Using Concrete Manipulatives

in Mathematical Instruction
“A little creativity and enthusiasm are as effective as cutting edge tools Dr. Julie P. Jones
for teaching mathematics to young children. Physical mathematics Margaret Tiller
teaching aids can engage children’s minds in valuable ways that result
in high retention of the information.”

With the ever-increasing shift in the accountability Concrete, Representational,

movement, teachers and parents are constantly in search Abstract Instruction
of the “key” to high-quality mathematical instruction.
Teachers and parents believe they must compete with Concrete, Representational, Abstract (CRA) instruc-
lively television shows, faddish computer applications, tion is a process for teaching and learning mathemati-
and popular video games in order to capture student cal concepts. Starting with manipulation of concrete
attention and interest; however, using concrete manipu- materials (counters, beans, Unifix cubes), the process
latives in math instruction can generate student interest moves students to the representational level (tallies, dots,
in mathematics (Moch, 2001; Moyer, 2001). This truth stamps), and peaks at the abstract level, at which num-
applies whether instruction is being performed in a for- bers and symbols are used to demonstrate understand-
mal learning setting, such as a classroom, or an informal ings (Witzel, 2005). With the purpose of giving students
a thorough understanding of math concepts, CRA
learning setting, such as a family’s kitchen.
instruction allows students to make associations from
Manipulatives are “physical objects that are used as one stage of the process to the next. When students are
teaching tools to engage students in the hands-on learn- allowed to first develop a concrete understanding of the
ing of mathematics” (TeacherVision, 2009, p. 1). Ma- math concept/skill, they are much more likely to per-
nipulatives can be particularly effective in further devel- form that math skill and truly understand math concepts
oping conceptual understanding in mathematics (Witzel at the abstract level. Specific information for the stages
of CRA can be found in Table 1 (next page).
and Allsopp, 2007), because they help students relate
concrete ideas to abstract ideas, as well as link informal
approaches with formal approaches (Uribe-Flórez &
Wilkins, 2010). Using hands-on, concrete manipulatives Children
throughout math instruction can lead to higher reten-
tion rates and a more positive student attitude toward
understand math
education in general. The early childhood years, from better when they
ages 0-8, are critical in terms of development (McGuire,
Kinzie, & Berch, 2012), so it is important to explore
can see and touch it
instructional strategies that align with and cater to the
young child’s growing understanding of the world. As
Smith (2009) writes, “A good manipulative bridges the Student Engagement and Accessibility
gap between informal math and formal math. To accom- using CRA Instruction
plish this objective, the manipulative must fit the devel-
opmental level of the child” (p. 20). Witzel, Smith, & Brownell (2001) suggest that interac-
tive experiences with concrete manipulatives can increase

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 Using Concrete Manipulatives in Mathematical Instruction

Table 1: CRA instruction materials and practice.

Stages Key Elements Sample Problem Explanation
Concrete Chips, Unifix cubes, Here, a ten frame with colored coun-
base ten blocks ters is used to show the equation
7 + 3 = 10.

Transition to Rep- Use of concrete and Once the concrete materials have
resentational representational been used, students begin to draw
materials together their own ten frames using the con-
crete model as a guide.

Representational Tallies, dots, circles, At the representational level of CRA,

stamps the student is comfortable using pic-
tures to solve the problem.

Transition to Ab- Use of representa- Students now start using abstract

stract tional and abstract symbols (numbers in standard form)
materials together with their drawing to explain their
reasoning.

Abstract Numbers, math- Students at the abstract level of CRA

ematical symbols no longer need pictures or manipula-
tives to solve the problem.

the relevance of mathematical mate- direct, hands-on participation Do-It-Yourself Math

rial for students. Instead of delving (Witzel et al., 2001; Devlin, 2000;
Manipulatives
straight into an abstract concept, Maccini & Gagnon, 2000). Recog-
the use of hands-on interaction nizing that abstract concepts can be
While CRA instruction can seem
with concrete manipulatives allows illustrated and manipulated using
like an arduous task, teachers and
students of all mathematical levels to everyday objects gives students easier
parents, as primary instructors, do
begin instruction on a level playing access to mathematical knowledge
not need to purchase expensive,
field. Accessibility for students is of (Witzel et al., 2001; Devlin, 2000;
commercially produced manipula-
utmost importance: students must Maccini & Gagnon, 2000).
tives in order to impart quality CRA
be able to connect and engage with
instruction. Rather, everyday objects
the mathematical concepts through
found around an average classroom
Dimensions of Early Childhood Vol 45, No 1, 2017 19
 Using Concrete Manipulatives in Mathematical Instruction

