Global Warming Definition

“Global warming is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature generally due to the greenhouse effect caused by
increased levels of carbon dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants. “

What is Global Warming?

Global warming is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the temperature near the earth’s surface. This phenomenon
has been observed over the past one or two centuries. This change has disturbed the climatic pattern of the earth.
However, the concept of global warming is quite controversial but the scientists have provided relevant data in support of
the fact that the temperature of the earth is rising constantly.

There are several causes of global warming, which have a negative effect on humans, plants and animals. These causes
may be natural or might be the outcome of human activities. In order to curb the issues, it is very important to understand
the negative impacts of global warming.

Causes of Global Warming

Following are the major causes of global warming:

Man-made Causes of Global Warming

Deforestation

Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen thereby maintaining environmental
balance. Forests are being depleted for many domestic and commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental
imbalance, thereby giving rise to global warming.

Use of Vehicles

The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which
emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other toxins into the atmosphere resulting in a temperature increase.

Chlorofluorocarbon

With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have been adding CFCs into the environment which
affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone layer protects the earth surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted
by the sun. The CFCs have led to ozone layer depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the
temperature of the earth.

Industrial Development

With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from
the factories add to the increasing temperature of the earth.

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In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that the increase in the global temperature between
1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees Celsius. The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared to the pre-industrial
mean temperature.

Agriculture

Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
and increase the temperature of the earth.

Overpopulation

An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the
primary gas causing global warming, in the atmosphere.

Natural Causes of Global Warming

Volcanoes

Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash and smoke emitted during volcanic
eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects the climate.

Water Vapour

Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth’s temperature, more water gets evaporated
from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere adding to global warming.

Melting Permafrost

Permafrost is frozen soil that has environmental gases trapped in it for several years and is present below Earth’s surface.
It is present in glaciers. As the permafrost melts, it releases the gases back into the atmosphere, increasing Earth’s
temperature.

Forest Blazes

Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke. These gases are released into the
atmosphere and increase the earth’s temperature resulting in global warming.

Effects of Global Warming

Following are the major effects of global warming:

Rise in Temperature

Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature. Since 1880, the earth’s temperature has increased
by ~1 degrees. This has resulted in an increase in the melting of glaciers, which have led to an increase in the sea level.
This could have devastating effects on coastal regions.

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Threats to the Ecosystem

Global warming has affected the coral reefs that can lead to the loss of plant and animal lives. Increase in global
temperatures has made the fragility of coral reefs even worse.

Climate Change

Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are droughts at some places and floods at some. This
climatic imbalance is the result of global warming.

Spread of Diseases

Global warming leads to a change in the patterns of heat and humidity. This has led to the movement of mosquitoes that
carry and spread diseases.

High Mortality Rates

Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the average death toll usually increases. Also, such
events can bring about the spread of diseases that can hamper human life.

Loss of Natural Habitat

A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants and animals. In this case, the animals need to
migrate from their natural habitat and many of them even become extinct. This is yet another major impact of global
warming on biodiversity.

Greenhouse Effect Definition

“Greenhouse effect is the process by which radiations from the sun are absorbed by the greenhouse gases and not
reflected back into space. This insulates the surface of the earth and prevents it from freezing.”

What is the Greenhouse Effect?

A greenhouse is a house made of glass that can be used to grow plants. The sun’s radiations warm the plants and the air
inside the greenhouse. The heat trapped inside can’t escape out and warms the greenhouse which is essential for the
growth of the plants. Same is the case in the earth’s atmosphere.

During the day the sun heats up the earth’s atmosphere. At night, when the earth cools down the heat is radiated back into
the atmosphere. During this process, the heat is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere. This is what
makes the surface of the earth warmer, that makes the survival of living beings on earth possible.

However, due to the increased levels of greenhouse gases, the temperature of the earth has increased considerably. This
has led to several drastic effects.

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Greenhouse Gases

“Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared radiations and create a greenhouse effect. For eg.,
carbondioxide and chlorofluorocarbons.”
The major contributors to the greenhouse gases are factories, automobiles, deforestation, etc. The increased number of
factories and automobiles increases the amount of these gases in the atmosphere. The greenhouse gases never let the
radiations escape from the earth and increase the surface temperature of the earth. This then leads to global warming.

Effects of Greenhouse Effect

The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:

Global Warming

It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere. The main cause for this
environmental issue is the increased volumes of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane released by the
burning of fossil fuels, emissions from the vehicles, industries and other human activities.

Depletion of Ozone Layer

Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. It is found in the upper regions of the
stratosphere. The depletion of the ozone layer results in the entry of the harmful UV rays to the earth’s surface that might
lead to skin cancer and can also change the climate drastically.

The major cause of this phenomenon is the accumulation of natural greenhouse gases including chlorofluorocarbons,
carbon dioxide, methane, etc.

Causes of Acid Rain

The primary causes of acid rain are sulphur dioxide (SO2𝑆𝑂2) emitted from coal-fired power plants. Sulphur dioxide
combines with oxygen to form sulphuric acid (H2SO4𝐻2𝑆𝑂4), which dissolves with the water droplets and rains down as
acid rain. Nitrogen oxides emitted by automobiles also contribute to the formation of acid rain.

Other sources include industrial emissions and biomass burning. Industrial emissions like chlorofluorocarbons (CFC),
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are the main contributors. These chemicals deplete
the ozone layer in the stratosphere, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun before reaching Earth’s surface.
Biomass burning includes forest fires, agricultural fires, and fossil fuels for heating or cooking purposes.

Natural Causes

Natural sources of acid rain include:

o Volcanic eruptions – When volcanoes erupt, they release sulphur dioxide, which mixes with water vapour in the
atmosphere to form sulphuric acid. It then reacts with rainwater and releases (H+𝐻+), which causes the water to
turn acidic.
o Seaspray – When waves crash against rocks or the shoreline, they release aerosols into the atmosphere. These
aerosols also decrease the pH level of rainwater.

