program A person who oversees all aspects of program production
producer for a mass media outlet.
Floor manager The person responsible for giving information from the
director in the control room, to the crew on the studio
floor, and then back to the director.
13.1 Broadcast Operatives

We have discussed broadcast presenter in the previous session. We will
now be looking at other types of broadcast personnel.
13.1.1 Programme Producer

Who is a programme producer in a broadcast station? A programme
producer is the person in the team who is in charge of all elements of
production of a broadcast programme. He/she develops the programme
idea and topics, guides the research and preparation of a script as well as
determines the selection of guests. In other words, he/she supervises the
aspects of getting all the production items together including the proper
66
Study Session 13Broadcast Operatives and Their Functions II
location for the programme. The producer also oversees the work of other
members of the production team. Sometimes he/she may direct the
programme also.
13.1.2 Director
The director handles the aesthetic and technical packaging of a
programme after all the required elements have been put in place for the
production. With a proper understanding of the programme concept, as
worked out with the producer, he/she uses technical language with
teammates, to translate the idea into a programme suitable for
transmission. Most times, there is a separate producer and director for a
broadcast programme.
13.1.3 Set-Men
These people erect varied collapsible wooden or iron structures in the
studio in a television station in order to suit specific programme forms.
Studio programmes are usually identified by the set, which gives
aesthetic value to a program. Each set is „raised‟ for the recording of a
programme and after the recording, set-men are called in to „strike‟ i.e.
pull down the set.
13.1.4 Floor Manager

He/she is the link between the producer or director in the control room
and the production on the floor of the studio and is responsible to the
production for the smooth and efficient working of the studio. He/she
must have a basic understanding for programming. He is the first to
come into the studio ready to meet the guests as they arrive and because
he is in charge of the studio for the occasion, he must be punctual. It is
his special responsibility to ensure that rehearsals are on time and proceed
as planned even in the absence of the producer (lighting, decoration,
camera, audio, dress, etc.).
The Floor Manager gives all cues to the artistes and to those who are
concerned with scenery, furniture and property changes.
Note
1. He should have a basic technical knowledge of the equipment in use

including cameras, microphones, lighting, scenery, furniture and
props, captions, etc.
2. The Floor Manager must possess the qualities of a pleasant manner
person together with a large measure of patience and good humour;
he must have a good knowledge of carpentry and joinery, must be a
disciplinarian and be able to maintain discipline without offence.
3. He should be in full knowledge of the production in which he is
attached and be able to deal with all questions on detail to which
artistes or around can turn to for information and guidance.
4. He must be observant, tolerant and versatile.
5. Lastly, in cases where guests are taking part (i.e. being interviewed)
the Floor Manager should take charge of them as soon as they enter
67
the studio. He should do all in his power to make them feel at ease,
as they will generally be strange to a TV studio and be nervous about
the performance. He should let them know his various cues. He
must have complete knowledge of the production in order to serve
the producer well.
13.1.5 Lighting Personnel

These people handle the lighting aspect of TV production. They fix the
various lights and properly position them in order to be useful to the
studio set-up. The must understand the various kinds of light back, key,
etc.
13.1.6 Graphic Artists

They address themselves to writing captions for programmes and
illustrating programme concepts graphically. They must understand the
psychology of colour, contrasts, proportion and balance. A graphic artist
must be imaginative and creative. He/she must be artistic.
13.1.7 Tape Editor

A tape editor is in charge of post-production aspect of a recording. He,
with the assistance of the producer, identifies and edits out unwanted
parts of the recording leaving the wanted materials only. This is done on
editing machine with two monitors in the television setting. The tape
editor must be sharp and alert. Digital editing and the use of the computer
technology has brought many improvements to editing.
13.1.8 Cameraman
The cameraman is the person that handles that electrical device that
captures image and sound (video camera) during recording both in and
out of the studio. He must understand the workings of the different types
of camera at his disposal. He must understand the uses and position of
light in recording. He is responsible to the director.
13.1.9 Video Tape Recorder Man (VTR Man)

