Ichthology

GENERAL CHARACTERS AND CLASSIFICATION

1. Fishes and their characters
Fishes are the most successful class of the vertebrates; found almost whenever there is water i.e.
found in mountainous, terrestrial streams, stagnant water of ponds and lakes, saline water of ocean.
Numerically, fish is the largest group of vertebrate which accounts for roughly half of all vertebrate
animals. About 60% live generally in salt water and 40% live in fresh water. Fishes are cold blooded
(poikilothermic) aquatic vertebrates, which propels and balance themselves by means of fins, and
breathe with the help of gills.

General characters
 The body is generally fusiform and streamlined; but globiform in globe fish, in eel is
serpentine form. In spite of such a variation in body shape, the ground plan of the body is
bilateral symmetrical with prominent lateral system;
 The body is externally covered by skin which is armored by a variety of scales with anterior
cephalization;
 The appendage of fish comprises of the fins; generally paired fins: pectoral and pelvic fins,
 unpaired fins dorsal, anal and caudal fins. All supported by dermal fin rays;
 Mouth is generally situated anterior in the head region which may be upturned or sub-
turned.The anus is in the second half of the overall length of the individual behind the base
of the pelvic fin and just in front of the anal fin;
 Respiration is by means of gills and some other accessory respiratory organs;
 Heart is a generally valved pump with one auricle and one ventricle which is venous type
that forces the blood towards gills for aeration;
 Brain is well developed with 10 pairs of cranial nerves;
 Fertilization mostly external(oviparous)and some are viviparous (internal fertilization);
 Development is direct without any metamorphosis.

2. Systematic classification of Fish

Taxonomy is the biological science which deals with the classification of living organism in a
hierarchically organized system representing the evolutionary development.

Kingdom: Animalia (Cell wall absent)

Sub-kingdom: Metazoa (Multicellular organism)
Phylum: Chordata (Presence of supporting rod like structure along the back i.e. Notochord)
Sub-Phylum: Vertebrata or Craniata (Cranium is present)
Division: Gnathostomata (Jaw are present)
Super-class: Pieces (Streamlined body, body is covered with scales)
Class: Teleostomi (Operculum is present)
Sub-class: Actinopterigii (Internal nares are completely absent)
Order: Cypriniforms (Ventral fins are usually abdominal in location)
Family: Cyprinidae (Scales are of moderate size & distinct).
Genus: Labeo
Species: rohita
Common Name: Rohu

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3. Aims of Classification
 Arrangement of the different kind of fishes for the convenience of finding against something
 that has been handled before;
 Mechanical convenience, it might be done alphabetically; and
 To understand the evolutionary, genetic or natural characters of different fish species.

4. Economic Importance of Fish

4.1 As a human food
From the time immorable, fish has been consumed as a food by the human beings. Now it has
become a major source of food supply to the malnutrition and hunger society of the world,
especially in the rural dominated & food deficit countries. It is proteineous food item which
supplies approximately 15 – 20 % of the protein of their body weight. It’s protein is very rich in
essential amino-acid than cereal crops; for example: Rice is deficit in Lysine and Threonine;
Wheat lacks Lysine & Maize deficit in Lysine & Tryptophane. But fish constitute all essential
amino acids required for the body; example: arginine, histidine, valine, lysine, leusine, isoleusine,
threonine, tryptophane, methionine, phenylamine etc. Fish proteins are easily digestible.
Beside this, fish contains omega three (ώ -3) unsaturated fatty acids, important dietary item for
brain development of child and heart patients. It also supplies vitamin ‘A’ & ‘D’ and mineral like
phosphorus and calcium.

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It has been reported that about 300 gms of raw fish flesh sufficient to supply about half of the
total amount of required protein and fat, and one fourth of the calorie needed in a balanced daily
diet for an adult human beings. Recently, nutritional studies have established the fact that the at
least one third of the total protein required in the daily diet must come from animal source.