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 o Lightning – Lightning is one of the most common natural sources of acid rain. This is because when it strikes, it
creates an electrical discharge that travels from the ground to the air. This process creates nitrogen oxides
(NOx𝑁𝑂𝑥) and sulphur dioxide (SO2𝑆𝑂2) gases that are released into the atmosphere.
o Wildfires – Wildfires are a natural part of the ecosystem, but they can cause acid rain by releasing sulphur
dioxide into the air. When wildfires occur, they release large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane as well.
These greenhouse gases can cause global warming, which leads to more wildfires.

Human Activities

Following are some human activities that contribute to the formation of acidic rain.

o The major sources of human-induced acid rain are sulphur dioxide (SO2𝑆𝑂2) emissions from the combustion of
fossil fuels such as coal power plants.
o Nitrogen oxides (NOx𝑁𝑂𝑥) emissions such as those from petrol/ diesel-powered automobiles and other internal
combustion engines.
o Industrial usage of chlorine and fluorine compounds such as refrigerants and aerosol propellants.
o When trees are cut down, they release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, reacting with water vapour to form
carbonic acid. The acid, when reacting with rainwater vapours, release (H+𝐻+) ions, further making it acidic.

Formation of Acid Rain

Acid rain is formed when oxides of nitrogen and sulphur combine with water vapour in the atmosphere. The result is a
chemical reaction that produces acidity. Acid rain can occur in many places worldwide, most often in industrial areas
where there are polluting factories which cause pollution.

Which Gases are Responsible for Acid Rain?

The gases responsible for acid rain are carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases such as hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs). Acid rain reaction with these gases has been explained below.

Carbon Dioxide
CO2+H2O→H2CO3𝐶𝑂2+𝐻2𝑂→𝐻2𝐶𝑂3
H2CO3→H++HCO−3𝐻2𝐶𝑂3→𝐻++𝐻𝐶𝑂3−
Nitric Oxide
NO2+H2O→HNO3+NO𝑁𝑂2+𝐻2𝑂→𝐻𝑁𝑂3+𝑁𝑂
Sulphur Dioxide
SO2+O2→SO3+H2O→H2SO4

Acid Rain — Effects

Acid rain is a local environmental problem that can have a global effect. Acid rain effects may take years to show up, and
it is difficult to determine the cause of various problems. It can negatively affect human health and wildlife and damage
buildings and property. Some of these effects include the following.

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Acidification of Lakes and Streams

The pH level of most water bodies is around 6-8, however, it can drop below 4 when exposed to high concentrations of
acidic substances like sulphuric acid or nitric acid from coal-fired power plants or factories. Acidic water can kill fish
eggs by burning through their shells or making them too weak.

Damage to Buildings and Monuments

Acid rain can erode stone statues, buildings, bridges, and other structures made of limestone or marble. It can also
damage buildings made of brick or concrete.

Reduced Visibility

The particles in acid rain can reduce visibility by hindering our view of the sun on a bright sunny day, causing squinting
or even temporary blindness if we are standing too close to a source when acid rain occurs.

Health Effects

Acidic deposition can harm human health by damaging the lungs and causing respiratory problems like asthma attacks. It
may also cause irritation in the eyes, such as conjunctivitis (pink eye), in people who exercise or play outdoor sports.

Damage to Plants, Trees, and other Vegetation

Plants cannot thrive in an acidic environment because they require alkaline soil to grow properly. Acidic soil causes
minerals such as calcium and magnesium to become less available for plant growth. This affects everything from root
growth to flower development.

Oxidation or Rusting of Iron and Steel

Iron or steel come in contact with oxygen in acidic air and rust. This process is called oxidation or rusting. This is another
effect of acid rain.

Prevention of Acid Rain

Now that you know the acid rain causes and effects, you should learn about the prevention of acid rain. The major acid
rain prevention methods are:

o Use of renewable energy: Reducing fossil fuels by relying on renewable energy sources such as solar energy,
wind energy, hydropower, etc.
o Energy conservation: Purchase energy-efficient electrical appliances and use public transportation, bicycles, or
walking (especially short distances).
o Liming: Even if acid deposition has taken place, adding lime to water bodies and soil can help neutralize the pH.
o Planting trees: Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen back into it again. This helps to
balance out the effects of fossil fuels on our atmosphere.
o Use public transport more often: Reduce vehicle emissions by driving less often or using public transportation
instead of driving alone.

HAZARDOUS WASTE: IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

Hazardous wastes refer to wastes that may, or tend to, cause adverse health effects on the ecosystem and human beings.
These wastes pose present or potential risks to human health or living organisms, due to the fact that they: are non-
degradable or persistent in nature; can be biologically magnified; are highly toxic and even lethal at very low
concentrations

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The above list relates only to the intrinsic hazard of the waste, under uncontrolled release, to the environment, regardless
of quantity or pathways to humans or other critical organisms (i.e., plants and animals). The criteria used to determine the
nature of hazard include toxicity, phytotoxicity, genetic activity and bioconcentration. The threat to public health and the
environment of a given hazardous waste is dependent on the quantity and characteristics of the waste involved. Wastes are
secondary materials, which are generally classified into six categories as inherently waste: like materials, spent materials,
sludges, byproducts, commercial chemical products and scrap metals. Solid wastes form a subset of all secondary
materials and hazardous wastes form a subset of solid waste. However, note that certain secondary materials are not
regulated as wastes, as they are recycled and reused.