He is in charge of the VTR in which the video tape for recording is
slotted. He reduces tension on the new tape by first fast forwarding and
rewinding it before the commencement of recording. He laces or slots
the tape in the machine (VTR) and standby for “Roll Tape” order from
the technical director.
13.1.10 Audio Man

The audio man handles the audio aspect of the TV production. He cues
audio tape or disc to be used for example, at the beginning of the
programme (signature tune). The role of the audio man in radio station is
to ensure that the right inserts, songs and adverts are used during a
programme.
68
Study Session 13Broadcast Operatives and Their Functions II
ITQ
Question
_______________writes captions for programmes and illustrates
programme concepts graphically.
A. Programme producer
B. Director
C. Floor manager
D. Graphic Artist
Feedback
The Graphic Artist writes captions for programmes and illustrates
programme concepts graphically.

In this Study Session, looked at some of the other broadcast personnel.
This was a continuation from last study session.
Summary
Assessment
Assessment A. Programme producer
B. Director
C. Floor manager
D. Lighting personnel
E. Tape editor
F. Cameraman
69
is in charge of post-production aspect of a

I. __________
recording.
is the link between the producer or director

II. __________ in the control room and the production on the
floor of the studio
is the person in the team who is in charge of

III. __________ all elements of production of a broadcast
programme.
IV. __________ handle the lighting aspect of TV production.
handles the aesthetic and technical packaging

of a programme after all the required
V. __________
elements have been put in place for the
production.
is the person that handles that electrical

VI. __________ device that captures image and sound during
recording both in and out of the studio.
Communication Series
Reading
70
Study Session 14Strategic Programming Techniques
Study Session 14
Strategic Programming Techniques

Introduction
In this study session, we will be discussing strategic programming
techniques. In order to do this, we will highlight different broadcasting
techniques.
Learning Outcomes
14.1 analyse strategic programming technique
Outcomes
Terminology
Block The arrangement of programs on radio or television so
programming that several items of one general class, such as soap operas
or popular music, occur in sequence.
Strip A technique used for scheduling television and radio

programming programming to ensure consistency and coherency.
14.1 Broadcasting Programming

Earlier in the series, we talked much about programmes and
programming as well as scheduling. Strategic programming technique
has, basically, to do with scheduling in order to reach a target audience.
In broadcasting, there is what is known as Audience Flow.
Audience flow is the sequence by which a station’s audience moves from one
targeted group to another such as from Children to Youth to Family to Adults.
Note
Stations have programme belts such as children‟s belt, family belt, and so
on. Programming flows from children to youth to family and to adults. In
the family belt, one can have what is known as Kidult programmes which
are programmes that appeal to children, youth and adults alike. Audience
flow includes all the processes employed by the station to retain and
71
increase its audience throughout the transmission day with programmes

such as cartoons, discussions, drama, musicals, adventure films news and
so on. Strategic programming techniques are listed and explained as
follows:
14.1.1 Block Programming

This involves placing similar programmes appealing to the same target
audience end-to-end with the intention of holding onto that audience.
Block programming can be considered to be the same as audience flow
e.g. children‟s belt to educational belt to family belt and so on, all within
the same broadcast day.
14.1.2 Blunting
Blunting means neutralising the programme of a rival station by
scheduling a similar and more interesting programme at the same time as
their own programme. For example, if at 8 o‟ clock the Nigerian
Television Authority (NTA) is showing wrestling for family viewing and,
at the same time, BCOS/TV schedules a similar and more interesting
programme like International Football League competition in order to
draw the viewers from NTA and blunt their audience. What happens in
television also happens in radio.
14.1.3 Counter Programming

This is putting a different, but more interesting programme against a
competitor‟s offer or programme, for example, if NTA network news is
on and, at the same time, Galaxy Television puts on a drama programme
that is attractive and more appealing to the audience, the intention is to
counter NTA‟s offering.
14.1.4 Strip Programming

