iii

ABSTRACT

Concrete is one of the oldest construction materials in the world.

Development of concrete is made constantly by varying the material of the
concrete. The improvement in concrete is obtained by addition of materials
such as fibre. The concrete tends to improve its tensile properties
tremendously. Various research works are carried out to find the optimum fibre
content. Steel fibre are mostly used to improve the strength. There are different
types of steel fibre such as hooked, crimped and micro steel. The main
disadvantage of presence of steel fibre is corrosion. The micro steel fibre is
smaller in size when compared to hooked or crimped fibre. The smaller size
helps in easy dispersion. The concrete matrix has discontinuity in fibre. This
reduces progression of corrosion. Even the fibre presents in the outer surface
corrode, the fibre in inner surface remains protected by the concrete matrix.
The basalt fibre also shown tremendous increase in post crack behaviour. The
basalt fibre is a inert material which prevents deterioration of concrete.

The first phase of this project study is to determine the performance

of the fibre-reinforced concrete with a volumetric fraction of 0.25%, 0.5%,
0.75% and 1%. Two fibre used are micro steel and basalt. A detailed study on
the effect of fibre in reinforced concrete is carried out. The compressive
strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength and impact strength are
selected as mechanical performance indicators. The compressive strength of
the fibre reinforced concrete improves up to a volumetric fraction of 0.75% and
reduces at 1% volumetric fraction for both fibres. The tensile properties such as
split tensile and flexural strength increases with increase in the fibre content.
The highly performed fibre-reinforced concrete is used as functionally graded
concrete.
 iv

Functionally graded materials are the materials which has variation

in properties along the thickness. These are tailor made to satisfy a specific
need. Functionally graded concrete were developed based on this concept. In
the second phase of research work concentrates on development of two layer
Functionally graded concrete. The first layer consists of Fibre reinforced
concrete and the second layer consist of conventional concrete. The fibre
reinforced concrete layer thickness is varied at a range of 25, 50 and 75% of
overall thickness of specimen. The optimum volumetric fraction obtained from
first phase is used in Fibre reinforced layer. Properties of Functionally graded
specimen are compared with that of conventional concrete and Fibre reinforced
concrete. The cubes were cast for compressive strength, cylindrical specimen
for Split tensile strength, prism for flexural strength and disc specimen for
impact strength. The Functionally graded concrete with 75% thickness of Fibre
reinforced concrete to overall thickness is found to be optimum.

The optimum Functionally graded concrete was tested for durability

and dynamic performance. The cube specimen are immersed in chemical to
create adverse environment. A solution of 5% hydrochloric acid and 5%
Sulphuric acid is utilized for the study the specimen for acid resistance.
Sulphate resistance and sodium resistance by using 5% of sodium sulphate and
Sodium hydroxide. The specimen observed to have adverse effect to sulphuric
acid. The strength loss is maximum for conventional concrete in chemical
environment. The micro steel concrete has lesser strength loss, but the fibre
corroded in the corrosive environment. The strength of the concrete is
maintained due to the fibre presence of the fibre. The basalt fibre does not
show any type of disintegration. The reduction in cross section is also less
when compared to micro steel fibre and conventional concrete. Dynamic
properties are analysed using Fast Fourier Transform Analyser. The properties
are determined using creating a vibration and recording the specimen response.
The dynamic youngs modulus, Dynamic shear modulus and dynamic poison
 v

ratio are determined. The micro steel functionally graded concrete has higher
dynamic properties than basalt Functionally graded concrete.

In the third phase of the investigation, functionally graded concrete

for pipes incorporating optimum Functionally gradation. A two-layer
Functionally graded concrete was proposed and cast as concrete pipes for
micro steel and basalt fibre. Their performance is compared to conventional
concrete using three-edge bearing tests. The load at 0.025mm crack width and
ultimate stage are considered as the parameter for the mechanical performance.
Normalized loads were used to reduce the effect of concrete. The micro steel
reinforced Functionally graded concrete pipes perform better than basalt
reinforced Functionally graded concrete pipes and conventional concrete in
strength aspect. A comparative study with various international codes indicates
that the pipes are within acceptable criteria.

Post crack analysis is studied using the load vs deflection results

obtained from the three edge bearing test. The vertical deflection and the post
crack energy was higher for basalt reinforced Functionally Graded concrete
pipes.

The post crack strength is higher for the micro steel reinforced
Functionally graded concrete pipes. Stiffness of the pipes are also studied. The
stiffness of the conventional concrete pipe shows sudden drop after ultimate
load. The drop is significant but the total failure is prevented due to the
presence of the fibre in basalt reinforced Functionally graded concrete pipes.
The micro steel reinforced Functionally graded concrete pipes shows gradual
decrease in the stiffness.
 vi

To understand this behaviour micro structural studies are carried out.

The dimensions of the fibres are the main influencing factor. The pipes are
used for transportation of liquids. So, permeability and absorption test were
carried out and found to be with in admissible limit.

The regression models were developed for fibre content and

mechanical properties of the Fibre reinforced concrete. Similar, models were
established for fibre content and mechanical properties of functionally graded
concrete.
 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONALLY GRADED CONCRETE

1.1 GENERAL

Around the world, concrete is a material that is frequently used in

the construction of buildings. Regular Portland Cement Concrete, commonly
called conventional concrete, has several advantages, including high
compressive strength and low cost. However, this concrete has several
technical and environmental drawbacks. It has a low tensile strength of around
10% of its compressive strength. The construction industry uses various
ingredients to enhance the quality of concrete. Most studies have prioritized
concrete performance, sustainability, and economic perspective. Studies of
fibres as reinforcement indicate increased flexural strength, split tensile
strength, and post-crack performance. They have a greater capacity to restrict
crack propagation in terms of both number and width when compared to
ordinary reinforced concrete. Different types of concrete are proposed to
reduce environmental issues, such as lowering carbon footprint by using
alternative materials such as recycled aggregate, blast furnace slag, geo
polymer, and fly ash. A humongous amount of research is carried out to
improve concrete properties. This research work is one such exploration on
improvement of performance of concrete.

1.2 FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

Fibre-reinforced concrete (FRC) is a blooming topic that has

enormous research in the construction field. Different types of fibre are used in
the research works. The most commonly used fibres are steel, glass, basalt, and
 2

many manufactured fibres. Some natural fibres, such as jute, coir, and sisal
fibre were used by More Florence & Subramanian Senthil (2022), are
processed and studied for their performance. Fibres transmit stresses by acting
as a bridge after concrete cracks, increasing ductility and load-transferring
capacity. Many experiments have been done in this regard to demonstrate the
varying impacts of different fibres in concrete. The type, shape, orientation,
and volume content of fibres in the matrix are the critical factors affecting the
mechanical behaviour of reinforced concrete. Cementitious composites'
toughness and mechanical strength are improved when fibres are used as
reinforcement. Many investigations on the flexural behaviour of FRCs have
been done during the past 40 years. Many research have also been developed
to review the development of fibre reinforced concrete in different fields, such
as ultra-high strength concrete by Shaikh Faiz et al. (2020), torsional behaviour
byAwoyera Paul et al. (2022), fire safety by Nguyen Kate et al. (2020),
durability by Liu Yanzhu et al. (2021), alkali-activated fibre reinforced
composites by Adesina Adeyemi (2020), corrosion by Marcos-Meson Victor et
al. (2018) and FRC in elevated temperatures by Wu Heyang et al (2020). The
study even extent to polymer FRC in elevated temperatures by Al-Tikrite
Ahmed & Hadi Muhammad (2017).

Fibres are distinguished in three categories: continuous fibres, which

are long, straight, and often stacked parallel to one another; chopped fibres,
which are short and typically dispersed randomly; and woven fibres, which
take the shape of the fabric and offer multidirectional strength. Basic groupings
of fibres for use in structural concrete are categorized into the following
material categories such as differently shaped and sized steel fibres, macro and
microfibers used by Ozsar Dogac et al. (2017), glass fibres by Anandaraj et al.
(2019), fibres made of alkali-resistant (AR) materials by Amran Mugahed et al.
(2022), synthetic fibres made of various materials, including polypropylene by
Signorini Cesare et al. (2020), polyethylene by Sainz-Aja Jose et al. (2022),
 3

and polyolefin by Suárez et al. (2019), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) by

Xu Haiyan et al. (2021), and fibres made of carbon by Muthukumarana et al.
(2023), and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) by Slebi-Acevedo Carlos et al. (2022).

The fibre reinforcement concept is emerging in modern times, and

they are also used for rehabilitative application procedures for cracks are being
developed. Fibre bridging is a feature of the fibre reinforcing mechanism,
which stops the spread of microcracks and encourages the creation of many
cracks with tiny widths. One of the latest strengthening approaches for
enhancing flexural and shear performances are employing FRC in expansion
sections.

The significant advantage of adding fibres to plain concrete is the

capacity to change the crack development process at the material level,
enhancing the structural system's overall resistance to cracking. This
enhancement is mainly attributable to the fibre capacity to add a sizable
bridging zone to the anticipated aggregate-matrix process zone in the concrete
matrix. The fibre debonding process is primarily connected to the geometric
characteristics of the fibres.

The mechanical characteristics of the concrete matrix determine the

FRC constitutive behavior. For specific concrete materials, the properties of the
aggregate and fibre bridging zones result in a particular nonlinear softening
behaviour. The thickness of fibre-reinforced layers in reinforced composite
layers significantly impacts the responses of reinforced composites in addition
to type, geometry, mechanical properties of fibres, and bond behaviour
between fibre and matrix.

The studies are done in multiple aspects, and many showed

significant improvements in concrete performance. The next step of
 4

improvement on the concrete has been adopted from the concept of

functionally graded concrete.

1.3 FUNCTIONALLY GRADED CONCRETE

Functionally Graded Concrete (FGC) is an evolving concept in the

research field. The initial ideology was created from Functionally Graded
Materials. The concept was initially created to use a maximum of two
materials. Due to the rapid growth of science and technology, there is an
increase in the demand for material attributes across many sectors. In complex
contexts, single materials usually perform incorrectly. By combining the
advantages of each component, composite materials have the potential to
resolve this problem.

Many modern composites are examples of functionally graded

materials. These materials have specific properties and capabilities that
fluctuate continuously in a geographic location to meet service demands
because they are created by adequately mixing two or more distinct elements.
In the 1980s, Japanese scholars were the first to propose the concept of
functionally graded materials. When the thermal protection system outside the
space shuttle failed due to thermal stress, they were first used to solve the issue.
Due to continual advancements in chemistry, mechanics, and other fields,
functionally graded materials are now widely used in various industries.

One of the materials used the most frequently in civil engineering is

concrete. Due to its advantages, such as exceptional compressive strength,
longevity, and better moldability, concrete is an important engineering material
in the long term and is frequently used. Concrete, however, appears to have
drawbacks, including its high weight, insufficient fracture resistance, and lower
tensile strength. Improvements were made in mechanical properties,
 5

impermeability, fire resistance, and corrosion resistance due to the creation of

functionally graded concrete. The main driving force behind this effort is
creating concrete that performs better than typical concrete. The effectiveness
of fibre-reinforced functionally graded concrete as concrete pipes is another
focus of this work.

1.4 PRODUCTION OF FGC

Conventionally, the functionally graded materials are produced by

two methods. The methods are continuous and layered concrete, as shown in
figure 1.1. This classification is based on cross-section topology. Functionally
graded material's central concept is gradually varying the material on the cross-
section. The continuous method has many methods which involve complicated
processes with highly equipped machinery. Some methods are powder
technology, deposition, in-situ, and rapid prototyping. In construction field,
mostly 3-D printing and spraying the concrete is used to produce the
functionally grading concrete. The most commonly used method for production
is a stepwise layering of the concrete. The layer helps in improving the overall
performance of the concrete. The concrete shows gradings as separate layers
with significant differences between layers. In concrete, the layers are
maintained using centrifugal casting methods or maintaining the time interval
between layers, so the layer is set up properly.

Figure 1.1 Continuous method and Layering method of casting of FGC

 6

1.4.1 Continuous graded concrete

Recent breakthroughs in robotics have facilitated the introduction of

automated manufacturing techniques to generate continuously graded concrete
pieces. These innovations might set the stage for the next phase of concrete
design and production. This section discusses the advantages of using graded
spraying, controlled segregation, and additive manufacturing to provide
continuous concrete gradation.

1.4.1.1 Additive manufacturing

The automated technique of creating products from 3D model data

by layering material is known as additive manufacturing, commonly referred to
as 3D printing. Considerable advancement has been made in the 3D printing of
structural-scale concrete in recent years. Large-scale robotic arm systems that
can autonomously store, mix, carry, and deposit cementitious ingredients at
rates more than 45 kg/hour have recently been created, making 3D printing in
the construction sector more competitive. The capacity to produce graded
components by dynamically changing the composition of the deposited
material is a significant potential advantage of 3D printing. This idea has
recently been known as Local Composition Control (LCC) or Variable
Property Design Fabrication (VPDF). It has been used to 3D print materials
made of thermoplastics and polymers.

Rapid Construction is a newer 3D printing technology that combines

two nozzles to build functionally graded components. The two nozzles
extrusion rates can be independently controlled, enabling the independent
deposition of two different materials in various places. The system can
construct layered components whose material characteristics alter continuously
 7

at a structural scale while being unable to modify the structure of the deposited
material in a linear direction.

In addition to extending the idea of 3D printing graded parts to

concrete, more study and advancements are required to overcome the inherent
limits of the present technology for 3D printing cementitious materials. 3D
printing uses cement-intensive mixtures with high embodied carbon, and
inserting reinforcing steel in produced concrete is challenging in this
production method.

1.4.1.2 Graded spraying

Instead of being poured into traditional formwork or extruded and

deposited using additive manufacturing processes, sprayed concrete is a casting
technique that sprays concrete into position. Depending on the concrete
batching method, spraying techniques may be divided into dry and wet
procedures.

A spraying nozzle accelerates a dry mixture of cement and

aggregate in dry operations, where a thin mist of water is sprayed into the
material stream to hydrate the cement. Wet procedures involve batching
upstream cement, aggregate, and water before pumping the resultant mixture
via a hose or pipe to a discharge nozzle. The materials are launched through
high-pressure air in both methods.

Researchers have developed the wet sprayed concrete technique

from the University of Stuttgart to create graded concrete parts automatically.
Two pumps are used in the technique to concurrently spray two mixtures with a
specific combination of opposed traits. The two pumps are built inside a mobile
crane with computer control. Continuous gradation of concrete qualities is
possible because of automated management of the two pumps volumetric flow
 8

and travel speed. As the material is compressed upon contact, this sprayed
concrete method has the significant benefit of requiring no compaction energy.
The above-mentioned process makes it possible for precise control and
grading. This method may also be used to create curved components since
placing the material in thin layers enables concrete to be placed in curved
formworks.

1.4.1.3 Controlled segregation

Separating the individual elements of concrete is known as

segregation in concrete technology. Due to differences in density, the
components of concrete tend to separate under the influence of gravity.
Concrete mixes are designed to reduce segregation when homogenous concrete
components are created.

For instance, the method can be done by reducing concrete fluidity.

Segregation can produce grading of material composition when non-
homogenous components are required.

Researchers recently created an automated method that enables the

production of cylindrical elements with a rotationally controlled composition
gradient. A hollow copper tube is filled with the first homogenous concrete
mixture. The tube is then secured in a lathe and revolved continuously around
its axis. Radial segregation is produced by centrifugal acceleration. After the
material has gained enough stiffness to prevent further segregation under the
pull of gravity, the rotation is stopped. By segregating a rapid-setting concrete
mix, the research showed the technique's potential by producing cylindrical
components with increasing material density and strength along their radius.

The ability to produce graded cylindrical geometries, which would

be technically challenging with additive manufacturing and graded spraying, is
 9

a benefit of this process. However, a main drawback is that rotation-induced

segregation can only be incorporated to segregate the heaviest granules towards
the external surface of the moulds, as the movement of the constituents purely
depends on their weight variation. The manufacturing process can be energy-
intensive, potentially offsetting carbon-emission reductions from concrete
gradation. A constant-speed rotation must be applied until the concrete has
developed sufficient stiffness.

1.4.2 Layered concrete

According to the order of casting processes, layered concrete

components may be separated into two major categories: fresh-on-hardened
and fresh-on-fresh casting techniques. New layers of fresh concrete are only
placed for fresh-on hardened casting after the earlier layers have dried and
become solid. In contrast, several concretes were mixed and cast concurrently
while using fresh-on-fresh casting. Hence, the various concrete mixes in the
layered parts set and harden about at the same rate.

1.4.2.1 Fresh-on-hardened casting

In the precast business, fresh-on-hardened casting—in which in-situ

concrete is poured on top of a precast part to create composite beams or floors
is rather prevalent. Functional layering is frequently used to enhance the
mechanical behavior of structural elements. In order to accomplish functional
gradation for constructing structural connections between precast sections,
fresh-on-hardened casting processes are also widely used. As new layers are
only added once the current ones have hardened, fresh-on-hardened casting has
a significant benefit over fresh-on-fresh casting in that method enables accurate
monitoring of the layer geometry and the position of each interface during
production. In order to accomplish functional gradation for constructing
 10

structural connections between precast pieces, fresh-on-hardened casting

processes are also widely used. High-strength, low-permeability mixes are
typically used to fulfill the local strength, mechanical characteristics, and
durability requirements when concrete is poured in-situ to connect precast
pieces. Many standardized approaches to assess the bond strength capability of
the interfaces between layers reflect the extensive usage of fresh-on-hardened
procedures in the building.

1.4.2.2 Fresh-on-Fresh casting

Methods for casting layered concrete using fresh-on-fresh materials

are being explored. Except for the use of numerous mixes, layering operations
are comparable to traditional casting methods. The possibility of a significant
decrease in production time is a practical benefit of adopting fresh-on-fresh
casting.

Another benefit of this casting technique is the ability to produce a

strong link between layers without relying on transverse reinforcement.
Theoretically, the successive casting of the layers under controlled conditions
may result in perfect adhesion. The effectiveness of well-produced fresh-on-
fresh joints may not be affected, as with fresh-on-hardened casting, by the
development of fractures brought on by strain incompatibilities between the
two mixes. However, older layers still in the fresh condition in fresh-on-fresh
casting often give more bonding effects leading to lesser strain between the
layers. Two methods cast the layers. They are vertical layering and horizontal
layering.

Except for using numerous mixes, which further restricts

compatibility for the fresh and hardened states, horizontal layering resembles
standard casting techniques. While vertical layering is more challenging to
 11

execute because the production methods are in fundamental research, vertical

layering has the potential to create in the future.

Controlling the possible local concrete flow at the interface between

the materials in the fresh state is a significant obstacle in using fresh-on-fresh
casting. An excessive flow might lead to a spatial distribution of material
composition that significantly deviates from the intended design. For instance,
a local flow might happen when a heavier mixture is placed on top of a lighter
mixture, and the mixtures are not rigid enough to bear the associated shear
pressures without flowing. Many experts have solved this issue by waiting
between 20 and 60 minutes before mixing and applying the top layers.
This short-time-delayed casting technique makes use of the thixotropic
properties of concrete.