9.1.1 Identification By using either or both of the following criteria, we can identify as to whether or not a waste is
hazardous
: (i) The list provided by government agencies declaring that substance as hazardous.
(ii) Characteristics such as ignitibility, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity of the substance

Listed Hazardous Wastes

These are wastes that are hazardous because they are listed on one or more of four different particular lists of wastes:

 F-Listed Wastes. This list of wastes includes 28 different wastes, including certain spent solvents, metal
finishing wastes, dioxin-containing wastes, chemical manufacturing wastes, wood preserving wastes,
petroleum manufacturing wastes, and hazardous waste landfill leachate.
 K-Listed Wastes. This list of wastes includes over 100 wastes from specific industrial processes. The
specific processes are in the industries of wood preserving, petroleum refining, primary and secondary
metals manufacturing, and the manufacturing of industrial chemicals, inks, pigments, pesticides, explosives,
and veterinary pharmaceuticals.
 U-Listed Wastes. This list of wastes includes several hundred different commercial chemical products.
Wastes that fall under this listing include only those products that contain the listed constituent as the sole
active ingredient. These wastes include old or off-specification virgin materials that are being discarded, as
well as container residues and spill residues of these materials.
 P-Listed Wastes. This list of wastes includes about 200 different commercial chemical products that are
defined as acutely hazardous. This means that the wastes are especially toxic. Wastes that fall under this
listing include only those products that contain the listed constituent as the sole active ingredient. These
wastes include old or off-specification virgin materials that are being discarded, as well as container
residues and spill residues of these materials.

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Loss of Biodiversity

Loss of biodiversity is the reduction in the number of genes, species, microorganisms and other living creatures that
maintain the ecological balance on earth. For example, climatic change can affect the habitat of the species. Moreover, it
is more noticeable as it is becoming the biggest threat to biodiversity.
The risk of extinction of certain species is evident due to the destruction of their habitats. According to some reports, the
present global diversity loss can be up to a thousand times higher and faster than at any other time in entire human
history. In addition to this, many scientists believe that this rate will still increase in the upcoming years. Loss of
biodiversity usually impacts many ecological factors and disrupts life balance. This article will highlight the causes
of the loss of biodiversity detail.

Causes of biodiversity loss

One of the primary reasons for the loss of biodiversity is due to certain human activities. For example, commercial
fishing and hunting have altered natural ecosystem cycles, shifted species distribution patterns, and even introduced new
species into previously uninhabited regions.
Below are a few causes of biodiversity loss:
Overpopulation
The slowing down of biodiversity is perhaps due to overpopulation. It has a far greater impact on our planet. It is because
overpopulation in a specific area causes exploitation of the earth’s natural resources and habitat of species. Also, the
government and authorities tend to indulge in deforestation to ensure adequate space for people to reside, which has led to
the loss of biodiversity, affecting the balance of life. Since 1970, the number of vertebrates has decreased by 60% due to
the enormous conversion of forests, marshes, grasslands, and other terrestrial habitats.
Illegal wildlife hunt
Under the causes of biodiversity loss, illegal wildlife hunting is the greatest threat to biodiversity. Hunting is the primary
cause of the loss of significant numbers of animals that occupy important roles in the food chain. Numerous species in the
region are negatively impacted since they face food shortages or food insecurity compared to a typical scenario. Hunting
is a significant contributor to the extinction of species.
Invasive species
An invasive species can thrive in various environmental circumstances and swiftly spread over an area. Invasive
organisms are usually non-native. Non-native species can cohabit with native species without causing problems in some
cases. Although it can be concerning when a non-native species spreads and becomes invasive. An aggressive or
vigorously growing non-native species can overpower or dominate the indigenous native species. It disrupts the natural
balance, resulting in the extinction of native species overall, in some cases, entire communities, reducing an area’s overall
biodiversity and health.

Climate Change
Climate change and biodiversity are inextricably linked. Biodiversity is being impacted by increasing temperatures and
shifting precipitation patterns, extreme weather events and acidification of the oceans, which is placing additional stress
on species already threatened by human activities. Rising global temperatures can modify ecosystems over time by
affecting what can grow and dwell there. Rising ocean temperatures have an impact on marine creatures as well. Ocean
acidification can make it more difficult for shellfish and corals in the upper ocean to develop shells and rigid skeletons,
making them particularly sensitive to rising temperatures.

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Pollution
Pollution is one of the global change drivers that impact biodiversity. But first, let us understand what pollution is.
Pollution refers to the contamination of an area by introducing harmful materials into the natural environment.

For example, oil pipelines that leak into water bodies pollute the water. There are other different types of pollution,
including noise pollution, air pollution, plastic pollution and soil pollution, that can adversely affect the health of humans
and the ecosystem.

.What is an industrial disaster?

 According to the 1948 Factories Act, an industrial accident is defined as a situation in which an employee
is killed or suffers serious physical harm, rendering them incapable of returning to work within 48 hours.
 The severe events that result from industrial mishaps are known as industrial catastrophes. They could lead
to property damage, environmental degradation, human and animal injury or death.
 Such catastrophes can be categorised as:

 ‘Routine’ catastrophes: They are mostly understood by experts and pose the greatest hazard
of industrial disaster. Issues can be handled with ease by following accepted guidelines and
procedures.

 Disasters that come as a “surprise”: Examples of these include the Minamata disaster in
Japan and the Chornobyl accident in Ukraine.

 Any of the production stages—manufacturing, processing, transportation, storage, utilisation, or disposal

—can be affected by the risks that lead to such catastrophes.
 These catastrophes have the potential to release a wide range of hazardous substances into the
environment, including radioactive materials, toxic chemicals, radiation, and toxic radiation.
 It may also result in fires, explosions, and other types of harm.
 In India, there are about 1,861 MAH (major accident hazard) units. Thousands of additional dangerous
factories and unorganised sector units also increase the likelihood of industrial disaster.

