UNIVERSITY OF ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES, SUNYANI

SCHOOL OF ENERGY
DEPARTMENT OF RENEWABLE ENERGY ENGINEERING
END OF LIFE AND TREATMENT OF SOLAR BATTERIES IN GHANA

by
LESLIE NII NARH TISEI
ANTHONIA MAWUSE AKPAH-SUKA
GABRIEL AGYAPONG SARPONG

MARCH,2023
A thesis Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor
of Science Degree in Renewable Energy Engineering School of Energy
University of Energy and Natural Resources. Sunyani, Ghana.

Approved by:

Dr. Gifty Serwaa Ing. Prof. Nana Derkyi

Supervisor Head of Department

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© 2023
Copyright
University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana. All rights reserved

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DECLARATION
We hereby declare that this work is our own towards the Bachelor of Science degree and that to

the best of our knowledge, it contains no material previously published by another person nor

material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree of the University, except

where due acknowledgement has been made in the text. It is being submitted to the Department

of Energy and Petroleum Engineering of the University of Energy and Natural Resources

(UENR), Sunyani.

LESLIE NII NARH TISEI

UEB0602119
Date…………………………………………………………………

Signature……………………………………………………………

ANTHONIA MAWUSE AKPAH-SUKA

UEB0602019
Date………………………………………………………………….

Signature……………………………………………………………..

GABRIEL AGYAPONG SARPONG

UEB0603819
Date………………………………………………………………….

Signature……………………………………………………………..

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ABSTRACT
The growing demand for solar batteries has led to a need for sustainable end-of-life management.

This involves environmentally responsible disposal practices, preventing hazardous substances

from entering the environment, and developing advanced recycling technologies. The aim of this

paper is to assess the end-of-life treatment of solar batteries. It emphasizes the significance of

environmentally responsible disposal, efficient recycling technologies and policy interventions to

reduce environmental impact while maximizing resource recovery.

We can secure a sustainable future for the renewable energy sector in Ghana by taking an

innovative approach to the end-of-life management of solar batteries.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents

ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................................4

TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................................................................................5

LIST OF TABLES.....................................................................................................................................8

LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................................9

ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................................................................11

CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................12

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT.....................................................................................................15

1.2 MAIN OBJECTIVE................................................................................................................17

1.3 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................17

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.....................................................................................................18

1.5 JUSTIFICATION....................................................................................................................18

1.6 STRUCTURE OF WORK......................................................................................................18

CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................19

2.1 SOLAR PV SYSTEM..............................................................................................................19

2.2 ROLE OF BATTERIES IN THE SOLAR PV SYSTEM.....................................................20

2.3 TYPES OF SOLAR BATTERIES..........................................................................................22

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2.4 END OF LIFE OF SOLAR BATTERIES.............................................................................25

2.5 THE COMPONENTS OF SOLAR BATTERIES.................................................................25

2.6 EXAMINING THE POTENTIAL HARMFUL MATERIALS IN SOLAR BATTERIES 28

2.7 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF IMPROPER DISPOSAL METHODS FOR

SOLAR BATTERIES..........................................................................................................................28

2.7.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES..................29

2.7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF NICKEL CADMIUM SOLAR BATTERIES. .30

2.8 ALARMING STATISTICS: THE MAGNITUDE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE

CAUSED BY IMPROPER SOLAR BATTERY DISPOSAL..........................................................31

2.9 CASE STUDY;.........................................................................................................................31

2.10 CURRENT PRACTICES IN SOLAR BATTERY RECYCLING.......................................32

2.11 ASSESSING THE ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF SOLAR PV BATTERY RECYCLING

AND DISPOSAL PRACTICES..........................................................................................................34

2.12 RECYCLING OF LI–ION BATTERY RECYCLING USING

HYDROMETALLURGICAL PROCESS.........................................................................................35

2.12.1 MECHANICAL SEPARATION....................................................................................37

2.12.2 HYDROMETALLURGICAL RECOVERY.................................................................38

2.13 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING RECYCLING PROGRAMS AND INITIATIVES AROUND

THE WORLD......................................................................................................................................38

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2.14 EXISTING RECYCLING INITIATIVES IN GHANA........................................................39

2.15 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS AND LIMITATIONS OF THESE

PROGRAMS........................................................................................................................................40

CHAPTER THREE – METHODOLOGY....................................................................................43

3.1 RESEARCH STUDY AREA...................................................................................................43

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN.............................................................................................................45

3.3 SAMPLE FRAME...................................................................................................................45

3.4 SAMPLE TECHNIQUES.......................................................................................................46

3.5 SAMPLING METHOD...........................................................................................................46

3.6 SAMPLE SIZE........................................................................................................................46

3.7 DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND SOURCES..........................................................47

3.8 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHOD.....................................................................48

3.9 METHOD OF DATA PROCESSING....................................................................................48

3.10 UNIT OF ANALYSIS..............................................................................................................48

3.11 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION..............................................................................................49

CHAPTER FOUR...........................................................................................................................50

4.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..............................................................................................50

4.2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS................................................................................................50

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4.3 DISPOSAL METHODS AMONG SOLAR USERS IN SUNYANI.....................................50

4.4 AWARENESS OF THE NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF THE IMPROPER DISPOSAL OF

SOLAR BATTERIES AMONG SUNYANI USERS.........................................................................51

4.5 AWARENESS OF WASTE SOLAR BATTERY COLLECTION POINT.........................53

4.6 AWARENESS OF SOLAR BATTERY RECYCLING, USERS’ WILLINGNESS TO

BUY RECYCLED BATTERY AND RECYCLE OLD SOLAR BATTERIES..............................54

4.7 VALORIZATION OF RECOVERED MATERIALS IN THE RECYCLING OF LI-ION

BATTERIES........................................................................................................................................59

4.8 COST EVALUATION............................................................................................................62

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................63

5.1 CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................................63

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS.........................................................................................................64

REFERENCES;...............................................................................................................................66

APPENDIX......................................................................................................................................77

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1- Average composition of spent LIBs (Zheng et al., 2018)...............................................35

Table 9 - Estimated data for a financial year.................................................................................57

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1- Solar PV System........................................................................................................................14

Figure 2- Nickel Cadmium Battery...........................................................................................................24

Figure 3- Lithium-ion Battery...................................................................................................................24

Figure 4 - Lead Acid battery......................................................................................................................24

Figure 5 - Lithium Polymer Battery...........................................................................................................24

Figure 6- Components of a Lithium-ion battery (Samsung SDI, 2016).....................................................27

Figure 7- Map of Sunyani..........................................................................................................................44

Figure 8 - flowchart of the research methodology.....................................................................................45

Figure 9 - Bar chart on the disposal methods among users........................................................................51

Figure 10 - Bar chart on the awareness of the negative impacts of improper disposal...............................52

Figure 11 - Bar chart on the awareness of a collection point.....................................................................53

Figure 12 - Bar Chart of awareness on solar battery recycling..................................................................55

Figure 13 - Bar Chart of the willingness to recycle old batteries...............................................................55

Figure 14 - Bar chart of willingness to dispose off batteries at collection point........................................56

Figure 15 - Where users heard about solar battery recycling.....................................................................56

Figure 16 - Bar chart of willingness to buy recycled batteries...................................................................57

Figure 17 - Copper official prices in the past 3 months (LME, 2023).......................................................60

Figure 18- Nickel official prices in the past 3 months (LME, 2023)..........................................................61

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ABBREVIATIONS

PV PHOTOVOLTAIC

EoL END OF LIFE

LIBs Lithium-Ion Batteries

E-waste electronic waste

SDG's Sustainable developmental goal

AC Alternating Current

DC Direct current

kWh Kilowatt hour

kW Kilowatt

MRFs Material Recovery Facilities

LME London Metal Exchange

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 1 CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION

The increasing global energy demand and the need to reduce fossil fuel consumption which

comes with a lot of environmental concerns have led to an increasing focus on renewable energy

sources (Ndzibah et al., 2022). Renewable energy sources, such as solar power, geothermal

power, wind power, and hydroelectricity offer a sustainable and environmentally friendly

alternative to traditional non-renewable energy sources.

