IV.

Foreign policy, National interest and Diplomacy

Foreign policy is a process of identifying the elements which states consider constitute
their core vital national interest and designing and formulating and scheming effective
strategies to attain and protect them.

Foreign Policy refers to the ways in which the central governments of sovereign states
relate to each other and to the global system in order to achieve various goals or
objectives.

Foreign policy (international relations policy), is a set of goals outlining how the
country will interact with other countries economically, politically, socially and
militarily, and to a lesser extent, how the country will interact with non-state actors.

Foreign policy is primarily concerned with the boundaries between the external
environment outside of the nation state and the internal or domestic environment, with
its variety of sub-national sources of influence.

Foreign policy is plan of action adopted by one nation in regards to its diplomatic
dealings with other countries. Foreign policy is established as a systemic way to deal
with issues that may arise with other countries.

Foreign policy is a subfield of international relations and a method of state for

conducting international relations. In this regard foreign policy is different from
international relations. Foreign policy is particular manifestation of international
relation while international relation is multi facets and broader interaction of state in the
international level.

Foreign policy and diplomacy used interchangeably even by diplomats but they aren’t
one and the same. Diplomacy is an instrument of foreign policy (not the only one).
Foreign policies are designed to help protect a country's national interests, national security,
ideological goals, and economic prosperity.

Foreign policy is something to be decided/ made by the institution or personnel which

are charged of doing it such as

Prime minster and Council of ministers - in charge of foreign policy making

Ministry of foreign affairs - implementation of forgn policy

Foreign policy making involve a process, principles, strategies, methods and objects in
which knowledge in relation with other states gather analyze and interpret for the
successful implementation of foreign policy.

National interest and their classification

The term national interest the common material and spiritual need of all the people of a
nation. National interests' and 'vital interests'. Other terms used for their mobilizing
capacity include 'national honor', 'public interest' and 'general will'
1. Classification of national interest based on content