Chemical Disasters

 Chemical catastrophes are the result of the emission, fire, or explosion of one or more hazardous chemicals
during an industrial operation, such as handling, storing, or transporting the chemicals, or as a result of a
natural disaster.
 The NDMA develops recommendations for the various ministries and state authorities for the drafting of
disaster management plans, while the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) serves as the nodal
ministry for the management of chemical disasters.
 As chemicals are at the core of contemporary industrial systems, the government, the commercial sector,
and the larger community have severe concerns about disaster management.
 The industrial plant, its staff, workers, people of surrounding villages, etc., are at the greatest risk from
chemical mishaps.
 The following three factors could be the main causes of chemical disasters: mistakes made by people,
technology, and management
 Significant losses of life, injuries, suffering, property damage, and environmental harm result from these
accidents. There were other chemical mishaps in India even after the Bhopal tragedy.

Chemical Terrorism

 Chemical terrorism is convenient for anti-national elements to use and is inexpensive. As they are
implementing new strategies, they are also acting more aggressively. Terrorists mostly seek to terrify the

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 populace, attract attention, or persuade an officially recognised government or group to take action or do
nothing.
 Chemical terrorism refers to the employment of chemicals to take lives, harm people and animals, and so
spread fear, anarchy, and unrest.
 Chemical terrorism agents can be solids or liquids with a variety of hazardous effects on people, pets, and
plants. They can endanger the environment and humans by being sprayed from aircraft, dropped as bombs,
or used in liquid form.

Why do industrial disasters occur?

 Chemical disasters have several causes, some of which can be somewhat prevented. India’s vulnerability to
such disasters is somewhat lessened by the implementation of legal measures against Chemical Disaster
Risk.
 Unsafe conditions, unsafe acts, and other acts are three major categories under which the causes might be
grouped.
 They can be divided into two categories:

 Technical causes: the use of faulty machinery, tools, or materials; insufficient lighting and
ventilation; storage without sufficient safety precautions; etc. might cause such accidents.

 Working conditions: Such accidents may be caused by psychological factors such as

monotony at work, exhaustion, working overtime, frustration, etc. It is also noteworthy that
the majority of accidents (about one-third) take place in the sectors with the highest levels
of risk.

 Unsafe acts: Some actions by employees, resulting from a variety of factors such as a poor attitude,
physical limitations, or a lack of expertise or knowledge, might result in such accidents.

 unauthorised activity

 dangerous operation at high speeds

 sloppy disposal

 not wearing PPE or other safety equipment

 Distractions, disputes, mistreatment, etc.

 Additional causes include the presence of dust, pollutants, an unhygienic atmosphere, and climate factors
like heat and humidity.

Factors Causing Industrial disaster

1. The Indian chemical sector is more vulnerable to chemical disasters due to ageing process plants, design
flaws, and a lack of actions to keep up with contemporary technologies.
2. In the chemical industry, fires and explosions are frequently caused by organic solvents.
3. Because Standard Operating Procedures aren’t followed, human error accounts for the bulk of industrial
accidents (SOPs).
4. The Piper Alpha tragedy, in which a worker mistakenly activates a pump during maintenance without a
safety valve in place, resulting in a gas leak and subsequent explosion, is a classic illustration of how
human error can cause chemical disasters.
5. Terrorist activity and sabotage have escalated the threat. Natural catastrophes like floods and earthquakes
have also resulted in significant
6. Equipment that has not been properly maintained is another major factor in chemical catastrophes. It’s
crucial to do planned maintenance according to the manufacturer’s instructions to maintain the
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 equipment’s efficiency and safety. The Flixborough tragedy, which resulted in 28 fatalities and several
injuries, is a prime example of poor maintenance.
7. Major disasters have also occurred in various sites in India as a result of the lack of an emergency reaction
team to prevent accidents during the shipment of hazardous chemicals.
8. Processing hazardous waste and disposing of it properly require extra care because they can also result in
fires, explosions, and harmful releases into the environment.
attack by terrorists or rioting that results in sabotage.

Man- Made disaster

Disasters have been a part of human life since the beginning of time. Man-made hazards and catastrophes are events that
reduces quality of life, health issues, and even fatalities. Some natural catastrophes have become more frequent and
intense as a result of human influences.

o Man-made disasters can be intentional, by accident or due to improper management (negligence) of man made
systems.
o Avoiding man-made hazards requires caution from authorities and proper disaster management plans at a local
level. When members of human communities intend to inflict damage on fellow members, strict surveillance
mechanisms help to avert danger.
o A hazard exists only when it affects a person exposed to it. But not all disasters come with an alarm bell.

Definition of Man-made Hazards

o Man-made hazards are disruptions of a massive scale over a short or long period of time, caused by human
action or inaction.
o These disasters cause economic damage, loss of life, health emergencies, etc.
o Man-made disasters can be classified into Sudden disasters, Continuing disasters, and Armed conflicts.
o Human forces are more responsible for sudden disasters than natural ones. Sudden hazards include the discharge
of methyl isocyanate from the Union Carbide factory in Bhopal in 1984 and the 1986 emission of radioactive
chemicals from the Chernobyl nuclear plant in the Soviet Union. Terrorist attacks unleashed on citizens are also
sudden disasters.
o Oil spills and pollution over a long period of time are examples of continuing man-made hazards and disasters.
The causal factor cannot be blocked immediately leading to a lasting impact.
o Wars and armed conflicts have constantly mired human history. There are domestic upheavals, territorial
conflicts between countries, and intervention of extra state entities like terrorist organizations

Oil and Chemical Spill

o People, animals, land and the marine ecosystem are all affected by an oil and chemical spill, making it one of the
most destructive environmental man-made hazards that may occur.
o Such accidental spills harm and pollute vital resources in the food supply system, among other things.
o Explosives, flammable and combustible materials, poisons, and radioactive materials are examples of hazardous
materials. Accidents during transportation and chemical leakages at industrial units or refineries are the most
common sources of these releases.
o Most industrial accidents may be prevented by implementing and following adequate safety standards and
processes. Accidents generate harmful gases and poisonous chemicals that damage living forms in neighbouring
regions.
o According to estimates, Iraqi forces fled from Kuwait in 1991 and broke valves of oil wells and pipelines, causing
the Gulf War oil leak releasing 8 million barrels of oil into the Persian gulf. A five-inch-thick oil slick covered
101 miles by 42 miles at its peak.
o The Bhopal Gas Tragedy of 1984 was the world’s worst chemical (industrial) catastrophe in 1984. Methyl
isocyanate, a poisonous chemical, was accidentally released, resulting in the death of nearly 2500 individuals.