4.2 Fish as food for Livestock

Fish Meal: Fish meal is an animal feed item which constitutes highly nutritive product that
makes an excellent feed for poultry, pig, cattle & fish. It contains 55-70% protein, 2-15% oil fat
and 10-20% minerals. The protein of fish meal has high digestibility coefficient, and contains
practically all the essential amino-acids. Fish is also rich in vitamins B12, A, D, K & E along with
minerals which includes calcium (about 5%) and phosphorus (4%).

Fish oil:
Fish liver oil: Fish liver oil extracted from liver of the certain fishes are used in medicinal
purpose; being the source of vitamin ‘A’ and ‘D’. Because of high vitamin ‘A’ & ‘D’ content, it
is used to cure or prevent the occurrence of disease caused by deficiency of these vitamins such
as rickets, xerophthalmia, impaired vision & eye defects, abnormalities of skins, mucosa
membrane and vertebrate. It contains 55-75% fat and 5-10% of proteins.
Fish body oil: it is extracted from the whole body of fish and has been used in several ways; for
examples: manufacture of paints, varnishes, soaps and cosmetics; dressing of leather and tanning
of skin; manufacture of lubricants and candles; use in iron and steel industries.

Fish flour:
It is super quality of fish meal, produced under strict control & care. It is considered as the better
source of protein source to supplement diet and used for enriching the nutritive value of brades,
biscuits and cakes etc.

Fish Silage:
It is liquid and semi-liquid production of fish and highly nutritive animal feed prepared from
fresh fish when minced and mixed with H2SO4 in factory in European countries.

4.3 Fish Manure and Guano

Low grade fish, not good for human consumption are used for manufacture of fish manure.
Generally trash fish, spoiled fish have used after it is used in the industry for industrial purposes.
The by-product of the fish industry converted into the manure for field use rich in ‘N’ and ‘P’.

4.4 Fish Glue and Ising Glass

The adhesive material glue is generally prepared from the connective tissue of the skin from the
head and body of fish. Ising glass is collagen derived from the thin, inner silvery layer of the air bladder.
It is used for the clarification of the beer, wine, vinegar etc; making edible jelly and in the preparation of
adhesive materials, good substrate for gelatin.

4.5 Fish Leather

The coarse scaly skin of the sharks and rays are used for manufacturing, polishing and smoothing
materials. They are dried and processed for preparing ladies shoes, moneybags, suitcase and belts
etc.

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4.6 Biological value

Many species of fish and larvivores in habit and prey upon insect larvae; for example: Puntius,
common carp etc. Many diseases are borned by mosquitoes controlled by larvivorous fish when
introduced in the water of the infected area.

4.7 Recreational and Decorative Value

Fishing forms are important out-door game for million of people. In Nepal, Tor species,
Scizothorax sps, Bagarius species can be used as indigenous sporting- fish species.
Many people are involved in keeping fish in aquarium. Many species of beautiful colored fish
are kept in aquaria, ponds, lakes, and used for ornamentation.

4.8 Industrial Value

Many peoples are involved in marketing, refrigeration, preservation, canning and in the
manufacture of fish products and by-products. Besides this, the pancreas of Sharks provides raw
materials which are used for the manufacture of insulin for diabetes patients.
Apart from the beneficial aspects of the fish, there are certain fish species which are harmful
also.The harmful aspects of fish are described as follows; For example:

Tetradoxin: A toxic substance found in the liver, eggs and skin of fish Tetradoxin sps cause
gastrointestinal and neurological disorder when consumed. This toxis substance is called
ichthyosarcotoxin.

Ootoxin: This type of toxin present in the roe of the fishes, called ichthyotoxin. Mostly the eggs
of Asla (Schizothorax sps) and Common carp have been reported to carry this type of toxin.
Consumption of such eggs without proper cooking causes diarrhea, headache, vomiting and fever
also.

Haematoxin: This type of toxin is found in the blood of fish, generally called ichthyohamotoxin;
for example: Anguilla sps. The use of such fish species without proper cooking may cause
vomiting and diarrhea.

Zootoxin: Mangur (Clarias sps) and Singhi (Heteropneustes spp) carry this type of toxin in the
body. Its’ bite pectoral spines is very painful and cause swelling of biting place with fever.

