Ambo University, Department of political science and International relations

Lecture note for Global trend (GITR-1012)

Prepared by Misgana Y. (MA)

Chapter Two

Understanding Foreign Policy and Diplomacy

Defining National interest

o Raison d’etat( the reason of states to justify its action and policy towards other states at
international level.
o Refers a set of value, orientations, visions, goals and objectives a given country would like
to achieve in its IRs
o Set of purpose which nation should seek to realize in its conduct of foreign policy
o Main driving force that determines the content of foreign policy
Controversies emerged over the exact meaning, scope and content of national
interest
And thus, Colmbis provided multiplicity of criteria used in defining national interest
1) Operational philosophy: two styles of operation
 Synoptic; Act in bold and sweeping fashion
 Up on taking office introduce major new practices, policies,
institutions and discontinues others
 Incremental; Act in caution, probing and experimental fashion following try and
error
 Usually seeks to perfect existing legislation, policies, institutions and
practices

2) Ideological criteria; - National interest may be shaped by the underlying ideological

orientation of the regime in power

3) Pragmatic criteria:-Looking issues and events with the sense of prudence and sense of
rationality
  Act on the basis of scientific analysis of cost and benefit or merit and demerit to your
country’s interest.

4) Professional advancement criteria: - Your action is manipulated and adjusted in

consideration of your professional survival and growth, in short your professional success.

5) Partisan criteria; - Equate the interest of once organ (army) with national interest

6) Foreign dependency criteria:-Usually applies to less developed country (LCD) who had
fallen under colonialism

 These countries are still depend on their ex-colonial states for technical aid, expertise,
technology and security

7) Moral and legal criteria: - Moral behavior in international politics involves keeping
promises, avoiding exploitation and uneven development between developing and the developed