Terrorism

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 o To intimidate, coerce, or demand ransom, terrorists employ force or violence against people or property in
violation of criminal laws.
o In order to convince individuals that their government is helpless to combat terrorism, terrorists often use threats
to generate fear among the population.
o From terrorist threats to assassinations to kidnappings and hijackings, bomb scares and bombings, and cyber
warfare to the use of chemical, biological and nuclear weapons, terrorism may take many forms.
o The 9/11 terrorist attacks that took place on the Twin Towers (New York) in USA was the turning point in
counter terrorism policy. The United States took a lead in suppressing the growth of terrorist networks in Iraq and
Afghanistan.
o In November 2008, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India, was the scene of numerous terrorist operations. Lashkar-e-
Taiba, a Pakistani terrorist group, carried out the assaults in Mumbai. A number of landmarks in Mumbai’s south
were attacked by terrorists, including the Chhatrapati Shivaji train station and Leopold Café, two hospitals, and a
theatre.

Wars

o Wars are fully fledged armed attacks between states that wreak immense havoc to life. It leads to huge economic
losses, deaths and psychological distress.
o The two World Wars of the 20th century saw millions lose their life and loved ones.
o Wars are usually the culminations of long standing rifts between countries that spiral out due to trigger events.
o Nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6th and 9th August of 1945 wreaked unforeseen damage on
the cities.
o The form and platform for wars have shifted from being geographical-physical conflicts to cyberspace.
Governments and extra state actors have the ability to disrupt normal functioning of lives by attacking important
facilities like power plants, refineries etc.
o The Kargil War of 1999 was fought between India and Pakistan along the Line of Control. Hundreds of soldiers
from both sides succumbed to death.

Nuclear Accidents

o The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) defines a nuclear accident as an incident that has resulted in
severe implications for the people, the environment, or the nuclear plant. Radioactive fallout and reactor core melt
are potentially high damage events.
o The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and the Fukushima Daiichi accident in 2011 highlighted the consequences of
any mishap in nuclear power plants.

Human Accelerated Hazards

o Environmental issues like pollution, climate change, ozone layer depletion are intensified due to human
intervention.
o Landslides and meteorological phenomena like tornadoes, storms are classified under natural disasters. But
several factors like construction of roads, destruction of green cover etc can accelerate these natural disasters.
More than 5000 lost their lives in the Uttarakhand floods of 2013.

UNIT 3

What is an Ecosystem?
Ecosystem Definition: An ecosystem can be defined as a unit of ecological studies that includes all the interactions
between living organisms with their surrounding non-living environment.

Ecosystems are made up of both biotic (or alive) and abiotic (or nonliving) components. It is a biological
community where living and non-living components of the planet interact with each other. Ecosystem varies in the size
and number of organisms they consist of. When the ecosystem is land-based it is called a terrestrial ecosystem and
when it is water-based it is called an aquatic ecosystem.

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Structure of Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is made of two main components: biotic and abiotic components. The biotic component
interacts with the abiotic components to maintain the flow of energy. The energy is distributed in the environment. The
ecosystem includes 2 main components for a working ecosystem:
 Biotic Component
 Abiotic Component

Biotic Components

Plants, animals, microorganisms, aquatic plants, and all other living creatures are the biotic components of the
ecosystem. These biotic components can be classified into:
 Producers: All autotrophs like plants, phytoplankton, etc. that can produce their food using sources like
sun, water, carbon dioxide, or any other chemical elements belong to this category.
 Consumers: All heterotrophs, primarily animals, that are dependent on the producers or other organisms
are called consumers. These consumers are subdivided into the following groups:
 Primary consumers: All herbivores that directly depend on plants, such as cows, goats,
rabbits, and sheep, are considered primary consumers.
 Secondary consumers: All that depend on primary consumers for food are considered
secondary consumers. The secondary consumer can be omnivores or carnivores.
 Tertiary consumers: All animals that depend on secondary-level organisms for their food are
known as tertiary consumers.
 Quaternary consumer: Those animals that depend on the tertiary level organism for their food
and are known as the quaternary consumer. This level is present in some food chains only.
 Decomposers: All microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, that depend on decaying and dead matter
for food fall under this category. It contributes to environmental cleanup and ecosystem nutrient recycling.
These nutrients support plant development and subsequently ecosystem maintenance.

