Teacher notes

Modelling relationships with functions:

6 power and polynomial functions
Essential understandings
Models are depictions of real-life events using expressions, equations or graphs while a function is
defined as a relation or expression involving one or more variables. Creating different
representations of functions to model the relationships between variables, visually and
symbolically as graphs, equations and tables represents different ways to communicate
mathematical ideas.

Content-specific conceptual understandings

This chapter leads to the following content-specific conceptual understandings listed in the subject
guide:

 The parameters in a function or equation correspond to geometrical features of a graph

and can represent physical quantities in spatial dimensions.
 Moving between different forms to represent functions allows for deeper understanding
and provides different approaches to problem solving.
 Our spatial frame of reference affects the visible part of a function and by changing this
“window” can show more or less of the function to best suit our needs.
 Different representations of functions, symbolically and visually as graphs, equations and
tables provide different ways to communicate mathematical relationships.
 The parameters in a function or equation correspond to geometrical features of a graph
and can represent physical quantities in spatial dimensions.
 Moving between different forms to represent functions allows for deeper understanding
and provides different approaches to problem solving.
 Our spatial frame of reference affects the visible part of a function and by changing this
“window” can show more or less of the function to best suit our needs.
 Changing the parameters of a trigonometric function changes the position, orientation and
shape of the corresponding graph.
 Different representations facilitate modelling and interpretation of physical, social,
economic and mathematical phenomena, which support solving real-life problems.
 Extending results from a specific case to a general form and making connections between
related functions allows us to better understand physical phenomena.

We have taken these suggested content-specific conceptual understanding statements and, as

recommended in the Teacher Support Manual, developed our own conceptual understandings.
Students are led step-by-step through the investigations to arrive at one or more of these
conceptual understandings:

Conceptual understandings Investigation

In order for an inverse function to exist or be invertible a function must Investigation 1

map only one independent variable with one dependent variable and
this can be the case within a largest possible domain or over a
restricted domain.

The parameters of the quadratic function alter the symmetry, vertex Investigation 2
and intercepts and distinguish geometrical features of a parabola such
as concavity.

Cubic functions can be used to model real-life data, while displaying Investigation 3
both a minimum and a maximum value.

The graph of positive power functions goes through the origin and Investigation 4
displays features such as symmetry while the graph of negative power
functions displays features such as symmetry and asymptotic behavior.

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Investigation 5
The inverse proportional function can be used to model real-life data
with asymptotic behavior in which, as the dependent variable Investigation 7
increases, the independent variable decreases.

The inverse proportional function displays features such as Investigation 6

symmetry and asymptotes, a vertical and a horizontal line towards
which the graph approaches infinitesimally closely, without ever
reaching it.

Investigation 8
Asymptotes occur when a value leads to division by zero.

Syllabus sections covered in this chapter:

 SL2.2*
 SL2.3*
 SL2.4
 SL2.5
 SL1.8
 SL2.6
 AHL2.7
 AHL2.8
 AHL2.9

Cognitive academic language proficiency

The academic language used in this chapter is listed as "microconcepts" at the start of the chapter.
Moreover, when specific terminology is introduced it is defined clearly and then used in context to
deepen students’ understanding.

Cognitive activators

The stimulus questions, developing inquiry skills, before you start activities, investigations and
modelling activities are cognitive activators. They get students ready to learn and engage with the
subject, providing opportunities for collaborative and peer-to-peer learning, and to develop of
inquiry, investigative and modelling skills.

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Digital resources

Prior learning Animated worked GDC skills and Additional

support example support exercises
Page 235: Example 1

Page 238: Example 3

Page 243: Example 4 Page 245: Example 5

Page 232: Modelling
relationships with Page 245: Example 5 Page 248: Example 6 Pages 244, 257,
functions: power and Page 248: Example 6 Page 259: Example 9 265, 277
polynomial functions
Page 256: Example 7 Page 264: Example 10

Page 269: Example 11

Assessment opportunities

End of chapter summary Chapter review Exam-style questions

Page 279 Page 281 Page 284

6.1 Quadratic models

TOK

A 500-word response on paper or in a blog is a suitable way of answering this TOK question.

Answers might include that mathematics allows humans to pass on knowledge from one another,
across national, cultural and religious borders. The social communication required for the
symbology and language to develop is a form of communication where people interact with one
another whilst passing on the knowledge of mathematics.

A counterclaim might be that many mathematicians (e.g. Andrew Wiles) work best in isolation.