or household can be used as con- the classroom setting alone; parents the intent for manipulative use is the
venient and effective mathematical and family members can also rein- development of number fluency, the
manipulatives. Popular manipula- force abstract mathematical concepts grade and age levels for the following
tives used in mathematical instruc- with their children through the use activities (1-6) are early-childhood
tion include: blocks, Popsicle sticks, of everyday household items. levels (prekinder to second grade);
toothpicks, Styrofoam cups, contain- The size of objects can be deter- however, if a student continues to
ers, Geoboards, candies, and various mined by the age of the child— con- demonstrate difficulty with the skills
other counting objects. While the sider developmental levels and chok- of addition or subtraction, these
use of concrete manipulatives can be ing potential for small items-- or the manipulatives can be utilized at any
an effective instructional strategy, the quantity you intend to add. Because grade level.
use of manipulatives is not limited to
The Amazing Addition Apparatus

CRA levels: Concrete & transition to representational

Materials: Pool noodles, poster board or cardboard (I used
a cutting board), marbles, adhesive, basket/bowl/or box.
Description: The Amazing Addition Apparatus serves as a
visually appealing manipulative to get the early childhood
student excited about the concept of addition. The student
simply drops his/her desired number of marbles through
the first pool noodle and then drops more marbles through
the other pool noodle. The student then adds together the
two numbers by counting the number of marbles that have
fallen into the collection plate. This interactive concrete ma-
nipulative allows children to simultaneously have fun and
develop a sense of basic addition concepts.

Addition/ Subtraction Muffin Tins

CRA levels: Concrete & transition to representational

Materials: Muffin tin, marbles (or other small countable
objects, such as pennies), paper or foam addition, subtrac-
tion, and equal signs
Description: This simple DIY manipulative would work
well for individual students in a classroom setting because
of its low cost and lack of noise. It can also work well in a
home setting. The beauty of this manipulative is that any
small, countable object can be used in the muffin tin to
practice basic addition and subtraction skills. To personalize
the learning process, the early childhood learner could use
his/her favorite candy as a countable object in the muffin
tin! To reinforce the concept of two parts being combined, a student would need to place the object in the addend
muffin holes, then move both to the equal muffin hole for counting. Note the error in Figure 2 where each muffin
hole contains marbles. The teacher would want to be sure to illustrate clearly the concepts of addition by moving
the marbles from the addends cups – left and center-- to the total cup at the far right. This concept can also be
used for subtraction, but teachers are cautioned to ensure the concept of removing items from the first muffin hole
to result in the difference.

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 Using Concrete Manipulatives in Mathematical Instruction

Place Value Cups

CRA levels: Transition to abstract & abstract

Materials: Styrofoam cups (the number of cups
depends on the place value being studied), perma-
nent marker(s)
Description: This manipulative is an inexpensive
and fun way to teach the concept of place value.
The instructor (whether it be the parent or the
teacher) gives the student/class a number, and the
student would need to be able to manipulate the
Styrofoam cups using their understanding of place
value to illustrate that number. This manipulative
would also be a fun partner activity in the class;
each student could challenge their partner to create
the number that he/she supplies. When combined with drawings, students in transition from representational to
abstract levels can be rewarded by the game of creating the abstract number on the cups. If students have yet to
demonstrate conceptual understanding of place value, it is best to start with pool noodle manipulatives or base-ten
blocks before moving to the Styrofoam cups.