Abiotic Components

It involves all the non-living things present in the environment. Some of the abiotic components are sun, soil, water,
minerals, climate, rocks, temperature, and humidity. These components’ functioning together enables the ecosystem’s
energy and nutrition cycles. The sun’s rays are the primary energy source. An ecosystem’s temperature changes have
an impact on the types of plants that may flourish there. The availability of nutrients and soil nature determines the
type and abundance of vegetation in an area. All the abiotic factors are essential factors that determine the number and
type of organisms present in a region.
Functions of Ecosystem
Following are some of the functions of the ecosystem ;
1. It regulates different life processes.
2. The various components of an ecosystem are designed in a manner to support the life systems.
3. It regulates various types of nutrient cycles.
4. It maintains the balance of energy flow between various levels of the ecosystem.
5. It regulates the cycling of nutrients between abiotic and biotic factors.
Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be small or large. There are 2 types of ecosystem :
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  Aquatic Ecosystem
 Terrestrial Ecosystem

Aquatic Ecosystem

Oceans, rivers, seas, lakes, springs, and other water bodies are aquatic biomes. The bulk of the earth’s surface is
covered by the water. Two-thirds of the earth’s surface is made up of oceans, seas, the intertidal zone, reefs, the
seabed, and rock pools. This ecosystem includes plants, fishes, amphibians, coral reefs, huge sea creatures, and insects.

Aquatic Ecosystem

Oceans, rivers, seas, lakes, springs, and other water bodies are aquatic biomes. The bulk of the earth’s surface is
covered by the water. Two-thirds of the earth’s surface is made up of oceans, seas, the intertidal zone, reefs, the
seabed, and rock pools. This ecosystem includes plants, fishes, amphibians, coral reefs, huge sea creatures, and insects.
There are 2 types of aquatic ecosystem:
 Freshwater Ecosystem
 Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystems

A freshwater ecosystem has low salinity levels, providing a good environment for a variety of plants and animals. The
sizes of freshwater resources range from small ponds to very large rivers. Freshwater resources vary from one another
in terms of how they travel. While some freshwater bodies are constantly moving, like rivers, others remain still, like
ponds.
Freshwater Ecosystem Types: Based on the region, the three main categories of the freshwater environment are the
lotic, lentic, and wetland freshwater ecosystems.
 Lotic: In a lotic freshwater ecosystem, the water bodies travel in one direction. Numerous rivers and
streams start at their sources and meet rivers or oceans at their mouths as they travel toward their
destinations.
 Lentic: All non-flowing (still) waterways, such as ponds, swamps, bogs, lagoons, and lakes are lentic
ecosystems. Due to the saturation of the underlying land, water will temporarily remain on the earth’s
surface. They are closed structures that keep the water still. Because every lentic system has multiple areas
with different biological environments, animals, and plants in that system behave and adapt in different
ways.
 Wetlands: Wetlands contain water and are home to vascular plants. Wetland environments are more often
known as marshes, swamps, and bogs. Because soil and water are so close together, wetlands are highly
productive. The plant species found in wetlands are referred to as hydrophytes since they have adapted to
the area’s moist and humid climate. Wetland ecosystems contain hydrophyte plants such as cattails, pond
lilies, and sedges. Various amphibians, reptiles, birds, shrimp, shellfish, and other animal species find
refuge in wetlands.
Living creatures that live in Freshwater Ecosystems: Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, mosquitoes, dragonflies, bees,
wasps, water spiders, ducks, geese, etc.

Marine Ecosystems

Aquatic environments with high levels of dissolved salt are marine ecosystems. These comprise the deep ocean, the
open ocean, and the coastal marine ecosystems. Each of these has unique biological and physical properties. The
ecosystem’s exposure to the sun, the amount of oxygen and nutrients that are dissolved in the water, the distance from
land, the depth, and the temperature are all significant abiotic factors. Marine ecosystems have unique biotic and
abiotic characteristics.

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Terrestrial Ecosystem

A terrestrial ecosystem refers to an ecosystem of diverse land surfaces. Forests, deserts, grasslands, tundra, and coastal
regions are all examples of terrestrial ecosystems. These terrestrial ecosystems are climate-dependent.
1. Forests: A type of terrestrial ecosystems that is covered in trees, creating several canopy layers. A variety
of animal species live in dense tree covers and tropical rainforests. Forests are home to about 300 million
different plant and animal species. A forest is a type of ecosystem that includes tropical rainforests,
plantation forests, and temperate deciduous forests.
2. Grasslands: It has a dry environment that permits relatively little vegetation. Primarily, different species of
grasses, are what define the grassland ecosystem. In this environment, grass and herbs predominate. The
ecosystem of grasslands is significant to the animal kingdom.
3. Tundra: Tundra has extreme environmental conditions like that of the polar region. The location is
typically windy, blanketed in snow, and devoid of trees. Its environment is constantly covered in absolutely
frozen dirt. Small ponds are formed when the snow melts. Some lichens can flourish in such ponds.
4. Deserts: Deserts are unproductive land surfaces with extreme temperature swings and inadequately
maintained species. One of the driest land regions on the globe. A desert receives an extremely small
amount of rainfall. Because of this, there is less vegetation. The desert ecosystem’s plants and animals have
learned the skill of surviving extreme environments.
Functional Units of Ecosystem
The ecosystem’s function is to maintain its various parts working together. It is a natural process of a transfer of energy
in different biotic and abiotic elements of the world. Ecosystems maintain all the important ecological processes,
including nutrient cycling. Ecosystems have different functional units those are:
 Production: Any ecosystem must have a consistent supply of solar energy to survive and function.
Primary production is influenced by the types of plants that live there. Green leaves act as food preparators,
while roots draw nutrients from the soil. Herbivores consume the plants, which then provide food for
carnivores.
 Decomposition: Decomposition is the breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers into
inorganic components such as carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients. The decomposers break down garbage
and dead organic material. The primary decomposers in many ecosystems are fungi and bacteria.
 Energy flow: Radiant energy from the sun is the primary source of energy in all ecosystems. The
ecosystem’s autotrophic, or self-sustaining, creatures utilize the energy of the sun. Plants use the sun’s
energy to change carbon dioxide and water into simple, energizing carbohydrates. The more complex
chemical substances, like proteins, lipids, and starches are produced by autotrophs.
Energy goes unidirectionally from the sun to producers, herbivores, and carnivores. Decomposers convert
the dead autotrophs and heterotrophs into nutrients, which are energy sources for plants.
 Nutrient cycling: Chemical substances known as nutrients are substances that organisms need for growth
and the maintenance of life. A vast range of chemical compounds is created when bio-elements interact.
The organisms catch them, concentrate and combine them in different ways in their cells, and release them
during metabolism and death.
Interdependence of Living Things

All living things depend on their environment to supply them with what they need, including food, water, and shelter.
Their environment consists of physical factors—such as soil, air, and temperature—and also of other organisms.
An organism is an individual living thing. Many living things interact with other organisms in their environment. In fact,
they may need other organisms in order to survive. This is known as interdependence. For example, living things that
cannot make their own food must eat other organisms for food. Other interactions between living things include
symbiosis and competition.