A relatively good bond between layers can still be formed since the
effects of cement hydration are often restricted within the first hour after
mixing. A time delay can be avoided if the mix rheology is created so that the
wet state system is steady during casting. By choosing mixes with adequate
inner stability and stiffness in fresh conditions, we could control the wet
deformation of the layers. Externally induced vibration can also produce or
amplify local flow at the interface. Fresh-on-fresh casting has the practical
drawback of perhaps requiring numerous concrete mixers to pour several
concrete mixtures quickly. Due to the sourcing of materials and delivery
deadline sensitivity, this may need a more complicated plant structure and
complicated building logistics.

The potential for casting vertical layers of material utilizing fresh-

on-fresh processes has received very little study. Nonetheless, preliminary pilot
investigations have shown that casting vertically stratified concrete pieces is
feasible. They often use moveable, temporary panels to distinguish the vertical
 12

levels. However, instabilities could happen when a panel is removed while the
mixes are still in the fresh stage. These will be influenced by variables such as
differential heights, mix density variations, and mixtures' rheological
characteristics.

1.5 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE

Production challenges are the main barrier to establishing alternative

materials in the building sector in emerging nations like India. Even with the
creation of novel materials, their ability to transition successfully from
production to research was in doubt. The shell element has been omitted
because it is too complicated, but the traditional linear forms are simple to
construct. These obstacles cause a considerable chasm between research and
real-life applicability. The research's primary finding is the performance of
FGC in a mass-produced shell element. There has been a great deal of research
done on the way the incorporation of fibre improves the mechanical
characteristics of structural parts. Research gaps regarding basalt fibre and
micro steel performances in FGCP were also found. This study focuses on
fibre-reinforced FGCP using more straightforward production procedures to
close the gap between research and manufacturing. The main objectives of this
study are

 To understand the behaviour of steel and basalt fibre reinforced

concrete under compression, tension, flexure and impact.
 To identify the optimum fibre content for developing
Functionally Graded Concrete (FGC).
 To develop a two-layer FGC and to study strength aspects due to
the change in thickness in the fibre-reinforced concrete layer in
the developed FGC. The optimum FGC is studied for durability
performance.
 13

 To experimentally evaluate the dynamic performance of the

optimum FGC and conventional concrete using a Fast Fourier
Transform analyzer.
 To study the performance of the selected FGC adapted in
Functionally Graded Concrete pipes (FGCPs) using three edge
bearing tests.
 To create an analytical model for the strength parameters for
FRC and validating the results with experimental results.

1.6 ORGANISATION OF THESIS

This thesis work comprises eight chapter as follows.

Chapter 1 deals with the significance of Fibre Reinforced Concrete,

Functionally Graded Concrete, production of functionally graded concrete, the
scope and objective of the study.

Chapter 2 deals with review of literature regarding Fibre reinforced

concrete, functionally graded concrete and concrete pipes.

Chapter 3 consist of properties of materials, concrete mix

proportions and method of investigation.

Chapter 4 covers experimental study of Fibre reinforced concrete

performance.

Chapter 5 includes experimental study of Functionally Graded

Concrete mechanical performance, durability performance and dynamic
performance.

Chapter 6 presents the performance of concrete pipes under three

edge loading along with permeability and absorption test.
 14

Chapter 7 deals with creation of regression model with fibre content

for both FRC and FGC.

1.7 METHODOLOGY

The work flow of this research work is in three phases, and the
methods considered for the performance assessment of FGC are described in
Figure 1.2.
 Literature review

Collection of materials

Mix design for M30 concrete

Phase I Phase II Phase

III

Fibre reinforced concrete Functionally Graded concrete Functionally Graded Concrete Pipes

Mechanical Durability studies Dynamic Performance analysis

Mechanical charactersitcs analysis
charactersitics
Effect of Dynamic Three edge bearing
Compressive Hydrocloric acid young's test
Compressive strength
strength modulus
Effect of Post crack analysis
Split tensile sulphuric acid Dynamic
Split tensile strength
strength Shear Micro structural study
Effect of sodium modulus
Flexural sulphate
Flexural strength strength Permeability test
Dynamic
effect of sodium Poissons ratio
Impact strength Impact hydroxide Absorpostion test
strength

Figure 1.2 Methodology

15
 16

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Different research has been evolving around concrete to enhance its

performance with lower cement consumption. Many research has been going
around the world to reduce its carbon footprint as work done by Habert et al.
(2020) around the world. They also developed a different model type like
Durastanti Claudio & Moretti Laura (2020) to understand the nature of its
effect.

The materials are added as research done by Bajpai Rishabh et al.

(2022) to concrete to reduce its environmental impact. The impact starts with
the production, even the type of manufacturing process. The variation in the
process by Chen et al (2010) creates an impact variation between 20% to 30%,
even up to 40% when the previous data are unavailable. The cement is also
replaced by the materials like fly ash and blast furnace slag like Berndt (2009)
and Majhi et al. (2018), so the environmental effect can be reduced.
Sustainability study as done by Tarun (2008) is also the criteria for developing
a different type of concrete.

Functionally graded concrete is one such development in the field.

The functionally graded concept was first developed in Japan in 1980. The
main aim of the development is to create a material that can withstand high
temperatures. These materials are used in the aviation and space industries like
the work done by Kumar Suresh et al. (2013). In early works by Nemat-Alla
Mahmoud (2003), the metal and the ceramics are combined. So, both metal and
ceramics properties are utilized to their maximum. The metal provides
ductility, while the ceramic part provides heat resistance. Functionally grading
 17

is also there in nature. For example, bamboo is one material where the
gradation helps in the strength as studied by Ray et al. (2005). The spectrum of
this concept has also extended to different fields, even medical ones. The
functionally graded material is used in a knee cap replacement by
Bahraminasab Marjan et al. (2014), bone remodeling by Ghaziani Armin et al
(2018), and femoral prostheses by Oshkour et al. (2013). The research work
which provides greater insight in the project are categorized into three types
according the flow of the project.

2.1 FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE

Different types of fibre are used to improve the properties of

concrete. As this study concentrates on Micro steel and basalt fibre, we need to
know their effect on the concrete. Different types of steel fibres include hooked
crimped, micro steel, and many others. The presence of steel fibre improves the
performance of the concrete. The high-strength concrete is achieved using
hooked, copper-coated micro steel and hybrid in research done by Balanji
Emdad et al. (2017). They used plain high strength to compare its properties.
The presence of steel fibre improved split tensile strength. The mode of failure
is also brittle in high-strength concrete. The specimen with steel fibre shows
combinations of failure due to compression and the expansion in the lateral
dimension or the bulging effect of the concrete. Even the blast resistance of the
fibre reinforced concrete is studied by Lia Jun et al. (2018).

Ultra-high-performance concrete's (UHPC) fibre distribution and

orientation, which are impacted by the processing of the raw material,
determine the mechanical performance as given by Zhao Sujing & Bo Yiheng
(2022).
 18

The effects of two casting locations (mid-cast and end-cast) on the

strength and fracture characteristics of UHPCs with various fibre types and
fibre contents were examined in this work. The findings demonstrate that
whereas compressive strength is primarily unchanged by casting position, mid-
cast specimens exhibit better flexural strength and fracture characteristics than
end-cast specimens. Casting position is more likely to impact the flexural
strength of specimens with hooked-end fibres than on specimens with straight
fibres. Although the fibre type and content have an impact, casting position has
no bearing on the residual load-to-peak load ratio. Strengthening of the beams
using Ultra performance of fibre reinforced concrete is also studied by
researchers like Lampropoulos et al. (2016).

The mechanical characteristics of high-performance concrete (HPC)

at an ambient curing temperature were examined by Xu Lihua et al. (2019). in
this study concerning the impacts of coarse aggregate and steel fibre
concentrations Four replacement levels of mortar by volume (0%, 16%, 28%,
and 38%) and four-volume doses of steel fibre (0%, 1%, 2%, and 3%) were
used to make HPC bulk materials. The mechanical characteristics and the
synergistic interaction between coarse aggregate and steel fibre were
investigated, including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and
flexural behaviour. As the coarse aggregate replacement level grew from 0% to
28%, the findings showed that the compressive and splitting tensile strength
improved; however, as the coarse aggregate content went further, up to 38%,
the strength declined.

A micro-steel fibre with a low specific gravity was tested for

flexural behaviour. The strength, toughness, and elasticity of micro-steel fibre
are higher than those of traditional steel fibre. Flexural tests were conducted
utilizing fibre volume fractions of 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.7%, and 1%.
(Vf). Micro-steel fiber-reinforced cement composites outperformed steel fiber-
 19

reinforced cement composites in flexural strength and toughness as tested by

Won Jong-Pil et al. (2012). In micro-steel fiber-reinforced cement composites
with 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.7%, and 1% Vf, respectively, flexural strength
improved by 20%, 37%, 33%, 41%, 47%, and 48%. Compared to steel fiber-
reinforced cement composites of the same Vf, the flexural toughness of
amorphous steel fiber-reinforced cement composites with 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.7%,
and 1.0% Vf increased by 39%, 56%, 44%, and 36%, respectively.

Hybrid steel fibre reinforced self-compacting concretes

(HSFRSCCs) were examined for mixture design, workability, fibre
dispersion/orientation, mechanical characteristics, and fracture behaviour.
Compared to concrete made with steel fibres of average strength, long steel
fibres exhibit more improved behavior in toughness and ductility as study
performed by Akcay Burcu & Tasdemir Mehmet (2012). Using image analysis
to examine the orientation and dispersion of fibres in concrete showed that
fibres diffused uniformly across all concrete series without clumping. The
mechanical characteristics of concrete improved as the number of fibres
increased because the fibres were more vertically oriented with the direction of
bending force.

The impact study of steel fibres as carried out by

Alsaif Abdulaziz et al. (2018) on the mechanical and fresh characteristics of
rubberized concrete (RuC) made of used tyre rubber (WTR). WTR and fibre
contents are the key factors examined using ten different combinations.
According to the findings, adding fibres to RuC mixes with WTR replacement
significantly reduces the loss in flexural strength caused by the rubber content
(from 50% to 9.6% loss, compared to standard concrete). Adding fibres to RuC
can improve strain capacity, post-peak energy absorption behaviour, and
appropriate flexural strength, making steel fiber-reinforced rubberized concrete
(SFRRuC) an excellent alternative building material for flexible pavements.
 20

Recovered from discarded tyres with industrial micro steel fibre

(MF), and industrial deformed steel fibre (DF), Waste steel fibre (WF) is used
as a hybrid by Al-Tikrite Ahmed & Hadi Muhammad (2017). RPC had
additions of steel fibres at 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% of the total volume. Industrial
hybridization (HF) and waste-industrial hybridization, two types of
hybridization of steel fibres, were investigated (WHF). The best result was
attained with the addition of 4% MF. The addition of HF resulted in a 245%
improvement in RPC toughness. In addition, the inclusion of waste steel fibre
as a complete replacement (WF) or partial replacement (WHF) was equivalent
to the industrial steel fibre in improving the mechanical characteristics of RPC
in addition to the increase in toughness of RPC by 158.8% and 211%,
respectively.

Ranjbar Navid et al. (2016) examined the impacts of incorporating

micro steel fibres (MSF) at various matrix volume ratios on the mechanical
characteristics of a fly ash-based geopolymer. The results of the tests showed
that MSF additions, especially at young ages, may significantly increase both
the ultimate flexural capacity and ductility of fly ash-based geopolymers
without having a negative impact on their ultimate compressive strength.

Lia Jun et al. (2018) has extended to the hybrid study of different
fiber types. The concrete matrix combined different volume fractions of steel
fibre, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) fibre, and steel
wire meshes Static material testing, such as uniaxial compression and flexural
bending tests, revealed that including steel fibre produced a higher strength
augmentation, whereas UHMWPE fibre produced a more ductile material.
Concrete samples reinforced with hybrid steel fiber-steel mesh demonstrated
high strength and ductility. Field blast tests are created to examine how
reinforced concrete slabs respond to close-range explosions. The explosion
experiments revealed various damage characteristics.
 21

Due to basalt fibre outstanding qualities, such as corrosion

resistance and low thermal conductivity, an inert mineral fibre is currently
taking on increasing significance. Moreover, it increases the
concrete toughness, flexural strength, and tensile strength. In order to better
understand basalt fiber-reinforced concrete, a systematic investigation was
conducted by Kirthika & Singh (2018) using percentage volume fractions of
0.50, 0.75, and 1.00. At a dose of 0.50% of basalt fibre in comparison to
control concrete, the increase in compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural
strength is in the range of 26.79, 42.71, and 44.06%, respectively. Basalt fibre
is also proven to be amorphous and hydrophilic in nature.

Jalasutram Sruthi et al. (2016) varied basalt fibre content in the

range of is 0% to 2%. According to test results, basalt fibre addition to concrete
resulted in a little reduction in compression strength compared to plain
concrete. However, under compression, FRC fails in a ductile rather than brittle
manner. When basalt fibres with a 2% volume fraction are added to the
concrete mix, the splitting tensile strength of the concrete is increased by 15%.
The flexural tensile strength of basalt FRC has increased significantly by up to
75%, and it has greater post-peak residual strength than plain concrete.
Moreover, basalt FRC has a flexural toughness roughly three times greater than
ordinary concrete.

The fracture energy, advanced toughness criteria, and characteristic

length suggested by Hillerborg were used by Hao Zhou Bin (2020) to assess
the toughness and crack resistance performance of basalt fibre reinforced
concrete. The correlation coefficient established for basalt fibre was included.
The outcomes showed that basalt fibre considerably enhanced the performance
of concrete toughness and fracture resistance. Comparatively to tensile strength
and flexural strength, the basalt fibre has a minor boosting effect on concrete's
 22

compressive strength. Also, when the basalt fibre content was between 0.3%
and 0.4%, the beneficial impact was at its maximum.

The effect variation of fibre length is also studied by

Jiang Chaohua et al. (2014). The compressive, splitting tensile, and flexural
strength of concrete reinforced with 12 mm Basalt fibre increase by 0.18–
4.68%, 14.08–24.34%, and 6.30–9.58%, respectively, as when compared to
plain concrete. Strengths rise by 0.55-5.72%, 14.96-25.51%, and 7.35-10.37%,
respectively, as BF length increases to 22 mm. Early stages show a strong
connection between the BF and the matrix interface. However, around 28 days,
this relationship begins to degrade. The combined effect of basalt fibre and
recycled aggregate studied by Alnahhal Wael & Aljidda Omar (2018) for the
variation of 0-1.5% and 0 – 100% are also studied. The experimental results
were also evaluated with code-based equations and analytical models currently
used for traditional concrete. The test results demonstrate that the inclusion of
BMF enhanced the flexural capacity of beams. Nevertheless, the application of
RCA had no appreciable effect on the studied beams flexural strength.

Similar studies are also conducted in RCA obtained from earthquake

waste by Dong et al. (2017). The results are also similar to the above previous
study.

Basalt and glass fibres used as fibre reinforcement in high strength

concrete are compared by Kizilkanat Ahmet et al (2015). While there was no
improvement in strength for glass fibre reinforced concrete (GFRC) above
0.50% fibre dosage, the splitting tensile strength of basalt fibre reinforced
concrete (BFRC) improved with increasing fibre dosage. The flexural strength
of BFRC grew gradually with increasing fibre content, following a pattern
similar to splitting tensile strength, whereas no such change was seen for
GFRC beyond 0.50% fibre content. With a dose of 0.25 percent, both basalt
 23

and glass reinforced concrete's fracture energy considerably increased.

According to BFRC, BF inclusion enhances concrete performance more than
GF inclusion in ductility and fracture resistance. A hybrid of fibres are also
taken in many studies, such as combinations of polyolefin, and hooked steel
fibres by Alberti et al. (2017), combinations of steel fibre and polypropylene
fibre by Guo Hui et al. (2021) and Monteiro Vitor et al. (2018), combinations
of Double hooked-end steel fibers, single hooked-end steel fibers, and
polyvinyl alcohol fibers by Teng Susanto et al. (2018).

Using multi-scale modeling, Sun Xinjian et al. (2019), the effects of

the length and composition of basalt fibre on the fundamental mechanical
characteristics of concrete were examined. For anticipating the composited
material characteristics of BFRC at the mesoscopic scale, a constitutive
damage model was constructed in line with the Mori-Tanaka homogenization
theory and progressive damage theory. In order to mimic the mechanical
performance of BFRC at the macroscopic scale, the derived material
parameters of BFRC from mesoscopic were fed into the finite element
specimen model. The impacts of basalt fibre on the mechanical characteristics
of BFRC specimens at the macroscopic level may be explored by combining
the mesoscopic material model with the macroscopic finite element modeling.
When basalt fibre is used at different lengths, BFRCs with 6 mm basalt fibre
perform better in compressive and breaking tensile tests than BFRCs with 12
mm fibre; however, the differences in bending strength are negligible. BFRCs
with 2% of 6 mm basalt fibre can attain the highest strength, according to the
results. Moreover, regression was used to further study the size influence on the
fundamental characteristics of BFRC with 2% of 6 mm basalt fibre.

The study also involved soaking the fibres in a simulated alkaline

concrete solution as done by Li Min et al. (2020). This study examined the
alkali resistance of unmodified basalt fibre (BF) and alkali resistant basalt fibre
 24

(ABF). The impacts of BF and ABF were investigated on the mechanical

characteristics of concrete. The results demonstrate that adding 0.1% ABF to
the concrete enhanced its compressive strength by 2.5%, flexural strength by
17.2%, and splitting tensile strength by 12.1%. The use of ABF appeared to
enhance the pore size distribution of concrete, according to measurements
made using a mercury intrusion porosimeter (MIP) and a scanning electron
microscope (SEM). Moreover, the connection between the fibres and the
concrete matrix was improved.

A series of industry-standard material tests were carried out to

determine the effects of fundamental variables by Wang Xinzhong et al. (2019)
with fibre volume fraction (0.05–0.40%), fibre length of 12 to 36 mm of Basalt
fibre, and compressive strength of various grade of concrete M30, M40, and
M50 MPa on the physical and mechanical properties of Basalt reinforced FRC,
including fresh concrete properties like workability, and hardened properties
like compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, and anti dry
shrinkage cracking properties. According to experimental findings, fibre
clumping may happen at comparatively greater fibre volume fractions, which
might cause issues with mixing and casting.

2.2 FUNCTIONALLY GRADED CONCRETE

Researchers have shown that using recycled aggregates instead of

natural ones and using fibres as reinforcement may reduce sustainability
concerns as given by Liu Xingzi et al. (2018). Five concrete mixtures were
created to examine the possibilities for employing Functionally Graded
Concretes (FGC) for sustainable constructions. The findings demonstrate that
FGC has significant structural design potential even if it exhibits post-cracking
flexural performance that is inferior to conventional FRC. Bending tests reveal
a clear distinction between FGC and non-FGC materials since FGC blends
 25

showed softening and, eventually, hardening. For the results of the Barcelona
exam, this discrepancy is not seen.