Based on content national interests can be classified into political interests, security
interests, economic interests, and cultural interests. Under each of these general
categories interests can be subdivided into even more concrete interests.
Political interests can be divided into
Political independence
State sovereignty
International status, etc.
Security interests can be divided into
military superiority
territorial security, and
Maritime interests and so on.
Economic interests can be divided into
The export/import trade
The attraction of international financing
Overseas investment, import/export of technology, etc.
Cultural interests may include
National culture propagation
Protection from foreign decadent ideas, etc.
A nation’s political interests are the concentrated expression of all national interests,
with the core being state sovereignty.
Security interests are the foundation of the national interest. Only when security interests
are met to a certain degree can other national interests be realized.
Economic interests are the most constant national interests. When a country’s survival
is reasonably secured, its foreign policy pursues economic interest as the most important
interest. Therefore, economic interests may also be called a fundamental interest or
ultimate interest. Cultural interests are the spiritual aspect of the national interest, one
that is relatively difficult to realize.
2. Classification of national interest based on time span
Based on the time span for attaining an interest, national interests can be divided into
constant interests and variable interests. The former are perpetual; the latter can
be further divided into long-term, middle-term and short-term interests.
constant interests / Perpetual interests are the most stable. They will not disappear
until the nation state itself disappears. If a nation state wants to exist, it cannot give
up this kind of interest. Examples include territorial integrity, national independence,
state sovereignty, and the ability to pursue economic development.
Long-term national interest
These interests are relatively stable national interests. They are pursued by a nation
state over a long period of time and include interests like the ecological balance,
military nuclear force and industrial modernization. These interests arise when
human society develops to a certain level. Among these interests, some may end
with the demise of nation-states. But most interests will disappear before the
disappearance of the nation state as an entity, depending in part on the progress
of science and technology. During WWI and WWII, copper was the only material
used in shells and therefore was an important strategic material. With the
development of the plastics industry and the invention of new materials, the
strategic use of copper was drastically decreased. Since the second half of the
1960s, the price of copper has dropped dramatically. Today, the need for copper
is no longer an important national economic interest for most countries.
Mid-term interests
T h e s e are national interests over a fixed period of time. They usually last a few years
or several decades. Examples include importing certain types of advanced military or
scientific technology, striving for a certain kind of economic aid and so on.
Short-term interests
These are the most unstable of all interests. They change with almost any
other c h a n g e i n the international environment. They are temporal interests
that most countries pursue. Examples include striving for commercial loans,
adjusting tariffs and lobbying for a price change in a Particular commodity.
 3. Based on importance
Based on importance, national interests can be divided into vital interests,
extremely important interests, just important interests and less important
interests.
3.1 Vital interests are related to people's life and security as well as to the long-term
stability of a country's political system and economic life, territorial integrity,
political i ndependence, economic independence and the continuation of the
political system. The difference between extremely important and vital interests
is that the former are under less of a threat than the latter.
3.2 Extremely important interests include a favorable international strategic balance,
the maintenance of national prestige, the ability to choose one’s model for
development, and the guarantee of important economic interests, etc.
3.3 Just important interests are interests pursued when there is not an o bvious threat,
such as expansion of the export market, maintenance of technological superiority,
attracting international investment, maintaining international political stability, improving
friendly bilateral relations and so on.
3 . 4 Less important interests are interests that do not seriously affect national
security or strategic economic interests. Examples would be a company or an
individual's security and economic interest overseas.
4. Based on the scope
Based on the scope of an interest, national interests can be divided into
universal interests, partial interests and individual interests.
Universal interests are those interests pursued by every sovereign state, such as state
sovereignty, international status, the security of the population and so on.
Partial interests are those pursued only by some countries. They would include the
international order and leadership position pursued by superpowers; dominating roles in
regional affairs and regional cooperation pursued by countries in a defined area,
mutual security and alliances pursued by militarily allied countries and so forth.
Individual interests include those of a single country that are different from the
interests of other countries. For example, after the Cold War, China accelerated
its economic development and pursued modernization to catch up with developed
countries; Russia is striving for political stability, seeking to avoid further national
splintering; and the US wants to maintain American dominance, establishing a new world
order under its leadership.
 4. Common versus conflicting interests,
National interests can also be classified into
common versus conflicting interests,
according to the nature of the interest;
unified or supplemental interests,
B a s e d on the relationship between interests;
general and special interests,
as determined by the function of the interest;
physical and spiritual interests,
based on the attributes of the interest;
developed countries’ and developing countries’ interests, as determined by the level of
development; and, finally, socialist countries’ versus capitalist countries’ interests,
based on the political systems involved. The classification of national interests then
depends on the problems in international relations that we deal with. In order to
clarify the nature and content of various problems we must classify national interests
scientifically and reasonably.
Foreign policy and diplomacy
Determinants of foreign policy /environments of foreign policy making

Foreign policy, General objectives that guide the activities and relationships of one state in its
interactions with other states. The development of foreign policy is influenced by domestic
considerations, the policies or behavior of other states, or plans to advance specific geopolitical
designs. Determinants of state’s foreign policy can also be categorized into Domestic
and international determinants.

Domestic /internal factors

Internal or Domestic determinants on states' foreign policies focus attention "on
variations in states' attributes, such as military capabilities, level of economic
development, and types of government (Kegley, 2008).
1. Size and population
In the first place the size of a state's territory as well as its population greatly influences
its foreign policy. Generally the leaders and people of countries with small territory and
population do not expect their country to carry great weight in international affairs e.g.
Togo. On the other hand the leaders and people of large countries are ready to assume
special responsibilities like the US. However, the oil-rich countries of the Middle East,
though small in size are playing a significant role in international politics. On the other
hand large states like Canada and Australia have not been able to pursue effective
foreign policy. This means that size is not an absolute factor but gets influenced by
other resources a state may possess.
 2. Geography/location

The geography of a country includes its fertility, climate, location in relation to their
land masses, and water-ways etc. also influence the country's foreign policy. It is a
major factor in determining self-sufficiency of a country. Generally land-locked
countries, nations in the tropics and those bordering a superpower are less self-
sufficient in comparison to the countries which have access to warm-water ports or are
located in the temperate zones and far removed from superpowers. For example
comparing Kenya and Uganda in the East Africa Community.