 Realists and idealists interpreted the national interest of states differently

 Realist rejected the ideological, moral and legal criteria to define national interest and
prioritize pragmatic criteria and practical necessity.
 According to realist, International politics is struggle among states and the prime interest of
states is survival and security. Indeed, national interest in this competitive and anarchical
international environment should be ensuring survival and security of states
 In sum, national interest reflects the marriage of different criteria that includes legal and
moral criteria, ideological criteria and prudence
Defining Foreign policy
o Foreign policy is a set of objectives and instruments that state adopts to guide its relations
with outside world.
o Action, decision and goals that states pursue towards outside world
o Something that state would like to achieve in its external relations
o Refers the totality of policy objectives of states
o It involves the general and priority of goals, specific strategies and instruments employed
to realize these those objectives and goals such as diplomacy bargaining, economic
instruments, propaganda, terrorism and the use of force
 Foreign policy objectives
o Based on values placed on the objectives, time placed on its achievement and kind of
demand the objective impose on other states at international level, foreign policy objectives
are categorized in to three as follows:
Core interest and values/ short range objectives
Middle range objectives
Long range objectives
Core interest and values/ short range objectives
o Kind of goals for which most people are willing to make ultimate sacrifices
o Accepted by all peoples without questioning
o Usually stated in the form of basic principles of foreign policy
o Relatively universal across all states
o It is related to;
1) Self-preservation of political and economic system, the people and its culture and the
territorial integrity of the states
2) In some government controlling or defending neighboring territories is also perceived
as short range objectives since it serves as a source of asset such as resource and man
power that can increase their capabilities. Most of the time, this is true for states who has
territorial disputes
 This is the reason for why countries such as Israel and USA pursue such policies
called extraterritoriality even though they never admitted publicly
 Extraterritoriality: - When the national interest and claims of a country is projected
beyond the territorial limits of its geographic boundary.
3) Liberating or protecting the interest and security of citizen or ethnic/religious group
living in the neighboring countries might considered as a part of core national interest
 And they perceive their national interest is at risky when the interest and security of such
group is threatened
Middle Range objectives
o Unlike short range objectives, middle range objectives drastically various a cross state due
to their level of economic and technological progress and military capabilities
o Related with social welfare and economic development and improving the living standard
of the people
o Concerned with technological advancement, social development and economic interest of
the people
o Builds the positive image of the state or it is the base for the state to enjoy high degree of
status and prestige at international level
o Social welfare and economic development cannot achieved through self-help and hence
requires integration and cooperation of state so that its achievement imposes demand on
several states other states
Long- Range Objectives
 Long range goals are those plans, dreams, and visions concerning the ultimate political or
ideological organization of the international system and rules governing relations in that
system.
 It is related with universalization (expansion) of one’s own political views and ideologies.
 The difference between middle-range and long range goals relates not only to different time
elements inherent in them; there is also a significant difference in scope
Foreign policy behavior: Pattern and Trends
 Foreign policy behavior refers to the action states takes towards each other’s
 According to Arnold Wolfers foreign policy behavior is categorized in three as follows;
Self-preservation (maintaining the status quo)
Self-Extension (Revising the status quo)
Self ab-negation
 Self-preservation (maintaining the status quo)- Followed by USA
 USA emerged as one of the strongest actor following the end of WWII
 As a result, the institutionalization of international organizations such as IMF and WB
strongly shaped by USA
 Consequently, international organizations including UN serve the national/global
interest of USA
 Thus, USA become the supporters of international order and any attempt to reform
international system and politico-economic order will face criticism, if no threat or use
of force and sanction
 Self-Extension (Revising the status quo): newly emerging power (BRICS) countries such
as China, India, Brazil, German and others competing to restructure the existing international
institutions and different regimes so as to create enabling environment to promote their
national interest.
 Self ab-negation: reflects the foreign policy trends that are being displayed in less
developing countries (LCD).
 Seen in weak states of the world which fails to promote their national interest in their
external relations
 Weak states which depend on foreign aid caught in many problems in order to
promote autonomous policy so that compromise its long lasting national interest
for temporary and immediate benefit.
 Foreign policy behavior is not permanent and can change over a time and
with different styles of leadership and circumstances.
Foreign policy Dimensions
o Foreign policy dimensions includes alignment, scope and modus operandi
o A) Alignment:- Indicates the choose of national leaders to ally with certain countries or to
remain neutral
Alignment behavior can vary from time to time in response to changing