5. Brief Description of Major Groups of Fish

5.1 Elasmobranchii (Chondrichthys)
This group has the following major characteristics:
 Generally deep sea fish species
 Carnivorous in feeding habit;
 Endoskeleton is cartilaginous;
 Possess placoid scales (i.e. scales are firmly attached with skins);
 Possess 5-7 pairs of gills and no operculum;
 No air bladder in the body cavity;
 Internal fertilization (viviparous);
 A pair of clasper is present just before the anus;
 Fin rays absent, caudal fin heterocercal and asymmetrical;
 Spiracles and a cloaca is present;

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 Mouth is ventral; and

 For example: Dog fish (Scoliodon sps).

5.2 Holocephali
This group has the following major characteristics:
 Generally deep sea fish species
 Carnivorous in feeding habit;
 Endoskeleton is cartilaginous;
 4 pairs of gills with operculum;
 Teeths are in the form of grinding plate;
 No cloaca;
 Tail heterocercal, and clasper is present in male;
 Air bladder absent; and
 For example: Chimaera, Monstrosa etc.

5.3 Dipnoi
This group has the following major characteristics:
 Found in fresh water and called bony fish;
 These are called “lung fish”; air bladder serving for air breathing;
 Operculum is present only on branchial aperture;
 Notochord is persistent;
 A cloaca is present;
 Paired fins are lobate and caudal fin is diphyceral; and
 For example: Protopterus, Lepidosiren etc.

5.4 Teleostomi (Osteichthys)

This group has the following major characteristics:
 Generally fresh water fish species;
 Endoskeleton is bony; therefore, called as bony fish;
 The body is covered with cycloid or ctenoid scales;
 The mouth is generally terminal or sub-terminal;
 4 pairs of gills covered with operculum;
 Fins are supported by fin rays;
 Caudal fin is homocercal or symmetrical;
 Fertilization is external(Oviparous);
 No cloaca;
 No clasper in case of male;
 Presence of swim bladder; and
 For example: Cyprinous carpio, Labeo rohita etc.

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Taxonomy of Fish species of Nepal

A total of 213 species belonging to 93 genera under 31 families and 11 orders have been
reported in Nepal (Shrestha J., 2001).
Different orders and their respective families of fishes represented in Nepal.

1. Order: Anguilliformes
 The body cylindrical, much elongated and serpentine body. The origin of Dorsal fin is far
behind pectoral origin.
 Dorsal fin is without spine. Dorsal and anal fin are very long and usually confluent
behind.
 Family: Anguillidae; Example: Anguilla bengalensis (Local Name: Raj Bam)

2. Order: Beloniformes
 The body is elongated and cylindrical.
 The upper and lower jaws well produce to form a beak like structure.
 Family: Belontidae; Example: Xanenthodon cancila (Kanwa Machha).

3. Order: Clupeiformes
 The body has generally keeled abdomen with single serration
 The lateral line is absent.
 Family: Clupeidae:. Ex.: Gudusia chapra.
 Family: Engraulidae:. Ex.: Setipinna phasa (Suhia Maccha).

4. Order: Cypriniformes
 Body oblong, compressed with small to large scales.
 The head is without scales; and gill opening are wide.
 Family: Cyprinidae. Ex. Labeo rohita (Rohu), Cirrhina mrigala (Naini), Catla catla
(Bhakur),Chinese carps and common carp.
 Family: Cobitidae: Example: Botia spp.
 Family: Balitoridae. Ex. Naemacheilus spp.
 Family: Psilorhynchidae. Ex. Psilorhynchus spp.

5. Order: Cyprinodontiformes
 Body is short or compressed with scales, adipose fin is absent.
 Lateral line is chiefly on the head, not on the body.
 Family: Aplocheilus:: Aplocheilus spp.
 Family: Poecillidae: Example: Gambusia spp.

6. Order: Mugiliformes
 There are two dorsal fins which are short and widely separated, first with spines.
 The pelvic fins are sub-abdominal with a spine.
 Family: Mugilidae; Example: Rhinomugil.

