Structure 2.1 Introduction Objectives 2.2 Classification of Instruments 2.3 Electrical Measuring Instruments 2.4 Temperature Measuring Instruments 2.5 Light level Measuring Instruments 2.6 Combustion Analyser 2.7 Pressure Measuring Devices 2.8 Hygrometer 2.9 Speed and Flow Measurement 2.10 Leak Detectors 2.11 Fuel Measurement 2.12 Let Us Sum Up
2.1 INTRODUCTION For energy audit we need various kinds of equipments for measuring all the necessary parameters required for establishing energy and material balance so as to identify energy wastage areas. The energy audit instruments are portable, easy to handle and use and relatively inexpensive. The parameters generally monitored during energy audit may include the following : Basic Electrical Parameters in AC andDC systems : · Voltage (V) · Current (I) · Power factor (PF) · Active power (KW) · Apparent power (demand) (KVA) · Reactive power (KVAr) · Energy consumption (KWh) · Frequency (Hz) · Harmonics, etc. Other parameters of importance (other than electrical parameters) are : · temperature and heat flow · radiation
15 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings · air and gas flow · liquid flow · air velocity · noise and vibration · dust concentration · total dissolved solids (TDS) · pH value · moisture content · relative humidity · flue gas analysis – CO2, O2, CO, SOx, NOx · combustion efficiency, etc. It is important for an Energy Auditor to know all about these instruments. In this unit, we will discuss all necessary equipments used frequently in energy audit. Objectives After going through this unit, you will be able to know about energy audit equipments used for : · Measuring electrical parameters like current, voltage, power, power factor, etc., · Measuring temperature, · Measuring pressure, · Measuring flow, and · Measuring environmental parameters.
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
There are several instruments used in an energy audit. All the energy audit equipments are broadly classified in to two categories : 1. Electrical instruments, which measure electrical parameters such as current, voltage, power, power factor, etc. 2. Mechanical instruments, which measure mechanical quantities such as pressure, temperature, flow, etc. We will discuss these instruments in the following sections.
2.3 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Energy audit requires the measurement of several parameters for collecting data related to energy consumption and the related processes. The most widely measured electrical parameters are current, voltage, KVA, KW, KVAr, PF, frequency and harmonics. Let us discuss the instruments used to measure these parameters. 16 Ammeters : Ammeters are used in generator leads, feeder circuits, auxiliary Energy Audit Instruments
power circuits and field circuits to measure current.
Voltmeters : Voltmeters are used to measure voltage so as to maintain proper voltage, check automatic voltage regulators, synchronize, and with proper connection. Power Factor Meters : These are used to measure power factor in alternator leads to check excitation and load division on the bus bars if a synchronous condenser is used to maintain power factors. Digital Multimeter : It is a very handy instrument and is used for measurement of voltage, current and resistance. Power Meter (Watt meters) : It is used for the measurement of power in generator or feeder circuits. Power meters now available can measure following parameters : (1) Current (2) Voltage (3) Active Power (4) Power Factor (5) Apparent Power (6) Reactive Power (7) Active energy (8) Frequency Clip on Digital Watt Meter Whenever you visit any unit for conducting energy audit, you will find various processes going on. The motors may be running, the production processes may be going on. Under such circumstances, you may require to measure relevant electrical parameters without affecting the production and without stopping any machine. Clip on Digital Watt Meter is such an instrument used for measurement of power without interrupting the connections. Such type of instruments may be applied online, e.g. on motors without stopping the motor. A typical clip on digital watt meter is shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 : Clip on Digital Watt Meter
17 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings Clip on Digital PF Meter It is used for measurement of power factor without interrupting the connection. Clamp on Ampere Meter It is used for measurement of current without interrupting the connections. Frequency Meter It is used for measurement of power supply frequency. Harmonic Analyser It is used for analysis of harmonics in power System.