In 2020, there was an increase in renewable energy by 3% to 29% from the initial 26% in 2019.

This indicates a shift towards greater reliance on renewable energy sources and highlights the

growing importance of transitioning to a sustainable energy future (IEA, 2021).

Renewable energy has emerged as a promising alternative to traditional energy sources that are

exhaustible and environmentally harmful. Solar energy, in particular, is considered one of the

most important types of renewable energy sources. Solar energy has emerged as a promising

alternative for meeting the growing energy demands globally. It offers numerous advantages,

including cleanliness, being carbon-free, and wide availability. Recently, solar power has been

adopted by a lot of countries. Solar power generation increased by a record 179 TWh (up 22%)

in 2021 to exceed 1,000 TWh. It demonstrated the second-largest absolute generation growth of

all renewable technologies in 2021, after wind. Solar power is becoming the lowest-cost option

for new electricity generation in most of the world, which is expected to propel investment in the

coming years (IEA, 2022).

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Many developing nations launched extensive renewable energy initiatives to fulfil Sustainable

Development Goal (SDG) 7 which calls for providing everyone with access to affordable and

clean energy. These initiatives frequently get backing from the global donor community. Many

of these government initiatives employ a multi-pronged approach that includes mini-grid

construction, grid expansion, and the supply of solar home systems and solar lamps in off-grid

rural regions (Manhart et al., 2018).

The development of renewable energy is a major area of investment in Ghana as our country is

rich in resources such as biomass, solar, wind and hydropower potential. With the demand for

electricity surging 10% annually, renewable capacity is expected to increase to 1,969.5MW in

2035, at a compound annual growth rate of 19.1%. Measures have been put in place by the

government to increase the renewable energy target from 10% to 30% by 2030 of which solar

contributes to 2%. The potential of solar energy is estimated to be 35 EJ (exajoules) and can be

harnessed to supply almost 100 times the energy requirement of a country with an estimate of

53,000 MWh per year with an assumption of 2670 annual average working hours [(Global data

energy, 2022; Masquelier, 2023)].

The massive fragmentation of the power supply and demand in emerging nations has given rise

to new, creative options, such as the widespread use of solar PV systems and their ancillary

equipment

One of the most practical applications of renewable energy technology has proven to be the use

of solar photovoltaics (PV) to generate electrical energy or electricity. Other uses for the energy
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produced include cooking, heating, lighting, and pumping water (Takase & Kipkoech, 2023).

There are two systems of solar energy namely; solar PV and solar thermal. The former converts

sunlight directly into electricity, while the latter produces thermal energy for residential heating

systems such as hot water or space heaters. Grid-tied, off-grid (standalone) and hybrid are the

types of solar PV systems, with Off-grid as the greatest option because it isn't connected to the

grid. The standalone solar PV system consists of solar panels which absorb sunlight, an inverter

which converts DC into AC, a mounting structure that holds the panels in place, batteries to store

the extra power generated, a charge controller which protects the batteries and other balance

systems.

Figure 1- Solar PV System

In the PV power generation of the standalone type, the generated power and load power

requirements are not equal. Hence the need for a storage system which is the batteries arises to

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capture surplus energy generated by the PV system and store energy for use later in the day. The

addition of batteries to the system limits the effect of the variation of the solar power due to its

dependence on the weather such as intensity of solar radiation and temperature. The increasing

adoption of solar PV as a renewable source of energy at the personal, commercial, and

institutional levels keeps increasing. But even so, there are pertinent environmental concerns to

be taken into account related to the disposal process of solar PV batteries, as pieces of the

components are regarded to be hazardous materials (Ndzibah et al., 2022). The industry for

electrical and electronic equipment is growing quickly, together with the creation of electronic

and electrical debris, driven by the advancement of digitalization and the emergence of a global

middle class (e-waste) (United Nations environmental programme, 2020). Battery waste has

become a pressing environmental issue both globally and locally, as the demand for batteries

continues to rise in various industries. However, Growing concerns about pollution from

batteries and e-waste abandoned are being raised since many developing nations lack proper

waste management facilities (Manhart et al., 2022).

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Solar PV systems may need to be changed or replaced after their initial lifespan of 20 to 30 years

(Anker, 2023). A solar PV system's end-of-life is essentially decided by the deterioration of its

parts, especially the solar batteries. A background study of the end-of-life of solar PVs in Ghana

reveals that there is a need to consider the sustainable disposal of used systems at the end of life

(EoL) or at the time for potential refurbishment (Omar et al., 2023). Since the start of the 21st

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century, solar photovoltaic (PV) penetration has increased at never-before-seen rates.

Rechargeable batteries called solar batteries are used to store energy produced by solar panels.

Despite being a reasonably pure source of energy, they can nonetheless lead to waste and

pollution. By the middle of the next decade, it is expected that there will be significant annual

waste due to the growth of the global PV market and the volume of retired PV batteries.

Increasing PV battery waste creates new environmental problems but also an unheard-of

opportunity to add value and explore new business options (IRENA, 2016).

These electronic wastes are produced throughout many industrial sectors, particularly in the

energy and healthcare sectors. Most of the electronic waste that is dumped in Ghana comes from

other, more advanced Western nations rather than Ghana. (Fleischer, 2018). E-waste burning at

Agbogbloshie has severely polluted and destroyed the area. Because of the hazardous substances

present in the Odawna River, aquatic life cannot exist there. E-waste combustion releases

greenhouse gases and air pollutants into the atmosphere. This significantly affects climate

change (Ameyaw, 2021).

The demand for batteries has significantly increased over the year and should be carefully

disposed away at their end of life, yet every year, consumers discard millions of batteries into

the garbage. Even while it might appear harmless to dispose of batteries, doing so can have a

severe effect on the environment. Lead, lithium, mercury, and cadmium are just a few of the

dangerous, toxic, and corrosive materials found in batteries. Worn batteries that are discarded in

the trash gradually degrade and leak in landfills. Groundwater, surface water, and soil are all

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contaminated by chemicals released by battery deterioration. Our environments, which are home

to numerous plants and animals, are at risk when poisoned by battery chemicals. (United States

Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.). While they can last up to 5 to 15 years, solar batteries

ultimately approach the end of their useful life and need to be replaced (Anker, 2023). Yet,

Ghana's lack of a sufficient infrastructure for recycling solar batteries is a serious environmental

problem.

Additionally, there is at present no technology that could enable the extraction of all elements

from used batteries. Recycling methods for Lithium Ion Batteries (LIBs) are still being

developed, there are substantial losses due to the current advancements in technology, and the

chemical makeup of batteries is constantly changing. (Islam & Iyer-Raniga, 2022).

The priceless resources found inside solar batteries cannot be retrieved and utilized again without

the correct recycling procedures in place. Given these problems, Ghana urgently needs to create

a thorough and long-lasting solar battery recycling program that not only tackles environmental

issues but also supports the circular economy.

1.2 MAIN OBJECTIVE

The thesis aims to explore the end-of-life challenges faced by solar batteries and propose

sustainable solutions for their disposal in Ghana.

1.3 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. To investigate the current practices of solar PV battery disposal among users.

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2. To assess the economic feasibility of solar PV battery recycling practices.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the current practices of solar PV battery disposal among users?