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Investigation 1

Conceptual understanding:
In order for an inverse function to exist or be invertible a function must map only one independent
variable with one dependent variable and this can be the case within a largest possible domain or
over a restricted domain.

1 0  t  6 , so that the function is one-to-one.

180  h  180  h
2 h  180  5  (t  6)2  5  (t  6)2  180  h  (t  6)2  t 6  
5 5

 180  h  180  h
t 6 t 6 since 0  t  6 .
5 5
3 The domain becomes the range and vice versa. The restricted domain from part 1 helps in
deciding which sign to choose. In this case the negative sign was chosen.

4 a In order to sketch the graph of the inverse relation, use (xo , yo ) points from the original
graph and plot them at (yo , xo ) .

2
One-to-one: y  3x  5 Many-to-one: y  x

b The one-to-one’s inverse relation is a function since each x-value from the domain
corresponds to a single y-value. On the other hand, the many-to-one’s inverse relation is not a
function, since there exists at least one x-value in the domain which corresponds to more than
one y-value. For example when x  1 , there are two points on the graph: points (1,1) and
(1, 1) .

5 Conceptual: Why is a function not always invertible (invertible means that its inverse function
exists), and when is it possible for a function to be invertible?
Answer: In order for an inverse function to exist or be invertible a function must map only
one independent variable with one dependent variable and this can be the case within a
largest possible domain or over a restricted domain.

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TOK

Questions that might be used include:

 Should mathematics be used to take lives?

 What are the decisions to be made when developing the accuracy and stealth of weapons
such as drones?

Consider the role of the scientists developing the atomic bomb.

6.2 Problems involving quadratics

Investigation 2

Conceptual understanding:
The parameters of the quadratic function alter the symmetry, vertex and intercepts and
distinguish geometrical features of a parabola such as concavity.
1 a

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

f (x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

g(x) 12 7 4 3 4 7 12

c Translates the graph 3 units upwards. The x-coordinates remain the same. The y-
coordinates of all the points become 3 units more from what they were before.
d It would translate it downwards.

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2 a

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

f (x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

g(x) 18 8 2 0 2 8 18

c Stretches the graph vertically away from the x-axis. The x-coordinates remain the same.
The y-coordinates of all the points become double of what they were before.
d Points on the x-axis.
e It would “shrink” the graph vertically towards the x-axis.

3 a

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

f (x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

g(x) −9 −4 −1 0 −1 −4 −9

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c Reflects the graph about the x-axis. The x-coordinates remain the same. The y-coordinates
of all the points become opposite of what they were before.
d Points on the x-axis.
4 a

x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2

f (x) 9 4 1 0 1 4

g(x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

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c Translates the graph 1 unit to the left. The x-coordinates of all the points become 1 unit less
than what they were before. The y-coordinates remain the same.
d It would translate the graph to the right.
5 a

x −4 −3 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 2

f (x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

g(x) 9 1 0 1 4 9

c Shrinks the graph horizontally towards the y-axis. The x-coordinates of all the points
become half of what they were before. The y-coordinates remain the same.
d The ones on the y-axis.
e It would stretch the graph away from the y-axis.
6 a

x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

f (x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

g(x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

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c Reflects the graph about the y-axis. The x-coordinates of all the points become opposite of
what they were before. The y-coordinates remain the same.
d Those on the y-axis.
7 Conceptual: What is the effect of changing the parameters of the quadratic function
y  a  bx  c  2  d on its graph?

Answer: The parameters of the quadratic function alter the symmetry, vertex and
intercepts and distinguish geometrical features of a parabola such as concavity.

TOK

A chance to explore the limitations of graphs and charts in delivering information about functions
and phenomena in general, relevance of modes of representation.

A good question to ask for a response to is:

 Should we accept simplicity over accuracy to relay information?

6.3 Cubic functions and models

TOK

Questions to start a discussion in class might include:

 Is there a difference in accuracy between geometrical and algebraic representation?

 Which forms of representation stay in your memory for longer? Formulas, diagrams,
colours? Why?

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Investigation 3

Conceptual understanding:
Cubic functions can be used to model real-life data, while displaying both a minimum and a
maximum value.
1 The width of the card is 10 cm and the length is 12 cm. When you cut a square of length x cm
from each corner, you are left with a rectangle in the centre of the card which measures
(10 – 2x) cm by (12 – 2x) cm. This rectangle forms the base of the box.
You then fold up the four rectangles on the sides of the base to make the sides of the box. Each
of these has height x cm, so the box has height x cm.