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7. Order: Osteoglossiformes
 Body is broad, strongly compressed with fine scales on the head as well.
 The ventral fins are much reduced and the dorsal fin is short.
 The anal fin is much elongate and confluent with a small caudal fin.
 Family: Notopteridae. Example: Notopterus chitala

8. Order: Perciformes
 The scales are present on the head and body; head is covered with plate like scales.
 The jaws are provided with teeth.
 The pelvic fins Family: are thoracic, sub-abdominal with without spines.
 Family: Ambassidae:; Chanda
 Family: Anabantidae:; Anabas
 Family: Belontidae:; Colisa.
 Family: Channidae:; Channa
 Family: Gobiidae:; Glossogobius spp.
 Family: Nandidae: Anal; Nandus spp.

9. Order: Siluiriformes
 The body is naked or bony plates (scutes), never with true scales
 The adipose fin present or absent
 The first ray of pectoral and last ray of dorsal fin is modified as hard pungent spines or
thick rays
 Family: Amblycipitidae:; Amblyceps
 Family: Bagridae:; Mystus
 Family: Chacidae:; Chaca spp.
 Family: Claridae:; Clarias spp
 Family: Heteropneustidae:; Heteropneustes.
 Family: Olyridae: Example: Olyra spp.
 Family: Schilbeidae:; Clupisoma spp.
 Family: Siluiridae:; Wallago attu

10. Order: Synbranchiformes

 The body is cylindrical, much elongated and eel shaped.
 The gill openings are confluent. There is a single slit on ventral surface.
 The eyes are small or degenerate.
 Family: Mastacembelidae: Ex. Macrognathus (Gaichi), Mastacembelus.
 Family: Synbranchidae:. Example: Monopterous cuchia.

11. Order: Tetradontiformes

 The body is short, rounded and globular inflated condition.
 The teeth are fused into a beak like dental plate.
 The nasal organ is a short rounded tube with a terminal opening.
 Family: Tetradontidae:; Ex.: Tetradon species.

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Morphology of fish: External features

Introduction:
Fish are the first successful class of the chordates. They are aquatic cold blooded, gill breathing
vertebrates which propel and balance themselves by means of fins. The body of fish is generally fusiform
and streamlined. However, in puffers the body is globe shape and in eels is of serpentine form. The
ground plan of the body id bilateral symmetrical with prominent lateral line system. Appendages of
fishes comprise the fin and cirrhi/flaps of flesh. Paired fins are pectoral and pelvics while dorsal anal and
caudal fins are unpaired fin. In some forms there are two dorsal fins an anterior rayed dorsal and a
posterior soft adipose dorsal fin in Mystus sp. In case of order- perciformes like in Nandus sp. There are
two dorsal fins, the first being spiny and second being soft, supported by fin rays. The different organs
and their functions are as following:

Fins:Fins are appendages used by the fish to maintain its position, move, steer and stop. They
are either single fins along the center line of the fish, such as the dorsal fins, caudal fin and anal
fin, or paired fins, which include the pectoral and pelvic fins. Fishes such as catfish have another
fleshy lobe behind the dorsal fin, called an adipose (fat) fin. The dorsal and anal fins primarily
help fish to not roll over onto their sides. The caudal fin is the main fin for propulsion to move
the fish forward. The paired fins assist with steering, stopping and hovering.

Scale:Scales in most bony fishes (most freshwater fishes other than gar that have ganoid scales,
and catfish which have no scales) are either ctenoid or cycloid. Ctenoid scales have jagged
edges and cycloid have smooth rounded edges. Most fishes also have a very important mucus
layer covering the body that helps prevent infection.In many freshwater fishes the fins are
supported by spines that are rigid and may be quite sharp thus playing a defensive role. . The
soft dorsal and caudal fins are composed of rays, as are portions of other fins. Rays are less rigid
and frequently branched.

Gill:The gills are the breathing apparatus of fish and are highly vascularized giving them their
bright red cover. An operculum (gill cover) that is a flexible bony plate protects the sensitive
gills. Water is "inhaled" through the mouth, passes over the gills and "exhaled" from beneath the
operculum.