2.4 TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
There are several types of temperature measuring instruments. A brief description is given below: Glass Tube Mercury Thermometers These thermometers are used for measuring temperatures in flow lines; condensate, circulating water, feed water, bearing oil, etc. Gas Filled Bulb and Tube Thermometers These types of instruments are used to measure temperature of gases or liquids up to 550ºC and indicate or record the same at a point about 100 m away from the location of the bulb. Vapour Pressure Thermometer These thermometers are used to measure temperatures up to 270ºC. Electrical Resistance Thermometer It is widely used for accurate measurement of feed water and condensate temperature. It is also used to measure temperature of windings of electrical machines. Thermocouple Thermometer and Pyrometer The thermocouple is used to measure high range temperatures such as furnace flue gas, preheated air, or superheated steam temperatures. Temperature Indicators These are basically thermocouples used for measuring temperatures of flue gases, hot air, liquids, slurries, semisolids, powders, etc. The indicators use different types of probes. Infrared Thermometers These are used for measuring temperatures from a distance using infrared technology. These are non-contact type of measuring instruments and are useful for measuring hot spots in furnaces and surface temperatures. A PT120 infrared thermometer is shown in Figure 2.2. The instrument is equipped with microcomputer for data-collection and processing. PT120 infrared thermometer can be applied extensively in many fields, such as induction heating, furnaces, kilns, refrectories, petroleum, chemical, electronic oven, railway, textile, rubber, plastic, printing, etc. 18 Energy Audit Instruments
Typical measuring range of an infrared thermometer shown above is : Temperature range : - 25ºC to + 1200ºC. Measuring accuracy : ± 1% of reading repeatability : ± 0.5% of reading.
2.5 LIGHT LEVEL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Lux Meter Lux meter is used for measurement of illumination level. It consists of a photo cell which senses the light output, converts it into electrical signals which are calibrated as Lux. A typical Digital Lux meter is shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 : A Lux Meter
The typical specifications of such a Digital Light Meter are as follows : · Measuring range : 200, 2000, 20000 lux (20000 lux range reading ´ 10) and 50000 lux (50000 lux range reading ´ 100). · Accuracy : Ø < 10000 lux: ± 5% of rdg + 10 digits Ø 10000 lux: ± 10% of rdg + 10 digits.
2.6 COMBUSTION ANALYSER
Flue Gas Analyser Flue Gas Analyser is used for measuring various gases such as oxygen and CO levels in flue gas of boilers, furnaces etc. and calculation of CO2 percentage in excess air level and efficiency for optimizing the combustion efficiency. The instrument has in-built chemical cells for measuring these parameters. A typical combustion analyzer is shown in the Figure 2.3.
19 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings Fuel Efficiency Monitor Fuel Efficiency Monitor is used for measuring oxygen and temperature of flue gases. The instrument makes use of calorific values of fuels to calculate the combustion efficiency. The ARTECH FEM-01 Fuel Efficiency Monitor is shown in the Figure 2.4. It is designed to monitor performance of boilers, heaters, furnaces, etc. It measures Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide and temperature of flue gas. From these values it computes combustion efficiency, excess air and Carbon Dioxide values.