2 V  x(12  2x)(10  2x)

4 The function cannot have an inverse since it is not a one-to-one function under the maximum
possible domain which is 0  x  5 . In order to make the function invertible, the domain needs
to be restricted either before the maximum point of the graph to 0  x  1.81 or after the
maximum point of the graph to 1.81  x  5 .

5 Quadratic functions can be easily written in vertex form, which then allows the input variable x
to be easily isolated. Cubic function usually cannot be written in a similar form and thus the
input variable x cannot be isolated.
6 Since we need to isolate the input variable x, in order to determine the inverse function and
since this process is usually difficult or even impossible with a cubic function, the inverse of a
cubic function is difficult to be found.

7 x  0, x  5, x  6

8 x  0 and x  5 represent the upper and lower limits for the size of x. The model does not
apply for values of x that are larger than 5 would give you a negative value for the width of the
box.

9 The local maximum value is 96.77 when x  1.81 and the local minimum value is 5.51
when x  5.52 .
10 It is not possible for the volume to have a negative value. The smallest value for the volume of
the box is 0 cm3 when x = 0 cm or x = 5 cm.

11 Given 0  x  5 , you could use this model to predict the volume of the box. However, outside
these values the model is not valid.
12 Conceptual: Using your answer to question 11, do you think that, in general, cubic models
could be used to predict information about real-life situations?
Answer: Cubic functions can be used to model real-life data, while displaying both a
minimum and a maximum value.

6.4 Power functions, direct and inverse variation and

models
Investigation 4

Conceptual understanding:
The graph of positive power functions goes through the origin and displays features such as
symmetry while the graph of negative power functions displays features such as symmetry and
asymptotic behavior.

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1 a-f

2 Odd and even power functions.

3 Even power functions are similar to parabolas. Odd are partly similar and partly reflected.
4 Odd power functions are similar to cubic functions.
5 Even power functions have a minimum point. Odd power functions have no maximum or
minimum points and instead have a point of inflexion.
6 Even power functions are symmetric about the y-axis. Odd power functions are symmetric
about the origin.
7 They become narrower.
8 Conceptual: What are the distinguishing geometrical features of positive and negative power
functions?
Answer: The graph of positive power functions goes through the origin and displays
features such as symmetry while the graph of negative power functions displays features
such as symmetry and asymptotic behavior.

Investigation 5

Conceptual understanding:
The inverse proportional function can be used to model real-life data with asymptotic behavior in
which, as the dependent variable increases, the independent variable decreases.
1 The greater the speed, the less time will be required to drive to school.
2 The time will now become half of what it normally is.
3 The time will now become double of what it normally is.
4 Factual: How could you describe the variation between speed and time?
Answer: The variation between speed and time is inversely proportional. That means that
as one value increases the other decreases and vice versa.
5 Conceptual: How would you describe real situations that model asymptotic behaviour?
Answer: The inverse proportional function can be used to model real-life data with
asymptotic behavior in which, as the dependent variable increases, the independent variable
decreases.
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Investigation 6

Conceptual understanding:
The inverse proportional function displays features such as symmetry and asymptotes, a vertical
and a horizontal line towards which the graph approaches infinitesimally closely, without ever
reaching it.
1 a-f

2 They never go through the y-axis and they tend to become horizontal for large positive and
negative values of x.
3 Even negative are entirely above the x-axis, whereas odd negative are both above and below
the x-axis.
4 Even power functions are symmetric about the y-axis. Odd power functions are symmetric
about the origin.
5 a As x becomes very large, the value of y becomes very small, asymptotically tending towards
0.
b As x approaches 0 from the positive side, the y values tend to become very large,
asymptotically tending towards ∞.
c As x approaches 0 from the negative side, the y values tend to become very large,
asymptotically tending towards ±∞. Positive for even functions and negative for odd functions.
6 They become narrower.
7 Conceptual: What are the distinguishing geometrical features of inverse variation functions?
Answer: The inverse proportional function displays features such as symmetry and
asymptotes, a vertical and a horizontal line towards which the graph approaches
infinitesimally closely, without ever reaching it.

TOK

Some questions for the development of a discussion.

 What makes something a language?

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 Can you communicate in mathematical symbols?

 Could you communicate to people, who speak a different language that you do not
understand, by using mathematics?

 What would Godel say? What would Hilbert say?

Investigation 7

Conceptual understanding:
The inverse proportional function can be used to model real-life data with asymptotic behavior, in
which as the dependent variable increases, the independent variable decreases.
1

Number of hours 20 25 30 35 40

Pay (€) 440 550 660 770 880

A worker’s pay varies directly with the number of hours worked.