Eye:Fish see through their eyes and can detect color. The eyes are rounder in fish than mammals
because of the refractive index of water and focus is achieved by moving the lens in and out, not
distorting it as in mammals.

Nostril:Paired nostrils, or nares, in fish are used to detect odors in water and can be quite
sensitive. Eels and catfish have particularly well developed senses of smell.

Mouth:The mouths shape is a good clue to what fish eat. The larger it is the bigger the prey it
can consume. Fish have a sense of taste and may sample items to taste them before swallowing
if they are not obvious prey items. Fish may or may not have teeth depending on the
species. Fish like chain pickerel and gar have obvious canine-shaped teeth. Other fish have less
obvious teeth, such as the cardiform teeth in catfish which feel like a roughened area at the front

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of the mouth, or vomerine teeth that are tiny patches of teeth, Grass carp and other minnows
have pharyngeal teeth modified from their gill arches for grinding that are located in the throat.

Lateral line:The lateral line is a sensory organ consisting of fluid filled sacs with hair-like
sensory apparatus that are open to the water through a series of pores (creating a line along the
side of the fish). The lateral line primarily senses water currents and pressure, and movement in
the water.

Vent:The vent is the external opening of digestive,urinary and reproductive tracts. In most fish it
is immediately in front of the anal fin.

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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF FISH

Reproduction is the process by which animals increase their population to continue their races in
the nature. There are four types of reproduction monosexuals — bisexual, Hermophrodites and
parthenogenetic. Reproductive system mainly consists of reproductive organs known as gonads,
(testes and ovary), the gamets (sperms, ova). Fishes reproduce by several methods and are
generally bisexual. Some species are hermophrodite and even parthenogenetic reproduction
occurs in a few cases. Some fishes are highly specialised for breeding and show interesting
development of parental care comparable with higher animals. The sperms and the eggs develop
in separate gonads except in some species of Sparidae and Serranidae, which are true
hermophrodites and the eggs and sperms develop in the same gonad and self fertilisation takes
place.

Male reproductive organs

The male fish consist of a pair of testes which are elongated and flattened structures, situated
oneither side, ventral to the kidneys in the posterior region of the abdominal cavity. Most often
the testes are creamy white but in Labeo they are pinkish and smooth. The testes remain attached
to the body wall and the air bladder by means of mesorchia. They may or may not be equal in
size The two sperm ducts join posterior to open into the urino-genital papilla. The testes may
show indentations along their margin which become prominent during the breeding season.
The structure of the testis is variable in teleosts, and two types have been recognised: (i)
lobular type, and (ii) tubular type. Most teleosts have typical lobular type of testis, consisting of a
large number of seminiferous lobules which are closely bound together by a thin layer of
connective tissue. The lobules are of various sizes and are highly convoluted structures,
separated from each other by a thin connective tissue stroma. Within the lobules, the primary
spermatogonia undergo mitotic divisions to produce cysts containing spermatogonial cells. As
maturation proceeds, cysts enlarge and finally rupture to liberate sperm into the lumen of the
lobule, which continues into the sperm duct.
Insert the fig. of male urino-genital organ drawn in class

Female reproductive organs

The ovaries are paired elongated sac-like structures lying in the abdominal cavity, ventral to the
kidneys. They are attached to the body wall by means of the mesovarium. The anterior ends of
the two ovaries are free but their caudal ends may become united into one. The hinder end of
each ovary is continued posteriorly into a short oviduct. The two oviducts fuse and open to the
exterior by a separate genital aperture or by a common urinogenital opening. Generally, both the
ovaries are equal in size, but occasionally they are unequal also. They are thin, flaccid and traslucent
when immature, but on maturity, they become enlarged and lobulated, while the ripe ova are seen
bulging out. The wall of the ovary is fairly thick during the non-breeding season but becomes thin and
highly vascular during the spawning period. It consists of three layers (i) an outer-most thin peritoneum,
(ii) a thicker tunica albuginea made up of connective tissue, muscle fibres and blood capillaries, (iii) the
innermost layer is the germinal epithelium which projects into the ovocoel in the form of lamellae.
These ovigerous lamellae are the seat for the development of oocytes. which are visible in various
stages of development. The germ cells or oogonia are found in clusters in the lamellae and probably
originate from the germinal epithelium.

