GONO BISHWABIDYALAY

Department of Pharmacy
Course Title: Inorganic

ASSIGNMENT ON: “ATOMIC STRUCTURE”

Semester: 1st, Group No: B

Group Member:
Mst. Farhana Yesmen mim- 24131006
Md. Ismail Hossain- 24131007
Shorna Akter Srishty- 24131008
Aysha Julekha Maya- 24131009
Efath Jahan Oboni- 24131010

Submitted to
Anik Kumar Dey
Assistant Lecturer, Pharmacy Department
Gono Biswabidyalay

Submission Date: 09th May 2024

 Rutherford Model

An atom contains electrons, neutrons and protons. Many scientists have formulated the structure of
atoms. But the most fundamental and well-explained model was given by scientist Ernest Rutherford.
This model is Rutherford’s atomic model.

Atomic Model of Rutherford:

In 1904 J.J. Thomson suggested a plum pudding model of the atomic structure. Later in 1911, Physicist
Ernest Rutherford conducted his alpha scattering experiment to study the Thomson model. In this
investigation, he fired a beam of alpha particles at a thin foil of gold and observed the trajectory of
those particles. Based on his inference he proposed a structural model for the atom.

According to the Rutherford atomic model:

1. The positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in an extremely small
volume. He called this region of the atom as a nucleus.

2. Rutherford’s model proposed that the negativity charged electrons surround the nucleus of
an atom. He also claimed that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it with
very high speed in circular paths. He named these circular paths as orbits.

3. Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely concentrated mass of
positively charged particles are held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction.

Fig: Rutherford atomic model

 Limitation Of Rutherford’s Model

Rutherford’s atomic model was experimentally successful and found acceptance within the scientific
community. However, it could not explain certain vital things about atoms.

1. His theory and model could not explain the stability of the atoms. According to Rutherford’s
observation, the electrons in an atom move at higher speeds around its nucleus in circular orbits.
This behavior contradicted Maxwell’s observations. Maxwell explained that the acceleration
of the charged particles in the atoms causes them to release electromagnetic radiation. Thus,
the electrons moving around the nucleus in an atom must constantly emit electromagnetic
radiation. Rutherford’s atomic model did not explain these facts.

2. The electromagnetic radiations of the electron have energy due to their kinetic motion.
However, it will cause their orbit to shrink as they continuously emit energy and collapse in
the nucleus. And if we compare this with Maxwell’s theory, it will happen within 10-8 seconds.
And therefore, we can say that Rutherford’s model does not comply with Maxwell’s theory,
and it fails to explain the stability of the atoms.

3. Rutherford’s atomic model does not explain any arrangement of electrons in orbit, so it remains
incomplete. It is one of the major limitations of Rutherford’s atomic model.

4. An atom is composed of positively charged particles. A small region in the atom, called the
nucleus, concentrates most of this positive charge. Later discoveries of protons and neutrons
nullify this hypothesis of the Rutherford model.

Conclusion

This model correctly surmised the nature of neutrality of atoms, but its propositions were not correct
when matched with later experimental result.

Rutherford’s atomic model first gave the idea of the structure of atoms. It marked the basis of quantum
mechanics. The Rutherford atomic model also helped in the further development of quantum
mechanics.
 Bohr’s Model

The Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915. It came into existence with the
modification of Rutherford’s model of an atom.

Bohr’s model consists of a small nucleus (positively Charged) surrounded by negative electrons
moving around the nucleus in orbits. Bohr found that an electron located away from the nucleus has
more energy and the electron which is closer to nucleus has less energy. Salient features of Neil Bohr
atomic model are:

• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in stable orbits without emission of radiant energy. Each
orbit has a definite energy and is called an energy shell or energy level.
• An orbit on energy level is designed as K, L, M, N shells. When the electron is in the lowest
energy level, it is said to be in the ground state.
• An electron emits or absorb energy when it jumps from one orbit or energy level to another.
When it jumps from a higher energy level to lower energy level it emits while it absorbs energy
when it jumps from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.
• The energy absorbed or emitted is equal to the difference between the energies of the two
energy levels (E1, E2) and is determined by plank’s equation.
ΔE = E2-E1 = h𝜈