Standard Bourdon Tube, Steam Pressure Gauge It is widely used for measuring the pressure of moderate and high pressure steam. Helical Tube or Diaphragm Type Low Steam Pressure Gauge It is used to measure bleeder pressures, exhaust pressures, etc. Vacuum Gauges and Manometers These instruments are used to measure pressures. The draft gauge is used to obtain and maintain the best furnace conditions, to check the operation of automatic combustion equipment, and to check the condition of the boiler setting and flues. Draft gauges also measure the performance of draft fans and of chimneys. Manometers are pressure measuring devices using liquid columns in vertical or inclined tubes. U-Tube Manometer One of the most common types of manometer is the water filled U-tube manometer used to measure pressure difference in pitot or orifices located in the airflow in air handling or ventilation system. Digital Manometer It is used for measurement of differential pressure. 20 Energy Audit Instruments 2.8 HYGROMETER
Thermo-hygrometer Thermo-hygrometer is used for measurement of air velocity and humidification, ventilation, air-conditioning and refrigeration systems etc. Digital Thermo-hygrometer It is used for measurement of humidity and temperature and the calculation of dew point to find out the heat being carried away by outgoing gases in industries. A typical Digital Thermo-hygrometer is shown in the Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5 : Digital Thermo-hygrometer (Kwanwa Electronic Company)
2.9 SPEED AND FLOW MEASUREMENT
Steam Flow Meters The steam flow meter is used to measure individual boiler output, group boiler output, turbine supply auxiliary steam and industrial steam. Water Flow Meters This non-contact type flow measuring device uses Doppler Effect/Ultrasonic principle. There is a transmitter and a receiver positioned on opposite sides of the pipe. The meter directly gives the flow. Water and other fluid flows can be easily measured with this meter. These are used to measure condensate, feed water, pump discharge, etc. A typical water flow meter is shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6 : Water Flow Meter
Air Flow Meter It is used to measure air flow. 21 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings Ultrasonic Flow Meter Ultrasonic Flow Meter is used for measurement of flow of liquids through pipelines of various sizes through ultrasonic sensors mounted on the pipelines. Speed Measurements/Tachometer In any audit exercise speed measurements are critical as they may change with frequency, belt slip and loading. A simple tachometer is a contact type instrument which can be used where direct access is possible. A typical Tachometer is shown in the Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 : A Tachometer
2.10 LEAK DETECTORS
Ultrasonic Leak Detector
Ultrasonic leak detectors are used to detect leak of compressed air and other gases. A typical Ultrasonic Leak Detector LDE-10 (http://www.reliabilitydirect.com/ultrasoundproducts/SPM-LDE10.htm ) is shown in the Figure 2.8. Ultrasonic leak detector has the following applications : · Leaks in pressure and vacuum systems, · Electrical discharge, · Control of tightness with ultrasonic transmitter, · Internal leaks in hydraulic systems, and · Function control of steam traps.
Figure 2.8 : Ultrasonic Leak Detector
22 Energy Audit Instruments 2.11 FUEL MEASUREMENT Coal Measurement : Coal is usually weighted in batches, although belt conveyor weighers and some pulversied coal weighers take continuous measurement. Gas Meters : These are either the positive displacement type or differential head type. Oil Meters : These are positive displacement type. Level Recorders : These are used for measuring liquid level in boilers, tanks, canals, etc. and coal level in pulverized coal bin.
2.12 LET US SUM UP
The requirement for an energy audit such as identification and quantification of
energy necessitates measurements; these measurements require the use of instruments. These instruments must be portable, durable, easy to operate and relatively inexpensive. There are several instruments used in energy audit. All the energy audit equipments are broadly classified in two categories : · Mechanical Instruments, which measure mechanical quantities such as pressure, temperature, flow, etc. · Electrical Instruments, which measure electrical parameters such as current, voltage, power, power factor, etc. We have discussed all necessary equipments widely used for energy audit purposes. These include electrical parameters, temperature and pressure. Various handy instruments have been discussed : Pressure Measurement · Standard Bourdon tube, steam pressure gauge, · Helical tube or diaphragm type low steam pressure gauge, · Vacuum gauges and manometers, · Draft gauges. (inclined glass tube, diaphragm and liquid sealed bell types), and · Miscellaneous pressure gauges on oil, air and water lines. Temperature Measurement · Glass tube mercury thermometers, · Gas filled bulb and tube thermometers, · Vapour Pressure Thermometer, · Electrical resistance thermometer, and · Thermocouple thermometer and pyrometer. Flow Measurement · Steam flow meters, · Water flow meters, and · Air flow meter. 23 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings Fuel Measurement · Gas meters, and · Oil meters (Positive displacement type). Gas Analysis · Orsat apparatus and CO2 or O2 instruments, and · Level Recorders. Level Recorders Electrical Instruments · Ammeters, · Volt meters, · Watt meters, · Power factor meters, and · Reactive volt ampere meters. We hope that this Unit has helped you gain some familiarity with the energy audit instruments.