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An oogonium has a large nucleus, and a thin layer of ooplasm which is chromophobic. Each
oogonium passes through a number of maturation stages to become a ripe ovum. Several of these
stages may be present at the same time in the ovary. As the oogonium increases in size, there is increase
in the quantity of ooplasm which is stained with basic dyes.
Insert the fig. of female urino-genital organ drawn in class

Mechanism of gonadal development:

Gametes (sperms and ova)are produced in special reproductive organs which is is known as
gonads.The male gonads produce testes and female gonads produce ova.The process of
transforming of certain cell of gonads of parent into specialized cell ova in female and sperm in
male is known as gametogenesis.The formation of male gametes,sperm from spermatozoa is
called spermatogenesis and formation of female gametes,ova or egg is known as oogenesis.
Draw the both gametes formation process as drawn in class

Maturation and spawning

Both male and female gonads undergo marked cyclic morphological and histological changes
before reaching full maturity and becoming ripe. This is called maturation of the gonads. Most of
the fishes exhibit seasonal cycle in the production of gametes. The expulsion of gametes from the
body into the surrounding water is called ‘spawning resulting in fertilization. Fish spawns during
a specified period which depends upon several factors. The period during which the gonads
attain full maturity and spawning takes place in the population is called the breeding season of
the species. After spawning, a new crop of germ cell is formed, which gradually mature to
become ready for the next season.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEMOF FISH

Respiration is a catabolic process in which the respired oxygen is used in the oxidation of
food resulting in the release of energy. This energy is utilized for all the vital activities.
Carbohydrates are mainly concerned with release of energy. Respiration is the sign of life and
index of all biochemical activities taking place in the body. The process of respiration involves
the exchange of two gases, namely oxygen and carbon dioxide. The main respiratory organs in a
fish are the gills.

Structure of gills:
A complete gills or a holobranch consists of a gill arch supported by cartilage or bone.
Each arch bears gill rakers towards the inner side, and vascular plate-like filaments projecting
towards the outside.Gill rakers are present in one or two rows on the inner margin of each gill
arch. The gill rakers are developed in various degrees and may be soft, thin, thread-like or hard,
flat and triangular, or even teeth-like, depending upon the food and feeding habits of the fish.
The taste buds help the fish in detecting the chemical nature of the water flowing through the gill
slits.Each row of these filaments forms a hemibranch or half gill. A holobranch carries two

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hemibranchs. Each gill arch bears two rows of gill filaments or primary gill lamellae towards the
outside of the buccopharyngeal cavity. Each primary lamella or gill filament bears a large
number of secondary lamellae on both its sides . These flat, leaf-like structures are the main sites
of gaseous exchange and vary in their shape dimension.
Fig .Insert both fig str. of gill and T.S of gill of fish drawn in class

Mechanism of respiration:
Blood is oxygenated in teleosts by rhythmical inhalation and exhalation of water through
the bucco-pharyngeal cavity . This is effected by suction of water into the cavity and its
subsequent expulsion through the gill slits, during which the water bathes the highly vascular gill
lamellae. The bucco-pharyngeal cavity therefore applies both suction and pressure to propel
water through the gills. For respiration, the mouth is opened and the buccal cavity is enlarged by
lateral expansion of its walls. For this various muscles contract as well as the branchio-stegal
rays are spread and lowered. An increase of the buccal cavity creates negative water pressure in
it so that water is sucked in. When the oral cavity is filled with water, the mouth is closed and the
operculum is abducted anteriorly to increase the opercular cavity, but the opercular opening is
kept closed due to pressure of the external water. A low pressure is thus created in the opercular
cavity and water flows over the gills into it. Next the buccal and the opercular cavities are
reduced so as to exercise pressure on the water inside it. The oral valves prevent the water from
going out of the mouth. The opercula after reaching the maximum abduction are quickly brought
towards the body. The water is expelled through the external branchial aperture, and is prevented
from going back due to excess pressure in the buccal cavity as compared to the opercular cavity.
Fig. Insert both fig drawn in class