This is putting the same programme same hour across the week such that
the members of the audience are familiar with that time. This is mostly
done with news bulletins, for example, the NTA news bulletins, Irohin
and Views and Reports as well as the Network News. These programmes
come up at 7.00pm everyday for Irohin and Views and Reports and
9.00pm every day for Network news, respectively.
14.1.5 Bridging
This is the timing of a programme to overlap another similar programme
on another station. In other words, the programme runs across a
competitor‟s programme in order to keep the audience that was captured
earlier. For instance if NTA is showing Cartoon at 6.00pm for the child
target audience, BCOS can schedule another interesting children‟s
programme or even a longer children‟s Cartoon programme in order to
bridge NTA‟s running programme. This is also a subtle form of blunting
or counter programming.
72
14.1.6 Hammock Programming

This is sandwiching a new programme between two relatively popular
programmes or providing a support at both ends for a new programme. In
order words, scheduling the new programme in between two usually
interesting programmes where people already used to the old scheduled
programmes will get to watch or see it. For instance, if there are two
interesting programmes at 8.00 o‟clock and 9.00 o‟clock, then a new half-
hour programme can be placed in between them.
14.1.7 Long-Forms
A long-form programme is a programme with long duration. The
programmes that may be referred to as long-form .programmes are those
that last for about 2 or 2 ½ hours e.g. drama programmes and important
discussion programmes such as Tuesday Live on the NTA network.
Long-form programmes are used to bridge programmes on another
station either one-hour programmes or such like.
14.1.8 Spin-Off
A spin-off has to do with characterisation in drama or film or programme
presentation. Some popular characters will promote a programme. The
audience wants to see such persons because they have already created an
image for themselves with such persons because of their popularity. For
example Oloja in the old Village Headmaster drama series to be invited
on a game show programme or Frank Edoho in Who Wants to Be a
Millionaire to be used on another programme. This will draw audience
to the programme because he has already built up a characterisation and
you have spun him off by monitoring him. These popular characters
strive to build up themselves. They either play different roles or retain
their characterisation. „Spin off‟ is, therefore, a character in a popular and
established programme who has been „spun off‟ in a new programme.
The aim is to add value to the new programme. However, sometimes
much „spinning off‟ may be to their own disadvantage as they become
over-exposed, a syndrome known as „tube prostitution‟.
14.1.9 Tent-Polling
In this situation, we have the opposite of Hammock programming i.e.
having a less important programme before and after a strong programme
to sustain transmission. In other words, there are two less important
programmes and an important programme or very interesting programme
is slotted in between the two less important programmes. Observe
transmission on your radio and television stations and think of suitable
examples in the programmes that are transmitted.
14.1.10 Power Programming

This is putting a station‟s best programme against a competition. In other
words, a station‟s strong programme that will put the audience away from
another station‟s very strong programme. This is a situation where two
stations‟ powerful programmes are competing for attention from the same
audience for example Diamond Straight-Talk on Diamond Radio and
73
Voices on SPLASH FM being transmitted simultaneously on the two

stations. It happens particularly with the news programming especially
news bulletins and other informative programmes.
14.1.11 Set Control

This is based on the assumption that people are lazy and will not switch
channels and the station, therefore, tries to transmit very „good‟
programmes. People would not change their channel, they only tune-in to
one station. In the application of strategic programming techniques,
audience analysis is very important in order to programme for and
capture the right target audience for the programmes that a station
transmits. We have already treated the importance of audience analysis in
an earlier session.
ITQ
Question
_____________ is when a character in a popular and established
programme is spun off to a new programme.
A. Spin off
B. Block Programming
C. Blunting
D. Strip Programming
Feedback
The correct answer is A.
Spin off is when a character in a popular and established programme is
spun off to a new programme.

In this Study Session, we looked at what strategic programming
technique or special content programming is. We also talked about why
strategic programming technique is useful in broadcasting and how it is
Summary applied.
Assessment
Assessment A. Blunting
B. Strip Programming
C. Bridging
74
D. Block Programming
E. Tent-Polling
F. Hammock Programming
there are two less important programmes and

an important programme or very interesting
I. __________
programme is slotted in between the two less
important programmes.
This is putting the same programme same

II. __________ hour across the week such that the members
of the audience are familiar with that time.
This involves placing similar programmes

appealing to the same target audience end-to-
III. __________
end with the intention of holding onto that
audience.
sandwiching a new programme between two

IV. __________ relatively popular programmes or providing
a support at both ends for a new programme.
is also a subtle form of blunting or counter