Number of people 1 2 4 6 8 12

Number of hours 8 4 2 1.33 1 0.67

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Factual: How do the number of hours to complete the work vary with the number of men available?

Answer: The number of hours to complete the work varies inversely with the number of
men available.
3 Conceptual: For problems which involve direct and inverse variation, how does understanding
the physical problem help you to choose the correct mathematical function to model the
problem with?
Answer: The inverse proportional function can be used to model real-life data with
asymptotic behavior, in which as the dependent variable increases, the independent variable
decreases.

Investigation 8

Conceptual understanding:
Asymptotes occur when a value leads to division by zero.

1 The value of x that makes the denominator equal to zero is x  0 .

2 The line x  0 .

3 The value of x that makes the denominator equal to zero is x  2 .

4 The line x  2 .

5 Translation 2 units to the right.

6 The vertical asymptote translates 2 units to the right as well.

7 The function tends towards y  3 .

8 The line y  3 .

9 Translation 3 units up.

10 The horizontal asymptote translates 3 units up as well.
11 Horizontal translation h units and vertical translation k units.

12 x  h , y  k .

13 Conceptual: How do you identify an asymptote?

The answer is the TU: Asymptotes occur when a value leads to division by zero.

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Developing inquiry skills

How many different trajectories would there be if the ball were to follow a straight line from the
hands of the player to the hoop?

Answer: There is only a single straight line that goes through two given points.

How many different trajectories are there in the case that the ball follows a curved line from the
hands of the player to the hoop, as in the drawing here?

Answer: There are infinite curved trajectories joining two different points.

How would the initial angle at which the ball leaves the hands of the player affect the angle at
which it arrives at the hoop?

Answer: Since quadratic functions display symmetry, a trajectory starting off at a

greater angle to the horizontal will arrive at the hoop at a greater angle to the horizontal.

How would this angle increase the chance of the player making the basket?

Answer: As the angle that the ball approaches the hoop increases, the area that it
“effectively views” changes.

Knowing the maximum height of the ball, could we determine a unique model for the trajectory it
follows?

Answer: Yes, there is a unique quadratic function that goes through three given points.

How does the height up to which the ball goes increase the chance of the player making the
basket?

Answer: The higher the ball goes, the bigger the area that it “effectively views” changes.
On the other hand, to send the ball higher, more force is required, making the precision to
shoot the ball decrease.

How can we determine the optimum path for a basketball player to score a basket?

Answer: Determine the quadratic function that comes to the hoop as vertically as
possible, requiring an amount of energy that will not affect precision.

What else would we need to know to answer this question?

Answer: How extra force to send the ball higher affects precision.

What assumptions have you made in the process?

Answer: That the path is purely quadratic.

Hanging around!
Approaches to Learning: Thinking Skills: Create, Generating, Planning, Producing
Exploration Criteria: Presentation (A) Personal engagement (C) Reflection (D)
IB Topic: Quadratic Modelling, Using technology
This task introduces students to the possibility of importing images into graphing packages in
order to find a curve to best fit the object in the image. This is something that a lot of students do
or could be advised to do in their explorations.
Students will find a curve and reflect on why the curve may not fit the image exactly which will
lead them to consider the choice of their curve.
The task therefore encourages personal engagement (Criterion C) by considering using actual data
provided by the student and using technology creatively to fit a model. The use of the graph and

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the equation to represent the model will add to Criterion A: Presentation. A consideration of the
suitable fit (or otherwise) of the model will lead to critical reflection for Criterion D: Reflection.
Investigate

For this task, students will need:

 A piece of rope or chain

 Access to a graphing package such as Desmos (which is used in these notes) or
Autograph, Geogebra, Loggerpro, Geometer’s sketchpad, etc.

If a piece of rope or chain is not available, then students could use a picture of a hanging rope or
chain from the internet.
Students will probably suggest that the shape is a parabola (quadratic curve), since they have
studied this in chapter 3. They could also suggest a cosine curve if this has been studied.

y  ax2  bx  c or y = cos x

Students could test this by trying to fit a curve that is quadratic (or cosine).
Import the curve into a graphing package

The aim here is to use a graphing package to try to find the equation of the quadratic that best fits
the shape of the hanging chain in the form y  ax2  bx  c .