circumstances and policy directions
Alignment has three forms or tendencies
1) Alliance:- formal agreement to provide mutual military assistance
 Carry legal weight, certain benefits and risks
 Benefits;-Allied countries pooled their military resource together
Acquire access to foreign military base
Stakeout territories that enemies are on notice will denied them by force
if necessary
 Risks:- interference by allies in its domestic affairs
Generation of potential enemies and counter alliance
2) Neutrality;- Stance of formal non partnership in world affairs
 Benefits:- avoid problems associated with alliance
  Risks:- if war clouds no one is committed to provide protective military
umbrella
3) Non alignment:- foreign policy pattern of most developing countries during cold war
 Developing countries had a movement non-alignment movement(NAM)in
which they called for new foreign policy path/choice to be followed
disregarding both west and East block politics and alliance
 NAM had a noble agenda that called for the south-south cooperation
B) Scope; - Refers the scope/range of the country’s activities and interests
 Some countries have extensive, far reaching international contact while others have more
limited activities abroad
 Based on scope there are three pattern of foreign policy behavior
 Acting in global terms(global actor)
 Acting in regional terms(regional actor) and
 Policy of isolation
1) Acting in global terms(global actor)
Major powers in international relation defined their interest in global terms, interacting
regularly with countries in nearly every regions of the world
Example, USA defined its national interest in global terms, have the capability to
influence the world and its military presence and diplomatic communication in every
parts of the world make it a global actor
2) Acting regionally
 Most countries in the world are essentially regional actors interacting primarily with
neighboring states in the same geographical area
 Example, South Africa is a regional actor in Africa in general and South Africa in
particular. It is also most important actor in regional organizations such as SADDIC and AU.
 India is also most important actor in South Asian region and China in entire Asia even
though it is the best candidates to assume global responsibility/leadership.
3) Isolationism
 Resulted from weakness or geographical remoteness
 Burma is a best example during 1960s and 70s
 In the age of interdependence isolationism become increasingly less viable foreign policy
orientation.
 Known global actors such as China, USA and ex-USSR all have passed through period of
relative isolationism
C) Mode of operation/modus operandi/; - Based on mode of operation, foreign policy
pattern can be categorized as multilateralism, bilateralism and unilateralism
 Multilateralism;-
Rely on different institutions to address different issues
Seeks solutions to a problems through diplomatic forums in which many
countries participated such as UN
Preferred by developing countries to address many issues of concern
because it increase the bargaining power of these countries visa-vis other
developed countries and establishing bilateral relation(establishing embassies
and assigning diplomatic staff are often found to be cost
 Bilateralism;- Concerned with exchange of diplomats amid two countries
 Unilateralism: seeking solution to a problems unilaterally
Instruments of foreign policy
 Instruments of foreign policy refers mechanisms employed by states to achieve their foreign
policy objectives or national interests and this includes diplomacy, economic statecraft,
international law collective security, propaganda, religion and coercion/use of force
Diplomacy
 Diplomacy is broadly described as the art of conducting negotiations, agreements and
relations between two or more parties in a sensitive way.
 It is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of states.
 It is the process of conducting communication among states through officially recognized
representatives
 Or it is a process between actors(diplomats)usually representing the state who exist within
the system( international relations) and engaged in private and public dialogue(diplomacy) to
pursue their objective in peaceful manner.
 The goal of diplomacy is influencing the behaviors of others in once interest
 Diplomacy is as old as human being and it exist even before it was given the official name
 Before Westphalia treaty, diplomacy was conducted via envoys/flight person, there was no
permanent exchange of ambassadors(professionals) and institutions(embassies)
 But with Westphalia treaty, diplomacy was institutionalized and professionalized
 Until the institutionalization of league of nation following the end of WWI, diplomacy was
practiced in formalistic and rigid manner, limited to bilateral relations of states through
exchange of ambassadors and bargaining and diplomatic orders was undertaken under closed
door and behind the door
 However, in modern time nature and strategy of diplomacy has been radically changed
especially with formation of league of nation so that recently we have new mode of
conducting international relations such as multilateral diplomacy, summitry diplomacy and
public diplomacy in contrast to secret and bilateral diplomacy.
 Despite change in its nature and strategy, the essence of diplomacy which is bargaining
remains unchanged.
 Bargaining-means of settling difference over priorities between conflicting parties through
an exchange of proposal for mutually accepted solutions.
 Bargaining requires the existence of conflict over priorities
Applicable international law which governs diplomacy (Vienna convention on diplomatic
relations of 1961) recognizes only states as diplomatic actors. But modern international
system involves powerful actors that are no states such as international non-governmental
organizations (INGOS), international governmental organizations (IGOS) who regularly
partake in diplomacy like UN and EU.