V. __________
programming.
means neutralising the programme of a rival

station by scheduling a similar and more
VI. __________
interesting programme at the same time as
their own programme.
Ajayi, W(2006). Modern Radio Production. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd
Akingbulu, A. & Busseik, H. ON AIR: Nigeria. Open Society Initiative
for Southern Africa
Reading
Elliot, J. (2001). Oxford Dictionary & Thesaurus. New York: Oxford
University Press Inc.
Gamble, T. K. & Gamble, M. (2002). Communication Works. New
York: The McGraw Hill Companies Inc.
75
Study Session 15
Historical Development of
Broadcasting
Introduction
In this study session, we will attempt to trace the historical development
of broadcasting, with reference to Nigeria.
Learning Outcomes
15.1 trace the history of broadcasting in Nigeria
Outcomes
Terminology
Talking machine A phonograph-machine in which rotating records cause a
stylus to vibrate and the vibrations are amplified
acoustically or electronically.
Simulcast A simultaneous transmission of the same programme on

radio and television, or more channels.
15.1 History of Broadcasting

The history of broadcasting globally is traced to Telephone broadcasting
(1881 - 1932): The earliest form of electronic broadcasting (not counting
data services offered by the stock telegraph companies from 1867.Le Roy
Wilson(1989) notes that in 1887 Thomas A. Edison invented the “talking
machine” the phonograph;1901 Guglielmo Marconi transmitted wireless
sound across the Atlantic. However, it was in 1920 that KDKA in
Pittsburgh went on air for the first fully licensed station with continuous
broadcasting. Radio broadcasting started (experimentally from1906,
commercially from 1920)
Radio broadcasting is an audio (sound)broadcasting service, transmitted
through the air as radio waves from a transmitter to a radio antenna and
thus, to a receiver. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast
common radio programs, through either syndication, simulcast or sub-
76
Study Session 15Historical Development of Broadcasting
channels. Television was first experimented with from 1925 while

commercial television transmission started from the 1930s.In this period
television began to reach homes with some form of entertainment,
programmes as well as news. The first television broadcast was in
1937.Cable Radio also called “Cable FM” started in 1928 and cable
television commenced 1932.
Direct-Broadcast Satellite (DBS) (from circa 1974) and satellite radio
(from circa 1990): Meant for direct-to-home broadcast programming (as
opposed to studio network uplinks and downlinks) provides a mix of
traditional radio or television broadcast programming.
Furthermore, Webcasting of Video /Television (1993) and audio/radio
streams (1994): offers a mix of traditional radio and television station
broadcast programming with dedicated internet radio-webcast.
The history of broadcasting in Nigeria is traceable to 1932 when a Radio

Distribution System was installed in Lagos. Also described as the BBC
Empire service, it was programmed to enhance the economic, political
and cultural linkages between Colonial Britain and its colonies. It was
controlled by the Department for Post and Telegraph ,with the principal
aim of serving as a British Broadcasting Corporation reception base.
By December 1, 1935 the British Administration started the Radio
Rediffusion system. The government had commissioned the (BBC) to
begin a broadcasting experiment to her colonies in different locations.
Rediffusion broadcast system was a method where speakers were
connected to houses that were wired to a transmission station. The
content was mainly to promote messages from the British Government in
the United Kingdom.
Prior to the 1992 Decree No.38 of 1992,the broadcasting industry in

Nigeria was regulated by the Wireless Telegraphy Ordinance 4 of
1935.(Jega 2016).
In 1950, the Radio Rediffusion System became Nigeria Broadcasting
Service. The NBS covered Kaduna, Enugu, Kano ,Ibadan and Lagos.
Ordinance No.39 of 1956 led to the conversion of the NBS to become,
the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation in 1957.It was established as an
independent body, designed to be neutral of the colonial political
structure. It was however not able to achieve all the goals due to the over-
bearing influence of the colonial administration which funded and
employed staff for it. This was followed by the Wireless Telegraphy Act
No.31 of 1961.The essence was the mandatory licensing of broadcasting
stations, which prohibited the establishment or use of any station for
wireless telegraphy. It was apparent that the Colonial Government was
sceptical of allowing private individuals or indigenes to own broadcast
outfits as they could be used for nationalist or petty ethnic agitations.
However, after independence, Television in Nigeria is attributed to the
efforts of Chief Obafemi Awolowo, who was the Premier of the Western
Region. He seized the opportunity of a colonial constitutional review that
gave Federal and State governments concurrent powers in the ownership
77
of broadcasting stations to start the Western Nigeria Television (WNTV)