The functionally graded concrete (FGC) made from waste rubber

tyre fibres in place of fine particles is the subject of studies like Choudhary
Sumit et al. (2020). Functionally graded rubberized concrete (FGRC) with a
layer of rubber fibre concrete (RFC) and conventional concrete, rubber fibre
replacement percentages ranged from 0 to 20% at 5% intervals, and 30% is
used for studies. The concrete samples were subjected to durability and
strength tests for a thorough study. FGRC had more significant results
compared to RFC. Compressive strength, water absorption, and water
permeability were determined to be poorer on the increase of rubber fibre
content in concrete.

The creation of additive manufacturing technology by Choudhary

Sumit et al. (2020) to produce concrete parts are discussed in the study.
The computer program designed the material to fulfill particular performance
specifications. A functionally graded concrete component made by substituting
cork for sand was created and assessed. The technique has enormous potential
for producing thermo-mechanically superior, lightweight construction
components. Cork weight is reduced, and its thermal insulation is optimized
when the amount is maximized. However, when the amount is minimized,
mechanical performance is increased. By increasing material sustainability and
efficiency, this system can potentially reduce waste and CO2 emissions.

The failure blow number during the drop weight impact test was
significantly increased when steel fibre reinforcement was added to plain
concrete. The findings demonstrated that the suggested five-layer functionally
graded reinforced concrete created by Mastali et al. (2015) has great potential
under the effect of drop weight. This study showed that the fibre composition
 26

and reinforced layer architecture might be modified to alter the slabs efficiency.
The reinforced slabs collapsed by crushing the concrete, and then after repeated
strikes, when their thickness was sufficiently decreased, there occurred a
punching shear failure. At low-velocity impact, the plain concrete slabs failed
in flexure. In this way, more significant harm was caused by more excellent
energy absorption. Utilizing functionally graded reinforced concrete reduces
penetration depth in projectile impact.

The impact response of functionally-graded preplaced aggregate

fibrous concrete (FPAFC), comprised of steel and polypropylene fibres, is
examined in this work with falling mass impact. The study by Prasad Nandhu
& Murali (2021) indicates impact strength of two-layer FPAFC was lower than
that of single-layer concrete. Moreover, using the right amount of fibre and
combining mono and hybrid fibres may allow FPAFC to attain higher impact
strength levels than those of a single two-layer concrete specimen. This effect
was brought about by the three layers' reduction of shear stress transmission in
the interfacial transition zone caused by the fibre bridging action.

Investigations of concrete mix combinations are also presented to

accomplish durability, fracture resistance, strength, ductility, cost savings,
weight reduction, or reduced embodied energy benefits. Stepwise layered and
continuously graded concrete systems are also described by Torelli Giacomo et
al. (2020). Production approaches for horizontally stacked and vertically
layered structural components are discussed in the framework of fresh-on-
hardened and fresh-on-fresh casting as well as upcoming continuously graded
technologies. The difficulties posed by layer interfaces, fresh-state
deformations, and the requirement for suitable fresh and hardened-state
modelling tools are critically evaluated.
 27

Roesler Jeffery et al. (2007) tested and modeled the fracture

behaviour of various combinations of layered plain concrete and synthetic fibre
reinforced concrete to address the structural advantages of functionally graded
concrete materials (FGCMs) used as rigid pavements. Total fracture energy
demonstrated the FGCM's improved fracture behaviour over full-depth plain
concrete. The location of the fiber-reinforced layer to the starting notch
affected the FGCM's fracture behaviour. A Finite element application
consisting cohesive zone model was constructed with the fracture parameters of
the fiber-reinforced and unreinforced concrete. The model accurately modeled
the FGCMs' experimental behaviour.

Francisco Evangelista Jr et al. (2009) investigates the benefits of

beams utilizing plain concrete and fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) in two
separate layers as functionally graded concrete materials (FGCMs). Using
numerical simulations using a cohesive zone model (CZM) applied in a finite
element system, the fracture energy (G) and residual load capacity (P) of a two-
layered reinforced concrete beam are examined. According to a cost-benefit
study, the FRC placed in the bottom lift is more fracture efficient than when
positioned in the top lift (greater G- and P-values at lower cost). Moreover,
there is an ideal FRC thickness at which the benefit of improved fracture
resistance diminishes.

An experimental programme created by Chan Ricardo et al. (2020)

where the mechanical properties were analyzed; a simplified sustainability
assessment; and a parametric study correlating the outcomes of the programme
and sustainability assessment with factors like the type of aggregate and
reinforced layer thickness; were all used to assess the mathematical model
between design and sustainability parameters with a focus on the flexural
capacity of FGC incorporating recycled aggregates and steel fibres. As a result,
applications with lower loading capacities, including parking lots and bicycle
 28

lanes, might employ the FGC researched. The fiber content has a more
significant impact on the FGC examined in terms of embodied CO2 and cost
than the content of recycled aggregates.

2.3 CONCRETE PIPES

A laboratory testing programme conducted on full-scale precast

concrete pipes reinforced with the dispersion of steel fibres is presented by
Mohamed Nedal et al. (2015) with the following results. The diameters of the
steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) pipes were 450 and 600 mm. Two
different kinds of steel fibres had hooked ends and circular cross sections. Steel
fibres had lengths of 35 and 60 mm and aspect ratios of 65 and 80,
respectively. There were 0 to 40 kg/m3 of steel fibres. For modest
deformations, the post-peak behaviour of SFRC pipes was on par with or better
than that of traditional RC pipes. Moreover, it was discovered that the
continuous three-edge-bearing test could thoroughly investigate the behaviour
of SFRC pipes without requiring an additional loading cycle as required by the
EN 1916 standard. Similar types of fiber are used to study dry-cast steel fibre
individual properties, and their hybrid was studied by Mohamed Nedal et al.
(2014).

The steel-and-synthetic-fiber-reinforced pipes (FRCPs) was created

by Lee et al. (2019) using a dry-mixed concrete mixture with different fibre
volume fractions (Vf) for steel and synthetic fibres (0.15%, 0.20%, 0.30%, and
0.40%, respectively). For dry-mixed concrete, 0.15% to 0.20% of fibre is the
best percentage to get the maximum load-carrying capacity; however, as fibre
volume fraction increases, hardness and post-cracking strength (PCS) values
also tend to rise. It is established that steel fibres absorb energy more efficiently
than synthetic fibres when utilized as reinforcement due to their respective 49%
and 46% greater toughness and PCS values. Regarding the toughness index, the
 29

steel-FRCP exhibits more substantial ductility than the synthetic-FRCP.

Natural fibres like cellulose by Fisher et al. (2001) and jute by Kundu Sarada et
al. (2012) are also used for studies.

Research also provides a reasonable design tool for precast SFRC

pipes. A non-linear 3D finite element model was created by Mohamed Nedal &
Nehdi Moncef (2016) to mimic the three edge-bearing tests for this purpose.
The model could fairly simulate the load-deformation curves of SFRC pipes
evaluated using the three-edge-bearing technique. The average error in the
ultimate D-loads anticipated by the model was a cautious 6.5%. Parametric
research was then carried out. The factors under research were pipe diameter,
wall thickness, fibre type and content, concrete compressive strength, and
desired pipe strength. The parametric study results may be utilized to create a
design aid.

Five different dry-cast concrete formulations were used by Park

Yeonho et al. (2015) to make pipes, which were then evaluated. Reinforced
concrete pipe (RCP), crumb rubberized pipe (CRP), steel fibre reinforced
rubberized pipe (SFP), polypropylene fibre reinforced rubberized concrete pipe
(PFP), and hybrid fibre reinforced rubberized concrete pipe (HYP) is among
them. This study examines how the behaviour of pipes with 600 mm and 900
mm diameters is affected by the dry cast concrete mix's fibre volume fraction
and crumb rubber concentration variations. In the mixture used to make
concrete pipes, crumb rubber particles replaced fine aggregate by 3% to 20%
(by volume). The rubberized concrete mixes' fibre volume fraction (Vf) varied
depending on the fibre used (steel: 0.17% and 0.33%, polypropylene: 0.13%,
0.33%, 0.52%, and 0.65%). According to test results, steel and polypropylene
fibre hybrid reinforcements were superior to steel or polypropylene fibre single
type reinforcements for increasing the strength and ductility of rubberized
concrete pipes.
 30

The preparation of steel fibre reinforced cement-based composite

pipe specimens with the steel fibres spread annularly around the circumference
of the pipe by Ru Mu a Yan et al. (2019). An external circular magnetic field
was applied to the freshly mixed steel fibre reinforced cement-based composite
when preparing the annularly aligned steel fibre reinforced cement-based
composite (ASFRC) pipe specimens to force the steel fibres rotating to the
circumferential direction of the pipe when the mixture was compacted. The
ASFRC and regular steel fibre reinforced cement-based composite (SFRC)
pipe three-edge-bearing test and ductility were compared. The observations
show that annularly aligned steel fibres may significantly boost pipe specimens'
ductility and load bearing capability. The increase in performance is because
the steel fibres have a higher orientation efficiency factor, and more are on
cracked sections of ASFRC pipe specimens.

Due to the incorporation of flexible concrete pipe done by

Park Yeonho et al. (2015), and non-corrosive reinforcing, the revolutionary
flexible concrete pipe system offers the advantages of a simpler structural
design, thinner pipe walls, less weight, higher durability, and cheaper
production costs. Based on the three-edge bearing test, different fibre doses
(ranging from 1.2-14.3 kg/m3) and decreased steel reinforcement (ranging from
35-50% reduction) were evaluated in thin walled concrete pipes with diameters
from 760 mm to 3050 mm. The shear capacity of thin-walled concrete pipes is
increased by discrete synthetic fibres, according to test results, and the shear
failure mode is delayed, which significantly improves the load bearing capacity
even with less steel reinforcement. Moreover, for small diameter pipes [760
mm, 910 mm, and 1370 mm] and large diameter pipes [1830 mm, 2130 mm,
and 3050 mm], thin walled concrete pipes with 50% less steel reinforcement
and the inclusion of synthetic fibres maintained bending stiffness up to 5%
inner diameter deflection. Synthetic fibre like polypropylene fibre compared
 31

with steel fibre with spin casting (Faisal Adeel et al. 2023). Synthetic fibre also
replaces reinforcement steel (Al Rikabi et al. 2018).

The different study focuses on assessing the strength, stiffness, and

ductility of synthetic fibre reinforced concrete pipes as works done by
Rikabi Fouad et al. (2018) in relation to ASTM standards. Three pipe diameters
of 600, 1200, and 1500 mm were used to conduct an ASTM-compliant three-
edge bearing test to assess the performance of the synthetic fibre reinforced
concrete pipes. The concrete pipes were reinforced using varying regions of
one steel cage layer and fibre doses ranging from 4.75 to 18 kg/m3. The
findings demonstrate that employing synthetic fibre improved the tested
pipes ultimate load, stiffness, and ductility. Also, the production costs were
reduced by employing synthetic fibre since the steel cage area was reduced by
51 to 100%.

On the dynamic deflection of the pipe, the impact of many

parameters is investigated, including the agglomeration and volume percentage
of SiO2 nanoparticles as studied by Zarei Mohammad et al. (2017), inner and
outer fluids, various boundary conditions, and geometric characteristics.

The findings show that the dynamic deflection of the structure

increases when the effect of inner and outer fluids, agglomeration of SiO2
nanoparticles, and increasing the length-to-thickness ratio is taken into account,
as well as when the thickness-to-radius ratio and volume fraction of SiO2
nanoparticles are increased. The Navier-Stokes equation calculates the force
caused by the internal fluid. In order to account for the agglomeration effect of
SiO2 nanoparticles, the Mori-Tanaka model is also used. First order shear
deformation theory (FSDT) is used to create the mathematical model of the
structure, and the energy technique and Hamilton's principle are used to
 32

generate the governing equations. Ultimately, the problem is resolved using the
Newmark and differential quadrature methods (DQM).

The outcomes of three large-scale tests on concrete pipes made of

ground displaced segments give the following suggestion. Steel fiber-
reinforced concrete pipes, reinforced concrete pipes composed of reinforced
concrete, and reinforced concrete pipes combined with reinforcing fibre and bar
were used to construct the pipeline. Various sensing techniques were employed
by Pour-Ghaz Mohammad et al. (2018) to evaluate the damage progression of
pipelines and their overall performance. The joints close to the fault line
sustained the most damage. All pipeline joints sustained damage during the
second stage. The body of pipe segments positioned very next to the fault line
suffered substantial damage and ruptured during the third stage of damage.

To explore the requirements for using recycled aggregates as studied

by Özalp Fatih et al. (2016) obtained from construction and demolition wastes
in creating different ready-mixed and precast concrete components. These
recycled aggregates were deemed suitable for use in paving stone, kerb,
concrete pipe, and reinforced concrete pipe elements per the relevant criteria at
the conclusion of the experimental and industrial investigations. By
incorporating these recycled materials into new building products, it is possible
to eliminate environmental issues related to the construction industry and offer
an alternative option. Ultimately, it is recommended that reduced replacement
rates be used to guarantee the mechanical attributes pertaining to the product
requirements sought.

Industrial and scientific experts recognize fibres as a viable

substitute for steel when it comes to main reinforcement for concrete pipes
(CPs). FRCPs with an internal diameter of 600 mm were produced and tested
as part of an experimental programme employing fibres (Monte Renata et al.
 33

2016) with low amounts of steel (10 and 20 kg/m3) and polypropylene (2.3 and
4.6 kg/m3).

In order to confirm that both may be used inventively to address the

characterization of the FRC tensile behaviour and the direct design of these
pipes, a numerical simulation of the tests utilizing the constitutive equation
developed from the Barcelona test was conducted. The actual 20% decrease in
steel usage and the removal of processes are linked to the reinforcement
preparation.

Patterns comprised three layers were introduced by Othman et al.

(2021), with a lightweight concrete centre layer always present. Regular
strength concrete or FRC with a different Vf% made up the top layer in the
compression zone. The lowest layer in the tension zone was constructed using
either functionally graded FRC or FD FRC with the same Vf%. Steel fibres
with hooked ends and Vf%s of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5% were the fibres employed.
According to the experimental findings, the flexural strength of FGC patterns
differed by 94–100% from that of Full depth FRC beams. Its toughness indices,
however, varied from 49 to 93% of the value associated with full-depth FRC
beams. Both Vf% and the presence of fibres in the compression zone influence
these ratios.

In the current study, functionally graded concrete (FGC) made with

waste rubber tyre fibres in place of fine particles is being examined by
Choudhary Sumit et al. (2020). To make control concrete (CC), rubber fibre
concrete (RFC), and functionally graded rubberized concrete, rubber fibre
replacement percentages ranged from 0 to 20% at 5% intervals and 30%.
(FGRC). Nonetheless, FGRC had superior results compared to RFC.
Compressive strength, water absorption, and water permeability were
determined to be poorer on the increase of rubber fibre content in concrete. The
 34

study found that FGRC may be a sustainable building method when more
flexural strength is needed.

The general idea is to add fibres or aggregates selectively to

achieve this. This idea can be applied to 3D concrete printing (3DCP) by
Ahmed et al. (2020) in two different ways: either by incorporating particles
into the bulk mixture through a second stage mixing process at the printer head
(Simultaneous Process, SP), or by incorporating particles into the spaces
between the layers of deposited cementitious filament. The creation of
specialized tools needed to acquire on-demand functional grading of printed
material is discussed in the current article.

2.4 CRITICAL REVIEW

The detailed study of the literature for the research work gives a
ideology behaviour due to presence of the fibre in concrete and its application
in FGC and Functionally graded concrete pipes. The detailed study of indicates
that addition of steel fibre in any for improves the mechanical properties such
as compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength. The presence
of the steel fibre also has shown high resistance in impact and the blast loading.

The study also indicates micro steel fibre provide higher strength
than traditional steel fibre. The steel fibre in concrete is proved to be having
higher toughness, toughness, post energy absorption behaviour and post crack
strength. The ductility of the concrete also improved due to the presence of
steel fibre.

The literature on basalt fibre in concrete indicates that the basalt is

an inert material. They are corrosive resistant and have low thermal
conductivity. The presence of basalt fibre has greater effect on the split tensile
strength and flexural strength of the concrete. The improvement in the
 35

properties shows that by incorporating the basalt fibre creates a ductile

behaviour in concrete. The higher fibre dosage of basalt fibre is avoided due to
clumping effect of the fibre. The basalt fibre also said to improve the
workability and anti-shrinkage properties. The bond between basalt fibre and
the concrete is high. The bond helps in the improving flexural capacity of the
beam.

The literature study on Functionally graded concrete shows that the

FGC shows softening behaviour. The mechanical performance of the concrete
are improved by the presence of the FGC layers than conventional concrete.
The FGC has shown higher durability, fracture resistance along with greater
improvement in ductility. The FGC are designed in such a way the FRC are
place at the place of requirement. This reduces the amount of fibre which in
lead to cost saving. The FGC are also developed to have sustainability. In
general, the position or placement of layer underload are important in the FGC
as it affects its strength.

The literature review on reinforced concrete pipes indicates that the

presence of the fibre improves the load carrying capacity of the concrete. The
improvement in the first crack load and the ultimate load is observed due to the
presence of the fibre. The diameter, type of fibre and material properties
influences the performance of the concrete. The fibre reinforced concrete pipes
shows improvement in ductility, post crack strength, stiffness and hardness.
The steel fibre established efficient energy absorption than synthetic fibre. The
damage progression are also reduced by the fibre indicating the improvement
in overall performance of the concrete.
 36

Based on the established literature review, the research work

focused on the following parameters,

1. To study the behaviour of concrete related to incorporation of

different volumetric fraction of fibre in the concrete.
2. To determine the optimum fibre content and utilize it to create a
two layered FGC.
3. The thickness of FRC is varied in FGC and studying the
properties and adopting FGC in concrete pipes
 37

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS, MIX PROPORTION AND METHODS OF

INVESTIGATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Detailed studies adopted in this experimental work are presented in

this chapter. This chapter includes the material properties, mix proportioning,
and the methods adopted to evaluate the performance of Fibre Reinforced
Concrete (FRC), Functionally Graded Concrete (FGC), and Functionally
Graded Concrete Pipes.

3.2 MATERIALS PROPERTIES

Concrete is a building material used in construction that is made of

aggregate combined with cement and water. Concrete can be distinguished
mainly by the type of cement or aggregate used, its characteristics, or the
techniques employed to make it. Cement interacts with water when it is
combined, which begins a hydration reaction. This reaction promotes the
formation of a solid matrix that holds the constituent parts together to generate
a long-lasting substance that resembles stone. Every form may be cast in
concrete. As it is a malleable material while it is new, different forms and
formworks in varying sizes are utilized to create various shapes.

3.2.1 Cement

The present study uses Ordinary Portland Cement 53 grade

confirming to IS 12269: 2013. The physical properties are given in Table 3.1.
 38

OPC material properties are tested according to IS 4031:1988 reviewed in 2019

standards.