Rules of effective diplomacy

 Be realistic- have goals that much your ability to achieve

 Be careful about what you say-plan out and weight words
 Seek common ground-maintain degree of flexibility
 Understand others side-appreciate the others side even if you do not agree with it
 Be patient-Bide your time
 Leave avenue of retreat open-leave yourself and your opponent an out

Economic instruments of foreign policy

o Modern states interdependent politically, technologically, and economically
o There is no self-sufficient states even though degree of dependence and interdependence
varies
o Because of such interdependency, state uses their economic muscles to influence the
behaviors (actions, perceptions, roles) of others.
o State uses economic statecraft-
To achieve their foreign policy objectives by offering economic rewards or threating
or impose economic reward
To increase state capabilities or deprive a potential enemy capabilities
Create economic satellites
o The followings are economic instruments of foreign policy;
1) Tariff;- used for raising revenue and protecting domestic producers from foreign competition
2) Quota:-Allow all the suppliers to sell only certain amount of product in a given period of
time
3) Boycott;- Eliminating the import of either specific commodity or a total range of export
products sold by the country against which the boycott is organized
4) Embargo:- A government that seeks to deprive another country of goods prohibits its own
business men from concluding its transaction with commercial organization in the country
against which the embargo is organized
5) Loans, credits and currency manipulation:-This includes favorable tariff rate, quotas,
granting loans and extending credit and currency manipulation.
6) Foreign aids;- Transfer of money, goods or technical advices from donor to recipients
 Kind of aids includes military aid, technical assistance, grants, commodity import
program and development loans
 Military aid:- the oldest types of aids in which donors supply money and material
while recipients provide man power with the hope to obtain some immediate political
and security objectives
 Foreign aid often used to achieve political and economic objectives of donor and
hence not undertaken solely for humanitarian purpose. But not all aids policies and
commitment have immediate or exclusive political and security objective.
  Aid used to achieve political objectives which cannot achieved solely through
propaganda or military policies
Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia
Foreign policy during Tewodros II(1855-1868)
o Created modern Ethiopian state by terminating the era of princes( Zemenemesafiant)
o He established at least modern and centralized Ethiopia with modern army
o Developed dynamic foreign policy which extends beyond horn of Africa
o Face regional expansionist(Turks, Egyptian and Islam)
o To reverse the effects of regional expansionist, he cultivated friendship with Europeans
especially With Britain, France and Russia using religion as a foreign policy instrument
o His diplomatic relation was based on the principles of equality and reciprocity
o He requested modern technology and skilled man power(Education, technology transfer and
military assistance in terms of expertise)
o Wrote a letter to Queen Victoria of Britain and Napoleon III of France but the response was
delayed
o Angered with this and in need of diplomatic negotiation, he took hostage of several British
missionaries residing in the country.
o But Britain was responded by sending military expedition to release the detained
missionaries.
o His troops was defeated by the military expedition because of;
 Financial scarcity
 Lost legitimacy internally because of his religious reform
 Britain supported by Kassa mirch(Yohannes)
o And the Emperor committed suicide and died at the battle of Maqdala in 1868
Foreign policy during Yohanness(1872-1889)
Ruled the country at a time external intervention was intensified in the horn of Africa due to
the opening of Suez canal which shorten trade route between Europe and Asia- Strategic
significance of Red increased
Followed pragmatic and patient diplomacy because he give title of kings to Menelik of shoa
and Teklehaymanot of Gojjam- This helped him to buy time to deal with external threat so
 that he scored victory at the battle of Gundet(1875) and Gura(1876) with Egyptian and at the
battle of Dogali(1887) with Italian
He saw Islam state mainly Egypt and European expansion as threat to the territorial integrity
of the country
Until he losts his life at the battle of Matama while fighting with Mahadist( anti-colonial )
internally he continue Tewdros vision of modernizing the country and his foreign policy aims
at maintaining the territorial integrity of the country and access to the sea.

Foreign policy during MenelikII(1889-1913)

o Assume power following the death of Emperor Yohanness
o While he was king of shoa, he maintained exclusive diplomatic relations with Italians to
collect weapons throughout his ways to the throne
o Later however, Italy emerged as a main challenge to Menelik as they started their journey to
expand to the hinterland from their first hold Boges( Matama)
o To reverse the Italian expansion aspiration he employed both diplomacy and military
strategies
o Thus, he concluded Wuchalle friendship and peace treaty with Italians in 1889
o On the parts of Menelik the treaty important because;
Italy recognize sovereignty of menelik
Access to the sea- allowed for free use of Massawa
Italy agreed to provide military aid to Menelik
o However, conflict emerged due to misinterpretation of article 17 of the treaty of the Italian
version