on October 31, 1959 in Ibadan. In tandem with the overseas *Rediffusion
Limited, the Western regional government started the Western Nigeria
Radio vision Service Limited. The aim was to bring radio and television
broadcasting under one management. A medium size transmitter of 500
watts power was placed on MAPO Hill, Ibadan and another at ABAPON,
near Ikorodu. The T.V and radio stations in the Western region started
Commercial broadcasting in Nigeria. By 1962, the Western region
government acquired all shares owned by overseas Rediffusion Limited,
thus taking full control of the WNBI/WNTV. Similarly, the Nigeria
Television Service was established in Lagos (1962) in conjunction with
the Radio Corporation of America (RCA); and the national broadcasting
company international limited managing the station. The NTS later
changed its name to NBC/TV. Later the military government under
General Olusegun Obasanjo took over television stations in Nigeria in
1978, turning them into Nigerian Television Authority (NTA).
Many of the 36 states in Nigeria have set up their own stations, thus
creating, more options for viewers. Section 36 (2) of the 1979
constitution heralded a change in the broadcast industry in Nigeria. Its
provision noted that:
“the federal and state governmentor any other person authorised by the
president can own, establish or operate a television or wireless
broadcasting station in the country”. This provision served as the
backdrop for the emergence of private broadcast stations in Nigeria.
Perhaps a turning point in the broadcast industry in Nigeria was in 1992,

when the Federal government led by General Ibrahim Babangida
deregulated the broadcast industry when it granted license to private
individuals and organizations to set up radio and television broadcasting
stations. This deregulation gave rise to AIT/Ray Power, Channel
Television, Independent Television, Cool FM, Splash FM, Galaxy
Television etc. Before the promulgation of the National Broadcasting
Commission Decree, No .38 of 1992, under the leadership of General
Ibrahim Badamasi on August 24, 1992, the exclusive right to all aspects
of broadcasting was bestowed on the Federal, Regional and State
Governments. The licensing of private broadcast stations has created a
competitive broadcast market that promotes quality broadcast content.
Broadcast outfit, both government and private have to ensure that they
produce content that would attract the audience as well as advertisers.
A growing sector in the broadcast landscape in Nigeria is community

broadcasting stations. From 1932 to date there has been an increasing
number of government funded broadcast stations and myriad private or
commercial stations. Nigeria is lagging behind other Africa countries in
the issuance of licenses for community broadcasting. Examples are
radioXai-Xai and Licunga in Mozambique.
A community broadcast station is one established , staffed and managed
by members of a community, usually a non-for-profit, non-religious and
non-political venture (Ojebode 2009).In the classification of community
78
broadcast stations there are geographical communities and communities

of interest. Therefore, the geographical community broadcast station
serves a group of people who live in a particular place, while the
community of interest focuses on people who are closely knitted because
of a particular interest..For instance, community of jazz music lovers, dog
lovers or basket ball enthusiasts.
What can be regarded as community broadcast stations are the over 28
campus community radio stations in Nigeria. As more licenses are issued
to new universities and other tertiary institutions, there is the likelihood
of an increase in the number of campus broadcast stations.
Opubor (2012) tracking the history of community media in Africa
explains that a string of challenges confronting the sector needs to be
addressed including policy, regulation, research, training and
sustainability.
Opubor (2012:15) explains that:
Community media are governed by the general communication/media
policy environment prevailing in each country. While there has been an
increase in the number of countries favouring media pluralism, and
therefore more receptive to new media initiatives, including
establishment of new community initiatives, there is still ambivalence
about the regulatory and legal situation of many of these initiatives and
the technologies which propel them
Drawing from other societies where community radio thrives Ojebode
(2009) lists the advantages to include:
It provides relaxation and entertainment.
It provides advice and information to individuals to help them in making
decisions.
It increases their understanding and enriches their knowledge of issues.
It promotes creativity
It guides social behaviour by offering role models
It promotes avenue for individual self-expression
It can move individuals to action by inspiring them.
It provides topics for conversation and by that promotes interpersonal
relationships.
Community media enhances socio-economic, cultural and development
agenda of a people. In Nigeria, it helps to deepen democracy ,promote
development programmes and creates access to both local and
international news for the people.
In the historical development of the broadcast media from colonial to
civilian and military as well as private ownership ,the question of ethical
standard always remains pivotal. The National Broadcasting
Commission(2006) in the Nigeria Code of Broadcasting notes that
broadcasting must satisfy some of the following needs of society:
79
a. a truthful ,comprehensive and intelligent account of each day‟s