Though the importance of geographic factors is acknowledged in almost at all hands,

its importance has considerably declined due to technological and scientific
developments. For example, due to improvement in the means of transport and
communication the world has greatly shrunk and the perception of large bodies
of water as natural barriers to military attack has greatly diminished. But still
geographical location of a country has a deep impact on the determination of its foreign
policy.

3. Culture and History.

The cultural and historical background and traditions of a country also deeply influence
the foreign policy. Generally people possessing a unified common culture and
historical experience can pursue an effective foreign policy because of the support of
all sections of society who share the same values and memories. On the other hand, a
country which is culturally and historically fragmented cannot pursue an equally
effective foreign policy. According to Roseau "the influence of cultural factors is not
limited to the impact of societal unity upon the formulation and implementation of
foreign policy. Equally important are the processes through which the contents of
Shared norms and practices of society, as distinguished from the degree of unity that
supports them shape the plans that are made and the activities that are undertaken with
respect to the external world.

4. Economic Development.
The stage of economic development which a country has attained also has its impact on
its foreign policy. Generally the industrially advanced countries feel more deeply
involved in relations with other countries because they have to import different kinds
of raw materials and commodities from other countries. They are also on the lookout of
latest knowledge and technical know-how.

Again, an industrial country is expected to have a higher gross national product

(GNP) and can devote greater funds for external purpose, economic aid programme,
military ventures and extensive diplomatic commitments e.g. European states. On the
other hand, industrially backward countries are not able to actively involve themselves
in external affairs. The lack of scientists, engineers and other specialists in the
country prevents them from taking advantage of the technological break-through
abroad. In recent years United States has been able to pursue more vigorous foreign
policy and secure its national objectives, mainly on account of its high degree of
economic development. It has made liberal use of foreign aid as an instrument for the
promotion of its foreign policy goals.

Economically developed countries possess greater military capability than the less
developed countries, and can exert greater influence on international relations. The
decline of Russia's economic power has considerably undermined her political role in
the international arena.

5. Technology

Advancement in technology, which affects the military and economic capabilities of

a state, also exercises profound influence on the foreign policy. It has been observed
that countries which possess advance technology are able to provide technical know-
how to less developed and developing nations and thus exert necessary influence on
their foreign policies. Roseau has rightly observed 'Technological changes can alter the
military and economic capabilities of a society and thus its status and role in the
international system'. The dominant role which countries like France, China, Germany
and Japan have been able to play in recent years is largely due to excellent
technological developments in these countries.
6. National Capacity

The national capacity of a state also exercises profound influence on the foreign policy
of a state. National capacity of a state depends on its military preparedness, its
technological advancement and economic development. It is well known that United
States which continued to pursue policy of isolation till the beginning of the present
century got deeply involved in the international arena in the present century mainly due
to tremendous increase in her national capacity due to rapid economic development.
Similarly, the foreign policy of Britain underwent great transformation in the post
World War II period, mainly due to decline in her national capacity.

7. Public Mood and Opinion

Public mood is another important determinant of a country's foreign policy. Though

public mood usually follows rather than guides the foreign policy making process, it
can exercise lot of influence on the determination of a foreign policy if the basic
realignment in the prevailing great power structure takes place and the state becomes
more involved or more isolated from the world affairs. It may be noted that generally in
an authoritarian system the public mood does not influence the foreign policy, but in a
democratic system based on political accountability considerable weight has to be
accorded to the changing public mood and sentiments.

8. Political Organization.
The political organization found in a country also greatly influences the foreign policy.
Generally under

Authoritarian system quick foreign policy decisions are possible because the
decision making power rests with an individual assisted by his clique. But as the
leaders under this system are isolated from the operational environments and the
subordinate policy makers provide the information which is perceived by the superiors,
there is every possibility of a discrepancy between the psychological and
operational aspects of the foreign policy. Further, under this system undesirable
opposition can be suppressed through censorship and promulgation of regulations.