Table 3.1 Physical properties of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

S.No Properties Values

1. Specific gravity 3.15
2. Fineness 8%
3. Standard consistency 32%
4. Initial setting time and final setting time 32 min and 476 min

3.2.2 Fine Aggregate

The scarcity of river sand leads to Manufactured sand (M-Sand)

usage. M-sands contain high fines content. Generally, the fines are composed
of rock dust rather than silts and clays in the case of natural sands. The
maximum permissible limit of M sand fines (75 μm passing) as per ASTM C
33 is 7%, and the limit proposed for M sand fines (150 μm passing) as per the
IS 383:2016 is 20%. Due to high fines content, the M-sand significantly
influences the mortar water demand and workability. The high fines content in
crushed fine aggregate mainly increases the yield stress of the mortar due to
increased interparticle friction and contributes to the increase in plastic
viscosity. The influence of fine aggregate on the properties of mortar largely
depends on the paste volume in mortar. The adverse effects of poorly graded
and shaped aggregates can be eliminated or significantly reduced by increasing
the volume paste. The material properties are given in Table 3.2.
 39

Table 3.2 Material properties of fine aggregate

S.No Properties Values

1. Specific Gravity 2.65
2. Fineness modulus 2.52
3. Bulk density 1860 kg/m3
4. Water absorption 2.40%

3.2.3 Micro Steel Fibre

In general, the fibres are used to improve the tensile strength of the
concrete. Different fiber types, such as steel, glass, and polypropylene, are used
in concrete. Much research has proved that steel fibre improves the structure
tensile properties when adapted to concrete. Different steel fibers, such as
hooked, crimped, and micro steel, are available. Micro steel is used in this
study.

Figure 3.1 Micro steel fibre

 40

Micro steel is an amorphous metal that possesses greater strength

and toughness than crystalline metal and improved corrosion resistance in
harsh conditions. Micro steel fibre is one such type of material. A micro-steel
fibre shown in Figure 3.1 significantly enhances the qualities of traditional
metal-crystalline steel fibres.

Table 3.3 Physical Properties of Micro steel fibre

S.No Description Values

1 Appearance Brass coated micro steel fibre
2 Density 7890 kg/m3
3 Tensile strength 2850 MPa
4 Aspect ratio 65

Compared to crystalline metals, amorphous materials have better

structural and compositional properties. Steel wire that has been stretched and
thinner is used to create conventional steel fibre. Liquid pig iron is cooled at
the lower part of a furnace while rotating quickly to produce micro-steel, which
creates the properties of amorphous metal. The micro-steel fibre is then cut to a
predetermined thickness. The micro steel fibre is the choice of the study
because of its length. Since the fibre is small, the concrete's dispersion is
relatively easy. The physical properties as given by manufacturer are listed in
Table 3.4.
 41

Table 3.4 X-ray Diffraction test results of Micro steel fibre

S.No Compound name Chemical Formula

1 Iron Carbide (7/3) C3 Fe7
2 Manganese Nickel Silicide (0.5/0.5/1) Mn0.5 Ni0.5 Si1

The chemical composition of the Fibre is studied using the X-ray

diffraction method. The results are given in Table 3.5. The micro steel fibre
also has a protective coating with manganese nickel silicide, which prevents
corrosion.

3.2.4 Coarse Aggregate

The coarse aggregates derived from natural sources are reduced by

crushing. Hence the size of the aggregate is limited to 12mm. Well-graded
cubical or rounded aggregates are desirable. Aggregates should have uniform
quality for shape and grading. The coarse aggregate properties are tested
according to IS 2386:1963 (reaffirmed 2020) and listed in Table 3.3.

Table 3.5 Material properties of Coarse aggregate

S.No Properties Values

1. Specific gravity 2.67
2. Bulk density 2500 kg/m3
3. Water absorption 2.2%
 42

3.2.6 Super Plasticizer

Chemical admixtures known as Super Plasticizers (SP) are

frequently employed to provide the ideal workability without affecting
strength. Due to their excellent performance, Poly Carboxylate Ether
superplasticizers (PCEs) have become one of the most significant
superplasticizers for concrete.

They need minimal doses compared to other compounds, fluidize

concrete at the lower water to cement ratio, and have a prolonged slump
retention capability. Master Glenium SKY 8233 admixture is employed in the
current investigation. It is a modified poly carboxylic ether-based admixture.
For attaining the best workability, an additive dose of 0.35 percent by cement
weight was employed, as obtained by the trial mixes. The properties of the
super plasticizer as given by manufacturer is given in Table 3.8.

Table 3.6 Properties of superplasticizer

Sl. No Properties Values

1. Colour Reddish brown
2. Chloride content < 0.2%
3. Relative density 1.08 ± 0.02 at 25°C
4. pH ≥6

3.2.7 Water

One of the most critical aspects of concrete is water, which plays a

crucial role in the chemical interaction between cement and the production of
the calcium silicate hydrate gel that gives concrete its strength. The durability
of concrete is significantly influenced by the water quality used in its creation.
 43

The water used during both mixing and curing conformed to IS 456: 2000
reaffirmed at 2016 criteria.

3.2.8 Basalt

Basalt fibre is made from extremely fine rock fibres composed of

plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine. Basalt has better physic-mechanical
properties. Basalt fibre may be used extensively in reinforced composites
because of its high tensile strength and elastic modulus. Compared to glass
fibre, basalt fibre offers better electrical insulation. It is even used to produce
printed circuit boards in the electronic industry. It can be utilized as a heat-
resistant insulating material. Excellent sound and heat insulation qualities,
including good thermal stability. Due to its low thermal resistance, broad
operating range, and superior seismic performance, basalt fibre is frequently
utilized in isothermal insulation. Basalt fibre also establishes good
compatibility with carbon fibre, plastic, metal, and other materials.

Figure 3.2 Basalt fibre

There are also different types of basalt fibre, such as continuous,

chopped, and woven fibre. In this study, we have used chopped fibre of 12mm
in length, as shown in Figure 3.2. Physical properties are given by
 44

manufacturer in Table 3.6. The X-ray diffraction results of basalt fibre are used
to study the chemical composition in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7 Physical Properties of Basalt fibre

Sl. No Description Values

1. Appearance Dark brown
2. Density 2700 kg/m3
3. Tensile strength 4700 MPa
4. Aspect ratio 1200

Table 3.8 X-ray Diffraction test results of Basalt fibre

S.no Compound name Chemical Formula

1 Erbium Nickel Stannide (1/0.2/2) Er1 Ni0.2 Sn2
2 Lead Diformate - Thiourea (0.75/4) C5.5 H17.5 N8 O3 Pb0.75 S4
3 Iron Telluride Selenide (1/0.9/0.1) Fe1 Se0.1 Te0.9
Silver Bromide Tecto-alumosilicate H5.28 Ag6.8 Al6 Br1.08 O26.64
4
Hydrate (6.8/1.1/6/2.6) Si6

3.3 CONCRETE MIX

In this study, M30 concrete is used. The concrete mix proposition

was arrived according to IS 10262:2019. The mix proposition arrived is
1:1.56:2.63 with a water-binder ratio of 0.45. Steel and basalt fibre use also
have a higher carbon footprint than standard concrete. M-sand is used instead
of Natural sand to reduce the material's carbon footprint. 10% of cement
content is replaced by silica fumes also replace the cement content. The mix
proposition of concrete by weight is given by,
 45

 Cement = 394 kg/m3

 Water = 197 kg/m3
 Fine aggregate = 681.26 kg/m3
 Coarse aggregate = 1152.704 kg/m3
 Superplasticizer = 1.386 kg/m3
 Silica fume = 44 kg/m3

A preliminary study of fibre-reinforced concrete reveals that the

compressive strength of the concrete decreases with increased fibre content.
The main reason for the reduction in compressive strength is the lack of
bonding between the fibre and concrete. The second reasons suggested were
the presence of voids in the concrete. Silica fumes are added to maintain the
strength of the concrete. Since, silica fumes has fine particle size which
occupies voids between particles leading in reduction air voids.

This study uses Basalt and micro steel fibre to make fibre-reinforced
concrete. The dry ingredients are weighed and mixed in the concrete mixer.
The mixing of the dry ingredients helps prevent the fibre balling effect. Balling
effects of fibre may lead to the reduction in strength. After mixing the fibre
uniformly in concrete, water is added gradually. The concrete mix is then
poured into the required mould. The specimens are allowed to be set for 24
hours and demoulded. The demoulded specimen is allowed for curing for 28
days.

3.4 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

The concrete specimen is tested for mechanical, dynamic, and

durability performance. Compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural
strength, and impact strength tests properties assessed in this study. The
durability and the dynamic performance test are also carried out for the
 46

optimum mix. The experimental and test procedures are explained in the
following section.

3.4.1 Compressive Strength

The compressive strength test is the essential factor in determining

concrete strength. Concrete cube specimens of 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm
were placed into compression testing equipment in accordance with IS
516:1959 reaffirmed in 2018 Specifications. For all mix proportions, samples
were evaluated for compressive strength after 7 and 28 days. After the allotted
curing time, concrete cube is removed from water and surface is wiped clean of
any extra water. Specimen size is measured to the closest 2mm. compressive
testing device test surface is cleaned. Cube samples are placed in the machine
so the weight is distributed evenly throughout the cubes opposing sides.
Specimen is placed in the centre of the machine base plate, as shown in Figure
3.3. The machine moveable part is moved gently until it meets the specimen
top surface. A load is applied at a rate of 140 kg/cm2/minute on the cube until
specimen fails. The breaking load is noted.
 47

Figure 3.3 Compressive strength test

3.4.2 Split Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of concrete can be determined using a split

tensile strength test. Concrete cylinder specimens of 200 mm in length and 100
mm in diameter were used for tensile strength test. The tests were carried out in
accordance with IS 5816:1999 guidelines. The testing device should apply
continuous load without any shocks. Therefore, two bearing strips that are
25 mm broad and 3.2 mm thick are employed for this test. The specimen is
placed on the testing device, as shown in Figure 3.4. Load is applied
progressively at a pace of 0.7 to 1.4 MPa/min (1.2 to 2.4 MPa/min according to
IS 5816, 1999). Load at which specimen fractures is noted.
 48

Figure 3.4 Split Tensile strength test

3.4.3 Flexural Strength

Using the necessary concrete mix, concrete samples of 500 mm x

100 mm x 100 mm are cast and adequately cured for 28 days. Reference lines
are used to mark the location of the roller supports at a distance of 5 cm from
the specimen margins on either side. The testing apparatus wheels support the
prismatic specimens. These rollers provide support to the test environment. The
load is progressively applied through rollers on the beams axis, as shown in
Figure 3.5. In addition, the load is continually raised without abrupt changes
such that the stress in the extreme fibre rises by around 7 kg/cm2/minute. The
load is then increased to its maximum level and continued until specimen
failure. The load at failure is noted.
 49

Figure 3.5 Flexural strength test

3.4.4 Durability Performance

In this test, the specimen taken are cube specimens of 100mm.

The specimen is immersed in a 5% chemical solution for 120 days, and the
compressive strength reduction is calculated. The durability test is done using
four types of chemicals. They are sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, sodium
sulphate, and sodium hydroxide. The sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid
represent acid resistance test. The sodium sulphate and sodium hydroxide
added for sulphate resistance and alkali-resistance test. The chemicals is added
to the water, and the specimen is immersed. The specimens are taken out of
chemicals at 30, 60, 90, and 120 days to measure the weight and strength loss.
 50

3.4.5 Impact Test

A manually driven 4.54 kg impact hammer is used as the drop-

weight for impact test which has a 457 mm drop creating impact (ASTM D
1557). A flat baseplate with a positioning bracket, a hardened steel ball with a
diameter of 63.5 mm, and In addition to this device, a mould to cast concrete
specimens measuring 152 mm in diameter and 63.5 mm in thickness were used.

Figure 3.6 Impact testing machine

The steel ball serves as the drop hammer base and is held with just
enough downward pressure to prevent it from bouncing off the ball during the
test. A firm basis, such as a concrete floor or cast concrete block which is
fastened to the baseplate, as shown in Figure 3.6. The number of strikes needed
to start the first visible crack on the top and ultimately fail is counted after the
hammer is repeatedly dropped. The definition of ultimate failure is when the
 51

specimen's fractures open to the point where the concrete fragments contact
three of the baseplate's four positioning lugs.

3.4.6 Dynamic Analysis

Equipments needed for detection, analysis, and measurement of a

vibrating beams fundamental resonant frequency or period for dynamic
analysis consist of following instruments. The setup comprises an impulser, a
pickup transducer that is appropriate for converting mechanical vibration into
an electrical signal, an electronic system composed of a signal
conditioner/amplifier, a signal analyzer, a frequency readout device, and a
support structure.

The stimulating impulse is delivered by softly striking the specimen

with a proper tool. The mass of this tool should be focused at the point of
contact, and it should have enough mass to cause a detectable mechanical
vibration without physically moving or harming the specimen. In actual use,
the specimen size, weight, and force required to induce vibration are affected
by the shape and size of the impulser.

Transducers in direct touch with the specimen or noncontact

transducers can both be used for signal detection. Contact transducers are
typically piezoelectric or strain gauge accelerometers that measure vibration.
Non-contact transducers frequently employ acoustic microphones to detect
vibrations but can also use laser, magnetic, or capacitance techniques. The
transducer frequency range must be wide enough to measure the anticipated
frequencies of the target specimens. A reasonable range for most sophisticated
ceramic test specimens would be between 100 Hz and 50 kHz. Before
experiencing a 3 dB power loss, the frequency response of the transducer must
 52

span at least 10% of the highest recorded frequency in the frequency range of
interest.

The electronic system comprises a signal conditioner/amplifier,

signal analyzer, and frequency reading device. The system should be accurate
and precise enough to measure the relevant frequencies within a tolerance of
0.1%. The transducer should be powered by the signal conditioner/amplifier,
which should also be able to deliver a suitably amplified signal to the signal
analyzer. The readout device and frequency counting equipment make up the
signal analysis system. The right tools are oscilloscopes with digital storage
with a frequency counter module or frequency counter systems with storage
capabilities. A Fast Fourier Transform signal analysis system with the digital
storage oscilloscope may help analyze more complicated waveforms and
determine the fundamental resonant frequency.

The support shall serve to isolate the specimen from extraneous

vibration without restricting the desired mode of specimen vibration.
Appropriate materials should be stable at the test temperatures. Support
materials can be either soft or rigid for ambient conditions. Examples of soft
materials include a compliant elastomeric material, such as polyurethane foam
strips. Such foam strips would have flat surfaces for the specimen to rest on.
Rigid materials, such as metal or ceramic, should have sharp knife edges or
cylindrical surfaces on which the specimen should rest. The rigid supports
should be resting on isolation pads to prevent ambient vibrations from being
picked up by the transducer. The wire suspension can also be used.

An impulser, a pickup transducer that can convert mechanical

vibration into an electrical signal, an electronic system made up of a signal
conditioner/ amplifier, a signal analyzer, a frequency readout device, and a
support system makes up the test apparatus. For fundamental resonant
 53

frequency, mount the specimen to the supports at the primary nodal points,
which is 0.224 L from each end as per ASTM C215. The fundamental resonant
and torsional frequencies are collected in a data acquisition system. The sensors
impact and position for different frequency measurements are given in Figure
3.7 and Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.7 Impact and sensor points for longitudinal frequency

From the fundamental flexural frequency data. the dynamic young‘s

modulus is given equation 3.1and correction factor T1 given in equation 3.1,

Dynamic young‘s modulus, E (Pa)= ( )( ) (3.1)

 54

Where,

m-mass of the bar(g)

b -width of the bar(mm)
L- length of the bar (mm)
T – thickness of the bar(mm)
ff- fundamental resonant frequency of bar in flexure(Hz)
µ- Poisson's ratio
T1- correction factor for fundamental flexural mode

T1 = ( )( ) ()

( )( )
[ ] (3.2)
( )( )

Figure 3.8 Impact point and sensor point for Torsional frequency

From the Torsional resonant frequency, the shear modulus can be

calculated by the following equation 3.3 with corresponding correction factor
(R) in equation 3.5,
 55

Dynamic shear modulus, G (Pa) = (3.3)

– Torsional resonant frequency, Hz

R- Correction factor, which is given as

( )
R= * + ( ) ( ) (3.4)
( )
[ ]

n- the order of the resonance frequency in hz

The dynamic Poisson ratio can also be calcite using dynamic shear
modulus and dynamic young‘s modulus, as given below,

Dynamic Poisson's ratio, µ= ( ) (3.5)

3.4.7 Three-Edge Bearing Test for Concrete Pipes

Three edge bearing test is carried out in concrete pipes to test its
strength performance. This setup helps in determining the quality of the
production as per standards. As per IS 3597: 1998 (reaffirmed 2003), any
mechanical or human-powered apparatus with a head that applies the load that
moves quickly enough to uniformly increase the load by about 20% of the
anticipated crushing load per linear metre per minute can be used. The
calibration of the loading device must be accurate to within 2%. The pipe
should deflect uniformly over its whole length due to the load testing
apparatus. This investigation uses a loading frame with a hydraulic jack and
load cell. The pipes are placed in the lower bearing block with a cross-section
not more than 50mm and not less than 25mm. The inner vertical sides of the
 56

strips are separated not more than 1/12th of the specimen and not less than 25
mm. In this investigation, the lower bearing block is made of strips of 40mm.
The upper block ISMB 550 is used to evenly distribute the load over the length
of the pipe equally as shown in figure 3.9. Another I-section on top of the
present I section is placed. The load cell is placed on the above setup with a
hydraulic jack attached to the loading frame. The middle point between the
bottom bearing strips on either end of the pipe must be identified, and the
diametrically opposed points must be established. The top bearing block must
be positioned to contact the pipe's two ends at these marks.

The top bearing in the testing machine must be symmetrically

oriented after the specimen is placed in the machine on the bottom strips. The
load must be applied up until the ultimate strength load. The ultimate load and
the 0.25 mm crack are both observed. The 0.25 mm crack load is the deciding
criteria. The defining factor is when cracks appear at least 300 mm long and
0.25 mm wide, measured closely apart. The fracture is considered 0.25 mm
wide when the measuring gauge's tip is 1.5 mm at regular intervals along the
300 mm. the measuring gauge is made from a 0.25mm thick strip, which is a
taper of a 1 in 4 ratio. The width of the strip is 15mm which tapers to 1.5mm at
the end. The pipe is a failure when it can no longer support more load. The
deflection is noted using LVDT, which is connected to the Data acquisition
system. The deflection with the respective load was noted for further study.
The crushing strength in Newton per linear meter of pipe is obtained by
dividing the total load on the pipe by the actual laying length. The nominal
laying length of the specimen must be considered to represent the effective
length of the pipe. The effective length for spigot and socket terminated pipes
must match the overall length less the depth of the socket, as well as for collar
and flush jointed pipes. The overall length must equal to the effective length.
 57

Figure 3.9 Schematic diagram of three edge bearing setup

3.4.8 Permeability Test for Concrete Pipes

The concrete pipes main aim is to carry fluids. In this case, the
concrete pipes are designed as sewer pipes. The fluids must not penetrate the
 58

concrete. The penetration of the chemicals leads to deterioration of concrete

along with corrosion of reinforcement, leading to strength loss and failure of
the concrete pipes. Therefore, Permeability test and absorption test are needed
to be conducted. The permeability test setup as per IS 3597:1998, (Reaffirmed
2003) consists of a cup with a glass tube with level markings. After applying
the sealant to the cup lower portion must be placed against the pipe. Water
must be added to the cup using the wash bottle once the sealant has dried. Next,
the glass tube with the rubber stopper must be secured within the cup. The tube
will then be filled with water using a wash bottle, allowing air to escape
throughout the filling process. Every half hour for the first two hours, readings
must be taken with an initially filling glass tube up to zero, as given in Figure
3.10.