Place Value Sliders

CRA levels: Transition to abstract & abstract

Materials: Scrapbook paper, (or paint chips), two rulers (or two
paint stirrers), permanent marker.
Description: This manipulative is perfect for frugal parents and
teachers because it costs nearly nothing to create (assuming that
paint chips are free at your store of choice). If you do not have
access to paint chips lying around the house or if you are not able
to make it to the home improvement store, you can improvise
with scrapbook paper instead. Likewise, without access to paint
stirrers, you can choose to use rulers. If you choose to use rulers
instead of paint stirrers, you will need some paper and tape to cover
up the pre-existing numbers on the rulers. If your goal is to cre-
ate a manipulative that will survive years of classroom use, choose
something sturdy (paint stirrer or ruler) as the backbone of this
manipulative instead of something more flimsy, like construction
paper. Simply write numbers 0-9 on each ruler and make sure that
you cut two square windows in your scrapbook paper or paint chips. In use, students are given a number and must
demonstrate their understanding of place value (ones and tens) with the given number on their manipulative. This
slider could also be used as students are transitioning from representational to abstract stages of CRA by having
students first draw the base-ten pictures, then create the abstract number on the slider.

Dimensions of Early Childhood Vol 45, No 1, 2017 21

 Using Concrete Manipulatives in Mathematical Instruction

Cards & Erasers

CRA levels: All

Material: Playing cards, any small countable items that are
approximately the same size (The image shows dinosaur
erasers from the local dollar store).
Description: What a versatile manipulative to utilize. If
building conceptual understandings, you can have students
create a pile (ten or less) of the same type of item. Then, find
the playing card with the same number of pictures.
The abstract number on the card reinforces the student’s cog-
nitive transition to the abstract level of CRA.
To assess one-to-one correspondence, students can choose two playing cards and flip them over. Next, the students
line up the correct number of small objects (in this case, the dinosaur erasers) to match the number displayed on
their chosen playing cards. If placing the students in partner groups, one student can be the number creator and
the other can be the number checker.

Mr. Alligator

CRA levels: All

Materials: Green construction paper, printed number cards
(or small countable objects, such as pom poms), printed ad-
dition sign, printed subtraction sign, printed equal sign
Description: Before using this fun manipulative, the instruc-
tor will need to come up with a background story about Mr.
Alligator. For example: Mr. Alligator’s favorite activity is eat-
ing, and he is ALWAYS hungry. Do you think he wants to turn
his mouth towards the bigger number or the smaller number?
Students who have not yet studied place value may need
to use the countable objects (such as the pom poms in the
bottom image) or tally marks to make number comparisons.
While this manipulative can help children practice their
greater than/less than skills, it can also be used as an effective
tool to reinforce place value concepts.

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 Using Concrete Manipulatives in Mathematical Instruction

Table 2: CRA levels of manipulatives.

Stage of Instruction in the CRA Sequence
Manipulative Concrete Transition to Representational Transition to Abstract
Representational Abstract
The Amazing Addition
Apparatus
Addition Muffin Tin

Place Value Cups

Place Value Sliders

Cards & Erasers

Mr. Alligator

Conclusion same pace, each student is likely to Witzel, B., Smith, S. W., & Brownell, M. T. (2001).
How can I help students with learning disabilities
make advancements in mathematical in algebra? Intervention in School and Clinic, 37(2),
The push for inclusivity in recent understanding at his/her own pace 101-104.

years has led to a wide variety of if CRA instruction is directed in the

student academic abilities in class- appropriate manner.
About the Authors
rooms. While this diversity provides
wonderful opportunities for students References
to become more aware, mindful, and Dr. Julie P. Jones is the Director for
respectful of each other’s learning Devlin, K. (2000). Finding your inner mathemati- Teacher Education and Student Teach-
cian. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 46, B5.
differences, it can also unfortunately ing at Converse College in Spartanburg,
Maccini, P., & Gagnon, J.C. (2000). Best practices
SC. She maintains an active research
leave teachers feeling lost in terms for teaching mathematics to secondary students
with special needs. Focus on Exceptional Children, agenda with interests including instruc-
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each student’s individual learning McGuire, P., Kinzie, M.B., & Berch, D.B. (2012). tional practices for the general program
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Margaret Tiller is a 2nd grade teacher
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In other words, it is probable that Moyer, P. (2001). Are we having fun yet? How in Spartanburg School District Six in
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Basic Curriculum (ABC) teacher, she is
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their knowledge of mathematical (4th ed.) Boston: Pearson Education.
drawn to researching creative, hands-on,
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TeacherVision. (2009) Using manipulatives. for all students.
tion. The manipulative ideas of- Retrieved from http://www.teachervision.fen.com/
fered in this article are useful across pro-dev/teaching-methods/48934.html.
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