2. What is the cost associated with recycling solar PV batteries?

1.5 JUSTIFICATION

The fact is that batteries often have the shortest lifespans of all the components. Thus, only a few

years after introducing solar projects (off-grid, hybrid) to a region, it is the first waste fraction

produced in large volumes. Additionally, waste battery streams require special attention from

energy-access projects and larger decision-making circles due to the waste stream's association

with particularly strong environmental and health concerns. Recycling solar batteries or batteries

in general help lessen the need for these materials, increase the supply chain's security, and

lessen the harm that these batteries cause to people and the environment.

1.6 STRUCTURE OF WORK

This project work consists of five chapters. Chapter One contains the introduction, background

study, problem statement and objectives of the study. Chapter two is about the literature review,

Chapter three talks about the methodology of the work, chapter four talks about the results and

discussions and chapter five talks about the conclusion and recommendation of the work.

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 2 CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW

The many ideas, concepts and investigations into the end-of-life and recycling of solar batteries

are discussed in detail. This was accomplished by evaluating secondary data from sources

including textbooks, papers reviews, academic journals and internet publications that are relevant

to the topic globally and from an African and Ghana point of view.

This chapter gives an overview of the solar PV system, the roles of batteries in solar PV systems,

types of batteries, ways in which the batteries would be used to store huge amounts of energy,

and the technical features of a battery. It also reviews the composition of batteries; their

characteristics lifespan, end of life of batteries and their environmental impact.

2.1 SOLAR PV SYSTEM

There is a growing drift towards the usage of solar PVs as a means of sustainability,

environmental protection, and global energy crisis mitigation (Ndzibah et al., 2022).

A photovoltaic (PV) system is made up of one or more solar panels, an inverter, batteries and

other electrical components that harness solar energy to produce electricity. PV systems come in

a wide range of sizes, from little rooftop or portable units to enormous utility-scale power plants.

(Energy Education, 2020).

A solar PV system consists of these parts;

1. Solar photovoltaic panel: This is used to transform solar energy into electrical energy. Every

time these panels receive sunshine, they produce power, which charges the batteries.
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2. Battery: During the day, batteries store electrical energy that is later used at night or on

overcast days.

3. Charge controller: For the batteries to operate at their best, a charge controller calculates how

much current should be fed into them. It is a crucial component since it affects both the

working life of the batteries and the efficiency of the complete solar system. The charge

controller guards against overcharging the battery bank.

4. DC-AC inverter, often known as a "solar inverter," is an electronic device that converts direct

current to alternating current. While the majority of our residential loads demand AC power,

solar systems provide DC electricity. DC loads may be powered directly by the solar system

without the need for an inverter(Rooij, 2018).

2.2 ROLE OF BATTERIES IN THE SOLAR PV SYSTEM

From electric automobiles to telephones, batteries are presently crucial to practically most

aspects of modern society. It stores the chemical energy and converts it into electricity for later

use (Bhatt et al., 2016; Frąckiewicz, 2023).

Batteries are essential to many aspects of contemporary life because of their mobility and varied

use in electrical and electronic devices, as well as major industrial applications such as battery

storage systems for solar PV panels. Global demand is expected to increase by 7.8% annually.

(Islam et al., 2022). Batteries serve a crucial function in the Solar PV system in addition to its

other important responsibilities in Modern technology. The solar battery is a ground-breaking

innovation that fundamentally enhances how we generate and store energy obtained from the

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sun. Rechargeable energy storage devices called solar PV batteries are used to store extra

electricity produced by solar panels during the sun's peak hours. These batteries continue to

produce energy at night times or times when the sun is unavailable (MILLER, 2022)

Given that the sun does not shine continuously, one difficulty with solar energy is its intermittent

nature. Solar batteries are quite important in this situation.

The solar battery is a vital part of solar PV systems. Solar batteries accumulate energy produced

or collected from the solar panels during daylight hours and subsequently release the energy

during overcast and nighttime conditions (Planas, 2015).

Among the roles batteries play in a solar PV system include;

1. Energy storage and autonomy; To store electrical energy produced by the PV array and to

supply energy to electrical loads as and when needed (during nighttime and non-sunshine

days in winter).

2. Stabilization of voltage; To supply power to electrical loads at stable voltages by suppressing

voltage fluctuations in PV systems and protecting loads from damage.

3. Surge supply current; To supply the high starting currents to electrical loads such as motor or

other inductive loads. The performance of the PV system with battery storage depends on the

battery design and operating parameters of the system. If the battery is not designed for the

operating conditions of the PV system, then it will fail to work very soon. (Ponnusamy,

2013).

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2.3 TYPES OF SOLAR BATTERIES

There are various types of solar batteries, below are some of the common types

1. Lead-acid: The oldest kind of solar battery (Roofit. solar, 2023). It has been developed

alongside clean energy resources because of its longstanding existence. There are two

varieties of lead-acid solar batteries. Namely; sealed lead-acid batteries and flooded lead-acid

batteries. The construction of sealed lead acid batteries minimizes the leakage of harmful

gases into the atmosphere while they are being charged. Flooded lead-acid batteries are the

second type of lead-acid battery. This resembles a standard automobile battery in size.

In terms of properties, lead-acid solar batteries have a smaller depth of discharge compared

to other storage choices, and they generally have a shorter lifespan. Additionally, they need

routine maintenance. Because of this, lead-acid batteries are regarded as the most affordable

of the four. Energy Engineers advise against charging lead-acid batteries past a 50% depth of

discharge. If the battery is discharged past that point, it can shorten its lifespan. Its lifespan

ranges 3-5 years or more but it all depends on the manufacturer.

2. Lithium-ion batteries are new in comparison to lead-acid batteries, which have a

considerably longer history. It has been enhanced concurrently with advancements made in

the battery technology needed for electric vehicles in recent years. Residential homeowners

are fond of lithium-ion solar batteries. Lithium batteries have; a longer life span, fewer

repairs are necessary and compared to lead-acid batteries, they are smaller and lighter. Along

with these characteristics, these batteries have a higher useful capacity and can readily

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 sustain deep discharges of 80% or more. A major disadvantage of lithium-ion batteries is that

they run the risk of thermal runaway, which means that they could catch fire if they are not

installed properly. The shelf life of lithium-ion batteries ranges from 10-12 years. How long

they will last depend on the manufacturing process as well as its composition.

3. Flow batteries: A flow battery is one in which two liquids, are separated by a membrane and

circulated in order to enable ion exchange between them. By isolating the liquid electrolytes,

flow batteries offer a long cycle life. The flow battery is a brand-new option in the solar

battery technology market. Despite being a relatively new storage technology that still has to

be improved, flow batteries are a popular choice for a few reasons. It discharges at 100%

depth. You can therefore utilize all of the energy that has been stored. Flow batteries are non-

toxic in contrast to nickel-cadmium batteries because they are water-based. Some drawbacks

of employing a flow battery are; although its technology is still in the development stage, it is

more expensive than the alternatives and it takes up more room as a result of low storage

capacity.

4. Nickel-cadmium; Also known as "nickel batteries" and "Ni-Cd," nickel-cadmium batteries

are a tried-and-true option in the battery technology industry. They have earned a reputation

for their capacity to function at high temperatures with no complicated battery management

technologies. They are more common among commercial-scale activities because of this.

One thing to keep in mind is that nickel batteries are a very old type of technology. They

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 have a lifespan ranging from 5-7 years. They have a high level of toxicity, which makes them

illegal in many nations.

5. Lithium Polymer Batteries; The lithium electrode reaction with the electrolyte is reduced in

this battery because the solid polymer electrolyte serves as both a separator and an

electrolyte. Lithium polymer batteries have a shelf life of 2-6 years (Forme Solar, 2023).

Figure 3- Lithium-ion Battery Figure 2- Nickel Cadmium Battery

Figure 4 - Lithium Polymer Battery Figure 5 - Lead Acid battery

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2.4 END OF LIFE OF SOLAR BATTERIES

The solar PV battery end-of-life process is crucial for the environment and the economy. The

demand for effective and long-lasting battery storage systems is increasing along with the

growing demand for solar energy. What happens to these batteries when they have served their

purpose? (Energy.Gov, n.d.).

