SECTION 4 SECTION 4

 Plan and Prepare

Objectives
Distinguish between torque Torque and Simple
Machines
and force.

Preview Vocabulary Calculate the magnitude of a

torque on an object.
Scientific Meanings The word torque
Key Terms
is a technical word with no common Identify the six types of
torque lever arm
simple machines.
usage. It is widely used in physics and
Calculate the mechanical
mechanics. Torque is used to describe
advantage of a simple machine.
Rotational Motion
something that generates or tends to Earlier you studied various examples of uniform circular motion, such
generate rotation or torsion. as a spinning Ferris wheel or an orbiting satellite. During uniform
circular motion, an object moves in a circular path and at constant
speed. An object that is in circular motion is accelerating because the
direction of the object’s velocity is constantly changing. This centrip-
 Teach etal acceleration is directed toward the center of the circle. The net
force causing the acceleration is a centripetal force, which is also
directed toward the center of the circle.
Misconception Alert! In this section, we will examine a related type of motion: the motion
of a rotating rigid object. For example, consider a football that is
Many students may think that any force spinning as it flies through the air. If gravity is the only force acting on
acting on an object will produce a the football, the football spins around a point called its center of mass.
torque. You may want to demonstrate As the football moves through the air, its center of mass follows a
parabolic path. Note that the center of mass is not always at the center
that if you push an object at its center of the object.
of mass without rotating the object, you
are applying a force to the object Rotational and translational motion can be separated.
without producing a torque. Imagine that you roll a strike while bowling. When the bowling ball
strikes the pins, as shown in Figure 4.1, the pins spin in the air as they fly
FIGURE 4.1 backward. Thus, they have both rotational and linear motion. These types
of motion can be analyzed separately. In this section, we will isolate
TEACH FROM VISUALS Types of Motion Pins that are rotational motion. In particular, we will explore how to measure the
spinning and flying through the air exhibit ability of a force to rotate an object.
FIGURE 4.1 Point out that the pins were both rotational and translational motion.
initially at rest and were set in motion
by the bowling ball.
Ask Is the energy gained by the pins
greater than, equal to, or less than the
energy lost by the bowling ball?

©Doable/A. collection/Getty Images

Answer: The energy gained by the pins
is equal to the energy lost by the
bowling ball (except for a small loss of
energy in the form of sound and a slight
temperature increase in the pins).

Differentiated
244 Chapter 7
Instruction
Pre-AP
Expand the definition of rotational motion by
Untitled-30 244 5/9/2011 8:16:59 AM

including the concept of “circular motion.”

A circular motion is a common form of rota-
tional motion in which every point on a rigid
object moves in a circular path. The axis passing
through the center of this circle is called the
axis of rotation.

244 Chapter 7
 The Magnitude of a Torque FIGURE 4.2

Imagine a cat trying to leave a house by pushing perpendicu- Hinge Rotation The cat-flap door rotates on a
larly on a cat-flap door. Figure 4.2 shows a cat-flap door hinge, allowing pets to enter and leave a house at will. QuickLab
hinged at the top. In this configuration, the door is free to
rotate around a line that passes through the hinge. This is the
door’s axis of rotation. When the cat pushes at the bottom Teacher’s Notes
edge of the door with a force that is perpendicular to the Students should find that the smallest
door, the door opens. The ability of a force to rotate an object lever arm (closest to the hinge) requires
around some axis is measured by a quantity called torque.
the greatest force to produce the same
torque.
Torque depends on the force and the lever arm.
If a cat pushed on the door with the same force but at a point Homework Options This QuickLab can
closer to the hinge, the door would be more difficult to easily be performed outside of the
rotate. How easily an object rotates depends not only on how physics lab room.
much force is applied but also on where the force is applied.
The farther the force is from the axis of rotation, the easier it
is to rotate the object and the more torque is produced. The
perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to a line
drawn along the direction of the force is called the lever arm.
Figure 4.3 shows a diagram of the force F applied by the pet perpen- torque a quantity that measures the
dicular to the cat-flap door. If you examine the definition of lever arm, ability of a force to rotate an object
around some axis
you will see that in this case the lever arm is the distance d shown in
the figure, the distance from the pet’s nose to the hinge. That is, d is the
perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line along which lever arm the perpendicular distance
the applied force acts. If the pet pressed on the door at a higher point, from the axis of rotation to a line drawn
along the direction of the force
the lever arm would be shorter. As a result, the cat would need to exert
a greater force to apply the same torque.

FIGURE 4.3

Torque A force applied to an

extended object can produce a torque. d
This torque, in turn, causes the object axis of
to rotate. rotation
F

CHANGING THE LEVER ARM

In this activity, you will explore when you push without turning the the hinged side of the door.
how the amount of force required knob. Because the angle of the Summarize your findings in terms
to open a door changes when the applied force is kept constant, of torque and the lever arm.
lever arm changes. Using only decreasing the distance to the
perpendicular forces, open a door hinge decreases the lever arm. MATERIALS
several times by applying a force Compare the relative effort • door
at different distances from the required to open the door when • masking tape
hinge. You may have to tape the pushing near the edge to that
latch so that the door will open required when pushing near

Circular Motion and Gravitation 245

Untitled-30 245 5/9/2011 8:17:02 AM

Circular Motion and Gravitation 245

 FIGURE 4.4

 Teach continued Torque and Angles In each example, the cat is pushing on the door at the same distance
from the axis. To produce the same torque, the cat must apply greater force for smaller angles.

(a) (b) (c)

TEACH FROM VISUALS d d d

d d F d F F
F d F d F F d F F
FIGURE 4.5 Be certain students recog-
nize how to identify the force, the
distance to the axis, the angle between
the force and the axis, and the lever arm.
Ask Mechanics often use “cheater bars” The lever arm depends on the angle.
PHYSICS PHYSICS PHYSICS
to loosen stubborn bolts. A cheater bar Spec. Number PH 99 PEto
Forces do not have to be perpendicular Spec.
anNumber
C08-001-006-A
objectPH 99to PE cause
C08-001-006-A
Spec. Number PH 99 PE C08-001-006-A
the object to
Boston Graphics, Inc. Boston Graphics, Inc. Boston Graphics, Inc.
is usually a length of pipe that fits over rotate. Imagine the cat-flap door again.
617.523.1333
In Figure 4.4(a), the force exerted
617.523.1333 617.523.1333
by the cat is perpendicular to d. When the angle is less than 90°, as in (b)
the handle of a wrench, which makes and (c), the door will still rotate, but not as easily. The symbol for torque is
the handle longer. How do cheater bars the Greek letter tau (τ), and the magnitude of the torque is given by the
help the mechanic? following equation:
FIGURE 4.5
Answer: Cheater bars increase the lever
Torque and Direction The direction Torque
arm length while keeping the force the of the lever arm is always perpendicular to τ = Fd sin θ
same, thus increasing the torque applied the direction of the applied force.
to a stubborn bolt. torque = force × lever arm
F
The SI unit of torque is the N•m. Notice that the inclusion of the factor
sin θ in this equation takes into account the changes in torque shown
in Figure 4.4.
d
Figure 4.5 shows a wrench pivoted around a bolt. In this case, the
applied force acts at an angle to the wrench. The quantity d is the distance
from the axis of rotation to the point where force is applied. The quantity
d sin θ, however, is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to
a line drawn along the direction of the force. Thus, d sin θ is the lever arm.
Note that the perpendicular distance between the door hinge and the
d sin
point of application of force F in Figure 4.4 decreases as the cat goes
further through the door.

The Sign
7-11 of a Torque
PH99PE C08-001-007 A
Tips and Tricks
To determine the sign of a torque,
imagine that the force is the only Torque, like displacement and force, is a vector quantity. In this textbook,
force acting on the object and that we will assign each torque a positive or negative sign, depending on the
the object is free to rotate. Visualize
the direction that the object would
direction the force tends to rotate an object. We will use the convention
rotate. If more than one force is that the sign of the torque resulting from a force is positive if the rotation
acting, treat each force separately. Be is counterclockwise and negative if the rotation is clockwise. In calcula-
careful to associate the correct sign
with each torque. tions, remember to assign positive and negative values to forces and
displacements according to the sign convention established in the
chapter “Motion in One Dimension.”

Differentiated
246 Chapter 7
Instruction
Below Level
Having some real-life examples can help
Untitled-30 246 5/9/2011 8:17:04 AM

students understand the concept of torque

and how it works. Ask students to find some
daily uses of torque and discuss their findings
to see whether their examples are appropriate.
For example, tell students that rotating the lid
of a bottle is an example of applying torque.
Moving a seesaw up and down is another
example of using torque.

246 Chapter 7
 For example, imagine that you are pulling on a wishbone with a
perpendicular force F1 and that a friend is pulling in the opposite
direction with a force F2. If you pull the wishbone so that it would Classroom Practice
rotate counterclockwise, then you exert a positive torque of magnitude
F1d1. Your friend, on the other hand, exerts a negative torque, –F2 d2. Torque
To find the net torque acting on the wishbone, simply add up the A student pushes with a minimum force
individual torques. of 50.0 N on the middle of a door to
τnet = Στ = τ1 + τ2 = F1d1 + (−F2 d2) open it.
When you properly apply the sign convention, the sign of the net a. What minimum force must be
torque will tell you which way the object will rotate, if at all.
applied at the edge of the door
PREMIUM CONTENT in order for the door to open?
Torque Interactive Demo b. What minimum force must be
HMDScience.com
Sample Problem E A basketball is being pushed by two applied to the hinged side of
players during tip-off. One player exerts an upward force of 15 N the door in order for the door
at a perpendicular distance of 14 cm from the axis of rotation. The to open?
second player applies a downward force of 11 N at a
perpendicular distance of 7.0 cm from the axis of rotation. Find Answers
the net torque acting on the ball about its center of mass. a. 25.0 N
F2 = 11 N
ANALYZE Given: F1 = 15 N F2 = 11 N d1 = 0.14 m
b. The door cannot be opened by a
d1 = 0.14 m d2 = 0.070 m force at the hinge location. It can
Unknown: τnet = ?
be broken but cannot be opened
normally.
Diagram: see right
F1 = 15 N d2 = 0.070 m

PROBLEM guide E
PLAN Choose an equation or situation: Use this guide to assign problems.
Apply the definition of torque to each force, Tips
HRWand Tricks
• Holt Physics
and add up the individual torques. PH99PE-C08-001-011-A
The factor sin θ is not included SE = Student Edition Textbook
because each given distance is
τ = Fd the perpendicular distance from PW = Sample Problem Set I (online)
the axis of rotation to a line drawn
τnet = τ1 + τ2 = F1d1 + F2 d2 along the direction of the force. PB = Sample Problem Set II (online)
Solving for:
SOLVE Substitute the values into the equations and solve:
First, determine the torque produced by each force. Use the standard τ SE Sample, 1–2; Ch.
convention for signs. Rvw. 37–38, 43 44*,
τ1 = F1d1 = (15 N)(−0.14 m) = −2.1 N•m 51a, 54
τ2 = F2 d2 = (−11 N)(0.070 m) = −0.77 N•m PW 6, 7a
τnet = −2.1 N•m − 0.77 N•m PB 4–6
τnet = −2.9 N•m d PW Sample, 1–2, 3*
PB 7–10
CHECK YOUR The net torque is negative, so the ball rotates in a clockwise direction. F SE 3; Ch. Rvw. 41–42,
WORK 51b, 54
Continued PW 4*, 5*, 7b
Problem Solving Circular Motion and Gravitation 247 PB Sample, 1–3
*Challenging Problem
Take It Further
ntitled-30 247
Show students how to solve a torque problem 5/9/2011 8:17:05 AM

when the force is not applied at a perpendicu-

lar angle. For example, the force may be
applied at an angle of 60°. In that case, the
following formula must be used:
τ = Fd sin θ

Circular Motion and Gravitation 247

 Torque (continued)

 Teach continued 1. Find the magnitude of the torque produced by a 3.0 N force applied to a door at a
perpendicular distance of 0.25 m from the hinge.
Answers 2. A simple pendulum consists of a 3.0 kg point mass hanging at the end of a 2.0 m
Practice E long light string that is connected to a pivot point.

1. 0.75 N·m a. Calculate the magnitude of the torque (due to gravitational force) around this
pivot point when the string makes a 5.0° angle with the vertical.
2. a. 5.1 N·m b. Repeat this calculation for an angle of 15.0°.
b. 15 N·m
3. If the torque required to loosen a nut on the wheel of a car has a magnitude of
3. 133 N 40.0 N•m, what minimum force must be exerted by a mechanic at the end of a
30.0 cm wrench to loosen the nut?

TEACH FROM VISUALS

FIGURE 4.6 Point out that the reason

the bottle opener is so useful is that the
length of the handle is longer than the
distance between the rim, which pries Types of Simple Machines
the bottle cap up, and the cap itself. The FIGURE 4.6 What do you do when you need to pry a cap off a bottle of soda? You
probably use a bottle opener, as shown in Figure 4.6. Similarly, you would
amount of force needed to produce a A Lever Because this bottle probably use scissors to cut paper or a hammer to drive a nail into a
large torque on the cap is small because opener makes work easier, it is
board. All of these devices make your task easier. These devices are all
an example of a machine.
the lever arm is long. examples of machines.
The term machine may bring to mind intricate systems with multicol-
Ask Would the bottle opener still
ored wires and complex gear-and-pulley systems. Compared with inter-
provide a mechanical advantage if the nal-combustion engines or airplanes, simple devices such as hammers,
“prying arm” were equal in length to the scissors, and bottle openers may not seem like machines, but they are.
handle? A machine is any device that transmits or modifies force, usually by
changing the force applied to an object. All machines are combinations
Answer: No, if both the “prying arm” or modifications of six fundamental types of machines, called simple
and the handle were the same length, machines. These six simple machines are the lever, pulley, inclined plane,
the force input would equal the force wheel and axle, wedge, and screw, as shown in Figure 4.7 on the next page.

output, and the mechanical advantage

would equal 1. Using simple machines.
Because the purpose of a simple machine is to change the direction or
magnitude of an input force, a useful way of characterizing a simple
machine is to compare how large the output force is relative to the
input force. This ratio, called the machine’s mechanical advantage, is
written as follows:
output force Fout
MA = __ = _
input force Fin

Problem
248
Solving
Chapter 7

Alternative Approaches
Another way to calculate torque is to use the
Untitled-30 248 5/9/2011 8:17:06 AM

full distance from the pivot point to the

applied force and to use only the perpendicu-
lar component of the applied force. The
magnitude of this “effective force” is equal to
F sin θ. The resulting torque will be equal to
the result that would be obtained using the
applied force and lever arm.

248 Chapter 7
 FIGURE 4.7
SIX SIMPLE MACHINES
The Language of
Physics
Wheel Wheel
Wheel The ideal mechanical advantage (IMA)
Inclined plane
Inclined
Inclined planeplane AxleAxle Axle
Lever
LeverLever
Wheel
Wheel
Wheel refers to the mechanical advantage that
Inclined
Inclined
Inclined
planeplane
plane Axle AxleAxle
LeverLever
Lever would exist if there were no friction.
d
Thus, IMA = ___ ​ d in ​. The actual mechanical
Fulcrum Fulcrum
Fulcrum out
advantage (AMA) takes friction into
Fulcrum
Fulcrum
Fulcrum account. Because there is always some
Screw Screw
Screw friction, the ideal mechanical advantage is
Wedge Wedge
Wedge always greater than the actual mechanical
Screw
Screw
Screw
Pulleys Pulleys
Pulleys
advantage. If Fout is the meas­ured output
Wedge
Wedge
Wedge F
Pulleys
Pulleys
Pulleys force, then the ratio ___ ​ Fout ​will give the
F
actual mechanical advantage, and ___
in
​ Fout ​will
d
not equal ___
in
​ d in ​. On the other hand, if the
out
equality on this page is used to calculate
Fout, then Fout is the predicted output
force in an ideal situation with no
friction.
One example of mechanical advantage is the use of the back of a
hammer to pry a nail from a board. In this example, the hammer is a
type of lever. A person applies an input force to one end of the handle.
The handle, in turn, exerts an output force on the head of a nail stuck
in a board. If friction is disregarded, the input torque will equal the
output torque. This relation can be written as follows:

τin = τout
Fin din = Fout dout
Tips and Tricks
Substituting this expression into the definition of mechanical advantage This equation can be used to predict
gives the following result: Spec# PH99PE
Spec#
Spec# C08-004-001-A
PH99PE
PH99PE C08-004-001-A
C08-004-001-A
the output force for a given input
force if there is no friction. The
Fout din
MA = _
Fin
= _Spec#
Spec#
doutSpec#
PH99PE
PH99PE
PH99PE
C08-004-001-A
C08-004-001-A
C08-004-001-A
equation is not valid if friction is
taken into account. With friction,
The longer the input lever arm as compared with the output lever arm, the output force will be less than
d
the greater the mechanical advantage is. This in turn indicates the factor expected, and thus ___
d
in
will not
F out
by which the input force is amplified. If the force of the board on the nail equal ___
F
out
.
in
is 99 N and if the mechanical advantage is 10, then an input force of 10 N
is enough to pull out the nail. Without a machine, the nail could not be
removed unless the input force was greater than 99 N.

Differentiated Instruction Circular Motion and Gravitation 249

English Learners
ntitled-30 249
Building acrostics may help students remember 5/9/2011 8:17:07 AM

lists, such as a list of the six simple machines.

Students should be encouraged to create their
own acrostics, because they will be more likely
to recall words of their own choosing. You may
want to give them an example like the follow-
ing: “Let People Wander When the Party
Starts,” for Lever, inclined Plane, Wheel and
axle, Wedge, Pulley, and Screw.

Circular Motion and Gravitation 249

 FIGURE 4.8

 Teach continued An Inclined Plane Lifting

this trunk directly up requires more
force than pushing it up the ramp,
but the same amount of work is
Misconception Alert! done in both cases.

Reinforce the idea that machines do not

create something from nothing. If
friction is disregarded, machines use the
same amount of energy to achieve the
goal. Use numerical examples to
illustrate that the work done on the
Machines can alter the force and the distance moved.
objects is the same. Show the trade-off You have learned that mechanical energy is conserved in the absence of
FIGURE 4.9
between force and distance. friction. This law holds for machines as well. A machine can increase
Changing Force or Distance (or decrease) the force acting on an object at the expense (or gain) of
Simple machines can alter both the the distance moved, but the product of the two—the work done on the
force needed to perform a task and
Teaching Tip
object—is constant.
the distance through which the force
acts. For example, Figure 4.8 shows two examples of a trunk being loaded
If you have discussed the difference onto a truck. Figure 4.9 illustrates both examples schematically. In one
Small distance—Large force example, the trunk is lifted directly onto the truck. In the other example,
between ideal and actual mechanical the trunk is pushed up an incline into the truck.
advantage with students, point out that F1 In the first example, a force (F1) of 360 N is required to lift the trunk,
efficiency can also be calculated with which moves through a distance (d1) of 1.0 m. This requires 360 N•m
d1
of work (360 N × 1 m). In the second example, a lesser force (F2) of
the ratio ____
​ AMA
IMA
​because this ratio is only 120 N would be needed (ignoring friction), but the trunk must be
W
equivalent to the ratio ____
​ W in ​. pushed a greater distance (d2) of 3.0 m. This also requires 360 N•m of
out
work (120 N × 3 m). As a result, the two methods require the same
Large distance—Small force
amount of energy.

Efficiency is a measure of how well a machine works.

F2 d2
The simple machines we have considered so far are ideal, frictionless
machines. Real machines, however, are not frictionless. They dissipate
energy. When the parts of a machine move and contact other objects,
some of the input energy is dissipated as sound or heat. The efficiency of
a machine is the ratio of useful work output to work input. It is defined by
the following equation:
Wout
eff = _
Win
If a machine is frictionless, then mechanical energy is conserved. This
means that the work done on the machine (input work) is equal to the
work done by the machine (output work) because work is a measure of
energy transfer. Thus, the mechanical efficiency of an ideal machine is 1,
or 100 percent. This is the best efficiency a machine can have. Because all
real machines have at least a little friction, the efficiency of real machines
is always less than 1.

Differentiated
250 Chapter 7
Instruction
Below Level
Have students write a brief description of the
Untitled-30 250 5/9/2011 8:17:08 AM

differences between force and torque. Ask

them to share their descriptions with the class.
Encourage other students to ask questions.

250 Chapter 7
 SECTION 4 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Main Ideas Assess and Reteach 
1. Determine whether each of the following situations involves linear motion,
rotational motion, or a combination of the two. Assess Use the Formative Assessment
a. a baseball dropped from the roof of a house on this page to evaluate student
b. a baseball rolling toward third base
c. a pinwheel in the wind
mastery of the section.
d. a door swinging open Reteach For students who need
2. What quantity describes the ability of a force to rotate an object? How does it additional instruction, download the
differ from a force? On what quantities does it depend?
Section Study Guide.
3. How would the force needed to open a door change if you put the handle
in the middle of the door? Response to Intervention To reassess
4. What are three ways that a cat pushing on a cat-flap door can change the students’ mastery, use the Section Quiz,
amount of torque applied to the door? available to print or to take directly
5. The efficiency of a squeaky pulley system is 73 percent. The pulleys are used online at HMDScience.com.
to raise a mass to a certain height. What force is exerted on the machine if a
rope is pulled 18.0 m in order to raise a 58 kg mass a height of 3.0 m?
6. A person lifts a 950 N box by pushing it up an incline. If the person exerts
a force of 350 N along the incline, what is the mechanical advantage of
the incline?
7. You are attempting to move a large rock by using a long lever. Will the
work you do on the lever be greater than, the same as, or less than the
work done by the lever on the rock? Explain.

Interpreting Graphics FIGURE 4.10

8. Calculate the torque for each 31°

25.0 N
force acting on the bar in
Figure 4.10. Assume the axis is O 23°
perpendicular to the page and 45°
10.0 N
passes through point O. In what 2.0 m
direction will the object rotate?
30.0 N 4.0 m
9. Figure 4.11 shows an example
of a Rube Goldberg machine.
Identify two types of simple
FIGURE 4.11
machines that are included in
this compound machine.

Critical Thinking
10. A bicycle can be described
as a combination of simple
machines. Identify two
types of simple machines
that are used to propel a
©Rube Goldberg Inc.

typical bicycle.

Answers to Section Assessment Circular Motion and Gravitation 251

1. a. linear motion 4. b

 y changing the point at which the 9. Possible answers include lever, wedge,
ntitled-30 251 b. linear and rotational motion force is applied, the angle at which5/9/2011
the 8:17:09 AM and pulley.
c. rotational motion force is applied, or the magnitude of 10. the wheels (wheel and axle) and the gear
the applied force system (pulley)
d. rotational motion
5. 130 N
2. torque; It is measured in units of N·m, not
N. It is a measure of the ability of a force 6. 2.7
to accelerate an object around an axis; It 7. Ideally, the amounts of work will be the
depends on the force and the lever arm. same, but because no machine is perfectly
3. Twice as much force would be needed efficient, the work you do will be greater.
to open the door. 8. τ30 = 0 N·m, τ25 = +43 N·m, τ10 = −16
N·m; The bar will rotate counterclockwise.

Circular Motion and Gravitation 251