local, regional, national and international events that have
significant impact on the Nigerian community.
b. A forum for the exchange of comment and criticism representing
every stratum of the society, as required in a federal state like
Nigeria, in which the views and opinions of everyone are
included in the national consensus;
c. A means of projecting the opinions and attitudes of the groups in
the society to one another, such as the balancing of information
flow between the rural and urban government and the governed
,as well as the presentation and clarification of the goals and
values of the society
d. an efficient ,professional and comprehensive broadcasting
service to the entire people of the Federal Republic of Nigeria,
based on national objectives and aspirations
e. maximum use of predominantly Nigerian creative resources in
the presentation of programming, be it news and programmes,
musical entertainment, advertising or sponsorship
The Code further tasks broadcast organizations to create reasonable
opportunity for the public to be exposed to all views on matters of
public concern and the development and the growth of the
independent production sector.
As the broadcast media evolves, technology continues to play a major

role in content production, presentation as well as transmission. As such
media organizations usually strive to ensure that the broadcast technology
at their disposal is at par with their competitors.
Historically, internet facility became visible in Nigeria in the 1990s,
creating access for citizens to reach out to millions of fellow citizens or
anyone connected to the world wide web. From this period internet,
broadcasting which is one of the newest trends in the industry became
active in Nigeria.
Traditional radio and television stations now stream online on Youtube
and other platforms. In addition, there are hundreds of radio and
television stations in Nigeria that broadcast only online. Such include
webcasting, blogging as well as diverse streaming platforms. What online
broadcasting has created is the growing use of multi media platforms by
broadcast stations. For instance, radio stations are able to transmit with
audio, text and video on the internet such that the viewers can “watch” a
radio station on the internet.
80
ITQ
Question
WNTV was established in __________
A. October 29, 1959
B. October 30, 1959
C. October 31, 1959
D. October 31, 1995
Feedback
WNTV was established in October 31, 1959.

In this Study Session, we have traced the history of broadcasting in the
world and narrowed down to the Nigerian experience. It is hoped that
this would further enhance the knowledge of students in the field of
Summary broadcasting. Students are expected to use the knowledge of the
background understand the development of the broadcast media and the
different stages of licensing, governments and ownership. Also,
Assessment
What is radio broadcasting?
Assessment
81
Jega, A.M (2016) Broadcasting, Democratization and the Challenge of
the New Nigeria. A Lecture Delivered at Nigerian Broadcasting
Corporation Annual Lecture Series.
Le Roy Wilson S. (1989).Mass Media/Mass Culture. An Introduction
Reading New York :Random House
National Broadcasting Commission (4th Edition 2006) Nigeria
Broadcasting Code.
Ojebode, A(2010).Doing Community Radio. A Toolkit for Nigerian
Communities. Lagos: Grafix and Images.
Opubor ,A,E(2012).Truth in Search of a Voice. Lagos: Grafix and
Images.
82
Notes on Self-Assessment Questions
SAQ 1.1
Broadcasting is defined as the transmission of electromagnetic energy
intended to be received by the public while narrowcasting is the sending
of messages to an audience which is restricted by demand or interest
rather than by technical capability.
SAQ 1.2
Broadcast Code is a body of laws or a systematic collection of statutes
put together so as to avoid inconsistency and overlapping in message
delivery. These laws or statutes also known as rules serve as the guide
for a broadcast process to arrive at a desired end.
SAQ 1.3
The reasons why people study broadcasting include the following:
4. Broadcasting is the universal means of public communication
conveying information, education, entertainment and
persuasion/mobilisation. It helps to teach the cultural values of a
people.
5. Another reason why broadcasting is a course is that, by its very
nature, broadcasting has consequences and effects that spread widely,
quickly and penetrate deeply. Many different types of persons act on
broadcast information when they receive it and the effect is good or
bad depending on their interpretation of the messages.
6. Thirdly, it is imperative to study broadcasting and its sensitive nature
so as to package messages appropriately for the audience; the
millions of people who own radio receivers and television sets in
their homes and offices.
SAQ 2.1
Feedback
Context
Source Message Transmitter Receiver Destination
Noise
SAQ 3.1
Private broadcasting includes broadcast services owned by private
individuals or entities and provided by some radio, television, cable and
direct satellite transmission.
83
Public broadcasting exists at two levels. They include:

a. Federal Government stations
b. State/regional Government stations
SAQ 4.1
The Boardcaters for the needs of the station and the welfare of the staff. It
is the highest policy making body in the station.
The management committee is directly responsible for the day-to-day
running of the establishment.
SAQ 4.2
I. D
II. F
III. B
IV. E
V. C
VI. A
SAQ 5.1
More qualities of a good programme can be listed as follows:
a. A good presentation
b. Rich content
c. Adequate and clear visuals (for television)
d. Good technical quality
e. Good pacing
SAQ 5.2
Programming in broadcasting is the entire decision making process
pertaining to the conception, planning, production, scheduling and
promotion of a programme over a radio or television station network.
SAQ 5.3
The ethical considerations that are crucial in broadcast programming
include:
a. Mobilise all human and material resources required to achieve a
planned objective.
b. Book the necessary technical facilities.
c. Understand the specific duties of other operatives.
d. Ensure that all operatives and invited guests or artistes report
punctually for recordings or live transmission as specified.
e. Give all instructions in a professional, concise, polite and
unambiguous language. The language of the programme should
be simple, decent, correct and able to communicate.
f. Ensure proper and decent dressing to match the character, mood
and philosophy of a programme.
g. Avoid any action capable of distracting or annoying the audience.
84
h. Seek to arrest and sustain audience attention at all times.

i. Ensure proper recording before you release persons on the
assignment.
j. Say “thank you” at every opportunity.
SAQ 6.1
Scheduling is the placement of programmes on the programme schedule
at appropriate times for transmission to an audience. The schedule is a
grid dividing the broadcast day into slots of fifteen minutes, thirty
minutes, one hour, or even three hours duration and so on. Each slot is
attributed a programme. 2
The different segments are:
a. Prime Time
b. Access Time
c. Fringe-Time
d. Early fringe
e. Late night and
f. Overnight segments.
SAQ 7.1
Programme genres include:
a. Information programmes
b. Education programmes and
c. Entertainment programmes
Entertainment programmes are programmes designed specially to provide
relaxation for the viewers.
SAQ 8.1
I. F
II. B
III. A
IV. E
V. C
VI. D
SAQ 9.1
There are three major sources of programmes available to the broadcast
media. These sources are as follows:
a. Local productions
b. Foreign programmes
c. Network programmes
The advantages derived from local programmes are as follow:
a. Promotion of one‟s own culture – this is an opportunity to
b. Display a people and their way of living.
85
c. Realisation of potentials within the environments – this happens

with the discovery of local talents when they are given the
opportunity for exposure.
d. Marketability of the programmes – it is a platform for
programme assessment and exchange programming.
e. Increase of power on the market – as a programme gains
f. Attention of the audience, it also gets a stronger hold on the
market.
Networking in broadcasting is the centralisation of the business functions