Typically, lithium-ion cells, which have a short lifespan make up solar PV batteries. These cells

begin to deteriorate and lose their ability to efficiently store energy after a number of years of

use. They are currently unsuitable for usage in solar PV systems. They can leak hazardous

chemicals and toxic metals into the environment if they are not correctly disposed of,

endangering both humans and the ecology (Franklinwh, 2023). Discharging, disintegration, and

deterioration of the batteries have been identified as pollution routes, but violent events like

explosions and flames are also critical (Mrozik et al., 2021).

Batteries include a number of toxic materials, including lead, mercury, and cadmium which can

have detrimental effects on both the environment and human health. These pollutants have the

potential to seep into the ground and water, contaminating the ecosystem and endangering both

humans and wildlife (Allied, 2023).

2.5 THE COMPONENTS OF SOLAR BATTERIES

A typical solar battery is made up of several parts, including a container, cathode, separator,

anode, electrolyte, and collector. Lead-acid, lithium-ion, and flow batteries are the most common

chemical components used to make solar batteries (Forme Solar, 2023). Lithium-ion is the most

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popular type of battery chemical composition, which is also the most excellent and most suitable

choice for a solar panel system. Comparable to the conventional lead-acid deep-cycle starter

batteries used in vehicles, the majority of lithium solar batteries are deep-cycle lithium iron

phosphate (LiFePO4) batteries (Forme Solar, 2023). Another vital component is the electrolyte,

which facilitates the flow of electric current within the battery .

However, it is important to note that lithium mining can have detrimental environmental

impacts such as soil degradation and water pollution. Moreover, solar batteries often incorporate

metals like cobalt or nickel in their construction. While these metals enhance battery

performance, their extraction can lead to habitat destruction and air pollution (Franklinwh,

2023; Hoffs, 2022; James, 2019).

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Figure 6- Components of a Lithium-ion battery (Samsung SDI, 2016)

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2.6 EXAMINING THE POTENTIAL HARMFUL MATERIALS IN SOLAR

BATTERIES

As a sustainable energy source, solar batteries have drawn a lot of interest, but it's crucial to be

aware of any potential environmental effects related to their manufacture and disposal. The use

of heavy metals like lead, cadmium, and lithium is one of the essential elements of solar

batteries. These metals are known to be hazardous and, if not handled appropriately, may

seriously endanger both human health and ecosystems (Crail et al., 2023; Franklinwh, 2023;

Varcas, 2023).

Lead-acid batteries, which are frequently used in solar power systems, contain lead and, if

handled improperly, can leak into soil and water sources (Honsberg & Bowden, 2019). The same

goes for cadmium, which is present in thin-film solar cells and causes serious health risks if it is

spilt into the environment (communications and Publishing, 2019). Concerns about lithium-ion

batteries have also been raised because of the extraction process, which can deplete local water

supplies (Owais, 2022). Adequate recycling processes must be put in place to make sure that

these materials are securely disposed of or repurposed in order to reduce these potentially

detrimental impacts (Gemes, 2020).

2.7 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF IMPROPER DISPOSAL METHODS FOR

SOLAR BATTERIES

Solar battery disposal practices that put the environment in danger include cremation and

landfilling. Solar battery landfilling may result in the release of hazardous substances and heavy

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metals into the earth and soil, endangering adjacent ecosystems (Wahid, 2022). These dangerous

compounds have a lengthy half-life and can harm humans, animals, and plants over the course of

many years. Similar to burning batteries for solar energy, this practice contributes to air pollution

and climate change by releasing dangerous toxins into the atmosphere (Energy5, 2023; Godfrey

et al., 2019).

The process of burning produces poisonous gases and particulate matter, which can be harmful

to human health and aggravate respiratory disorders. In addition, neither landfilling nor

incineration makes use of the rich materials found inside solar batteries. We lose the chance to

recover priceless elements like lithium, cobalt, or nickel by improperly recycling these batteries

(Energy5, 2023).

2.7.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES

Nickel, copper, and lead are among the potentially hazardous components used in lithium

batteries. Used batteries may cause environmental catastrophes when poorly disposed of, and

they can explode when incorrectly stored (Owais, 2022). Other harmful effects of Lithium

batteries on the environment include; Acidification, Photochemical smog and Eutrophication

(Thakur, 2022).

Small spent LIBs may be placed in general garbage or recycling bins by customers because of

ignorance of the system for disposal, which results in destructive burns during transit or in

material recovery facilities (MRFs). According to environmental agencies in the UK, during

2019 and 2020, there were roughly 250 fire breakout instances at waste treatment facilities as a
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result of LIBs. Additionally, the German Federation of Steel Recyclers asserted that LIBs were

responsible for nearly 90% of fire breakouts at its facilities. Numerous events at the Musashino

Clean Center in Tokyo, Japan, where rubbish was disposed of in 2017 and 2018; as well as some

other frequent incidents in the UK, USA, Scotland, and Germany (Mrozik et al., 2021).

Li-ion batteries are hazardous when they enter an uncontrollable, self-heating state, which causes

cells to self-heat and destroy themselves when they exceed the temperature range. This is known

as degassing, when hot vapors are discharged from the cell, they can create an accidental

explosion or fire (Thakur, 2022).

These issues are being addressed by creating sustainable techniques for material extraction and

recycling. It's important to have effective recycling procedures in place to lessen the quantity of

hazardous trash that is produced by used batteries.

2.7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF NICKEL CADMIUM SOLAR BATTERIES

Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd) solar batteries have emerged as a promising technology in the

renewable energy sector due to their numerous advantages over traditional lead-acid batteries.

These rechargeable batteries are widely used in solar power systems, offering an efficient and

reliable energy storage solution. Ni-Cd solar batteries employ a unique chemistry that utilizes

nickel hydroxide and cadmium oxide as active materials, ensuring superior performance and

prolonged life cycles (Ecoflow, 2023).

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Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries have long been utilized in various applications, including

solar energy storage. While these batteries offer notable advantages, it is crucial to consider

their environmental impact. One concerning aspect is the presence of toxic heavy metals within

Ni-Cd batteries. The cadmium content in particular poses a significant environmental risk due to

its potential for leaching into soil and water sources (ElectricRate, 2023).

Cadmium is highly toxic and can accumulate in organisms, leading to harmful effects on

ecosystems and human health. Furthermore, the production and disposal processes associated

with Ni-Cd batteries contribute to additional environmental concerns. The extraction of raw

materials required for their manufacture often involves destructive mining practices that result

in habitat destruction and soil erosion. Improper disposal or recycling of these batteries can

release hazardous substances into the environment, further exacerbating pollution levels

(CUNY ENERGY INSTITUTE, 2012).

2.8 ALARMING STATISTICS: THE MAGNITUDE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

DAMAGE CAUSED BY IMPROPER SOLAR BATTERY DISPOSAL

Statistics showing the extent of the harm caused by improperly disposing of solar batteries have

made this issue one of the urgent environmental concerns. Recent studies suggest that 50 million

metric tons of electrical waste, including solar batteries, are produced annually globally. It is

shocking to learn that just 20% of this garbage gets recycled or disposed of appropriately. The

effects of incorrect disposal are substantial (Brian Gitt, 2021; Kuby Renewable Energy Ltd.,

2022; Mrozik et al., 2021).

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2.9 CASE STUDY;

The case of contaminated water in Ghana:

A study conducted in Ghana revealed alarming levels of heavy metal contamination in water

bodies near improper e-waste disposal sites in the Kpone landfill site. (Obiri-Nyarko et al.,

2021). Toxic elements including lead, lithium, and cadmium leached into the groundwater as a

result of the careless disposal of spent batteries, causing major health dangers to the populations

nearby (Genva environment network, 2023).