 In the Amharic version, the Article stated that Italy’s services were available to Menelik
for all his communications with foreign powers, if he so desired
 In the Italian version, the Article stated as if Menelik consented to use the services of
Italy for all his communications with foreign powers
o The two parties failed to reach agreement on Italian version of article 17 which made
Ethiopia an Italian protectorate that depends on Italy for its foreign affairs
o This implies the first option failed and the Emperor resorted to the second option so that by
mobilizing domestic resources through his expansion and accumulating weapon by playing
colonial power against one another, he unilaterally abrogated Wuchalle treaty in1893 which
mean declaration of war for Italian
o The two parties involved in war in 1896 at the battle of Adawa and balance of power tilted to
Menelik and the colonial power defeated at the battle.
o Significance of Adawa;-
1) Recognition of Ethiopia as independent African states on equal footing with Europeans
2) Formal exchange of Ambassadors with European power (Br, Fr and Italy)
3) Signing formal boundary treaty with colonial power-boundary of Ethiopia vis- avis its
neighbors at least defined on paper, yet not demarcated)
4) Signing of Addis Ababa treaty in which Wuchalle treaty was void
Foreign policy During Emperor Haileselassie(1916-1974)
Dedicated to creation of stronger, centralized and bureaucratic empire with unquestioned
respect by international community
His foreign policy before Italian invasion
 Struggle to make Ethiopia a member of league of nation for the purpose of collective
security and to display himself as a modernizing leader
 Began long journey to Europe to practice personal diplomacy having many issues at
hand including issues of access to the sea, military assistance and recognition
This active foreign policy was interrupted bay Italian invasion so that from 1936-1941 Italy
occupied the country and the Emperor fled to London and established government in exile
League failed to take action against Italy because of the appeasement policy of Britain and
France to prevent Italy alliance with Nazi Germany in the WWII.
But later on, condition was changed and Italy allied with German in WWII so that due to
diplomatic effectiveness of the Emperor and its strategic interest, Britain helped the Emperor
in evicting Italy.
In the immediate post war, Ethiopia was extremely depending on Britain’s military, economy
and technical aid.
 Britain dominate diplomatic communication, economy and military of the Emperor and
ruled the country as enemy occupied territory(protectorate)
 After 1941, his foreign policy focus on:-
 Get rid of Britain dominance and restore the sovereignty of the country
 Access to the sea through return of lost territories
 Being a founding father of UN
To realize this foreign policy objectives, he cultivated friendship with USA because of
USA’S strategic interest in the area
Since 1940 USA had radio station at kagnew in Eritrea
Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) established in 1954 and promotes military
training to Ethiopian force.
The Emperor also played significant role in Africa in fighting for African independence-
Assisted its African brothers and sisters in maintaining their independence.
He was considered as one of the founding fathers of African Union by negotiating the two
polarized group(Monorovia and Casablanca)
He played essential role in maintaining international peace and security- sent peace keeping
force to Korea(1951) and Congo(1961)
Foreign Policy during Military Government (1974-1991)
o Come to power using the prevailing power vacuum following the dethrone of the Emperor as
result of the revolution
o Coming to power, it took radical economic and political measures
 Land reform proclamation
 Adopted foreign policy oriented to socialism
 Nationalization of urban land and extra house
 Abolish 1955 constitution and imperial parliament
 Mashion gunned former ministers-Gradually transformed from small group to one
man dictatorship
o Consequently, it distance itself from West and Move radically to the East Especially to
USSR- depend on economic and military aid of the soviet
o His foreign policy objective was ensuring the survival of the regime and maintaining
territorial integrity of the country as well as access to the sea
o As an end to this objectives, he cultivated friendship and alliance with socialist countries to
build its military capabilities
o Encounters external and internal challenges
o Internally;-
1) Opposition from Mushroomed political parties like Meison and EPRP
2) By those who disappointed by the economic reform
3) Attack from Eritrean liberation front supported by Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Sudan, Somalia
and USA
o Externally;-
 Somalia’s invasion of Ethiopian region in 1977
 Diplomatic relation of was ascended due to
 Join Arab league
 Meeting of African Union held there and Adbarre become chairperson of the
organization
o Somalia declared war on Ethiopia due to;-
 Ethiopia was in problem domestically
 Somalia approached Ethiopia in terms of military due to the support from China and
USSR
o The invasion was reversed due to:-
 Domestic support due to economic reform- mobilize local resource
 Military support and personal support from USSR, Cuba and Yemen
o Generally, foreign policy of the military regime is shaped by
 Strategic/geographical location of the country
 Unique culture/Christianity amid Islam religion and Arab states
 Socialist Ideology
 The issue of Nile
Foreign Policy of Ethiopia in the post 1991
 EPRDF inherited lack of democracy, poverty and conflict and command economic policy
 Consequently, the foreign policy of the regime is driven by the quest to ensure national
interest and security of the state-survival
 National interest of the country is understood in terms of realizing the real interest of the
people mainly democracy and development
 Foreign policy has been considered as instruments to solve domestic problem of the country
including lack of good governance, instability and lack of economic development
 Identified domestic problems as a main challenge to ensuring the survival and national
interest of the people.
 Foreign policy of the country is designed to create favorable external environment to achieve
rapid economic development and build up democratic system
 Strategy to realize these goals:-
Put focus on domestic issues first (inside out approach).
 If a country solve its internal problem (build up strong economic capabilities
and democratic system it would not vulnerable and its peace and survival can
be ensured.
 This minimizes risks of disintegration and deterred external enemies.
Adopted Economic diplomacy:- Fighting poverty and backwardness and this
involves attracting foreign investment, seeking market opportunities for Ethiopian
product, seeking aids and confessional loans
Building up military capabilities of the country;- Has deterrence effect
 Scale up and modernization of military capabilities
 Despite change in strategies, primary objectives of all the three successive regimes remain
the same i.e. maintenance of the territorial integrity and independency of the country
 All regimes uses both stick and carrot( military force and diplomacy)