Food chain and Food web

 A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy pass as one organism eats

another.

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  In a food chain, each organism occupies a different trophic level, defined by how many energy transfers separate

it from the basic input of the chain.

 Food webs consist of many interconnected food chains and are more realistic representation of consumption

relationships in ecosystems.

 Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient—with a typical efficiency around 10%. This inefficiency

limits the length of food chains.

Food Chain: Introduction

A food chain explains which organism eats another organism in the environment. The food chain is a linear sequence of
organisms where nutrients and energy is transferred from one organism to the other. This occurs when one organism
consumes another organism. It begins with the producer organism, follows the chain and ends with the decomposer
organism. After understanding the food chain, we realise how one organism is dependent upon another organism for
survival.

The food chain consists of four major parts, namely:

 The Sun: The sun is the initial source of energy, which provides energy for everything on the planet.
 Producers: The producers in a food chain include all autotrophs such as phytoplankton, cyanobacteria, algae, and
green plants. This is the first stage in a food chain. The producers make up the first level of a food chain. The
producers utilise the energy from the sun to make food. Producers are also known as autotrophs as they make
their own food. Producers are any plant or other organisms that produce their own nutrients through
photosynthesis.
 Consumers: Consumers are all organisms that are dependent on plants or other organisms for food. This is the
largest part of a food web, as it contains almost all living organisms. It includes herbivores which are animals that
eat plants, carnivores which are animals that eat other animals, parasites that live on other organisms by harming
them and lastly the scavengers, which are animals that eat dead animals’ carcasses.
 Decomposers: Decomposers are organisms that get energy from dead or waste organic material. This is the last
stage in a food chain. Decomposers are an integral part of a food chain, as they convert organic waste materials
into inorganic materials, which enriches the soil or land with nutrients.
Decomposers complete a life cycle. They help in recycling the nutrients as they provide nutrients to soil or oceans, that
can be utilised by autotrophs or producers. Thus, starting a whole new food chain.

Types of Food Chain

There are two types of food chains, namely the detritus food chain and the grazing food chain. Let’s look at them more
closely:

 Detritus food chain: The detritus food chain includes different species of organisms and plants like algae,
bacteria, fungi, protozoa, mites, insects, worms and so on. The detritus food chain begins with dead organic
material. The food energy passes into decomposers and detritivores, which are further eaten by smaller organisms
like carnivores. Carnivores, like maggots, become a meal for bigger carnivores like frogs, snakes and so on.
Primary consumers like fungi, bacteria, protozoans, and so on are detritivores which feed on detritus.

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  Grazing food chain: The grazing food chain is a type of food chain that starts with green plants, passes through
herbivores and then to carnivores. In a grazing food chain, energy in the lowest trophic level is acquired from
photosynthesis.

Food Web:

Several interconnected food chains form a food web. A food web is similar to a food chain but the food web is
comparatively larger than a food chain. Occasionally, a single organism is consumed by many predators or it consumes
several other organisms. Due to this, many trophic levels get interconnected. The food chain fails to showcase the flow of
energy in the right way. But, the food web is able to show the proper representation of energy flow, as it displays the
interactions between different organisms.

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Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

Introduction

 Overview: The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing the
protection and improvement of the environment.

o It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing
environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are
peculiar to different parts of the country.
o The Act is one of the most comprehensive legislations with a pretext to protection and improvement
of the environment.
 Background: The roots of the enactment of the EPA lies in the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment held at Stockholm in June, 1972 (Stockholm Conference), in which India participated, to take
appropriate steps for the improvement of the human environment.

o The Act implements the decisions made at the Stockholm Conference.

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  Constitutional Provisions:

o The EPA Act was enacted under Article 253 of the Indian Constitution which provides for
the enactment of legislation for giving effect to international agreements.
o Article 48A of the Constitution specifies that the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
o Article 51A further provides that every citizen shall protect the environment.
 Coverage: The Act is applicable to the whole of India including the state of Jammu & Kashmir.

Salient Features of the EPA Act

 Powers of the Central Government: The Central Government shall have the power to take all such measures
as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the
environment in coordination with the State Governments.

o The Central government is also empowered to:

 Plan and Execute a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of
environmental pollution.
 Lay down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects.
 Lay down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various
sources.
 The restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries,
operations or processes shall/ shall not be carried out subject to certain safeguards.
o The Central Government may appoint officers under this Act for various purposes and entrust them
with the corresponding powers and functions.
o The central government as per the Act has the power to direct:

 The closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process.

 The stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other service.
 Restriction on Pollutant Discharge: No individual or organisation shall discharge/emit or permit to
discharge/emit any environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards.
 Compliance with Procedural Safeguards: No individual shall handle or shall be caused to handle any
hazardous substance except in accordance with the procedure and without complying with the safeguards, as
prescribed.
 Powers of Entry and Inspection: Any person empowered by the Central Government shall have a right to enter
(with the assistance deemed necessary) at any place:

o For the inspection of compliance of any orders, notifications and directions given under the Act.
o For the purpose of examining (and if required seizing) any equipment, industrial plant, record,
register, document or any other material object may furnish evidence of the commission of an offence
punishable under this Act.
 Establishment of Environmental Laboratories: The Central Government, as per the Act, is entitled to:

o Establish environmental laboratories.

o Recognise any laboratory or institute as environmental laboratories to carry out the functions
entrusted to such a laboratory.