Figure 3.10 Permeability test setup

The initial absorption is taken to drop in water level at 2 hours.

The difference in any two readings shall not exceed 0.8 cm3. Refill the
standpipe with water to the zero mark, then take readings every hour for up to
four hours. The final permeability is the difference between values taken at the
 59

fourth and third hours. The test setup is placed in two places near each pipe
edge at a distance of 300mm.

The metal cup dimensions are given in Figure 3.11. A cavity is

created in the metal piece with an area of 3000 mm2. The metal cup is
connected to a glass tube of height 300mm with gradation using the rubber
stopper.
The rubber stopper helps maintain the glass tube in a vertical position. A plastic
wash bottle is used for filling the glass tube.

Figure 3.11 Metallic cup for permeability test

3.4.9 Absorption Test for Concrete Pipes

Each specimen, which will be chosen randomly, must have a square

surface measurement of 100 cm2 ± 10 % length of the pipe with a thickness
equivalent to the entire pipe. The surface of the specimen should be devoid of
any cracks. Specimens must be dried in a mechanical convection oven between
105°C and 115°C until two consecutive weight measurements. The consecutive
weight measurements were spaced no less than 8 hours apart, showing an
increase of mass loss of no more than 0.1 percent as per IS 3597:1998,
 60

(Reaffirmed 2003). The drying period must last at least 36 hours. The dry
specimen mass is the amount of mass after final drying, as measured at room
temperature. The specimens must be submerged in clean, room-temperature
water for the necessary time, generally 24 hours. After that, the specimens must
be removed from the water and left to drain for a minute. The surface water
must then be wiped away using an absorbent cloth or paper before the
specimens are immediately weighed.
 61

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON FIBRE REINFORCED

CONCRETE

4.1 CASTING OF FIBRE REINFORCED CONCRETE (FRC)

The concrete mix proposition arrived for M30 grade concrete was
used as the base for the fibre reinforced concrete. Two types of FRC are cast.
They are micro steel FRC and basalt FRC. The different volumetric fractions of
the fibre are used for the investigation. The volumetric fraction of adapted is
0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, and 1%. A total of eight FRC mixes were cast along with
conventional concrete compared for its mechanical performance. For each mix,
the specimen cast is listed in Table 4.1. A total specimen of 54 cubes, 31
prisms, 21 cylinder specimens, and 21 impact test specimens were cast to
assess the different properties. The specimens are cast and cured for 28 days to
study their mechanical and durability performance. The specimen details are
given in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Specimen details for mechanical properties for single mix

Number
S. Specimen Specimen size
Types of tests of
No shape (mm)
specimen
1. 7th day Compressive strength cube 100 x100 x100 3
2. 28th day compressive cube 100 x100 x100 3
strength
3. Split tensile test cylinder 150 dia and 3
300 height
4. Flexural test prism 100 x 100 x 500 3
5. Impact test cylinder 152 dia and 3
65 height
 62

The naming of the specimen is given in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Specimen ID of FRC

Fibre Volumetric fraction Specimen ID

Conventional Concrete (No fibre) 0 CC
0.25 BF0.25
0.5 BF0.5
Basalt
0.75 BF 0.75
1 BF
0.25 SF0.25
0.5 SF0.5
Micro steel
0.75 SF0.75
1 SF

4.2 PERFORMANCE OF FRC

4.2.1 Compressive Strength of FRC

The specimen is tested in a 300 T capacity computerized

compressive testing machine as given in the procedure. The test procedure is
carried out as per the standards. The load at the failure is noted.

Table 4.3 Compressive strength of FRC on the 7th day and 28th days

7th day mean

28th day mean
compressive Standard Standard
Specimen Compressive
strength deviation deviation
strength (N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
CC 20.2 0.76 0.00 32.5
BF0.25 21.5 0.81 6.44 33.5
BF0.5 22.4 1.1 10.89 34.5
BF 0.75 24.6 1.21 21.78 35.6
BF 24.3 1.15 20.30 34.4
SF0.25 26.1 0.98 29.21 46.2
SF0.5 26.8 0.86 32.67 48.2
SF0.75 27.5 1.21 36.14 50.1
SF 28.1 1.43 35.60 49.5
 63

On the 7th day and 28th days, compressive strength is taken as the
measurement criteria. The results obtained are given in Table 4.3. The
percentage increase in compressive strength of FRC with respect to
conventional concrete (CC) is given Figure 4.1.

60
Percentage increase in compressive strength

50

40

30

20

10

0
BF0.25h BF0.5h BF 0.75h BF SF0.25h SF0.5h SF0.75h SF

% change in 7th day with respect to CC % change in 28th day with respect to CC

Figure 4.1 Percentage increase in the Compressive strength of FRC with

respect to CC

Compressive strength is the direct measurement of mechanical

performance. With the inclusion of fibre, the behaviour of the concrete is
substantially altered. The compressive strength is increased by the basalt and
steel fibres. In contrast to basalt fibre, steel fibre exhibits a more significant rise
in strength. The basalt fibre offers a 15% improvement whereas micro steel
fibre offers a 54% improvement in compressive strength for a 0.75%
volumetric fraction of fibre. Basalt fibre tends to absorb water, resulting in a
product with less hydration. The reduction in workability is due to the water
absorption of basalt fibre. The decrease in workability adversely impacts the
strength of the concrete by decreasing compaction indirectly. Even if the
 64

current analysis demonstrates that the concrete complies with the necessary
criteria, the strength declines as the fibre concentration rises. From the
perspective of compressive strength, 0.75% of the fibre content on both fibres
results in a significant improvement in strength. The workability declines after
that point as the fibre content rises. As a result, the mix containing 1% fibre is
disregarded due to a workability problem for pipe casting, which impedes
casting in pipes. It also shows that Basalt reinforced concrete has an increase in
strength at an early age, and Micro steel reinforced concrete has a constant
increase in strength at the strength development stage. The failure pattern of the
FRC and CC are given in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Failure pattern in Compressive strength of FRC and CC

 65

4.2.2 Split Tensile Strength of FRC

The cylindrical specimens are taken out on the 28th day and dried
out. The specimen is then placed lengthwise between the two plates. The load
is applied until the failure. The split tensile strength is given in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Split Tensile strength of FRC at 28th day

Mean split tensile

Specimen ID Standard deviation
strength (N/mm2)
CC 2.48 0.78
BF0.25 2.51 0.81
BF0.5 2.58 0.95
BF 0.75 2.65 1.20
BF 2.74 1.10
SF0.25 2.81 1.3
SF0.5 2.98 0.85
SF0.75 3.14 0.78
SF 3.44 0.94

Micro steel fibre has better tensile strength than the other two
specimens, similar to compressive strength. In general, adding fibre to concrete
increases its tensile strength.
 66

45

Percentage increase in split Tensile 40

35
sterngth compared to CC

30

25

20

15

10

0
CC BF0.25 BF0.5 BF 0.75 BF SF0.25 SF0.5 SF0.75 SF

Figure 4.3 Percentage increase in the Split Tensile strength of FRC when
compared to CC

The mean split tensile strength of concrete reinforced with micro

steel fibres has significantly increased. The typical mix has a mean split tensile
strength of 2.48N/mm2. The results as shown in figure 4.3 indicates that adding
basalt fibre enhances maximum tensile strength up to 10% with 1% of fibre
content, whereas adding micro steel fibre in concrete gradually increases
tensile strength up to 40% with 1% of fibre content. The failure pattern of FRC
and CC is given in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Failure pattern in split tensile strength of FRC and CC

 67

4.2.3 Flexural Strength of FRC

The prism is used for the testing of the flexural test. The specimen is
loaded in the support after marking. The prism is then loaded. The prism tends
to deflect, and cracks are formed. The distance of the crack is noted. The
calculations are made. The results are given in Table 4.5. The Micro steel fibre
reinforced concrete flexure strength is more than that of basalt reinforced
concrete.

The Conventional concrete specimen showed signs of a brittle

failure and split into two parts. The steel-reinforced concrete produces a certain
degree of ductility, and the model can be seen as the fibre tries to join the
pieces together. While the flexure strength of the basalt-reinforced concrete is
lower than other concrete mixes, the specimen's fracture width is still relatively
small. Compared to steel-reinforced concrete, the ductility of the material is
exceptionally high. Concrete failure is a result of both pullout failure and
concrete failure.

Table 4.5 Flexural strength of FRC on the 28th day

Mean flexural strength Standard

Specimen ID
(N/mm2) deviation
CC 3.95 0.98
BF0.25 4.12 0.75
BF0.5 4.4 0.95
BF 0.75 4.61 1.3
BF 4.75 0.64
SF0.25 4.6 1.1
SF0.5 5.61 1.24
SF0.75 5.8 0.78
SF 6.55 0.91
 68

Figure 4.5 shows that the fibre inclusion increase in the flexural
strength. The increase in strength is directly propositional to fibre content.
The Basalt reinforced concrete has a 20.25% increase and Micro steel
reinforced concrete 65.82% for 1% volumetric fibre fraction.

70
Percentage increase of Flexural

60
strength compared to CC

50

40

30

20

10

0
CC BF0.25 BF0.5 BF 0.75 BF SF0.25 SF0.5 SF0.75 SF

Figure 4.5 Percentage increase in the Flexural strength of FRC when

compared to CC

Figure 4.6 Failure pattern of flexural strength in FRC and CC

 69

4.2.4 Impact Test of FRC

The number of blows at first crack and the number of blows at

failure are measured as given in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Results of Impact Test for FRC

Specimen ID Number of blows for crack Number of blows for failure

CC 127 137
BF0.25 60 72
BF0.5 86 104
BF0.75 131 169
BF 139 187
SF0.25 450 560
SF0.5 627 791
SF0.75 850 1174
SF 1150 1657

The blows indicate the resistance of the specimen. The comparison

should be made in terms of impact energy absorption capacity to accurately
assess the influence of drop height on impact resistance. Transforming the
number of blows to the absorbed energy would allow a more accurate
comparison of all specimens. The number of blows assesses the resistance to
repeated impact load regardless of the applied impact force. The specimen's
ability to withstand the impact energy of a particular number of blows (N) of a
given drop mass (W) from a given drop height (H). The absorbed energy is
given as,
 70

Ei = N = N(WgH) (4.1)

Where g -acceleration due to gravity,

V - impact velocity

Flexural ductility is the capacity for flexural members, such as

beams and slabs, to tolerate plastic deformation. The ductility index is
computed by dividing the deformation at failure, or a specific point within the
post-peak zone, by that at the yielding point of steel tension. The results of the
impact strength are given in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7 Impact strength at first crack and failure

Specimen Absorbed energy at the first Absorbed energy at

ID crack in KJ failure KJ
CC 263.50 284.24
BF0.25 124.49 149.38
BF0.5 178.43 215.78
BF0.75 271.80 350.64
BF 288.39 387.98
SF0.25 933.65 1161.88
SF0.5 1300.89 1641.15
SF0.75 1763.56 2435.79
SF 2386.00 3437.91

This formulation assumes that the relationship between load and

deformation is elastic before yielding and plastic. If the capacity of the disc
specimens to absorb impact energy within plastic energy can be described by
 71

such a concept, then the cracking number (L1) may be regarded to represent the
end of elastic behaviour and the beginning of plastic behaviour. Therefore, the
ratio of the failure impact number (L2) to the cracking impact number (L1) can
be used to represent an impact ductility index. The results of the ductility index
are given in Table 4.8.

Table 4.8 Impact ductility index

Specimen ID Impact ductility index

CC 1.08
BF0.25 1.20
BF0.5 1.21
BF0.75 1.29
BF 1.35
SF0.25 1.24
SF0.5 1.26
SF0.75 1.38
SF 1.44

The study of fibre reinforced concrete helps identify the concrete

that could be employed in making Functionally graded material. The above
results show that an increment in the fibre positively affects the strength
perspective of the concrete. Concrete with 0.75% fibre content is considered a
functionally graded material considering strength and workability. The
reduction in workability also leads to increased voids and increased porosity.
 72

Figure 4.7 Crack pattern of Micro steel FRC

The Micro steel FRC showed indentation, as in Figure 4.7, leading

to microcracks formation and finally to failure. The basalt fibre shows brittle
failure, as given in figure 4.8, similar to conventional concrete.

Figure 4.8 Crack pattern of Basalt FRC

The number of blows and impact strength is higher in micro steel

FRC than basalt fibre reinforced and conventional concrete, as shown in
Figures 4.9 and 4.10. The micro steel FRC showed very high impact strength,
and the basalt FRC showed lesser impact strength. For a 1% volumetric
 73

fraction of fibre, the maximum percentage increase in the Impact strength is

observed as 271.43% and 8.91% for Micro steel reinforced FRC and Basalt
fibre reinforced FRC, respectively.

1800

1600

1400
Number of blows

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
CC BF0.25 BF0.5 BF0.75 BF SF0.25 SF0.5 SF0.75 SF

Number of blows at first crack Number of blows at failure

Figure 4.9 Number of blows of FRC compared to CC

4000

3500

3000
Impact strength (kJ)

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
CC BF0.25 BF0.5 BF0.75 BF SF0.25 SF0.5 SF0.75 SF

Impact strength Impact strength at failure

Figure 4.10 Impact strength of FRC compared to CC

 74

The graph also indicates that the basalt fibre presence reduced the
impact strength of the concrete. The impact strength tends to increase with an
increase in fibre content. The scenario indicates that the basalt fibre does not
have a significant influence. It even diminishes the strength of concrete with
less fibre content. When the fibre content increases, the impact strength
increases. The basalt reinforced concrete with a volumetric fraction of fibre
greater than 0.75% has shown higher performance than conventional concrete.

The ductility index improved by incorporating the fibre, as given in

Figure 4.11. The increase in fibre content increases the ductility of the
concrete. The ductility index also indicates that the impact strength at the first
crack is propositional to the impact strength at failure. It also signifies that the
fibre acts similar pattern in impact, but the variation is in the strength of the
fibre to withstand the drop load.

40

35
Percentage increase in ductility index

30
compared with CC

25

20

15

10

0
SF0.25 SF0.5 SF0.75 SF BF0.25 BF0.5 BF0.75 BF

Figure 4.11 Percentage increase in Ductility Index of FRC

compared to CC
 75

CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON FUNCTIONALLY GRADED

CONCRETE

5.1 CASTING OF FUNCTIONALLY GRADED CONCRETE

(FGC)

The functional gradation can be created using two methods:

continuous casting and layerwise casting of concrete. Layerwise casting is
preferred for the construction industry due to its simplicity in the procedure.
Continuous casting requires high-end equipment, which is not affordable.
Many types of research are also going on to develop an easy casting method,
including preplacing aggregate and fibre on the specimen and pouring the
cement grout to fill the specimen. These methods proved to be tedious. In the
layering method, the layers are cast in two methods. The first layer of concrete
is poured, consolidated, and set for 30 to 45 minutes then the second layer is
cast above the first layer. The second method is to cast the first and second
layers without a time gap creating a fusible layer between the two layers. This
study uses the first methods for producing FGC in layering.

In this study, the two layer FGC is used. This functionally gradation
are arrived based on the needs of the concrete pipe. The outer layer will be the
made of FRC so that it can sustain loads and the inner layer can act as a regular
pipe.. The specimen is cast using layerwise technique. The first layer is cast
with fibre reinforced concrete (BF0.75 and SF0.75) and the other layer is with
regular concrete, which is cast at an interval of 45 mins. The basis is to allow
concrete to set in its initial setting time. The first layer is allowed to set. The
 76

merging of the layers after 35min is prevented. The extra 10 mins is also added
to perfectly set the concrete. The thickness of the fibre reinforced concrete
layer varied with respect to the whole thickness. The thickness of fibre
reinforced concrete varied at 25%, 50%, and 75% of the overall thickness, as
shown in the Figure 5.1. The mechanical properties of two-layer FGC is
evaluated in the chapter.

Figure 5.1 Functionally Graded Concrete with varying thickness of FRC

Six FGC mix specimens, 2 FRC specimens and one conventional

concrete were cast and tested to arrive the mechanical properties with the
conventional mix.

Table 5.1 Specimen Details for mechanical properties

Specimen shape Number of specimen Specimen size (mm)

Cube 36 100 x 100 x 100
Cylinder 18 100 x 100 x 100
Prism 18 100 x 100 x 500

The cast specimen was cured for 28 days in normal potable water.
After 28 days, the specimen is taken and air-dried for testing. The specimen ID
is given in Table 5.2.
 77

Table 5.2 Specimen ID for FGC

Percentage of Height of FRC to

S. No Specimen ID
overall height (h)
1. CC 0
2. BF0.25h 25
3. BF0.5h 50
4. BF 0.75h 75
5. BF 100
6. SF0.25h 25
7. SF0.5h 50
8. SF0.75h 75
9. SF 100

5.2 PERFORMANCE OF FGC

The cured specimen is subjected to testing, which helps us to

understand the behaviour of different FGC. The mechanical performance of the
FGC is taken as the main criteria for developing cross-section of FGC pipes.

5.2.1 Compressive Strength of FGC

The functional gradation can be created using two methods:

continuous casting and layerwise casting of concrete. Layerwise casting is
preferred for the construction industry due to its simplicity in the procedure.
Continuous casting requires high-end equipment, which is not affordable.
Many types of research are also going on to develop an easy casting method,
including preplacing aggregate and fibre on the specimen and pouring the
cement grout to fill the specimen. These methods proved to be tedious.
 78

Functionally gradation is created using the layering technique.

The specimen consisted of two-layer. The first layer is fibre reinforced
concrete, and the other layer is regular concrete, which is cast at an interval of
45 mins. The thickness of the fibre reinforced concrete layer varied with
respect to the whole thickness and mechanical properties were studied. The
thickness of FRC varied in the range of 25%, 50%, and 75% to the overall
thickness. The respective compressive strength is given in Table 5.3. Under
compressive force, the Functionally graded cubes compressive strength is
tested, and the strength is computed. Compared to the standard mix, the
compressive strength of the Functionally graded specimen with steel fibre
integration is higher. Specimen SF0.75h has greater strength when compared to
fiber-reinforced concrete.