Where,
ΔE = energy absorbed or emitted
h= Plank’s constant

𝜈= frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed

The angular momentum of an electron revolving in energy shells is given by:
meVr= nh/2π
Where,
N=number of corresponding energy shell; 1, 2, 3 …..
me= mass of the electron
V= velocity
r= radius
h= Plank’s constant

Fig: Bohr’s Atomic Model

 Limitations of Bohr’s Model of An Atom

1. It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. The Bohr atomic model theory considers
electrons to have both a known radius and orbit i.e., known position and momentum at the same
time, which is impossible according to Heisenberg.

2. The Bohr atomic model theory made correct predictions for smaller sized atoms like hydrogen,
but poor spectral predictions are obtained when larger atoms are considered.

3. It failed to explain the Zeeman effect when the spectral line is split into several components in
the presence of a magnetic field.

Quantum Number
Quantum number are those numbers that designate and distinguish various atomic orbitals and
electrons present in an atom. A set of four numbers through which we can get the complete information
about all the space, type of orbital occupied and even the orientation of that orbital is called Quantum
Number.

There are four quantum number-

1. Principal number

2. Azimuthal or Subsidiary quantum number

3. Magnetic quantum number

4. Spin quantum number

1. The Principal Quantum Number represents the principal energy level or shell in which an
electron revolves around the nucleus. It is denoted by the letter n and can have any integral
value except the 0 i.e., n = 1, 2, 3, 4 … …. etc. The energies of the various principal shells will
follow the sequence as:

K < L < M < N < O…..

1< 2 < 3 < 4 < 5…….

2. Azimuthal Quantum Number Azimuthal quantum number, also known as orbital quantum
number, determines the subshell to which an electron belongs. As a matter of result, the number
of electronic jumps increases and the number of lines at the same time.
For a given value of n, it can have any integral value ranging from 0 to n – 1.

For the 1st Shell, say K, n =1, you can have only one value i.e., l = 0

For the 2nd Shell, say L, n = 2, you can have two values i.e., l = 0 and 1

For the 3rd Shell, say M, n = 3, you can have three values i.e., l = 0, 1 and 2

For the 4th shells, say N, n = 4, you can have 4 values i.e., l = 0, 1, 2 and 3

3. Magnetic Quantum Number Magnetic Quantum Number denoted by the symbol m is what
represents the orientation of atomic orbital in space. The value of the Magnetic Quantum
Number, m, depends on the value of l. Magnetic Quantum Number can have a total number of
(2l + 1).

Sublevel l ml

s 0 0

p 1 -1, 0, +1

d 2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2

f 3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3

4. Spin Quantum Number Spin Quantum Number represents the direction of the spin of the
electrons. This can either be in the direction of clockwise or even anti-clockwise. Spin Quantum
Number is denoted by the symbol s. It can have about only two values i.e., +1/2 or -1/2.
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle is one of the most celebrated results of quantum mechanics and
states that one (often, but not always) cannot know all things about a particle (as it is defined by its
wave function) at the same time. This principle is mathematically manifested as non-commuting
operators.

❖ Statement:

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle states that there is inherent uncertainty in the act of measuring a
variable of a particle. Commonly applied to the position and momentum of a particle, the principle
states that the more precisely the position is known the more uncertain the momentum is and vice
versa.

Uncertainties in the products of “conjugate pairs” (momentum/position) and (energy/time) were

defined by Heisenberg as having a minimum value corresponding to Planck’s constant divided by 4π.

More clearly:

ΔpΔx≥h4π (1)

ΔtΔE≥h4π (2)

Where Δ refers to the uncertainty in that variable and h is Planck's constant.

Fig: Heisenberg uncertainty

principle: The observation of an
electron with a microscope
requires reflection of a photon
off the electron. This reflected
photon causes a change in the
path of the electron.

