AgriScience

Sixth Edition

Teacher’s Manual

JASPER S. LEE
Agricultural Educator
Clarkesville, Georgia

DIANA L. TURNER
Science Educator
Starkville, Mississippi
Front cover: background, courtesy of Anne Kitzman; watermelons, courtesy of Apostolos Mastoris; lab,
courtesy of Danil Vitalevich; vet, courtesy of Eugene Chemetsov.
Back cover: conveyer belt with olives, courtesy of Pi-Lens; chipmunk, courtesy of Tom Reichner; scientific
researcher, courtesy of Stuart Jenner.

Taken from:

AgriScience, Fifth Edition Teacher’s Manual

by Jasper S. Lee
Copyright © 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Prentice Hall
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

Copyright © 2015 by Pearson Learning Solutions

All rights reserved.

This copyright covers material written expressly for this volume by the editor/s as well as the compilation
itself. It does not cover the individual selections herein that first appeared elsewhere. Permission to reprint
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ISBN 10: 1-269-54316-4

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 CONTENTS

To the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Overview of Student Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

PART ONE—THE WORLD OF AGRISCIENCE

1 Science and Technology in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 The Agricultural Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Success and Safety in Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

PART TWO—SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

4 Science Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5 Living Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6 Classifying and Naming Living Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

7 Genetics Applications in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

8 Biotechnology in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

PART THREE—PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCE

9 Plant Structure and Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

10 Reproducing Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

11 Plant Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

12 Plant Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

13 Soil and Land Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

14 Plant Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

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 PART FOUR—ANIMAL SCIENCE
15 Animal Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

16 Animal Nutrition and Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

17 Animal Breeds and Breeding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

18 Promoting Animal Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

19 Animal Care and Well-being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

20 Veterinary Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

PART FIVE—NATURAL RESOURCES AND EARTH SCIENCE

21 Natural Resources and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

22 Earth Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

PART SIX—PHYSICAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

23 Chemistry in AgriScience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

24 Physics in AgriScience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

25 Mechanics in AgriScience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

PART SEVEN—CONSUMERS AND PRODUCTS

26 Agricultural Economics: Management and Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

27 Processing Agricultural Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

PART EIGHT—AGRISCIENCE EDUCATION AND YOU

28 Education and Experience in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

29 Student Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

30 Leadership Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

4
 TO THE TEACHER
AgriScience is often considered to be the nation’s leading teaching and learning
approach for science-based agricultural education. The first five editions have filled
prominent roles throughout the nation in grades 9 and 10. Now, the Sixth Edition will
increasingly serve a major role in those classes with high expectations for student mas-
tery. The new edition offers expanded and updated content based on local school
courses of study, state education agency curriculum guides and standards, and the
national standards. It will serve to develop a strong foundation for student success in
more-advanced high school agriculture classes and postsecondary agriculture classes.
The Sixth Edition of AgriScience integrates and promotes achievement of the
National Agriculture, Food, and Natural Resources (AFNR) Career Cluster Content Stan-
dards, released in complete form in 2009 by the National Council for Agricultural Educa-
tion (www.teamaged.org/councilindex.cfm). The authors carefully considered the
standards and structured content to promote correlation with the standards. No doubt,
the use of AgriScience, Sixth Edition, will assure extensive student development of the
standards, particularly those in Level I.
The AFNR Career Cluster Content Standards are organized around the eight career
pathways within the AFNR cluster. The pathways are (1) Agribusiness Systems, (2) Ani-
mal Systems, (3) Biotechnology Systems, (4) Environmental Service Systems, (5) Food
Products and Processing Systems, (6) Natural Resource Systems, (7) Plant Systems,
and (8) Power, Structural, and Technical Systems. These pathways are briefly listed and
described in the textbook. The terminology has been changed to simplify concepts and
make it easier to understand the pathways.
What changes make this edition better? Many content changes have been made in
AgriScience, Sixth Edition. Several areas of existing content have been reorganized to
better serve needs in teaching and learning. New chapters have been added to better
cover the essential content. New chapters focus on veterinary science, plant production,
and biotechnology. The book now has 30 chapters. Overall, the changes focus on the fol-
lowing:

• New approaches in biotechnology are included. These focus on genetically modi-

fied organisms, including stacking of genetic traits.
• A chapter has been added on veterinary science. The goal is to better acquaint stu-
dents with the high interest area of animal care. Practices in veterinary medicine
from the standpoint of a veterinary assistant are introduced.
• Increased emphasis has been given to the role of research and development in
AFNR.
• The content on consumers and agricultural economics has been expanded.
• Information on genetics has been expanded to incorporate molecular approaches.
• Increased emphasis has been included on the role of computer technology in
AFNR.
• New sections have been added on forestry and wildlife management.

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 • New sections on water systems and internal combustion engine maintenance have
been added to the chapter on agricultural mechanics.
• Additional content has been included on practices in field crop production.
• The content on plant growth structures, particularly greenhouses, has been
expanded.
• Many new illustrations have been added. The emphasis is on illustrations that have
high appeal to students. Further, these illustrations are intended to promote the
expanding diversity of human population in the United States.
• Emphasis on safety and safe practices continues, including the operation of motor
vehicles that transport plant and animal products.

Emphasis on science principles in agricultural education has markedly changed the

curriculum. Standards developed in many states to guide local programs speak to this
science emphasis. The instruction focuses on the principles of science that provide a
foundation in plant and animal production. Further, this applies to horticulture, forestry,
natural resources, wildlife, environmental science, agricultural supplies and services, and
products and processing. Instruction in agriculture entails using a science-based
approach. The approach not only results in quality agricultural education but also moti-
vates students.
AgriScience, Sixth Edition, is a textbook that stresses the fundamentals of science.
The book is intended to be a teacher- and student-friendly text. It is supplemented with a
Teacher’s Manual, an Activity Manual, an Instructor’s Guide to the Activity Manual, and
other materials, such as a computer-based test bank and PowerPoint presentations to
facilitate teaching and learning.
Beginning with the First Edition, this textbook has involved getting student and teacher
input, using research findings and industry information, and field-testing procedures.
Observations were made in agriculture classrooms throughout the United States. Stan-
dardized testing in agriculture was used to associate high student test score results with
characteristics of the learning environment. Students in classes where textbooks were
used scored 12 to 13 percent higher than students in classes where textbooks were not
used.
Both content and procedures advocated in AgriScience have been tested in agricul-
ture and science instructional programs. Further, the content contains many of the sci-
ence concepts that are required so that agriscience classes can be used as laboratory
science classes in the high school curriculum. No agriscience book can better fulfill this
need than AgriScience, Sixth Edition.

PURPOSE
This Teacher’s Manual for AgriScience, Sixth Edition, is designed to help the teacher
provide instruction in the science and technology of agriculture. National and state stan-
dards have been integrated, as appropriate, in preparing this edition. