Blood is essential for good health.

Our body needs a steady supply of fuel and oxygen to

reach its billions of cells. Even the heart cannot survive without blood flowing through the
vessels that bring nourishment to its muscular walls.

In addition to the cells and clotting factors, blood contains other important substances, such
as nutrients from the food that has been processed by the digestive system. Blood carries
oxygen and nutrients to living cells and takes away their waste products. It also delivers
immune cells to fight infections and contains platelets that can form a plug in a damaged
blood vessel to prevent blood loss.

In this chapter, we will learn more about blood circulation in our body.

Double circulation: A double circulatory system refers to a system in which blood pumps
through the heart twice during each trip around the body. The blood is first pumped into
the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated, and is then pumped back into the heart before it is
finally pumped into the rest of the body.
Pulse; Pulse is the alternate expansion and elastic recoil of the arterial wall during
ventricular systole
Hepatic portal system: The hepatic portal system is the system of veins comprising the
hepatic portal vein and its tributaries. It is responsible for directing blood from parts of the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract to the liver. Substances absorbed in the small intestine travel first
to the liver for processing before continuing to the heart
Blood Circulation in Body
 The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system, is an organ system.
 It allows the blood to circulate and transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
hormones and blood cells to and from the cells in the body.
 This helps in providing nourishment, fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and
pH and maintain homeostasis.
 The essential components of the human cardiovascular system are the heart,
blood and blood vessels.
 It includes the Pulmonary Circulation: a loop through the lungs where blood is
oxygenated.
 It also includes Systemic Circulation: a loop through the rest of the body to
provide oxygenated blood.
Our body requires energy, nourishment, and oxygen.There is a need to transport various
substances like digested food materials which are the sources of energy for the body from
one part of the body to other. These functions are carried out by an extracellular fluid,
which flows throughout the body. This flow is known as circulation and this transport of
substances is done by a system called circulatory system

The circulatory system is a vital system, and its constant movement of blood allows for
gases and nutrients to be exchanged so the cells in our body can carry out their vital
functions.

Heart along with the blood vessels constitute the circulatory system.

In this chapter, we will learn in detail about the working of the human heart, heart beat,
cardiac cycle etc.

Pericardium: The thin membranous covering of the heart. It contains pericardial fluid which
reduces friction during heart beat and protects it from mechanical injuries.
Systole: the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood
from the chambers into the arteries.
Diastole: the phase of the heartbeat when the heart muscle relaxes and allows the
chambers to fill with blood.
Cardiac cycle: The cardiac cycle refers to a complete heartbeat from its generation to the
beginning of the next beat, and so includes the diastole, the systole, and the intervening
pause. The frequency of the cardiac cycle is described by the heart rate, which is expressed
as beats per minute.
Working of Human Heart and Heartbeat
 Joint diastole(4 chambers in a relaxed state)à bicuspid and tricuspid valves open,
blood goes from auricles into ventriclesàatrial systole (both auricles contract)à
Ventricular systole(auricles relax, ventricles contract)àboth valves
closeàventricular diastole(ventricles relax)à both valves open, cycle repeated.
 The cardiac cycle consists of 2 parts: systole or the contraction of the heart
muscle and diastole or relaxation of the heart muscle.
 One systole and one diastole constitute a heartbeat (70 times per minute
approximately).
  The pulse is a wave of contraction transmitted along the arteries. Heart muscle
contraction is due to the presence of nodal tissue in two regions of the heart.
The SA node initiates the heartbeat. The AV node causes ventricles to contract and is called
the pacemaker since it regulates the heartbeat.
Heart rate may decrease during inactivity and increase during high physical activity.

Each cardiac cycle lasts for approximately 0.8 seconds.

Blood exerts pressure on the walls of the arteries when it flows through them, felt as the
pulse.

Blood pressure is measured using sphygmomanometer.

The normal BP is 120/80 mm Hg. 120mm Hg indicates the systolic pressure while 80mm Hg
indicates the diastolic pressure.

1. Body Fluids
Body fluids are liquids originating from inside the bodies of living humans. They include
fluids that are excreted or secreted from the body.

Blood is an important body fluid which provides the cells with oxygen, nutrients and other
essential substances.Also, the waste or harmful substances produced in the body, are
removed continuously by blood for healthy functioning of tissues

Another body fluid, lymph also helps in the transport of certain substances.

In this chapter, we will learn about the functions, composition, and properties of blood and
lymph (tissue fluid) and the mechanism of circulation of blood.