When taking their photograph, students should realise that it is important to get a clear image
with the camera looking staright at the rope/chain rather than from above/below or from the side.
Make sure that students follow the instructions correctly to import their image into the graphing
package Desmos, or equivalent.
For example, to import the image into the Desmos graphing package, the steps are:
Open Desmos

Click on the on the top left

Click on ‘image’ and locate your image to import.
The image should appear in the graphing screen.
Fit an equation to three points on the curve

It doesn’t really matter what three points students select, but different points may result in slightly
different equations.
Two points would not be sufficient as there is not a unique quadratic curve going through two
points.
For extension, you could also ask:
 Could you use more than three points? What difference would this make?

You could use as many points as you want. Three is the minimum required to fit a unique
parabola. More than three points may not produce an R-squared value of 1, but may produce a
curve which more closely fits the shape of the image.
For students who need further guidance on how to enter their three chosen points into a table, for
example, the points (−2.9, 0), (−0.1, −4.7) and (3, 1) could be used.
Make sure that students follow the instructions correctly for the graphing package Desmos, or
equivalent.
The steps for the Desmos graphing package are:

Type y1 ax12  bx1  c

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If appropriate, you could tell students that the ~ symbol (called Tilde) means that Desmos will
provide the best fit equation of the provided form.
Explain to students that y1 and x1 refer to the headings on the table.
The values of a, b and c are given under the equation. These are the values of the coefficients of
the quadratic function that best fit the points provided.
For example, for the coordinates used above, the best fit equation is
y  0.596x2  0.110x  4.69 , to three significant figures.

Desmos also provides the R2 (or R-squared) value. For the example used, this value is 1.
If appropriate for extension work, or if students ask what it is, you could introduce the coefficient
of determination, R2.
R2, also known as the coefficient of determination, is a statistical measure of how close the data
are to the fitted curve. A value of 1 means that the curve passes through the 3 points exactly.
You could ask:

 Why is R2 = 1 here?
 Try using four or more points. Does the value of R2change?

R2 = 1 because Desmos has provided a curve that exactly fits through the three points. This may
not be the case if more than three points are used because the curve may no longer fit exactly
through all the points.
Test the fit of your curve

No, the curve does not fit exactly.

It does not overlap entirely with the curve, but it is close.
Possible reasons:

The choice of curve might not be correct.

Inaccuracy in selecting and marking points – for example, if the rope or chain is thick and the
points in the middle of the rope/chain can’t easily be selected.
Could be a poor-quality image, have a shadow that distorts the picture or taken from a difficult
angle and not straight on to the object.
You could also discuss how moving, expanding or contracting the image would affect the equation.
The resulting equation students would be working out would be different depending on the image,
location and size. However, if the distance between the two points from which the rope is hanging
is known, students could work out the scale of the graph.
If students were going to consider areas or geometrical findings based on their curve, they would
need to have a sense of scale. They could find this by knowing, for example, the physical distance
between the two points where the rope is hooked.
For extension, students could try following the same process and fitting a cosine curve.
They could then investigate the limitations of this approach to finding a curve of best fit.
The catenary and the parabola are two different curves. They look generally quite similar in that
they are symmetrical and U-shaped, going up infinitely on either side of a minimum. However they
do have a different shape.

A catenary is slightly "flatter" at the bottom and it rises faster than a parabola for large values of
x.
For extension work, you could ask:

 What else could you use this process to model?

 What could the resulting equations be used to find?

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It would be possible to import any photo like this and students could then fit any curve of which
they know the general form of the equation.
One of the key points from this task is that it is important to find the correct type of curve for a
particular given situation − this may involve doing some research first!
Once students have an equation it would be possible to perhaps find the area under a curve or a
volume of revolution based on the curve (see chapter 11).
Students may be able to make predictions for the position of other points on the curve that
perhaps cannot be seen in a photo/diagram.
It may be possible to find the highest or lowest point of a travelling object or where that object
might end up/land.
For extension work, you could also ask:

 What is the minimum number of points you would need to find a cubic model?
 Is it different from a quadratic? Why?

A cubic model would require four points to fit a unique curve as a general cubic curve
y  ax3  bx2  cx  d has four parameters.

In fact a polynomial of degree n would require n + 1 points.

Extension

These are just examples that may be modelled using quadratics – students often include many
other types of functions that they model – the important point is that they can justify the choice of
the model that they select or can suggest why the model does not fit exactly if it doesn’t.
For additional interest: Watch this from Matt Parker (Stand Up Mathematician!) – Sydney: The
Unsuccessful Hunt for Parabola.

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