Elevated levels of these metals can lead to various health problems including kidney damage

and developmental issues (EPA, 2022).

Moreover, specific examples further underscore the scale of environmental damage caused by

improper battery disposal. In India, for instance, where solar energy is rapidly gaining

popularity, it is estimated that over 240 million lead-acid batteries will be discarded by 2030.

Without adequate recycling facilities or awareness campaigns in place, these batteries will end

up in landfills or informal recycling centers where harmful substances can leach into the

environment.

2.10 CURRENT PRACTICES IN SOLAR BATTERY RECYCLING

As the demand for renewable energy sources grows, so does the use of solar batteries to store

and distribute this clean energy. However, with the increasing number of solar batteries being

manufactured and used, there arises a pressing need for proper recycling practices (Bhavsar,

32 | P a g e
2023). Solar battery recycling is crucial for several reasons. Firstly, solar batteries contain

various valuable materials such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel that can be extracted and reused in

the production of new batteries (Leimbach, 2023).

By recycling these materials, we reduce our dependence on mining activities and conserve

natural resources. Secondly, improper disposal of solar batteries can lead to environmental

pollution (Energy5 your way, 2023). These batteries often contain toxic substances that can

contaminate soil and water if not disposed of correctly. Recycling ensures that these hazardous

materials are safely contained or neutralized (Sunfarm Energy, 2022). Lastly, promoting solar

battery recycling helps create a circular economy where valuable resources are kept in use for

longer periods instead of ending up as waste (EPA, 2022).

The increasing adoption of solar energy has led to a growing concern regarding the end-of-life

management of solar batteries. To address this issue, various methods and technologies have

been developed for the recycling of solar batteries (Chen & Tan, 2020). One commonly used

method is mechanical shredding, which involves breaking down the batteries into smaller pieces

using specialized equipment. The shredded materials are then separated into different

components, such as metals, plastics, and electrolytes, through processes like sieving and

magnetic separation (Wilkerson, 2022).

Another technique is pyrometallurgical recycling, where the batteries are subjected to high

temperatures to extract valuable metals. This process involves smelting the battery components

at elevated temperatures to separate metals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, and copper from other
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materials (Gemes, 2020). Additionally, hydrometallurgical methods utilize chemical processes to

recover metals from spent solar batteries (Wilkerson, 2022).

2.11 ASSESSING THE ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF SOLAR PV BATTERY

RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL PRACTICES

The end-of-life assessment of solar batteries deals with either disposal or recycling. Solar

batteries contain hazardous substances that can be leaked into the environment, endangering both

human health and the ecosystem. The poisonous substances may leak into the soil and eventually

reach our water supply if they are dumped in landfills. When burnt, harmful gases are released.

Also, the government will spend more to manage the waste that the batteries have created.

Infrastructure and equipment can be potentially damaged due to leakages or fire caused by

improper disposal of waste which will in turn contribute to increased waste management costs.

An alternative to this approach is to recycle the used batteries that have been safely disposed of.

Battery recycling is the process of recovering valuable materials such as copper, nickel and

lithium from used batteries. These materials are required in the production of new batteries hence

there will be no need to extract them from virgin resources which will in turn limit their

existence as they are non-renewable resources. The processes involved in recycling batteries are

as follows;

The methods for battery recycling can be classified as either separation of components through

unit operations (physical and mechanical processes), pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical.

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After collection and assessment, a battery is shredded before being sent out for recycling. The

battery is either completely or partially shredded, depending on the size of the shredding

machinery. It is also known as the separation of components through unit operations (physical

and mechanical processes).

Hydrometallurgical recycling consists basically of leaching of scrap in acid or base to solubilize

metals. The metals can then be recovered either by precipitation or by electrolysis. It is a liquid-

based leaching process. Pyrometallurgy, on the other hand, consists of recovering materials using

high temperatures. It can also use other reactive gases (other than air) to obtain metal separation.

Pyrometallurgical recycling's main limitation is its high energy requirement to reach operational

temperatures. Hydrometallurgical methods may use electrolysis for metal recovery and as a

result consume electrical energy, therefore this must also be taken into account when comparing

the energy requirements of the two processes.

2.12 RECYCLING OF LI–ION BATTERY RECYCLING USING

HYDROMETALLURGICAL PROCESS.

The hydrometallurgical process is a widely used method for recycling lithium-ion batteries due

to its efficiency and environmental sustainability. This process involves the extraction of

valuable metals from spent batteries using aqueous solutions and chemical reactions (Bird,

2023; Yand & Alnaqbi, 2023). Initially, battery recycling begins with the collection and sorting

of discarded batteries based on their chemistry, size, and capacity. The batteries are then

35 | P a g e
disassembled to retrieve the cathode, anode, and electrolyte components (Bae & Kim, 2021;

Battery University, 2021).

We suggest a way to evaluate the cost of recovering materials from used LIBs by using a

combined mechanical–hydrometallurgical (CMHP) recycling method. This method involves

several steps to recycle the used LIBs, such as Mechanical separation, Hydrometallurgical

recovery and Valorization of recovered materials. One study shows that CMHP is economically

viable because it can lower the expenses of making new batteries by using less raw materials and

energy, and also earn money from selling the materials that are recovered. The most precious

components of discarded LIBs are the metals cobalt, nickel, manganese, and copper. Recovering

polymers, lithium, aluminum, and graphite is another objective. An average composition of spent

LIBs will be used to estimate the cost. This process recovers more than 90% of materials found

in the worn-out LIBs. Processing using hydrometallurgical methods is thought to provide

recovered metals with a high degree of purity. Every year, 125 tons of used LIBs will be

processed by the recovery process installation based on CMHP (Popescu et al., 2022).

Table 1- Average composition of spent LIBs (Zheng et al., 2018)

Components Percentage (%) contained in Worn-out LIBs

Cobalt (Co) 5 – 20

Nickel (Ni) 5 – 10

Lithium (Li) 5–7

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 Copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), Iron (Fe) 5 – 10

Organic compounds 15

Plastic 7

2.12.1 MECHANICAL SEPARATION

Mechanical separation refers to the physical separation of different components in LIBs based on

their size and density. This process is essential as it allows for the recovery of valuable materials

such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite. Fully discharging used LIBs is part of MS (to

reduce the possibility of an explosion from an uncontrolled discharge). After the used LIBs are

fully discharged (to avoid the danger of explosion by an uncontrolled discharge), the components

such as the battery management unit (BMU), which can be recycled right away and treated

separately, the metal casing, plastic parts, wires, and other components are removed manually.

The parts of the battery that store and release electricity, called electrodes, are taken apart from

the thin sheets of plastic that keep them separated. Then, they are dried at high temperatures to

remove and collect the liquid that helps the electricity flow, called electrolytes. During

mechanical separation, LIBs are crushed into small pieces using crushers or shredders. The

crushed material is then subjected to sieving or screening processes to separate it into different

fractions based on particle size. This step ensures that larger particles can be further processed

while smaller particles can be separated for individual treatment. After sieving, density-based

separation techniques such as gravity separation or air classification are employed to separate

37 | P a g e
materials based on their density differences. This allows for the recovery of heavy metals like

cobalt and nickel from lighter materials like plastics or aluminum (Popescu et al., 2022).

2.12.2 HYDROMETALLURGICAL RECOVERY

Hydrometallurgical recovery involves the use of aqueous solutions to extract valuable metals

from spent LIBs. This process begins with the dismantling and shredding of batteries, followed

by leaching, where metals are dissolved into a solution. The battery components are dissolved

using a mixture of 2.0 M sulfuric acid and 4.0% hydrogen peroxide at 70 °C. The resulting liquid

solution contains aluminum, lithium, cobalt, 1 copper, nickel, iron and manganese ions that are

further processed to obtain them as pure metals or salts. Subsequently, various separation

techniques such as precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange are employed to isolate

individual metals. One of the major advantages of hydrometallurgical recovery is its ability to

recover multiple valuable metals simultaneously. In addition to lithium, other metals like cobalt,

nickel, and manganese can be extracted and reused. This not only reduces the need for raw

material mining but also mitigates environmental pollution caused by improper disposal.