Gaseous exchange:
The structure of the gill in teleosts is such that water is brought in close contact with the
secondary lamellae through which exchange of gases takes place. Functionally the gills are very
efficient and utilize about 50-80% of oxygen present in water. The teleostean gill is supposed to
be more efficient than an elasmobranch gill due to great reduction of interbranchial septum.
Moreover, the arrangement of the afferent and the efferent branchial vessels is such that the
blood and the respiratory water flow in opposite directions. This is called ‘counter current’
system, in which water containing oxygen flows from oral to aboral side of the gills, and the
blood in the lamellae flows from aboral to oral side, thus providing maximum exchange of
respiratory gases. During the transit of water through the gill slits the blood in the gill filaments
takes oxygen dissolved in water and gives out CO2 by diffusion. The blood thus aerated is
collected by efferent branchial artery and is conveyed to the different parts of the body.

These are generally asked in short notes.

1) Gill Rakers
The gill rakers of fishes are comb like the inner edges of visceral arches. They are so
placed as pharyngeal cavity is not distended and particles from the water. Gill rakers are
present in one or two rows on gill arch. The gill rakers are developed in various hard, flat and

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triangular, or even fish. Generally, they form a sieve to filter out the water, and protect the
delicate gill filaments from solid particles. It can rather be said that the types of food the fish
consumes. form of broad sieves, placed across their Notopterus chitala and Channa species
cartilaginous projections that extend into the to overlap the gill clefts when the are used to
strain the microscopic the inner margin of each degrees and may be soft, thin, thread teeth-
like, depending upon the food and feeding habits of the structure of gill raker gives an
The gill rakers of herbivores like Labeo or Cirrhinus gill slits, and those of carnivores like Mystus
seenghala species, are in the form of hard rasping organs.

2) Food and feeding habits

Fishes consume a variety of different kinds of food. The food and feeding behaviour,
therefore varies characteristically in different species of fishes. On the basis of the character of
the fish food, the fishes can be divided into following three groups.

Plankton feeders: The fishes which feed upon the planktons, both on phyto and zooplankton
are included in this category. It is interesting to note that only a few adult fishes live entirely on
planktons. Peruvian anchovy (Engrauls ringens) and the Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortla) subsist
largely on phytoplanktons, are easy to feed upon than the zooplanktons. They are either
filtered with the elaborate gill rakers or trapped in the mucus produced by epibranchial glands.
Zooplanktons rarely occur in sufficient density to permit this kind of filter feeding. Zooplankton
feeders feed them like the larval fishes by snapping up individual zooplankters.

Herbivorous fishes : These fishes feed upon the vegetation comprising flowers, fruits,
seeds, leaves and pieces of stem of vascular plants etc. They even scrap algae from the rocks
and stones with their broad lipped mouth under the snout. The greatest diversity of herbivores
live in the sea and have varied kinds of feeding adaptations.

Carnivorous fishes: These fishes feed upon the materials of animal origin such as the
aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates like the molluscs, crustaceans, fish fry, fingerlings and
small fishes, etc. Thus the carnivorous often behave like predators.

Omnivorous fishes : These fishes consume food materials of both the animal and the
vegetable origin.

3) Relative Gut Length (RGL)

Relative Gut Length (RGL) is defined as the length of the fish gut relative to the total
body length. It is ascertained by measuring the total body and gut length of the fish. The
formula is as follows:
Total Gut Length of fish (cm)
RGL = ---------------------------------
Total body length of fish (cm)
Relative Gut Length determines the feeding habits of the fish. For examples:

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4) Pharyngeal teeth:
A strong correlation between the character of food, feeding habit and the structure of
teeth exist. The suckers and most of herbivorous fishes posses pharyngeal teeth, which may be
simple comb like, pointed or curved type or have occlusal molariform surface as in Cyprindae.
Such teeth are used in grasping, tearing or grinding the objects of food. Among the omnivorous,
the plankton feeders and many others are devoid of teeth. They may however be present in
different adaptive forms and in greater number of bones in carnivorous and predacious fishes.