A conventional concrete layer with fewer voids than the FRC may
cause a difference in strength between FRC (BF and SF) and FGC (BF0.75 and
SF0.75). Basalt fibre exhibits a similar kind of behaviour as well.

Table 5.3 Compressive strength of FGC

7th day mean 28th day mean

Specimen Standard Standard
compressive compressive
ID deviation deviation
strength (N/mm2) strength (N/mm2)
CC 20.20 0.76 32.50 0.66
BF0.25h 21.10 0.81 34.50 0.91
BF0.5h 22.60 1.10 36.40 1.12
BF 0.75h 25.20 1.21 37.50 1.31
BF 24.60 1.15 35.60 1.21
SF0.25h 23.50 0.98 45.10 0.98
SF0.5h 26.60 0.86 51.20 0.81
SF0.75h 28.80 1.21 53.40 0.78
SF 27.50 1.43 50.10 0.74
 79

The increase of the 7th and 28th day compressive strength was 24.75
and 15.38% for the volumetric fraction of basalt fibre 0.75 %. Similarly, the
increase in the 7th and 28th day compressive strength was 42.57 and 64.31% for
a volumetric fraction of micro steel 0.75 % as shown in Figure 5.2.

70
Percentage increase in Compressive strength

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
CC BF0.25 BF0.5 BF 0.75 BF SF0.25 SF0.5 SF0.75 SF

In 7th day compared to CC In 28th day compared to CC

Figure 5.2 Percentage increase in Compressive strength of FGC

5.2.2 Split Tensile Strength of FGC

The specimen is tested after 28 days of curing. The split tensile

strength is placed in the testing setup, and load is applied. The specimen is
loaded until failure.
 80

Table 5.4 Split tensile strength of FGC

Standard
Specimen ID Mean split tensile strength (N/mm2)
deviation
CC 2.48 0.78
BF0.25h 2.68 0.81
BF0.5h 2.71 1.21
BF 0.75h 2.74 1.10
BF 2.80 1.32
SF0.25h 3.31 0.98
SF0.5h 3.37 1.31
SF0.75h 3.44 0.94
SF 3.47 0.86

As demonstrated in Table 5.4, the specimen split tensile strength of

FGC improves as the thickness of the fibre reinforced concrete in the cross-
section increases. The presence of fibre is primarily responsible for the rise.

45
Percentage increase in split tensile strength

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
CC BF0.25h BF0.5h BF 0.75h BF SF0.25h SF0.5h SF0.75h SF

Figure 5.3 Percentage increase in Split tensile strength of FGC

 81

With the addition of the fibre-reinforced portion, the behaviour of

the steel and basalt fibres is similar behaviour as shown in Figure 5.3. The
concrete has a relatively low tensile strength yet is strong in compression. The
fibre in the concrete provides it with tensile properties.

5.2.3 Flexural Strength of FGC

The prism specimen is placed in the testing setup for flexural

strength. The variation to conventional concrete is calculated to understand the
behaviour.
Table 5.5 Flexural strength of FGC

Specimen ID Mean flexural strength (N/mm2) Standard deviation

CC 3.95 0.98
BF0.25h 4.15 1.20
BF0.5h 4.30 0.78
BF 0.75h 4.75 0.64
BF 4.90 1.13
SF0.25h 5.80 0.85
SF0.5h 6.35 0.76
SF0.75h 6.55 0.91
SF 6.70 0.68

Table 5.5 provides information on the FGC's flexural strength. The

results show that flexural strength increases with the increase in FRC thickness.
As the fibre content rises, so does the concrete's flexural strength. The flexural
strength of steel fibre is higher than that of conventional concrete. The basalt
fibre significantly influences the post fracture behaviour. With more basalt
fibre reinforced FGC, the crack's width was significantly decreased as shown in
 82

Figure 5.4. With Basalt reinforced concrete, the cracks ability to spread has
been decreased. The percentage increase of flexural strength is also significant
in Basalt reinforced FGC and Micro steel reinforced FGC as given in Figure
5.4. The maximum increase of 24.05% and 69.62% for Basalt reinforced FGC
and Micro Steel reinforced FGC compared to Conventional concrete, for 1%
volumetric fraction of fibre.

80
Percentage increase in flexural strength

70

60
compared to CC

50

40

30

20

10

0
BF0.25h BF0.5h BF 0.75h BF SF0.25h SF0.5h SF0.75h SF

Figure 5.4 Failure pattern and percentage increase in flexural strength

of FGC
 83

5.2.4 Durability Performance of FGC

From the mechanical performance of the different FGC, the FGC

with 75% height of FRC in the overall height is found to be optimum. This
specimen is subjected to a durability test. The specimen is subjected to
different types of chemicals. The weight loss at 30 days, 45 days, 60 days, 90
days, and 120 days are measured. The specimen is taken out, and the surface is
cleaned.

The specimen is allowed to dry, and the weight of the specimen is

measured. The compressive strength at 120 days is also tested.

5.2.4.1 Effect of Sodium sulphate

The specimen is surrounded by a crystalline substance when left in

the solution for longer without disturbing it. The specimen is subjected to an
increase in weight gain. The weight at different times is recorded in Table 5.6.

Table 5.6 Weight of specimen immersed in the sodium sulphate solution

Weight in kg
Specimen ID Initial
30 days 45 days 60days 90 days 120 days
weight
CC 2.43 2.43 2.43 2.43 2.43 2.43
BF0.75h 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.37 2.38
SF0.75h 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.57 2.57

The weight gain in the overall period is significantly less. The

specimen cross-section does not show any change. Even the edges are
unaffected, as given in Figure 5.5.
 84

Figure 5.5 Specimen after 120 days immersion in Na2SO4

Conventional concrete does not show any increase in weight.

The Micro steel reinforced FGC showed higher weight gain, and the basalt
fibre showed a linear increase in the weight gain, as shown in Figure 5.6.

0.90
0.80
Percentage of weight gain (%)

0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
30 days 45 days 60days 90 days 120 days
weight gain due to sodium sulphate

CC BF0.75h SF0.75h

Figure 5.6 Percentage of weight gain on different days for Na2SO4

 85

Contrary to the weight gain, the strength of conventional concrete

decreases drastically compared to FGC. The basalt reinforced FGC has 1.6%,
and Micro steel reinforced FGC has a 1.2% strength loss. The micro steel
reinforced FGC has higher strength when considering the effect of sodium
sulphate solution, as given in Table 5.7.

Table 5.7 Strength loss when immersed in Sodium Sulphate at 120 days

Specimen ID Strength loss %

CC 2.4
BF0.75h 1.6
SF0.75h 1.2

5.2.4.2 Effect of Sodium Hydroxide

The specimen immersed in the sodium hydroxide shows a similar

profile as the specimen immersed in the sodium sulphate solution. The
specimen after 120 days is given in Figure 5.7. The specimen surface showed
amorphous deposition when left for a longer period.

Figure 5.7 Specimen after 120 days of immersion in NaOH

 86

The weight gain is observed as the day progresses. The weight

observed in 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120 days is listed in Table 5.8.

Table 5.8 Weight of specimen immersed in the sodium hydroxide solution

Weight in kg
Specimen ID Initial
30 days 45 days 60 days 90 days 120 days
weight
CC 2.46 2.46 2.46 2.46 2.46 2.47
BF0.75h 2.53 2.53 2.53 2.53 2.53 2.54
SF0.75h 2.59 2.59 2.59 2.59 2.59 2.60

The weight gain percentage of the FGC are similar even though
there is a slight difference in the initial period. Conventional concrete has lesser
weight gain, but at 120 days of immersion, the overall weight gain is similar to
other FGC. This specimen weight gain is shown in Figure 5.8.

0.45
0.40
Percentage of weight gain (%)

0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
30 days 45 days 60days 90 days 120 days
weight gain due to sodium hydroxide

CC BF0.75h SF0.75h

Figure 5.8 Percentage of weight gain on different days for NaOH

 87

The strength loss patterns are similar to specimens immersed in

sodium sulphate. The conventional concrete showed a higher percentage
strength loss of 5.1%. The strength loss of the FGC is less when compared to
conventional concrete, as listed in Table 5.9.

Table 5.9 Strength loss of concrete in Sodium Hydroxide at 120 days

Specimen ID Strength loss %

CC 5.1
BF0.75h 2.6
SF0.75h 2.1

5.2.4.3 Effect of Hydrochloric acid

The specimen immersed in sulphuric acid showed a significant

cross-sectional loss. The reduction in the cross-section leads to strength loss.
The specimen immersed in Hydrochloric acid showed a change in the colour of
the concrete. The micro steel fibre presence on the surface is dissolved in
hydrochloric acid. The presence of the chloride ion causes pitting in the
concrete, as shown in Figure 5.9.
 88

Figure 5.9 Surface colour change and pitting corrosion on the surface

The weight loss is observed in the specimen subjected to immersion

in Hydrochloric acid. Weight loss is in a fraction of grams in the total weight of
the specimen as given in Table 5.10.

Table 5.10 Weight of specimen immersed in the hydrochloric acid solution

Weight in kg
Specimen ID Initial
30 days 45 days 60days 90 days 120 days
weight
CC 2.34 2.33 2.32 2.32 2.32 2.32
BF0.75h 2.41 2.39 2.38 2.36 2.32 2.3
SF0.75h 2.56 2.53 2.51 2.49 2.49 2.49

The specimen immersed in hydrochloric acid showed an interesting

pattern. The Micro steel reinforced FGC showed higher weight loss. Weight
loss may be due to the loss of micro steel fibre on the surface. The micro steel
on the surface is completely corroded and dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The
basalt reinforced FGC shows an initial loss, and after 60 days, the weight loss
 89

seems to be a plateau which may be explained due to the presence of fibre. The
basalt fibre prevents acid attacks. The basalt fibre does not show any reaction
to the hydrochloric acid as hown in Figure 5.10.

5.0
4.5
Percentage weight loss (%)

4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
30 days 45 days 60days 90 days 120 days
Weight loss due to Hydrocloric acid

CC BF0.75h SF0.75h

Figure 5.10 Percentage of weight loss on different days for HCl

The strength loss of conventional concrete is higher up to 8.2% as

given in Table 5.11. Even though the weight loss of Micro steel reinforced
expressed higher weight loss, exposure to an acidic environment does not affect
the strength aspect.

Table 5.11 Strength loss of concrete in hydrochloric acid at 120 days

Specimen ID Strength loss %

CC 8.2
BF0.75h 6.7
SF0.75h 5.1
 90

5.2.4.4 Effect of Sulphuric acid

The adverse effect in concrete is observed for specimen immersed in

sulphuric acid. The reduction of the cross-section is pronounced in the
specimen. The specimens show a prominent reduction in the cross-section, as
shown in the figure. The most weight loss is observed in conventional concrete.

Figure 5.11 Specimen immersed in sulphuric acid after 120 days

The Micro steel reinforced FGC also showed a reduction in the

cross-section. The micro steel fibre present in the surface got dissolved, similar
to hydrochloric acid. The basalt fibre showed resistance against sulphuric acid
and prevented further chemical penetration into the specimen, as shown in
Figure 5.11.
 91

Table 5.12 Weight of specimen immersed in the Sulphuric acid solution

Weight in kg
Specimen ID weight of
30 days 45 days 60days 90 days 120 days
specimen
CC 2.4 1.75 1.63 1.58 1.46 1.39
BF0.75h 2.45 2.18 2.08 2.00 1.96 1.93
SF0.75h 2.51 1.88 1.75 1.70 1.63 1.55

The weight loss of the specimen is listed in Table 5.12. The weight
loss is similar in all three specimens. The basalt reinforced FGC shows less
weight loss than other specimens as shown in Figure 5.12. The loss in Micro
steel reinforced FGC is similar to conventional concrete.

45

40
Percentage weight loss (%)

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
30 days 45 days 60days 90 days 120 days
Weight loss due to Sulphuric acid

BF0.75h SF0.75h CC

Figure 5.12 Percentage of weight loss on different days

 92

The strength loss is maximum in conventional concrete. The Micro

steel FRC and Basalt FRC showed much less strength loss when compared to
conventional concrete, as shown in Figure 5.13. The basalt reinforced FGC
showed a lesser reduction in cross-section with higher chemical resistance.
Basalt fibre did not react with chemicals, even with acid. The Basalt even
prevented penetration of the chemicals inside the concrete.

Table 5.13 Strength loss in concrete immersed in H2SO4 at 120 days

Specimen ID Strength loss %

CC 38
BF0.75h 28
SF0.75h 22

The overall performance of specimens exposed to the different

chemical environments as shown in Table 5.13.

40

35

30
Strength Loss %

25

20

15

10

0
H₂SO₄ HcL NaOH Na₂SO₄

CC BF0.75h SF0.75h

Figure 5.13 Overall performance of the FRC and CC specimen

 93

5.2.5 Impact Strength of FGC

The impact test of the FGC indicates that the fibre has initially
formed a dent, and the cracks are minor. The first cracks are brittle for
conventional concrete. At the failure, the Y-shaped failure pattern is typical
with fibre as shown in Figure 5.14. The fibre reinforced layer is subjected to
impact.

Figure 5.14 Impact test results of Micro steel FGC

The impact strength of the Micro steel FGC performs well compared
to Basalt FGC and conventional concrete. The presence of fibre improved the
performance of concrete. Even at failure, the fibre embedded in concrete does
not allow disintegration of the concrete. The cast specimen is subjected to
impact. The number of blows at crack and failure is noted and tabulated in
Table 5.14.
 94

Table 5.14 Impact test for FGC

Number of blows required

Specimen ID
At first crack At Failure
CC 127 137
BF0.75h 137 154
SF0.75h 750 1457

Steel fibres had a significant beneficial influence on impact

resistance because they were able to bridge the micro cracks that impact
loading caused. This capacity reflected the steel fibres ability to withstand
effective tensile loads and maintain the link between the cracks on two sides.
As a result, the initial visible crack recording was postponed by multiple
impact hits. When the fractures grew apparent and continuous, the tensile stress
resistance provided by the fibres increased with each blow, even though the
fibres were still connecting the two sides of the cracks. As a result, the failure
was delayed for several strikes before finally breaking the link between the
concrete matrix and fibres, where the pullout of fibres was the most often seen
failure type. Another potential failure is the breaking of fibres, which happens
when a strong enough link is established between the fibres and the concrete
matrix. As a result, fibres attain their tensile strength while bond shearing
remains below bond strength. In the current experiment, bond failure was
caused mainly by relatively short fibre lengths, which resulted in shorter
development lengths inside the matrix and across the cracks.

Four phases are used to describe the advancement of the failure

mechanism. They are localized contact damage on the specimen's top surface
brought on by applying drop weight, matrix failure, fibre failure, and fibre
debonding. Contact damage refers to a cement matrix that has been harmed in
 95

the direction of the force of impact. The specimen's transverse shear stress
caused inner debonding, which led to matrix collapse. The compression
bending on the impact plane caused the fibre and matrix failure. Tensile
bending at the surface bottom led to fibre debonding.

Table 5.15 Impact strength of FGC

Specimen ID Impact strength (kJ) Impact strength at failure (kJ)

CC 263.50 284.24
BF0.75h 284.24 319.52
SF0.75h 1556.09 3022.95

The number of blows helps determine impact strength at first crack

and failure. The impact strength indicates the effect of the fibre present in the
concrete as given in Table 5.15. When the break started, a significant quantity
of initial kinetic energy was transmitted to the fibre. Research proved that the
fibres tended to stop fractures, and more energy was lost to the surrounding
concrete zones.

The ductility also improved with the presence of fibre. The ductility
index also indicates that the micro steel FGC has higher ductility than other
concrete mixes as given in Table 5.16. The capacity of a structure to absorb
plastic energy and endure plastic deformations is measured in terms of ductility
in general. The impact ductility index is another behaviour that helps compared
to the other types of concrete.
 96

Table 5.16 Impact ductility index of FGC

Specimen ID Impact ductility index

CC 1.08
BF0.75h 1.12
SF0.75h 1.94

Fibres improve the energy absorbed once a fracture forms under

tensile pressures, improving the capacity to absorb more significant plastic
deformation and subsequently enhancing ductility.

5.2.6 Dynamic Analysis of FGC

The specimen is subjected to impact force with the hammer, and the
vibration frequency is measured with the sensor. Cables connect the input
signal (hammer) and output vibration (sensor) to the data acquisition system as
shown in Figure 5.15. The different kind of vibration can be measured. They
are fundamental longitudinal frequency and fundamental torsional frequency.
The data obtained are then cleared of vibrational noises, and the frequency is
taken for calculating the dynamic properties.

Figure 5.15 Setup for Dynamic analysis of specimen

 97

The vibrational readings are recorded as shown in Figure 5.16.

Different types of analysis are performed according to the ASTM E1876-15
(Standard Test Method for Dynamic Young‘s Modulus, Shear Modulus, and
Poisson‘s Ratio by Impulse Excitation of Vibration).

8.00E-04
7.00E-04
6.00E-04
Acceration m/s2

5.00E-04
4.00E-04
3.00E-04
2.00E-04
1.00E-04
0.00E+00
0.00E+00
5.00E+02
1.00E+03
1.50E+03
2.00E+03
2.50E+03
3.00E+03
3.50E+03
4.00E+03
4.50E+03
5.00E+03
Frequency (Hz)

acceleration 1 acceleration 2 acceleration 3 acceleration 4

Figure 5.16 Longitudinal frequency obtained using FFT analyzer

According to standards, the youngs modulus is calculated. The

dynamic youngs modulus indicates that micro steel reinforced FGC has a
higher dynamic youngs modulus than basalt reinforced FGC and conventional
concrete.

Table 5.17 Dynamic Young’s modulus of the FGC

Sl.No Specimen ID Dynamic Young’s Modulus (Gpa)

1. CC 29.79

2. BF0.75h 30.08

3. SF0.75h 31.75
 98

The impulse and the sensor points differ in the measurement of

torsional frequency. The acceleration to frequency is noted as shown in
Figures 5.17. The frequency in the modal point with higher acceleration is
considered for calculations. The results of Dynamic youngs modulus and
Dynamic shear modulus are tabulated in Table 5.17 and Table 5.18.

8.00E-04

7.00E-04

6.00E-04
Acceleration m/s2

5.00E-04

4.00E-04

3.00E-04

2.00E-04

1.00E-04

0.00E+00
0.00E+00 1.00E+03 2.00E+03 3.00E+03 4.00E+03 5.00E+03
Frequency (Hz)

acceleration 1 acceleration 2 acceleration 3 acceleration 4

Figure 5.17 Torsional frequency obtained using FFT analyzer

Table 5.18 Dynamic shear modulus

Sl.No Specimen Dynamic shear Modulus (Gpa)

1. CC 12.46

2. BF0.75h 13.58

3. SF0.75h 12.79
 99

The dynamic youngs modulus and dynamic shear modulus help

calculate the dynamic poison ratio in Table 5.19. The micro steel reinforced
FGC has higher dynamic properties than other specimens.