❖ Consequences

The Heisenberg Principle has large bearing on practiced science and how experiments are designed.
Consider measuring the momentum or position of a particle. To create a measurement, an interaction
with the particle must occur that will alter its other variables. For example, in order to measure the
position of an electron there must be a collision between the electron and another particle such as a
photon. This will impart some of the second particle's momentum onto the electron being measured
and thereby altering it. A more accurate measurement of the electron's position would require a particle
with a smaller wavelength, and therefore be more energetic, but then this would alter the momentum
even more during collision. An experiment designed to determine momentum would have a similar
effect on position. Consequently, experiments can only gather information about a single variable at a
time with any amount of accuracy.
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

Pauli Exclusion Principle

Pauli's Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can have identical values for
all four of their quantum numbers. The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that, in an atom or molecule,
no two electrons can have the same four electronic quantum numbers. As an orbital can contain a
maximum of only two electrons, the two electrons must have opposing spins. This means if one
electron is assigned as a spin up (+1/2) electron, the other electron must be spin-down (-1/2) electron.

❖ Statement
The Pauli exclusion principle states that in a single atom, no two electrons will have an
identical set or the same quantum numbers (n, l, ml, and ms). To put it in simple terms, every
electron should have or be in its own unique state (singlet state). There are two salient rules
that the Pauli exclusion principle follows:

Only two electrons can occupy the same orbital.

The two electrons that are present in the same orbital must have opposite spins, or they should
be antiparallel.
However, the Pauli exclusion principle does not only apply to electrons, it applies to other
particles of half-integer spin, such as fermions. It is not relevant for particles with an integer
spin, such as bosons which have symmetric wave functions. Moreover, bosons can share or
have the same quantum states, unlike fermions. As far as the nomenclature goes, fermions are
named after the Fermi–Dirac statistical distribution that they follow. Bosons, on the other hand,
get their name from the Bose-Einstein distribution function.

Fig: Pauli Exclusion Principle

 Importance and Applications of Pauli Exclusion Principle:

▪ The Pauli exclusion principle helps to explain a wide variety of physical phenomena,
such as the electron shell structure of atoms and the way atoms share electrons.
▪ It helps in describing the various chemical elements and how they participate in forming
chemical bonds.
The periodic table can also be defined with the help of this principle.
▪ Solid-state properties: Many electrical, optical, magnetic, mechanical and chemical
properties of solids are the direct consequence of Pauli exclusion.
▪ The principle helps in describing the stability of large systems with many electrons and
many nucleons.
Apart from Chemistry, the principle is a fundamental principle in quantum mechanics
which is mainly studied in Physics.

Aufbau Rule

According to the Aufbau principle, electrons first occupy those orbitals whose energy is the lowest
before filling higher energy ones (Aufbau is German roots for" Building up "). By following this
principle, we can predict the electron configurations for atoms or ions.

A diagram illustrating the order in which atomic orbitals are filled is provided below. Here ' n 'refers
to the principal quantum number and 'l ' is the azimuthal quantum number. The Aufbau principle can
be used to understand the location of electrons in an atom and their corresponding energy levels.

For example,

Carbon has six electrons, and its configuration is given below-

C (6) ----->1s² 2s² 2p²

It is important to note that each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.

Fig: Aufbau Rule

Features of Aufbau principle:

• According to the Aufbau principle, the energy of orbitals increases can be determined with the
help of (n+l) rule, where the sum of the principal and azimuthal quantum numbers determines
the energy level of the orbital.
• Lower (n+l) values correspond to lower orbital energies. If two orbitals share equal (n+l)
values, the orbital with the lower 'n' value is said to have lower energy associated with it.

Exceptions of Aufbau principle:

The Aufbau principle works for nearly every element tested. There are two exceptions to this principle.
Chromium and Copper are the only exceptions to this principle because they want to have a
symmetrical distribution of electrons since this would make the elements more stable.