Furthermore, hydrometallurgical recovery offers economic benefits by creating a circular

economy for battery materials. The recovered metals can be used in manufacturing new batteries

or sold as raw materials to other industries. This not only reduces production costs but also

conserves natural resources (Popescu et al., 2022).

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2.13 OVERVIEW OF EXISTING RECYCLING PROGRAMS AND INITIATIVES

AROUND THE WORLD

An innovative circular economy battery technology was created in Uganda by the cleantech

company Aceleron, which enables batteries to be dismantled down to a single cell for upkeep,

repair, and replacement. In contrast to traditional batteries, which need replacement of the entire

product if one component breaks, batteries using this new technology can continue to function as

a whole even if one component fails. This type of serviceable battery has the potential to

drastically reduce battery waste while also creating employment and reducing greenhouse gas

emissions if it can guarantee that these three procedures can be carried out locally (Aceleron,

2023).

In order to implement best practices and recycling standards through technical partnership, pilot

recycling operations are collaboratively supported. In order to ensure the social, environmental,

and economic sustainability of the supported operations, technical standards and finance methods

are devised. Some nations, including Ghana, Egypt, Colombia, Peru, and South Africa, have

established Sustainable Recycling Industries (SRI) recycling efforts in collaboration with

corporate and public organizations (Mathias-Sri, 2022).

2.14 EXISTING RECYCLING INITIATIVES IN GHANA

Bosch in Ghana today plays an important role in the lead-acid battery recycling initiative as a

result of reverse logistic cooperation between Ghanaian professional market actors, City Waste

Management Ghana, battery distributors, used battery collectors, and end users. According to

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data published by the United Nations, 800,000 units of batteries are expected to be traded in

Ghana each year. With a goal to increase the number of collection stations by 2021, 14 collection

points have already been established as of November 2020. With an incentive scheme to

encourage a change in behavior regarding the handling of car batteries, the initiative targets

battery retailers, battery collectors, and end users. The Ghanaian Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) of the Ministry for the Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation

(MESTI) unveiled the recently developed Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for

Environmentally Sound Management of Used Lead-Acid Batteries on April 29, 2022, in Accra.

The SOPs, which will be used as mandatory Technical Guidelines in Ghana, are the first

concrete guidelines for treating and recycling old lead-acid batteries. These SOPs will act as a

detailed manual that will enhance Ghana's battery recycling practices (Bosch, 2020; Mathias-Sri,

2022). From the above mentioned, Ghana, and the world as a whole is trying to reduce electronic

waste after battery use, recover expensive materials and metals used in creating the battery,

ensure zero emission of greenhouse gases by using advanced recycling techniques and lastly,

reduce the prices of new batteries and battery components through proper battery recycling.

The Electro Recycling Ghana, E-waste Cycle Solution and Neweco Ghana Limited are recycling

companies located in Accra and Kumasi respectively are responsible for recycling solar batteries

in Ghana.(Mathias-Sri, 2022)

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2.15 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS AND LIMITATIONS OF THESE

PROGRAMS

Assessing the effectiveness of battery recycling programs requires a comprehensive evaluation

framework that incorporates various methods. Quantitative metrics can be utilized to measure

the program's performance. This includes tracking the total volume of batteries collected and

recycled over a specific period, calculating the recycling rate as a percentage of all batteries

disposed of, and monitoring improvements in recycling efficiency over time.

While battery recycling programs have gained recognition for their potential to mitigate

environmental impacts, it is crucial to evaluate their effectiveness and acknowledge the

limitations and challenges they face. One significant limitation is the low awareness and

participation rates among consumers. Many individuals are unaware of these programs or do not

understand their importance, resulting in a lack of motivation to recycle batteries properly (Nie

et al., 2023; Recell, 2023).

Additionally, there is limited infrastructure and resources dedicated to battery recycling in

Ghana. The lack of specialized facilities for collecting, sorting, and processing batteries makes

it difficult for these programs to operate effectively. Moreover, there is a lack of regulatory

framework and enforcement mechanisms for monitoring and ensuring compliance with proper

battery disposal practices. This further hinders the progress of recycling programs in Ghana.

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Finally, financial constraints pose a challenge as well, as establishing and maintaining efficient

recycling processes require significant investments that may not always be available (Ryan,

2023).

In conclusion, while battery recycling programs in Ghana have made significant progress in

managing the environmental impact of discarded batteries, there are still limitations that need to

be addressed. To improve these programs, several recommendations can be made. Firstly, there

is a need for increased awareness and education among the general public regarding the

importance of battery recycling and the potential hazards associated with improper disposal.

This can be achieved through targeted awareness campaigns and educational programs in schools

and communities. Secondly, it is crucial to establish a comprehensive collection network that

covers both urban and rural areas. This can involve setting up collection centers at convenient

locations such as electronic stores or community centers, as well as implementing mobile

collection units to reach remote areas. Lastly, partnerships between government agencies, private

businesses, solar companies and non-profit organizations should be strengthened to enhance

funding opportunities for battery recycling initiatives (Whiteaker, 2021).

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 3 CHAPTER THREE – METHODOLOGY

In this study chapter, the acquisition of data pertaining to the disposal practices of solar batteries

among solar PV users when the batteries reach the end of their lifecycle is discussed. Sunyani

serves as a case study for this investigation. The data gathered from interviews and

questionnaires were analyze through the utilization of SPSS software.

3.1 RESEARCH STUDY AREA

The research area of study is Sunyani, a city and the capital town of the Bono Region and the

Sunyani Municipal of Ghana with a population of 1,208,649 people. It lies between Latitudes 70

20’N and 70 05’N and Longitudes 20 30’W and 2010’W. The Municipality has a total land area

of 829.3 square kilometers. The city is known for its vibrant markets and has seen significant

development in recent years, with improved infrastructure and amenities. Sunyani is also

surrounded by beautiful natural landscapes, including forests and waterfalls, making it a popular

destination for tourists and nature enthusiasts.

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Figure 7- Map of Sunyani

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3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

Figure 8 - flowchart of the research methodology

3.3 SAMPLE FRAME

A number of people who reside in Sunyani of the Bono region of Ghana who used Solar PV

systems were targeted to conduct a survey on how they dispose of their worn-out solar batteries.
45 | P a g e
3.4 SAMPLE TECHNIQUES

From the sampling frame, individuals were selected and subsequently contacted through phone

calls or in-person visits as part of the study. The study entailed the completion of a questionnaire.

The participants were provided with an explanation of the study's objectives and procedures, and

their consent was obtained.

3.5 SAMPLING METHOD

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling method where the researcher selects the

sample based on their judgment about which units will be the most useful or representative. This

method is also known as judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling. The main goal of this

purposive sampling is to focus on Solar PV users and installers in Sunyani, which will

effectively assist in answering the research questions.

3.6 SAMPLE SIZE

For this study, a purposive sampling strategy was employed. The sample size was determined

based on the objectives of the thesis. A total of 30 participants were selected for the study, all of

whom own a solar PV system, ensuring that they could provide valuable insights for the

research. The sample size was deemed sufficient as it allowed for a diverse range of perspectives

while still being manageable for in-depth analysis.

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3.7 DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND SOURCES

Table: Identified variables, method of data to be collected and sources of data

Data Collection Source Data

Method

Questionnaire 1. Solar PV system users  Type of solar PV system

Survey 2. Solar PV Installers employed, where it is used and

Interviews 3. Solar PV companies how long it has been used

 How users dispose of their

worn-out batteries

 Users’ awareness of the negative

impacts of improper disposal of

waste battery

 User awareness of any waste

battery collection point

 Users’ willingness to travel to

the collection point

 User awareness of any recycling

program and if they would

prefer their batteries recycled.