Table 5.19 Dynamic Poisson’s ratio

Specimen Dynamic Poisson’s ratio

CC 0.169
BF0.75h 0.176
SF0.75h 0.195
 100

CHAPTER 6

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON FUNCTIONALLY GRADED

CONCRETE PIPES

From the above investigation, high-performance functionally graded

concrete is used for casting concrete pipes. Concrete pipes are tested for
strength and the post crack analysis is studied to detailed understanding of
behaviour. The pipes are also investigated for permeability and absorption
properties.

6.1 CASTING OF FUNCTIONALLY GRADED CONCRETE

PIPES

The optimum depth of layers were arrived from the detailed

experimental study conducted on FRC and FGC which are presented in chapter
4 and 5. The proposed Functionally graded pipes consist of two layers from the
above result. One layer consists of a Conventional mix and another layer of
FRC. Functionally graded pipes are cast using the spunning method in a
commercial precast yard in velakovil district. The centrifugal force helps in
consolidation and the formation of the thickness. The properties of concrete
pipes are listed in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 Properties of concrete pipes

S.No Properties Value

1. Diameter 450mm
2. Length 2m
3. Main reinforcement 8 numbers of 6mm dia mild steel rod
Secondary Spiral reinforcement with 4mm
4.
reinforcement @200 mm spacing
 101

All pipes confirm type ASTM C76 Class III Reinforced pipes and
IS458 Class NP3, reinforced concrete medium-duty, non-pressure pipes. They
have targeted pipe strength for Dload(0.3) 0.3mm and Dload(ult) ultimate 65N/m and
100N/m, respectively. The pipes are cast on the same day to minimize the
influence on the environment effects in the production process.

Figure 6.1 Cross Section of FGC pipes

The pipe production process begins with batching all ingredients

(cement, aggregates, fibre, water, and admixture). The cylindrical mould is
lubricated. The placement of the reinforcement cage inside the mould and
covers are tightened, as shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Reinforcement for the concrete pipes

 102

Mixing the ingredient is done and fed into the centrifugal spunning
unit, which distributes evenly due to centrifugal force. Centrifugal forces in the
pipe help consolidate the concrete inside the mould. Two batches of concrete
were prepared based on the thickness of the fibre reinforced concrete. The
volume calculation helps in the approximate prediction of the thickness
developed. The thickness development is measured using a diameter measuring
range finder laser measuring instrument (Bosch GL40). The casting of the
second layer continued using the same method up to the required thickness.

The production of concrete pipes with an internal diameter of

450mm and a thickness of 75mm. Finally, the surface is polished. The concrete
was allowed to be set for 24 hours. The specimen was kept in a curing tank for
28 days, like the concrete specimen, as shown in Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3 Casting and curing of FGC pipes

6.2 THREE EDGE BEARING TEST

Three edge bearing tests for pipes are conducted according

to ASTM C497M-16 and IS 3597(1998), and the test setup is shown in
 103

Figure 6.4. The testing setup consisted of a lower bearing block. The pipe is
seated in the lower bearing block. A standard I-section was placed on top of the
concrete pipe, and the loading was applied at the centre using a Jack of 100
tons capacity attached to a loading frame.

The test setup consists of a lower bearing block with a steel frame
attached concrete base. Steel frame provides rigidity for the application of the
maximum load. The above lower bearing block consists of a steel bar with a
rounded edge to keep the pipe in place. The bearing strips are placed parallel
with spacing that should not exceed 25 mm per 300mm of the specimen
diameter. The spacing provided is 50mm, which falls under the required
standards.

Figure 6.4 Experimental setup for Three Edge Bearing Test

The bearing strips are 30mm in thickness. These lower bearings are
attached to solid steel and concrete bases. The upper bearing block consists of
the steel I section of ISMB 550 to distribute the load equally over the required
 104

length. The lower bearing block was attached to the concrete base, and the pipe
was placed on the bearing strips. The upper bearing block is placed above the
pipe. The load cell was attached to a jack. The LVDT of sensitivity of
0.001mm was used for measuring the deflection of pipes. The deflection and
the load are recorded using a universal Data acquisition system with AI8000
software and a control system.

The loading is applied on the upper loading I-section, and the load is
transferred to the pipe uniformly. The deflection was measured using an LVDT
placed at the centre of the pipe near the loading cell. The deflection of the pipe
was recorded for the specified loading intervals. The specimen was subjected to
uniform loading over the pipe. The load at 0.03mm crack width is noted.

A flexural failure mechanism was defined by longitudinal cracks at

the crown, invert, and spring lines in all tested pipes. This investigation found
no typical failure cases linked to steel cage reinforcement failure in concrete
pipes. The inner side along the invert continually develops the initial fractures
under loading, followed by cracks in the spring lines. Significant cracks
develop along the pipe's length, longitudinally along the quadrant. When the
load progressed, the cracks width and length grew. The crown, invert, and
spring line fractures gained the most attention. No other types of cracking were
seen, as was noted. The secondary fractures appear to develop as branching
hairline cracks from the primary cracks after the ultimate stress. The pipe's
spring line is where the secondary fractures developed. In the middle of the
pipe, the secondary fractures begin to emerge, branching out to the end. In
pipes made of functionally graded concrete, the branching angle ranges from 0°
to 60° at various points, while in pipes made of Conventional concrete mix, it
ranges from 0° to 90°.
 105

6.2.1 The Crack Pattern on Conventional Concrete Pipes

The formation of cracks is unpredictable. The cracks most likely

occur in the spring line and the crown. Failures occur at random places. At the
collapse, the concrete crumbles. The direction of the fractures' branching is
similarly erratic. The secondary fractures also branch out up to 90 degrees, as
shown in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5 Irregular crack in Conventional concrete

The vertical cracks are also formed as the major cracks on the other
side of the pipes, as shown in Figure 6.6. The total collapse of the specimen
occurred at the failure. The failure of the concrete occurs majorly along the
quadrant.
 106

Figure 6.6 Vertical cracks in Conventional concrete

The crushing of the concrete occurs. The total collapse of the

specimen occurs at the failure. A complete breakdown of the specimen occurs,
as shown in Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7 Crushing of concrete at the cross-section

 107

6.2.2 The Crack Pattern on Micro Steel Reinforced FGC Concrete

Pipes

The ultimate loads are where the fissures occur. The fracture is more
prominent in the pipe in the crown, invert, and spring lines. From the primary
fracture, the more minor cracks develop and spread. We saw that the fibre is
holding the concrete in the cracks, which slows the rate at which they form.
The fibre might also fail due to fibre pullout.

Figure 6.8 Crack pattern of front side micro steel reinforced FGC pipes

Figure 6.9 Crack pattern of the micro steel FGCP backside

 108

The concrete front and back sides first showed a main crack at the
spring line. The secondary cracks then appear near the ends of the pipe, as
shown in Figures 6.8 and 6.7. Multiple secondary cracks are developed over
time from the main crack. The time taken for the appearance of the first crack
is also high. The structure takes more load than other concrete pipes. The
pattern of failure is also predictable. The progression of the failure was also
very predictable. The specimen at failure does not collapse. The fibre prevents
total collapse. The fibre tends to bridge the cracks.

The cracks formed at the invert and crown as a straight line pattern.
The crushing of the concrete is not found in the micro steel reinforced concrete.
In the crown and invert regions, only one main crack formed as the microcrack
and expanded. These fibres prevented the total collapse of the pipe. The
bridging effect can be seen in the cracks between fibres, as shown in
Figure 6.10.

The fibre does not fail due to the fibre rupture, mainly due to fibre
pullout at the crack level, similar to previous studies like Abolmaali et al.
(2012). The micro steel fibre tends to strengthen the structure at a higher level
than any other fibre in this study. This is similar to the study undertaken by
researchers like Rikabi Fouad et al. (2019).
 109

Figure 6.10 Crackpaternatcrose

ctio
na
ndthefibrep
uloutinthecra
ck

6.2.3 The Crack Pattern on Basalt Reinforced FG Concrete Pipes

The micro steel reinforced FGCPs and the basalt fibre reinforced
FGCPs have similar patterns. Compared to micro steel FGCPs, basalt FGCPs
have a more significant number of secondary fractures. After the maximum
load, the basalt-reinforced FGCPs performed exceptionally well. The basalt
fibre helps in enhancing tensile strength. As compared to micro steel fibre
reinforced concrete, the pipe deflects more. Contrarily, fibre reinforced
concrete pipes have a ductile failure in contrast to conventional concrete, which
fractures brittlely. Due to fibre rupture, the fibre fails.

In the initial stages of the loading, the basalt fibre showed a similar
pattern to that of the micro steel reinforced FGCPs. The main crack was formed
at the spring line. The main crack formed does not confirm to the straight line.
There are showing some wavy patterns, as shown in Figure 6.11. However, the
main cracks are formed near the spring line. The secondary cracks are formed
from the main cracks. The secondary cracks also branch out even in the centre
 110

of the pipe, unlike micro steel reinforced FGCPs. The number of secondary
cracks is also higher when compared to the micro steel reinforced concrete.

Figure 6.11 Crack pattern of basalt reinforced FGCPs front side

The secondary cracks are more concerned with the end of the
concrete pipes. The branching is less than 60°, as shown in Figure 6.12. The
cracks at the crown and the invert are single lines similar to micro steel
reinforced FGCPs. The crack pattern of the basalt fibre reinforced FGCPs is
similar to both micro steel reinforced FGCPs and conventional concrete pipes.

Figure 6.12 Crack pattern at Basalt fibre reinforced concrete back side
 111

The basalt fibre also prevents the total collapse of the pipes. The
fibre failure observed is fibre rupture. The cross-section of the crack shows the
rupture failure, as shown in Figure 6.13. The rupture of fibre may be related to
the cross-section of the fibre. The basalt fibre is a cluster of fibre, but the cross-
section of the single fibre is significantly less when compared to other fibres.

Figure 6.13 Crack pattern at invert and the fibre failure at the crack

6.2.4 Load vs Deflection of Concrete pipes

The load vs. deflection curve is shown in Figure 6.14. Up to 85% of

the ultimate load is seen from the load-deflection curves. The three pipes all
follow the same pattern. Due to the significant role performed by the fibre in
bridging the fractures, the FGCPs exhibit better and increase post-peak plateau
after reaching the peak load. The FGCPs do not collapse, unlike the typical mix
pipes, which completely collapse at failure. During failure, the typical pipe
crack width at the spring line ranges from 5mm to 15mm. The fibre addition
greatly enhanced the pipe's functionality. The graphs depict the sharp decline in
 112

load-bearing capability with high deflection. The failure of reinforcing bar can
bring on a drop in deflection.

80
70
60
Load in kN/m

50 Basalt reinforced FGCP

40
Microsteel reinforced
30 FGCP
20 CC Pipe
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Deflection in mm

Figure 6.14 Load- Deflection of concrete pipes and FGCPs

At higher displacement and crack width levels, the reinforcement

starts to respond. Also, the outcomes show that fibre aids in the initial load-
carrying of the structure even before it cracks. Linear and post crack regions of
the load versus deflection curve are distinguished. The curve's linear part
demonstrates that the fiber-reinforced concrete's vertical deflection is lower
than conventional concrete. The post crack curve improves during the strain-
hardening step.
 113

20
18
16
Vertical deflection in mm

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
CC Micro steel reinforced FGCP Basalt reinforced FGCP

Figure 6.15 Deflection of the pipes at failure

At failure, the vertical deflection of pipes reinforced with basalt

fibre, steel fibre, and the conventional mix is 10.71, 14.33, and 18.91mm,
respectively as shown in Figure 6.15. With the addition of steel and basalt
fibre, the deflection of reinforced FG pipes rises by 33.8% and 76.9%,
respectively. Compared to the conventional mix, the performance of the steel
fibre reinforced FG pipes is superior in every way, similar to the researchers
like Fuente et al. (2011). Even the hybrid of fibres used showed similar results
given by Xinrong LIU et al. (2021). The load capacity of basalt fibre reinforced
FG pipes is smaller than steel-reinforced FG pipes and comparable to
conventional concrete. Figure 6.15 shows that Basalt performs better than any
other mix regarding post-cracking behaviour.

Normalized ultimate loads are used for comparison, which reduces

the variability caused by the strength of each concrete matrix, as shown in
Figure 6.16. The ultimate load divided by the square root of compressive
strength yields this normalized number. The difference between the
pipes' ultimate loads illustrates how the FG concrete performs better than the
 114

normal mix concrete. The benchmark for mechanical performance is the

normalised ultimate load. Figure 6.16 illustrates the performance increment for
basalt fibre reinforced and steel fibre reinforced FG pipes, respectively, as
16.36% and 5.59%.

80

70

60

50
Load kN/m

CC
40
Basalt fibre reinforced FGCP
Micro steel reinforced FGCP
30

20

10

0
Ultimate load Normalized ultimate load

Figure 6.16 Comparison of Ultimate load and Normalized ultimate load

6.2.5 Comparative Study with International Standards

The load at the first crack and the ultimate load are compared with
different standards. Three standards such as Indian standards IS 458:2008
Precast concrete pipes (with and without reinforcement)- specification,
American standards ASTM C-76 / AASHTO M 170M-04 Standard
specification for reinforced concrete culvert, storm drain and sewer pipes, and
Australian/ New Zealand standards AS/NZS 4058 Precast concrete pipes
(pressure and non-pressure pipes) are taken into consideration for this study.
 115

Table 6.2 Comparison of experimental load to standards specification

Load at
Crack Load at
Specimen first
width ultimate
crack
mm kN/m kN/m
Experimental value
Conventional concrete pipe 0.25 36.60 58.52
Basalt reinforced FGCPs 0.25 56.10 61.80
Micro steel reinforced FGCPs 0.25 63.40 68.10
Standards
IS 458:2003 0.25 21.56 32.34
AS/NZS 4058 0.3 30 45
ASTM C76-02/AASHTO M-170M-04 0.3 29 45

Compared with international standards, the pipes produced are fully

qualified under specifications as given in Table 7.2. The load at the crack and
the ultimate is improved using the fibres. The difference between the load at
the first crack and load at the ultimate shows the effects of fibre. The decrease
in the difference with an increase in fibre. The crack of micro steel reinforced
FGCPs appear almost near the ultimate loading.

6.2.6 Post Crack Analysis of Concrete Pipes

Any deflections post-crack energy was decided by the concrete

behaviour. The area under the load-deflection curve between the maximum
load deflection (max, load) and the deflection () is used to compute energy. All
pipes align with a peak load deflection of 3 to 4 mm. As a result, from 4mm till
the finish, the post crack energy is estimated every 2mm and displayed in
Figure 6.17.
 116

2000
1800

Post crack energy in Nm

1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20
deflection in mm
Basalt reinforced FCGP Microsteel reinforced FCGP CC pipe

Figure 6.17 Post crack energy of FGCP pipes and controlled concrete

The post fracture energy graph shows that the basalt FGCPs
exhibit more energy than the steel FGCPs and Conventional concrete pipes.
The Basalt FG pipes could withstand significant deflection before they fail.
The graph shows that basalt fibre is more ductile than steel fibre. At 6mm,
8mm, 10mm, 12mm, and 14mm, respectively, the energy of Basalt FG pipes
displays 57.87%, 36.61%, 34.67%, 29.1%, and 43.7%. Steel FG pipes perform
better than the control mix but less so than basalt FG pipes. At 6mm, 8mm, and
10mm, the steel FG pipes show 15.21%, 18.55%, and 24.81%, respectively.
Compared to steel fibre, the increased deflection at failure is also greater. Even
though basalt FG pipes exhibit more efficiency than steel fibre, the post break
energy distribution suggests otherwise. According to the post crack strength,
basalt FGCP is less strong than steel fibre FGCP. The normalization to peak
deflection revealed the pipes' efficiency. The post crack strength is given by,

PCS = (6.1)
( )

The trend of the PCS, as shown in Figure 6.18, shows that the steel
FG pipes possess higher post crack strength.
 117

0.24
0.23

Post crack strength in N/mm2 0.22

0.21
0.2
0.19
0.18
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.14
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Deflection in mm

Basalt reinforced FGCP Micro steel reinforced FGCPsteel cc pipe

Figure 6.18 Post crack strength of concrete pipes

The deflection at peak load is responsible mainly for the differential

in the reaction between post crack energy and post crack strength. The
inclusion of fibre gave the post-crack pattern stability. According to Figure
6.19, post strength improves for steel FG pipes from 16.99% to 25.464% and
for basalt FG pipes from 9.87% to 17.27%.
Percentage increase in Post crack strength

30

25
compared to CC pipes

20

15

10

0
6 8 10
Deflection in mm

% increase in Basalt reinforced FGCP % increase in Micro steel reiforced FGCP

Figure 6.19 Percentage increase in Post crack strength

 118

6.2.7 Stiffness of Pipes

The pipe stiffness (secant stiffness) is obtained in ASTM D2412-11

(Standard test method for determination of external loading characteristics of
plastic pipe by parallel-plate loading) by directly dividing the load by
deflection. When the loading increases, the stiffness of the basalt fibre
reinforced FGCPs. The stiffness of the concrete pipes are given in Figure 6.20.
There is a steady increase in the stiffness up to the cracking load. The stiffness
graph shows a sudden drop in stiffness. The drop may attribute to the failure of
the reinforcement. The stiffness after the drop in the graph is due to fibre
strength. The fibre provides stiffness in the concrete pipe, gradually reducing
up to failure. This scenario indicates that the fibre cannot withstand the load
and tend to fail.

25000

20000
Stiffness kN/m/m

15000

10000

5000

0
0.15
6
16.3
27.15
36.15
44.8
51.3
57.8
62.45
66.1
68.75
66.95
65.25
65.25
65.1
65.25
66.1
65.45
65.25
65.45
67.25
65.75
65.6
65.6
55.6

Load kN/m

CC Pipes Basalt reinforced FGCP Micro steel reinforced FGCP

Figure 6.20 Stiffness of the Conventional concrete pipes

The micro steel reinforced concrete FGCP also has a similar pattern
to basalt reinforced FGCPs. However, the stiffness increases more smoothly.
This may be due to the fact that micro steel provides greater strength than
basalt fibre. The failure of the reinforcement is even visible in micro steel
 119

reinforced FGCPs. The drop in stiffness is also less. The micro steel fibre acts
and the stiffness of the concrete are maintained for a longer period of loading.
At last, the decrease in stiffness occurs due to the failure of the fibre. The fibre
tends to resist the load and sustain until failure.

The conventional concrete pipes show a similar pattern till they

suddenly fail. The load drop is sudden after the failure, as shown in Figure
6.20. The conventional concrete pipes fail, and a sudden drop in the stiffness
confirms the brittle nature of the failure.

6.3 MICROSTRUCTURAL STUDY OF THE CONCRETE

A micro-level study is needed to understand fibre behaviour in

concrete. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) helps the study understand
the concrete's behaviour. Basalt fibres are a cluster of fibres. The basalt fibres
are found to be embedded in the concrete, as shown in Figure 6.21.