Tissue fluid: Interstitial fluid or tissue fluid is a solution that bathes and surrounds the
tissue cells of multicellular animals.
Lymph: Lymph is a transparent, slightly yellow, found within the lymphatic vessels, and
collected from tissues in all parts of the body and returned to the blood via the lymphatic
system.
Closed vascular system: Closed circulatory/vascular systems have the blood closed at all
times within vessels of different size and wall thickness. In this type of system, blood is
pumped by a heart through vessels and does not normally fill body cavities.
Open circulatory system: Open circulatory systems (seen in crustaceans, insects, and
molluscs) pump blood into a hemocoel with the blood diffusing back to the circulatory
system between cells. Blood is pumped by a heart into the body cavities, where tissues are
surrounded by the blood.
Diapedesis: the process by which amoeboid WBCs squeeze through the walls of the
capillaries into the tissues.
Phagocytosis: the process in which neutrophils engulf particle like solid substances,
especially bacteria
 Arthropods have a blue pigment just like red hemoglobin in humans.Therefore,
their blood is bluish in colour.
 A transport system is essential in every living organism so that nutrients are
made available and waste materials are removed from the body.
 Unicellular organisms – cell surface carries out exchange.
 Simple multicellular animals like sponges – sea water brings food material and
removes waste matter; ciliary action of the organism propels water to and fro
 Hydra, Planaria, and nematodes – the skin acts as a point of exchange.
 In higher animals, each cell cannot be in contact with the external environment
so a circulatory system has been evolved to transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and nitrogenous wastes.
 Components of such a circulatory system include heart, blood, blood vessels.
 The human circulatory system is a closed system (blood is always contained
inside the vessels and cannot be seen in the body cavity)
 Blood makes up about 8% of a person’s body weight.
 About 5 litres of blood circulates in the human body carrying out several vital
functions.
 Blood has a pH of about 7.3 which makes it slightly basic in nature.
 Sodium citrate is added to the blood to prevent clotting. This is a routine
procedure in blood banks.
 Plasma without the blood cells is called serum.
 A common misconception is that clotting of blood occurs on exposure to air. It
occurs due to the disintegration of platelets at the site of the wound.
  Pus is dead white blood cells along with tissue cells destroyed by the bacteria.
Functions of blood:
As a medium of transport:
Oxygen is carried from the lungs to the rest of the body and carbon dioxide brought back
from the tissues to the lungs.

Nutrients are transported from the digestive tract to the rest of the body.

Hormones are brought from the endocrine glands to their target sites.

Protection of the body:

Platelets to clot blood and prevent bleeding.

WBCs in the blood fight infection.

Antibodies and immunoglobulins to destroy pathogens.

Regulatory mechanism:
Maintains the body temperature at a constant level.

Water balance maintained by transferring water from and to tissue.

Plasma (fluid matrix)

Consists of 90%water, Proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen)

Inorganic salts, enzymes, nutrients.

Excretory products, respiratory gases.

RBCs:
Are Biconcave in shape and do not have a nucleus.

It carries oxygen to tissues, brings back carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.

Made in bone marrow, live for 120 days, broken down in spleen and liver.
Haemoglobin = Haemo(iron) + globin(protein).

In lungs: Haemoglobin + Oxygen→ oxyhaemoglobin → breaks down in tissues to release

oxygen; In tissues: Carbon dioxide + Haemoglobin = carboxyhemoglobin → breaks down in
lungs to release carbon dioxide

WBCs:
Soldiers of the body, capable of amoeboid movement

Move across the wall of the capillaries by a process called diapedesis.

Engulf the pathogens by a process called phagocytosis

Platelets:
These are small fragments of bone marrow cells

Irregular in shape, non-nucleated. Life span is 3-5 days, destroyed in the spleen.

They play an important role in blood clotting.

Functions of blood clotting;

Prevents excessive blood loss through a cut or wound and helps in wound healing.

Clotting helps to maintain the blood pressure (loss of blood can lower blood pressure and
cause death)

Prevents the entry of microorganism and foreign particles into the body through an open
cut or wound

Blood transfusion:
People with AB group are called universal recipients. People with O group are called
universal donors.Rh factor can be independent of the type of blood group. Compatibility
must be seen for both blood group and Rh factor

Rhesus factor:
Plays important role in transfusion
People with Rh factor – Rh⁺, those without – Rh⁻

Rh antigens – Rh antibodies (when blood of a Rh⁺ person is infused into the blood stream of
an Rh⁻ person)

Rh⁻ person can donate blood to a Rh⁺ person

If a Rh⁻ woman marries an Rh⁺ man, the foetus will be Rh⁺. However, the mother’s blood
will produce antibodies against the child’s Rh antigen, resulting in the death of the foetus.

Lymphatic system:
Lymph is also a circulatory fluid and flows in the lymph vessels.

Straw coloured, flows only in one direction from tissues to heart.

Contains lymphocytes to fight infections.

Carries digested fats from the intestine to other parts.

Returns proteins and fluid from circulation to tissues.

Tissue fluid or interstitial fluid is a solution that bathes and surrounds the cells organs.

Lymph+ transcellular fluid + plasma + tissue fluid = Extracellular fluid.