 Users’ willingness to buy a

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 recycled battery.

3.8 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHOD

The data is tailored to the problem being studied. In this study, primary data was the main type of

data used, collected through questionnaires administered via interviews and observations. The

primary data was obtained from the unit of analysis of the study, which included Sunyani

residents who work as solar PV installers, solar PV owners, and solar PV users in workplaces

and hotels.

3.9 METHOD OF DATA PROCESSING

A manual was created to help with the process of assigning values to the different items in the

questionnaires. The completed questionnaires were then entered into a software program. The

data from the interview schedule was analyzed using SPSS software. Descriptive statistics,

including frequencies, percentages, and cross tabulations, were used to analyze the data.

3.10 UNIT OF ANALYSIS

The Sunyani residents who work as solar PV installers, solar PV owners, and solar PV users in

workplaces and hotels make up the analysis's unit of analysis. Our research is interested in

analyzing the characteristics, attitudes, opinions, and actions of this group of people in relation to

the disposal of their worn-out solar batteries

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3.11 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

This research will be conducted in a fair, transparent manner and will conform to the norms of

the university. We will take the requisite steps to ensure both professional and ethical reviews of

this research. We will also take into consideration the confidentiality of information, and

reduction of risk and assess only relevant components.

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 4 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section contains the results of the assessment of the disposal methods of solar batteries and

the awareness of the negative impacts of improper disposal methods among users in Sunyani All

results are derived from the methodology described in Chapter Three. It also contains an analysis

of the economic feasibility of solar PV battery recycling practices.

4.2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

The tables and figures below display the SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) findings.

For each test, the respondents' responses are recorded, including their disposal practices,

understanding of the risks involved in improperly discarding a worn-out battery, knowledge of

solar battery recycling, and desire to purchase and recycle used batteries.

4.3 DISPOSAL METHODS AMONG SOLAR USERS IN SUNYANI

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 Figure 9 - Bar chart on the disposal methods among users

From the bar chart above, (60%) disposed of their old batteries in trash bins, while 30% sold

their old or worn-out solar batteries to scrap dealers and 10% sent their old batteries to e-waste

organizations who came to pick them up and use it for smaller projects. While owners of smaller

solar PV systems and some professional installers dispose of theirs in trash bins or sell them to

scrap dealers, organizations with larger solar PV systems sometimes work with e-waste firms

that come to collect their worn-out batteries.

4.4 AWARENESS OF THE NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF THE IMPROPER DISPOSAL

OF SOLAR BATTERIES AMONG SUNYANI USERS

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 Figure 10 - Bar chart on the awareness of the negative impacts of improper disposal

This bar chart () illustrates the awareness of the impact of improper disposal among the PV users

in Sunyani. It is evident that the majority of survey participants (63.3%) believed that improper

disposal of worn-out solar batteries presented a risk to the environment and public health, while

the minority of participants (36.6%) were unaware of the concerns. Future recycling behaviour

can be ensured by environmental education and awareness campaigns should be conducted to

educate individuals about the importance of recycling solar batteries and the potential hazards

associated with their improper disposal. Another way to address this issue is through legislation

and policies. To ensure responsible and environmentally friendly practices, legal and regulatory

frameworks play a vital role. These frameworks are designed to set guidelines and standards for

52 | P a g e
the collection, transportation, treatment, recycling, and disposal of solar batteries. One key

aspect of the legal framework is the establishment of specific regulations that require

manufacturers to take responsibility for their products throughout their lifecycle. This includes

implementing systems for the safe disposal and recycling of used batteries. Additionally,

regulatory agencies enforce these rules by conducting inspections and imposing penalties on

non-compliant entities. Furthermore, legal frameworks often outline licensing requirements for

businesses involved in battery disposal activities. This helps ensure that only qualified entities

are engaged in such operations, thereby minimizing potential risks to human health and the

environment.

4.5 AWARENESS OF WASTE SOLAR BATTERY COLLECTION POINT.

Figure 11 - Bar chart on the awareness of a collection point

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From the chart above it is seen that while the majority of solar users in Sunyani (93.33%) are unaware

of or do not know that there are any waste battery collection points in Sunyani or nearby towns, a smaller

percentage of users in Sunyani have a partnership with some recycling companies located in Accra and

Kumasi who come to Sunyani to pick up their used solar batteries . To reduce the improper disposal of

waste solar batteries and increase the percentage of batteries that are recycled, public buildings

such as libraries, schools, and community recycling centres could host battery collection stations

and run campaigns to educate people about the benefits of recycling. Collaborating with

government agencies and environmental organizations can also help increase awareness. By

organizing workshops, seminars, or webinars, people can learn about the benefits of recycling

solar batteries and where they can find collection points in their area. Additionally,

incorporating incentives like discounts or rewards for individuals who properly dispose of their

waste solar batteries at designated collection points could encourage more people to participate

in recycling efforts (Islam et al., 2022).

4.6 AWARENESS OF SOLAR BATTERY RECYCLING, USERS’ WILLINGNESS TO

BUY RECYCLED BATTERY AND RECYCLE OLD SOLAR BATTERIES

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 Figure 12 - Bar Chart of awareness on solar battery recycling

Figure 13 - Bar Chart of the willingness to recycle old batteries

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Figure 14 - Bar chart of willingness to dispose off batteries at collection point

Figure 15 - Where users heard about solar battery recycling

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 Figure 16 - Bar chart of willingness to buy recycled batteries

A little over 60% (63.33%) of Sunyani's solar PV customers who participated in the survey are

aware of solar batteries or battery recycling initiatives, while the remaining 36.7 percent are not

as shown in . Among the 63% of users who are aware of solar battery recycling, 5.3% learned

about it via newspapers, 26.3% from television, 57.9% from the internet, and the remaining

10.5% from friends and businesses that recycle old batteries. This can be seen from the bar chart

above in . From , 96.7% of the respondents are willing to recycle their old or worn-out batteries
57 | P a g e
while the remaining 3.3% prefer to continue trading them to scrap dealers or using them for their

own mini projects.

The awareness and participation in solar battery recycling can be increased by;

1. Educational campaigns: Launching comprehensive educational campaigns to inform the

public about the importance of solar battery recycling is crucial. These campaigns should

emphasize the environmental benefits and potential hazards associated with improper disposal

of solar batteries.

2. Collaboration with manufacturers and installers: Establishing partnerships with

manufacturers and installers can help promote awareness among consumers. Encouraging these

industry stakeholders to provide information about recycling options, including take-back

programs, can significantly increase participation.

3. Government support: Governments should play a pivotal role in promoting solar battery

recycling by implementing policies that incentivize proper disposal practices. Offering tax

credits or subsidies for those who recycle their solar batteries can be a powerful motivator.

4. Community engagement: Engaging local communities through workshops, seminars, and

interactive events can foster a sense of responsibility towards sustainable energy practices .

and show respondents' opinions on buying recycled batteries. Of them, 66.7% were in favour,

while 33.3% were against with the reason being the efficiency of recycled batteries wouldn't be

58 | P a g e
as high as that of new batteries. The preference for recycled solar batteries can be increased

through these initiatives;

1. Education and Awareness Campaigns: Launching educational campaigns to raise awareness

among consumers about the benefits of using recycled solar batteries.

2. Incentive Programs: Implementing government-led incentive programs that provide financial

benefits or tax breaks for consumers who choose to purchase and use recycled solar batteries

instead of new ones (Canary Media, 2022).

4.7 VALORIZATION OF RECOVERED MATERIALS IN THE RECYCLING OF LI-

ION BATTERIES.