Figure 6.21 SEM image of basalt reinforced FRC

The fibre has more bonding in the concrete. The picture depicts that the
fibres are round and smooth with many pores. The pores help in the bonding
 120

with cement paste. The water is absorbed in the pores, reducing the
compressive strength. These SEM images explain the reduced compressive
strength compared to the micros steel fibre reinforced concrete. Since it is
deeply embedded in the concrete mix, the fibre tends to fail.

The micro steel fibre surface on a microstructural level of the image

indicates the rough surface, as shown in Figure 6.22. The image indicates a
rough surface which helped in the bonding of concrete. The image also
indicates the presence of cement mortar on the surface. However, the amount
of bonding is less when compared to basalt fibre. The detachment of the fibre
from the neighboring material results in the pullout of the fibre.

The fibre attains failure only because of either pullout or fibre

rupture. The basalt fibre is a much smoother surface than the micro steel fibre.
The bonding of the micro steel fibre is more attached than the basalt fibre. The
amount of bonding between the fibre and the cement mortar is one criteria. The
other criteria influence the bonding area between the fibre and the cement
mortar.

Figure 6.22 SEM image of micro steel reinforced FRC

 121

The microstructural study explains the behaviour of the pipes in the

experimental study. At the initial stage of the pipes loading, bond between
concrete and fibre helps decrease the crack development. The formation of
cracks is also prevented. The fibre act as the bridging on the concrete. When
the load increases, the fibre tends to transfer the load. The cross section of the
micro steel fibre is greater than the basalt fibre. When the load increase, the
individual fibre fails. The individual fibre failure explains the behaviour of the
basalt reinforced FGCPS similar to Conventional concrete pipes after certain
loads. The basalt fibre reinforced has higher deflection in post crack
behaviour. The aspect ratio is very high for basalt fibre, and they act as a
cluster, explaining the post crack behaviour.

6.4 PERMEABILITY OF PIPES

The metal cup is mounted on the clean surface of the concrete.

The stopper is used for the mounting of the glass tubing. The whole setup is
sealed using a waterproofing sealant.

Figure 6.23 Permeability setup for concrete pipe

 122

Water is filled in the metal cup and eventually filled to zero, as

shown in Figure 6.23. The reduction in the water level is measured every half
hour.

The reduction of water for initial permeability is noted. The drop of

water level in the glass tube at the initial absorption at 2 hours mark for every
half hour is given in Table 6.3.

Table 6.3 Reduction of water for initial permeability in concrete pipes

Drop in water level (ml)

Time
(hrs) CC Micro steel reinforced Basalt reinforced
Pipes FGCP FGCP

0.5 0 0 0

1 0.2 0.2 0.2

1.5 0.2 0.3 0.2

2 0.2 0.3 0.2

The water is again filled up to the zero mark. Readings are taken at
every hour interval for up to 4 hours. The final permeability is the difference
between the fourth and third readings. The drop in water level is given in
Table 6.4.
 123

Table 6.4 Reduction in water level for final permeability in concrete pipes

Drop in water level (ml)

Time
(hrs) CC Micro steel reinforced Basalt reinforced
Pipes FGCP FGCP
0.5 0 0 0
1 0.2 0.2 0.2
1.5 0.2 0.3 0.2
2 0.2 0.3 0.2
2.5 0.3 0.4 0.3
3 0.5 0.5 0.3
3.5 0.6 0.6 0.4
4 0.7 0.8 0.5

Therefore, the permeability of the concrete is given in Figure 6.24.

The permeability of the concrete pipes is within the admissible limit. The initial
permeability should not be more than 0.5 cm3. The final permeability of the
concrete pipe should not be more than 0.8 cm3 according to Indian standards.

0.35

0.3
Permeability in cm3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
CC Micro steel reinforced FGCP Basalt reinforced FGCP

Initial permeability Final permeability

Figure 6.24 Initial and final permeability of concrete pipes

 124

6.5 ABSORPTION TEST OF PIPES

The specimen is heated and weighed. The weight loss is noted.

The specimen was also immersed in clean water, and water absorption was
noted. The results are tabulated in Table 6.5.

Table 6.5 Variation in weight in absorption test

Weight of Weight loss after Weight gain after

Specimen
specimen (kg) drying (kg) immersion in water (kg)
CC 1.6 1.59 1.60
MSFGC 2.1 2.09 2.10
BFGC 1.8 1.79 1.80

The absorption test indicated that the water absorption of the

specimens is well under the limit as per Indian standards. The weight loss is
within the limitation of 0.1% total weight of the specimen, as observed in
Figure 6.25.

0.07

0.06

0.05
Percentage (%)

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
CC Micro steel FGCP Basalt reinforced FGCP
% weight loss % weight gain

Figure 6.25 Weight loss and gain percentage in absorption test

 125

CHAPTER 7

REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF FRC AND FGC

7.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter involves formulation of the regression model for the

FRC and FGC. The experimental data are used for the creation of the model.
The regression models are created using origin software and SPSS software.

7.2 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH MODEL FOR FRC

The model was developed using regression to evaluate the relation

between compressive strength and fibre content. The model developed has a
limit varying from 0 to 1 in x axis for all the study. The relation of fibre content
with Basalt reinforced FRC and Micro steel reinforced FRC compressive
strength is calculated individually. The experimental results obtained are used
for the development of the model. The basalt reinforced fibre reinforced
concrete (BFRC) and micro steel fibre reinforced concrete (MSFRC) different
models are discussed below,

55
Compressive strength

50
BFRC
N/mm2

45
40 MSFRC

35
30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Fibre content (%)

Figure 7.1 Regression plot for compressive strength and fibre content (%)
 126

The relation plot of compressive strength and the fibre content is

given in Figure 7.1. The relationship between the variable is established
through regression analysis is established. The equation and the R 2 value are
used to evaluate the model. The third order polynomial equation is established
for basalt reinforced concrete, and the second order polynomial equation for the
Micro steel reinforced FRC to fit the pattern. The equation and their respective
R2 value are given in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 Proposed Compressive strength model

S. No Specimen Equations R2 value

1 MSFRC y = 5.3333x3 - 48.8x2 + 61.067x + 32.56 0.9991
2 BFRC y = -15.467x3 + 13.371x2 + 5.1952x + 32.521 0.9978

7.3 SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH MODEL FOR FRC

A model which is linear is established for the split tensile strength.

The relation between split tensile strength and fibre content is expressed in the
regression model. The regression model also indicates the linear relationship
between the parameters.

3.6
y = 0.9x + 2.52
Split tensile strength N/mm2

3.4
R² = 0.9819
3.2
3
2.8
BFRC
2.6
MSFRC
2.4 y = 0.264x + 2.46
2.2 R² = 0.9749

2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Fibre content (%)

Figure 7.2 Regression plot for split tensile strength and fibre content (%)
 127

The relationship between the split tensile strength and fibre content,
along with the R2 value, is given in Figure 7.2.

7.4 FLEXURAL STRENGTH MODEL FOR FRC

The flexural strength of the concrete is correlated with the fibre

content of both basalt reinforced FRC and Micro steel reinforced FRC.
The relation ship between both parameters is linear. The regression model is
found to be linear. The R2 values indicate a better correlation between the
parameters. The correlation equation and R2 values are given in Figure 7.3.

7
y = 2.56x + 4.022
6.5
R² = 0.9704
Flexural strength N/mm2

6
5.5
5
BFRC
4.5 MSFRC
4 y = -0.1486x2 + 0.9846x + 3.9294
3.5 R² = 0.9916

3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Fibre content(%)

Figure 7.3 Regression plot for Flexural strength and fibre content (%)

7.5 REGRESSION MODEL FOR FGC

The model was developed for the relation between compressive

strength and the thickness of FRC in the proposed FGC. The relationship is
similar to the pattern of the FRC. The third degree polynomial equations fit
properly on the given points with an R2 value near 0.9. The experimental value
obtained is used for the creation of the regression model. The regression model
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shows a good correlation between the parameters. The relation between

compressive strength and thickness of FRC in FGC, along with the R2 value, is
given in Figure 7.4. The basalt reinforced Functionally graded concrete
(BFGC) and micro steel fibre reinforced concrete (MSFGC) different models
are discussed below,

55
Compressive strength N/mm2

50

45 y = 47.467x3 - 104.69x2 + 73.919x + 32.704

R² = 0.9862

40 y = -13.867x3 + 15.2x2 + 0.2667x + 32.54

R² = 0.9789

35 BFGC
MSFGC
30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Thickness of FRC

Figure 7.4 Regression plot for compressive strength and thickness of FRC

Similarly, the correlation between the split tensile strength and

thickness of FRC in FGC. The second degree polynomial correlation is
established for Micro steel reinforced FGC and linear correlation for basalt
reinforced FGC. The R2 value also helps validate the model's good correlation
between the parameters, as shown in Figure 7.5.
 129

3.6
y = -0.08x2 + 0.98x + 2.51

Split tensile strength N/mm2

3.4 R² = 0.9825
3.2
3
2.8
2.6 BFGC
2.4 MSFGC
y = 0.264x + 2.46
2.2 R² = 0.9749
2
0 0.5 1
Thickness of FRC

Figure 7.5 Regression plot for Split tensile strength and thickness of FRC

The correlation between the Flexural strength of FGC and thickness

of FRC in FGC. The regression plot also establishes a good correlation
between the parameters. The plot is given in Figure 7.6.

6.5
Flexural strength N/mm2

6 y = 6.6667x3 - 14.286x2 + 10.369x + 3.9593

R² = 0.9988
5.5

5
BFGC
4.5 MSFGC

4 y = 0.2286x2 + 0.7714x + 3.9386

R² = 0.9704
3.5

3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Thickness of FRC

Figure 7.6 Regression plot for Flexural strength and thickness of FRC
 130

7.6 SPSS REGRESSION MODELLING

Statistical Package for Social sciences (SPSS) is a prediction

software developed by IBM. The software performs different analyses to
understand the statistical relation between parameters. This software was
originally launched in 1968 by SPSS.Inc and later acquired by IBM in 2009. It
is a highly used statistical tool because of its user-friendly interface with
excellent data handling procedures. There are four components in this interface,
which are classified as quantitative data analysis, modeler, text analysis, and
visual designer. Quantitative data analysis helps in studying the data provided
by the user. Modeler helps the researcher to build and validate predictive
modelling. The model is then provided as text analysis, and the visual designer
module as graphs.

7.6.1 Advantages and Limitations of using SPSS

The main advantage of SPSS is the easy import and export of data
with a user-friendly platform. The merging of data is also easy. The results can
be compared with the different models established in the process. Other
advantages are listed below,

 The total processing time for the model and the output is very
less.
 The modeling can be studied using a different type of graphical
representation.
 The user can choose the data distribution that matches the
requirement.
 The error of the prediction is very less.
 131

The limitation of the SPSS is that the software cannot handle big
data. When the data sets are huge, the errors in the prediction can be higher.

7.6.2 SPSS Model for FRC and FGC

The regression model is created using SPSS. The model established

shows a good R2 value which indicates the accuracy of the models. The models
are established for the influence of the percentage of fibre with compressive
strength, flexural strength and split tensile strength individually. The analysis is
carried out for basalt reinforced FRC and micro steel reinforced FRC.
Similarly, the relation between the thickness of the FRC to the compressive
strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength are also established for the
FGC.

This analysis is carried out for basalt reinforced FGC and micro
steel reinforced FGC. The established relationships are also shown in the
graphs in Figures 7.7 and 7.8. A similar model is also proposed to correlate
residual stress in cyclic loading conditions (Fuente Albert et al 2013).
 132

Model for Compressive strength of FRC in N/mm2

Model for Split tensile strength of FRC in N/mm2

Model for flexural strength of FRC in N/mm2

Figure 7.7 Model of FRC in SPSS

 133

Model for Compressive strength of FGC in N/mm2

Model for Split tensile strength of FGC in N/mm2

Model for Flexural strength of FGC in N/mm2

Figure 7.8 Model of FGC in SPSS

 134

Table 7.2 Proposed model for Mechanical Properties using SPSS

Mechanical properties BFRC R2

Compressive strength y=32.52+5.2x+13.37x2-15.47x3 0.99
Split tensile strength y=2.48+0.13x+0.14x2 0.998
Flexural strength y=3.95+0.84x 0.989
MSFRC R2
Compressive strength y=32.66+58.2x-40.8x2 0.99
Split tensile strength y=2.51+0.98x-0.08x2 0.983
Flexural strength y=3.91+3.84x-2.31x2+1.07x3 0.978
BFGC R2
Compressive strength y=32.54+0.25x+15.2x2-13.87x3 0.979
Split tensile strength y=2.48+0.13x+0.14x2 0.998
Flexural strength y=3.94+0.77x+0.23x2 0.971
MSFGC R2
Compressive strength y=33.59+48.41x-33.49x2 0.949
Split tensile strength y=2.51+0.98x-0.08x2 0.983
Flexural strength y=3.96+10.37x-14.29x2+6.67x3 0.99

7.7 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MODELS

The Regression model and SPSS model are compared with

experimental data and the results are tabulated. The error in both models is
much less and the prediction is accurate. The error percentage is within the 5%
range of the results. The results are tabulated in Table 7.2.
 Table 7.3 Comparative results of predictive models with experimental results

Compressive strength in N/mm2 error Error%

Specimen ID Fibre content
Experimental Regression regression SPSS regression SPSS
SPSS model
value model model model model model

BFRC 0 32.50 32.52 32.52 -0.02 -0.02 -0.06 -0.20

0.25 34.50 34.41 34.41 0.09 0.09 0.25 0.72

0.5 36.40 36.53 36.53 -0.13 -0.13 -0.35 -0.97

0.75 37.50 37.41 37.41 0.09 0.09 0.23 0.62

1 35.60 35.62 35.62 -0.02 -0.02 -0.05 -0.15

MSFRC 0 32.50 32.56 32.52 -0.06 -0.06 -0.18 -0.57

0.25 45.10 44.86 44.52 0.24 0.24 0.53 1.18

0.5 51.20 51.56 51.42 -0.36 -0.36 -0.70 -1.37

0.75 53.40 53.16 53.22 0.24 0.24 0.45 0.84

1 50.10 50.16 49.92 -0.06 -0.06 -0.12 -0.24

135
Specimen Split tensile strength N/mm2 error Error %
Fibre content
Experimental Regression regression SPSS regression SPSS
SPSS model
value model model model model model

BFRC 0 2.48 2.46 2.48 0.02 0.00 0.81 0.00

0.25 2.51 2.52 2.52 -0.01 -0.01 -0.46 -0.45

0.5 2.58 2.58 2.58 0.00 0.00 -0.12 0.00

0.75 2.65 2.64 2.65 0.01 -0.01 0.21 -0.24

1 2.74 2.70 2.75 0.03 -0.01 1.24 -0.36

MSFRC 0 2.48 2.52 2.51 -0.04 -0.03 -1.61 -1.21

0.25 2.81 2.74 2.75 0.06 0.06 2.31 1.98

0.5 2.98 2.97 2.99 0.01 -0.02 0.34 -0.60

0.75 3.14 3.19 3.24 -0.06 -0.10 -1.75 -3.20

1 3.44 3.42 3.48 0.02 -0.04 0.58 -1.22

136
Specimen Flexural strength in N/mm2 error Error%
Fibre content
Experimental Regression regression SPSS regression SPSS
SPSS model
value model model model model model

BFRC 0 3.95 3.92 3.95 0.02 0.00 0.52 0.00

0.25 4.12 4.16 4.16 -0.05 -0.04 -1.12 -0.97

0.5 4.4 4.38 4.37 0.02 0.03 0.35 0.68

0.75 4.61 4.58 4.58 0.03 0.03 0.55 0.65

1 4.75 4.76 4.79 -0.02 -0.04 -0.34 -0.84

MSFRC 0 3.95 4.02 3.91 -0.07 0.04 -1.82 1.01

0.25 4.6 4.66 4.74 -0.06 -0.14 -1.35 -3.09

0.5 5.61 5.34 5.38 0.27 0.22 4.78 3.99

0.75 5.8 5.94 5.94 -0.14 -0.14 -2.45 -2.45

1 6.55 6.58 6.51 -0.03 0.04 -0.49 0.61

137
Specimen Compressive strength N/mm2 error Error %
Fibre content
Experimental Regression regression SPSS regression SPSS
SPSS model
value model model model model model

BFGC 0 32.5 32.54 32.54 -0.04 -0.04 -0.12 -0.12

0.25 33.5 33.34 33.33 0.16 0.16 0.49 0.49

0.5 34.5 34.73 34.71 -0.23 -0.23 -0.67 -0.67

0.75 35.6 35.43 35.42 0.17 0.17 0.49 0.49

1 34.1 34.13 34.12 -0.02 -0.02 -0.06 -0.06

MSFGC 0 32.5 32.70 33.59 -1.09 -1.09 -3.35 -3.35

0.25 46.2 45.38 45.41 0.78 0.78 1.69 1.69

0.5 48.2 49.42 49.42 -1.22 -1.22 -2.54 -2.54

0.75 50.1 49.28 51.05 -0.96 -0.96 -1.91 -1.91

1 49.2 49.40 48.51 0.69 0.69 1.40 1.40

138
 Split tensile strength N/mm2 error Error%
Specimen Fibre content
Experimental Regression regression SPSS regression SPSS
SPSS model
value model model model model model

BFGC 0 2.48 2.46 2.48 0.02 0.00 0.81 0.00

0.25 2.51 2.52 2.52 -0.02 -0.01 -0.64 -0.45

0.5 2.58 2.59 2.58 -0.01 0.00 -0.47 0.00

0.75 2.65 2.65 2.6 -0.01 -0.01 -0.30 -0.24

1 2.74 2.72 2.75 0.02 -0.01 0.58 -0.36

MSFGC 0 2.48 2.51 2.51 -0.03 -0.03 -1.21 -1.21

0.25 2.81 2.75 2.75 0.06 0.06 2.14 2.14

0.5 2.98 2.98 2.98 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

0.75 3.14 3.2 3.2 -0.06 -0.06 -1.91 -1.91

1 3.44 3.41 3.41 0.03 0.03 0.87 0.87

139
 Flexural strength in N/mm2 error Error %
Specimen Fibre content
Experimental Regression regression SPSS regression SPSS
SPSS model
value model model model model model

BFGC 0 3.95 3.93 3.94 0.01 0.01 0.29 0.25

0.25 4.15 4.14 4.14 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.08

0.5 4.3 4.38 4.38 -0.08 -0.08 -1.89 -1.92

0.75 4.75 4.64 4.64 0.10 0.10 2.20 2.17

1 4.9 4.93 4.94 -0.04 -0.04 -0.79 -0.82

MSFGC 0 3.95 3.95 3.96 0.00 -0.01 0.00 -0.25

0.25 5.8 5.75 5.76 0.05 0.04 0.80 0.63

0.5 6.35 6.39 6.4 -0.05 -0.06 -0.73 -0.89

0.75 6.55 6.50 6.51 0.05 0.04 0.71 0.56

1 6.7 6.69 6.71 0.00 -0.01 0.00 -0.15

140