On the other hand in a country possessing a

Democratic structure the citizens can freely express their opinion on the domestic as
well as foreign policy which naturally leave its impact on the foreign policy of the
country. Under democratic system there is very
little discrepancy between what the officials want to believe about the state
of world politics and the actual position because the subordinate policy makers make
available critical and detached information. Within the democratic system itself the
difference in a political structure has its impact on foreign policy. For example, under a
parliamentary system of government based on co-operation between the Legislature
and the Executive, the cordial relations between the two wings have an impact on
country's foreign policy.
On the other hand under presidential system based on the principle of separation of
powers, the relation between the two wings are likely to be more strained, which affect
the ambiguity or continuity of foreign policy.
9. Role of Press
The press also plays a vital role in the foreign policy formulation process. The press
contributes to this process by supplying factual information on the basis of which
the people take decision by publishing specialized articles on current international
developments which enable the people to understand the significance of developments
in their country in relation to the past developments and by analyzing the policy of the
government in regard to foreign affairs. The press also plays an important role in
publicizing the foreign policy of the country. The role of the press, however, depends
on the political system prevailing in the country, the rate of literacy as well as the
attitude of government.
International or External Determinants

1. International Law
The existence of international law and international norms acts in great extent to limit
the freedom to maneuver of states in the system. It is important to note that
international law does not flow from the enactment of a body with authority to make
laws as its common in parliament and therefore not enforceable through judiciary in the
state, domestically. Since it is constituted by agreements and treaties, it does not
entirely favor every interest a state may have; it limits states in one way or another. It is
however the responsibility of every state to observe the norms and laws failure to
which there are consequences. Observing international low is symptom of modernity
but rigidity is being savage. These do not mean that there is no state which uses power.
There are two elements of diplomacy
a. The Diplomacy of power
Used by state which is arrogant and rouge.
b. The Power of diplomacy
Use by those state which is modern
2. International Organizations
A states foreign policy option is also often affected by its membership of international
organizations since they surrender partially their sovereignty to these organizations e.g
the United Nations. The member states policies are obviously affected by the nature of
the particular institution be it economic, political or peace and security. This is because
their operations will be guided by the constitution of the organization.

3. Geopolitical location

The geopolitical location of a state is one of the external determinants on its foreign
policy. It matters where on the globe a country is located. It matters whether the
country has natural frontiers: that is whether it is protected by oceans, high
mountains, or deserts. It matters who one's neighbors are and whether a given
country is territorially large, populous, affluent, and well-governed. For instance,
Kenya’s foreign policy in the region has been shaped by factors such as the presence of
overlapping ethnic community across borders and being a littoral state of the Indian
Ocean which influences relations with landlocked neighbors.

Components /orientation of foreign policy

To consider components of foreign policy we have to take into account the state foreign
orientation. i.e. direction or principle of foreign policy depends on the state capability.
Foreign policy orientation could be
1. Isolation
This is a kind of F.P that followed by USA before world war first because she was not
formed in international relation. This meant Non or Little involvement in international
affairs.
2. Non alignment
It is political neutrality which is not legal neutrality because it implies not to side in
either sider. It is very much pragmatic and opportunistic foreign policy that persuade
by the third world state and china (it is a kind of bloc but does not constitute a formal
third bloc). NAM was existed and exists today to but it does not have as such
importance because there is no east west competition.
3. Neutrality
This is legal neutrality visa vie non alignment movement. It is non involvement in
international politics in every case particularly during war a neutral state does not take
part. It is also about moral neutrality. But this neutrality must be accepted
internationally. Currently there is no formal neutrality due to globalization.
Example: - Switzerland, Norway& Sweden are advocators of neutrality.
Right of Neutral Duties of Neutral
- Territorial inviolability - Maintenance of impartiality
- The right to self defense - Refrain from aiding belligerents’
- Acceptance of the status of impartiality - Restrict belligerents’ to use territory
- Non interference in its commerce - Permit belligerents’ for commerce

4. Alliance (coalition)

It about the involvement of state in a military group it can be multi lateral or

bilateral. It is internationally structure pursued by two or more state to defend
themselves from third party.