of programme production, distribution and decision-making that are
national in scope. Network programmes are usually viewed nationwide
because local affiliated stations hook on simultaneously for the
transmission of network programmes.
SAQ 10.1
Qualitative audience deals with the composition of members of the
audience such as children, youths, adults, professionals, family and so on
while quantitative audience relates to numbers in the coverage area and
the reach whether regional, national or international.
SAQ 10.2
The broadcast audience comprises seven categories of peoples, which can
be described as follows:
8. Literates
9. Semi-Literates
10. Illiterates
11. Poor
12. Affluent
13. Sophisticated Urban Dwellers
14. Simple Rural Dwellers
SAQ 11.1
Broadcast programme production is the packaging of cultural and other
information on radio and television in a colourful and interesting manner
to project truth and strength about a people and a cause.
The three stages of production are:
a. Pre-production stage
b. Production stage
c. Post-production stage
SAQ 11.2
I. B
II. E
III. C
IV. F
V. D
VI. A
86
SAQ 12.1
A presenter is an „on-air‟ personality and a key broadcast station
operative. They are the link between the station and the audience. There
are two types of broadcast presenters and they are:
3. The station announcer
4. The anchor person
The audience expectations of a station announcer include:

a. Good command of language, official or local
b. Good diction/articulation
c. Rich vocabulary
d. Correct pronunciations
e. Good human relations
f. Knowledge ability, sharpness and alertness
g. Familiarity with microphones
h. A sense of authority
i. Patience and job interest
SAQ 13.1
I. E
II. C
III. A
IV. D
V. B
VI. F
SAQ 14.1
I. E
II. B
III. D
IV. F
V. C
VI. A
SAQ 15.1
Radio broadcasting is an audio (sound)broadcasting service, transmitted
through the air as radio waves from a transmitter to a radio antenna and
thus, to a receiver. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast
common radio programs, through either syndication, simulcast or sub-
channels.
87

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University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

General Editor: Prof. E.B Omobowale

University of Ibadan Distance Learning Centre

In addition to the provision of course materials in print and e-format, a lot of

Prof. K.O. Adebowale

Nonetheless, a learner has the responsibility to develop requisite distance learning

Professor E.B. Omobowale

Content Editor Prof. Remi Raji-Oyelade

Production Editor Prof. Omobola Adelore, O.F.W. Onifade Ph.D

ODL Material Converter Folajimi Olambo Fakoya

Managing Editor Ogunmefun Oladele Abiodun

General Editor Prof. E.B. Omobowale

Getting around this course manual 4

Notes on Self-Assessment Questions 83

How this is structured

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

 fully describe and define broadcasting codes, conventions and

Getting around this

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group Activity Help Outcomes

Note Reflection Reading Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

Narrowcasting Targeting media messages at specific segments of the

1.1 Definition of Broadcasting

Bodija, Ring Road, Moniya or in Lagos, Jos, Enugu, Calabar and

Broadcasting has a major objective and this objective is to offer the

1.1.1 What is Narrowcasting?

1.2 Broadcast Codes, Conventions and Standards

1.2.1 What is Broadcast Code?

The Nigeria Broadcasting Code is viewed as representing the minimum

Broadcast practioners must be aware of other ethical basis for mass

1.2.2 What is Broadcast Convention?

practice. In other words, it has to do with conformity. In broadcasting,

Standard, according to the Oxford Dictionary and Thesaurus 111 (Elliot,

1.2.3 Broadcast Philosophy

1.3 Responsibilities in Broadcasting

4. Modernising attitudes and

1.3.1 Why Do People Study Broadcasting?

Study Session Summary

Assessment SAQ 1.2 (tests Learning Outcome 1.2)

The Broadcast Chain

Psychological A person's internal preoccupations, prejudices, opinions

2.1 Broadcasting and Communication Chain

A message is the core component of the broadcast communication

4. Context – is the setting, whether natural or otherwise, which

There are three types of noise:

One should be absolutely cautious and downplay these noise related

6. Receiver - This is the entity (individual, group, organisation) at

7. Destination-This is the human brain where the message is

Study Session Summary

3.1 Types of Broadcasting

3.1.1 Public Broadcasting

The second public broadcasting organ is owned by the state government

Some examples of the state/regional government stations in Nigeria are

Radio Nigeria Operational Guidelines (2008) explains that the station, in

3.1.2 Private Broadcasting