 The Central Government is also entitled to make rules specifying the functions of
environmental laboratories.
 Appointment of Government Analyst: A Government Analyst is appointed by the Central Government for the
analysing the samples of air, water, soil or other substance sent to a recognised environmental laboratory.

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  Penalties for Offences: Non-compliance or Contravention to any of the provisions of the Act is considered as
an offence.

o Any offences under the EPA are punishable with the imprisonment of upto five years or a fine upto
one lakh rupees or both.
 Offences by Companies: If an offence under this Act is committed by a company, every person directly in
charge of the company, at the time of the commitment of offence, is deemed to be guilty unless proven
otherwise.
 Offences by Government Departments: If an offence under this Act has been committed by any Department of
Government, the Head of the Department (HoD) shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence unless proven
otherwise.

o Any officer, other than HoD, if proven guilty, shall also be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly.
 Cognizance of offences: No Court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint
made by:

o The Central Government or any authority on behalf of the former.

o A person who has approached the Courts after a 60-day notice has been furnished to the Central
Government or the authority on its behalf.

Drawbacks of the Act

 Complete Centralisation of the Act: A potential drawback of the Act could be its centralization. While such
wide powers are provided to the Centre and no powers to the state governments, the former is liable to its
arbitrariness and misuse.
 No Public Participation: The Act also says nothing about public participation as regards environmental
protection.

o There is a need to involve the citizens in environmental protection to check arbitrariness and raise
awareness and empathy towards the environment.
 Incomplete Coverage of Pollutants: The Act does not address modern concept of pollution such as noise,
overburdened transport system and radiation waves which are also an important cause for the deteriorating
environment.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1981

What is the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981?

The Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 is an Act of the Parliament of India. It was enacted to prevent
and control air pollution in the country. The Act established the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State
Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs). The CPCB and SPCBs work to implement the provisions of the Act. The Act also
prohibits the emission of air pollutants from various sources.

Objectives of the Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981

o To provide for the prevention, control, and reduction of air pollution.

o To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards to implement the Act.
o To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to the Boards
functions relating to pollution.

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Study in detail about the National Green Tribunal here!

Need for Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981

o The idea for a global conference to discuss and stop pollution and the deterioration of natural resources was
first put forth to the United Nations by Sweden.
o Therefore, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm in June 1972
due to the General Assembly passing Resolution 2398. It was decided at this conference that the nations
would take action to protect the natural resources, including air.
o As a result, the Indian government passed specific laws under Article 253 of the Indian Constitution to
preserve natural resources. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981 was passed for air
conservation.
o The Preamble of the Act states that the purpose of the Act is to prevent, control, and reduce air pollution
and that it is the responsibility of the Boards established by the Act to carry out these purposes.

Scope of Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981

The Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act 1981 is a comprehensive piece of legislation. It covers all aspects of
air pollution control in India. It covers all air pollutants, including particulate matter, gaseous pollutants, and odors.

Boards Set up Under Air Act

Certain central and state boards are set up under this act to prevent and control air pollution.

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

o It is a statutory organisation founded in 1974 under section 3 of the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act 1974.
o The primary responsibility of the CPCB is to advise the Central Government on all issues regarding the
prevention, mitigation, and control of water and air pollution, as well as the enhancement of air quality.

State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs)

o The State Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution established under Section 5 of this Act shall
be deemed the State Board for any State where the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974
is in effect. The State Government has established for that State a State Pollution Control Board under
section 4 of that Act.
o Accordingly, the State Pollution Control Board shall, without affecting the exercise and performance of its
powers.

Central Board to exercise the powers and perform the functions of a State Board in the Union territories.

o No State Board shall be established for a Union territory, and the Central Board shall, concerning a Union
territory, exercise the powers and carry out the duties of a State Board under this Act for that Union territory.
o The Central Board may assign all or any of its powers and duties under this section to any person or group
of persons that the Central Government may specify concerning any Union territory.

Powers and Functions of Central Board

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The main functions of the Central Board shall be to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control, or abate air
pollution in the country and in particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing functions, the
Central Board may:

 Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality of air and the
prevention, control, or abatement of air pollution;
 Plan and cause to be executed a nationwide programme for the prevention, control, or abatement of air
pollution;
 Co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve disputes among them;
 Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards. Carry out and sponsor investigations and
research relating to problems of air pollution and prevention, control, or abatement of air pollution;
 Plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the prevention,
control, or abatement of air pollution on such terms and conditions as the Central Board may specify;
o Organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention, control, or
abatement of air pollution;
o Collect, compile, and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and the measures
devised for its effective prevention, control, or abatement and prepare manuals, codes, or guides
relating to the prevention, control, or reduction of air pollution;
o Lay down standards for air quality; (i) collect and disseminate information regarding matters relating
to air pollution.
o The Central Board may establish or recognise a laboratory to enable it to perform its functions under
this section efficiently.
o The central may delegate any of its functions under this Act generally or especially to any of the
committees appointed by it.

Important Sections under the Air Prevention and Control of

Pollution Act 1981
 Section 2(a) defines an “air pollutant” as any solid, liquid, or gaseous substance present in the atmosphere in
such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or
property or environment.
 Section 2 (b) defines “air pollution” as the presence in the atmosphere of any air pollutant.
 Section 2(g) set up the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), whose powers extended to India. To carry out
the directives of the CPCB, the act also called for the setting up of the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB)
for the individual states of India.


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