The recovered materials from the old Li-ion batteries may hold value after undergoing

mechanical separation and hydrometallurgical recovery as talked about in RECYCLING OF LI–

ION BATTERY RECYCLING USING HYDROMETALLURGICAL PROCESS.

Assumptions made in the Valorization is as follows;

1. Waste of solar batteries every year is estimated to be 4.4tonnes.

2. Conservative expectation that material costs would remain unchanged from 2023 levels

3. 95% recovery of valuable materials is achieved by the recovery process.

4. Calculated in GH¢, the current exchange rate used for comparison.

5. Established hydrometallurgical process facility cost of processing waste LIBs is Gh¢80

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How effectively worn-out LIBs are recycled depends on the cost of processing, the value of the

final products, and their market demand. As, Figure 18, and Error: Reference source not found

illustrate, global policy and the balance between supply and demand caused large fluctuations in

the prices of the metals needed for LIBs. Therefore, the prices of the materials that are recovered

from recycling used LIBs will be taken into account, as Table 2 displays.

Figure 17 - Copper official prices in the past 3 months (LME, 2023).

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 Figure 18- Nickel official prices in the past 3 months (LME, 2023)

Table 2 - Estimated data for a financial year

Product Price (LME, Assumed quantity Annual revenue Weight (%)

2023; trading (kg/year) Gh¢/year
economics, 2023)
Gh¢/Kg
Lithium Carbonate 317.02 300 95106.00 6.50
Cobalt 383.73 500 191865.00 65.02
Nickel 234.23 350 81980.50 14.59
Manganese 10.37 400 4148.50 0.88
Copper 94.61 550 52035.50 10.96
Aluminum 25.14 450 11313.00 1.30

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 Graphite 0.57 700 399.00 0.00
Plastic 6.31 600 3786.00 0.40
Metal Housing 6.00 550 3300.00 0.35

Table 2 shows that cobalt has the highest value among the elements in batteries, followed by Ni,

Cu and Li. Without cobalt, recycling these batteries would not be profitable.

4.8 COST EVALUATION

While accounting for a 95% waste recovery rate at a facility the cost of processing one kilogram

of waste material is Gh¢80. The annual revenue from the recovered materials from the battery is

Gh¢ 443933.50 with the cost of processing that amount at Gh¢ 352000.00 and making a profit of

Gh¢ 91933.50. By recycling and reusing LIB materials to make new batteries, the proposed

system would prevent Li-ion battery waste from ending up in landfills, lower production costs,

and cut down carbon emissions through environmentally friendly manufacturing methods

(Popescu et al., 2022). Improper methods for disposing of solar PV batteries can have severe and

far-reaching economic effects. The cost involved in resolving the environmental damage and

health risks brought on by improper disposal techniques like landfilling or cremation is very

high. Furthermore, inappropriate disposal methods make it difficult to retrieve key components

like lithium and cobalt, which are found in solar PV batteries (Godfrey et al., 2020).

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 5 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In the concluding section of this project thesis, a comprehensive summary of the research

findings is presented, followed by a set of carefully considered recommendations.

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

The end-of-life treatment of solar batteries is an important aspect of the overall sustainability and

environmental impact of solar energy systems. As the use of solar energy continues to grow, it is

crucial to properly manage and dispose off solar batteries at the end of their life cycle to

minimize negative environmental effects and maximize resource recovery.

The first objective is to examine the existing methods of solar PV battery disposal among users,

using Sunyani as a case study. Findings indicate a considerable number of solar users lack

knowledge about the correct disposal methods for solar batteries. This unawareness results in

improper disposal practices, posing environmental risks. The study also uncovers a scarcity of

accessible recycling facilities for solar batteries, which compounds the issue. A readiness to

dispose of solar batteries correctly is expressed by numerous users, provided they have the

necessary resources and knowledge.

The second objective of this study was to assess the economic feasibility of solar PV battery

recycling practices. This project has thoroughly examined the economic feasibility of solar
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battery recycling using the hydrometallurgical process. The findings suggest that this approach

not only contributes to environmental sustainability but also presents a viable economic

opportunity. The hydrometallurgical process, with its ability to efficiently extract valuable

materials from spent solar batteries, has the potential to significantly reduce the cost of battery

production and promote the circular economy in the energy sector. Hence, the hydrometallurgical

method’s application in recycling Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) is economically viable,

promising substantial profits.

One of the key considerations in the end-of-life treatment of solar batteries is recycling.

Recycling these batteries not only helps conserve natural resources but also reduces the need for

mining and extraction of virgin resources, which can have significant environmental impacts.

Another aspect of end-of-life treatment for solar batteries is proper disposal. Some battery

chemistries may pose environmental risks if not handled correctly. Therefore, it is essential to

follow regulations and guidelines for the safe disposal of these batteries, ensuring that they do

not end up in landfills or release harmful substances into the environment.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the study’s findings, these recommendations are proposed to assist in the treatment of

solar batteries at their life’s end:

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 Establishment of efficient collection and recycling systems for solar batteries is one of the

suggested recommendations. This can go a long way to raise awareness among consumers and

industry professionals about the importance of proper end-of-life treatment and recycling of solar

batteries. Another recommendation is that research and development efforts should focus on

improving the design and manufacturing of solar batteries to enhance their recyclability and

reduce their environmental impact. This can include using more sustainable materials,

optimizing battery chemistry for easier recycling, and implementing labelling systems to

facilitate proper identification and sorting of batteries at the end of their life cycle.

Also, increasing awareness of the value of treating solar batteries properly at the end of their

useful lives can motivate people and companies to adopt sustainable practices. This can involve

educating customers about the advantages of investing in innovative battery technologies as well

as the possibilities for repurposing, repairing, and recycling batteries. Governments can offer

financial incentives to encourage people and companies to recycle their solar batteries. This can

be in the form of tax breaks, refunds, or financial assistance for efficient disposal or recycling.

Finally, working with private companies can assist governments in setting up effective recycling

infrastructure and creating novel solutions for solar batteries at the end of their useful lives.

In conclusion, prioritizing responsible end-of-life treatment, the solar energy industry of Ghana

can contribute to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly future. The proper end-of-life

treatment of solar batteries through recycling will reduce environmental impacts, mitigate health

risks, conserve natural resources and promote the circular economy of Ghana.
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7 APPENDIX

Questionnaire; Survey on the public

disposal of solar batteries
This project seeks to investigate the disposal of worn-out solar batteries by the general solar

photovoltaic system users in Sunyani.

1. What type of solar PV system do you employ?

Mark only one oval.

Stand alone

Grid tied

2. If you use Grid tied, do you have a net meter?

Mark only one oval.

Yes

No

3. Where do you use the Solar PV system?

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 Mark only one oval.

At work(offices)

At

school

At home Other:

4. How long have you been using Solar PV system? Mark only one oval.

0 to
2years

2 to 4
years

5 to 10
years

10 to
15years

15 to 20 years
Other:

5. Have you ever changed your batteries?

Mark only one oval.

Yes
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 No

6. How do you dispose off worn-out or faulty batteries? Mark only one oval.

Dustbins

Scrap dealers

Other:

7. Are you aware of any used battery collection point? Mark only one oval.

No

Yes

8. Are you aware of any impact of improper battery disposal?

Mark only one oval.

Yes

No

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9. If there was a collection point would you dispose off your worn out
batteries there?

Mark only one oval.

Yes

No

10. How far are you willing to travel to dispose off used batteries?

Mark only one oval.

Within your vicinity

Outside your vicinity but in the same

region Other:

11. Have you heard about Solar batteries recycling?

Mark only one oval.

Yes

No

12. If yes, where?

Mark only one oval.

Newspapers

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 Television

Internet Other:

13. Will you like to buy a recycled battery?

Mark only one oval.

Yes

No

14. Will you like to recycle your old batteries?

Mark only one oval.

Yes

No

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