Instruments of foreign policy

These are techniques used by states to pursue national interest.
A. Secret intelligence
Usually termed as espionage because diplomats is a spay for his/ her country national
interest. Not only diplomats’ citizens abroad are also ambassadors of state national
interest. Diplomats engaged in intelligence but it is confidential.
Example:-CIA /KAGB/ MOSAD
Things to be considered in Secret intelligence
1. The information which is obtained through SI has to be accurate and update;
speedy / quick delivered to home government.
2. Should have to care not to misinform/misinform (deception) home
government
The advantage of secret intelligence
- To obtain information which is not available in conventional methods
- To obtain accurate and speedy information
- To deception of enemy
- Indirect approach of political warfare
B. Force /power
It is the most effective instrument of foreign policy in time of crisis or emergency. it
has to be immediate. But is discredited instrument in the contemporary world by
international law use of force as instrument of foreign policy is not accepted morally
but the there are state use force entirely as instrument of foreign policy.
Example: - USA against IRAQ
-Israel against Palestine
C. Economic status of state (state craft)

Economically advanced countries mobilize their resources to achieve their foreign

policy objective through their economic capacities but economic power is not available
and needs to be strategic.

A state with economic power can use economic measure as rewards (loan, grant and
aid) and punishment (sanction) boycott, embargo, restriction of private business and
impose extreme tax on imported goods.

D. Propaganda
Propaganda is manipulation of public opinion by symbols and words though mass
media. It is a peaceful way of perusing foreign policy objective; it also called political
advertizing or psychological warfare.
It use to raise internal opposition against enemy, demoralize the enemy army
Example :- VOA (USA)
- Deutschwelle (Germany)
- BBC
- Radio Moscow
Factors for effective propaganda
- The public use of mass media
- Degree of literacy
- Degree of the population involvement in their government
Factors for ineffective propaganda
- Poor targeted (less consideration of the skill of the mass)
- Censorship
- Low quality production
E. Diplomacy
Diplomacy is the process of conducting communication among state through officially
recognized representatives/officials such as diplomats. Diplomacy is the most
important peaceful instrument of foreign policy. It is a human face of foreign policy in
international relations.
It is a crucial instrument for building international stability so, diplomacy is the most
indispensable instrument but some scholar say it is old fashioned.
Types of diplomacy
- Bilateral – traditional and dominated
- Multi lateral through international organizations (UN, AU and NAM)
- Summit diplomacy (international conferences or summits such as world
economic or environmental summits)
- Public diplomacy (citizens’ diplomacy) use to win the attitude of civil
society in host countries it’s a vital instrument because winning the civil
society is achieving foreign policy.
Function of diplomacy
1. Interest representation
This is when diplomats represent the interest of the sending states in the receiving
states in which they are posted. Having diplomatic mission is cost by itself financially
and materially.

2. Interest protection
Interest representation is more symbolic than interest protection because interest
protection is about defending national interest economically and militarily and
politically. Economic diplomacy: - Expanding market (export) and attract foreign
investors.

3. Negotiation (Bargaining)
The most important peaceful function of diplomacy through conversation, discussion
and debate. For negotiation a diplomat must be skilled in experience, language,
determinations honest, knowledge about the counterpart and technical expertise about
what to give and gain.

4. Information gathering
Diplomats must communicate the information they obtained from receiving
state immediately for home government and state.
5. Crisis management
Reducing hostility and friction of the host and home government, protecting
citizen during the crisis of receiving state.
 6. Promoting friendship between home and host state (economically,
politically, militarily and ideologically).
F. International law

It is instrument of achieving national interest though international regimes.