SKIN AND SCALES

A. SKIN
The skin forms the external covering of the body and performs a number of functions in fishes
such as:
Protection against injury and infections;
Performs respiratory, excretory and osmo-regulatory functions; and
The derivatives of the skin play an important role in the metabolic process of the body.

2. Structure of the Skin

The skin of the fish is composed of 2 layers:
2.1 An outer thin layer, epidermis; and
2.2 An inner thick and muscular layer, dermis.

2.1 Epidermis
The epidermis is the outermost layer which is ectodermal in origin, composed of several layer
of flattened cells called stratified epithelium. The deepest layer of epithelium cells are made
up of column cells forming stratum germinativum in which cells are always multiplying by
mitotic division to replace the outer worn out. A superficial layer of epithelium forms stratum
corneum.

2.2 Dermis
The dermal layer of skin consists of connective tissue, nerve cells, blood vessels, sense
organs. It can be divided into a thin layer of loose connective tissue called stratum
spongiosum, and lower dense thick layer is called stratum compactum.Dermis
responsible for the formation of scales & integumentary structures.

3. Functions of Skin
The functions of skin are as follows:
The mucous secreted by the mucous gland form a thick slimy covering all over the body
which protects the fish from parasites, fungi, and bacteria;
The presence of mucous lubricates the body against the body friction in water while
swimming in the water so as to facilitate for swimming with greater speed;
It helps to regulate the exchange of water ions between the body fluid and external

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medium;
It serves a respiratory organ as in fish like eel, & climbing perch (Anabas testudineous);
It performs as an important function in healing the surface wounds;
The glands of epidermis are modified to perform poisonous gland to certain fish used for
the offence against enemies, for example: scorpion fish; and
The chromatophores of various kinds present in the dermis of skin give beautiful color
pattern to the body.

B. SCALES
Skin is covered with scales..In most of the fishes, the skins is covered with an exoskeleton in
the form of scales and only a few are naked having no scale on the body as the catfish.
According to mode of the origin, the scales are of two types:
1. Epidermis/ Dermis secretory activity: Placoid; and
2. Dermis secretory activity: Ctenoid, cycloid, cosmoid.

1. Placoid Scale
This type of scales is found in elasmobranches. Each scale consists of a disc like basal plate
and a spine projecting out, giving a rough surface of skin.It resembles a tooth like
structure.These are partly dermal and partly epidermal in origin.Closely set but donot overlap
eachother. The scale is firmly attached to the skin of the fish body. For example: Dog fish
(Scoliodon) and sharks.
Figure: Placoid scale

2. Non-Placoid Scales
Cycloid: This is thin, transparent, flexible structure. The scales show alternating ridges
and grooves. The ridges or cerculi are generally in the form of concentric rings.scales
have circular lines found on it,these lines are lines of growth.These scales are on the body
of fish overlapped with each other. The central point is thicker called focus. The scale
becomes thinner towards margin and also smooth . The anterior part of the scale remains
embedded in the skin while posterior part is visible to the eye. For example: Scales of
Common carp, Rohu and other Indian and Chinese major carps etc.
Figure: Cycloid scale

Ctenoid: It is thin, transparent, flexible like cycloid, but has a serrated margin & several
distinct spines or ctenii are present on the posterior part of the scale.These scales are
dermal in origin. This type of scale is mostly found in the perciformes fish species like
Anabas sps.
Figure: Ctenoid scale

Functions of Scale
It provides protection to the body;
It protects the body from parasite/ pathogenic micro
The scales along with lateral line become perforated to communicate sensory organ with
the exterior;
It facilitates study of growth and age of fishes; and
Fish shows spawning rings/ marks which are the result of the cessation of feeding &
exhaustion during spawning period.

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