Cr (24) --->1s² 2s² 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d⁴

*--->1s² 2s² 3p⁶ 4s¹ 3d⁵

Chromium wants to keep its sublevel half filled (3d⁵ instead of 3d¹) in order to achieve this stability
an excited electron from the 4s orbital moves to the 3d subshell. This is achievable for these elements
because the 4s and 3d subshells are close in energy and the 4s orbital has a lot of electron revulsion.
So, it's easier for them to remove a 4s electron.

Hund’s Rule

Hund’s Rule

According to Hund’s rule, Electrons are distributed among the orbitals of a subshell in such a way is
to give the maximum number of unpaired electrons and having the same direction of spin.

Aufbau principle tells us that the lowest energy orbitals get filled by electrons first. After the lower
energy orbitals are filled, the electrons move on to highest energy orbitals. The problem with this
Features of Hund's rule:

• Before the double occupation of any orbital, every orbital in the sub level is singly occupied.
• For the maximization of total spin, all electrons in a single occupancy orbital have the same
spin rule is that it does not tell about the three 2p orbitals and the order that they will fill in.

Fig: Hund’s Rule

Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

It states that for a given electron configuration, the term with maximum multiplicity falls lowest in
energy. According to this rule electron paring in p, d, f orbitals cannot occur until each orbital of a
given subshell contains one electron each or is singly occupied.

Explanation of Hund's Rule:

The electrons enter an empty orbital before pairing up. The electrons repel each other as they are
negatively charged. The electrons do not share orbitals to reduce repulsion.

When we consider the second rule, the spins of unpaired electrons in singly occupied orbitals are the
same. The initial electrons spin in the sub level decides what the spin of the other electrons would be.
For instance, a carbon atoms electron configuration would be -

C (6) -->1s² 2s² 2p²

The same orbital occupied by the two 2s electrons although different orbitals will be occupied by the
two 2p electrons in reference to Hund’s rule.
 Scope And Application of Inorganic
Compound

Inorganic compounds are used as catalysts, pigments, coating, surfactants, medicines, fuels and many
more. They often have high melting point’s and specific high or low electrical conductivity properties,
which make them useful for specific purposes.

For example, Ammonia is a nitrogen source in-fertilizer.

Classification of inorganic compounds:

1. acids
2. bases
3. salts
4. oxides

Medicine
Materials science
• MRI
• Electrical & magnetic properties of solids
•X-ray contrast imaging
• Solid state structures
• Drugs (arthritis, cancer … etc.) • Semi-conductors
• Super conductors

Inorganic
• New compounds Organometallic
Biochemistry / Biology Chemistry
• Metalloproteins • Geometrical &
electronic structure • New compounds
• O2 binding • Structures
• Catalysts • reactivity
• Catalysts

Organic Chemistry Geochemistry

• Organometallics • Synthesis and structure of

• Metal compound in synthesis/catalysis minerals
• Stellar evolution
• astrochemistry

Fig: Scope and Application of Inorganic Compound

Pharmaceutical uses of inorganic compounds:

Pharmaceutical inorganic chemistry is a subfield of pharmaceutical chemistry that focuses on the

Study of inorganic compounds and their applications in the development of pharmaceuticals and
medicine treatments. It plays a crucial role in the design, Synthesis, characterization, and analysis of
inorganic compounds that have therapeutic properties on are used as components in pharmaceutical
formulations.

Inorganic pharmaceuticals are useful in many ways. Those are given below:

1. For therapeutic purpose. For example- Astringents, antimicrobial (Aluminum citrate),

Antimicrobials (sodium benzoate) etc.

2. Pharmaceutical aids. For example- Dibasic calcium phosphate, talc etc.

3. To acidify on alkalize body fluid. For example - Antacids, alkalis, mineral acids.

4. Replacing or replenishing the normal content of body fluids. For example: sodium, potassium,
calcium chloride, phosphate etc.

5. As reagents to carry out the reactions. For example - catalysts (platinum, nickel) oxidizing and
reducing agents.

6. In pharmaceutical analysis - titrants such us potassium per manganate, EDTA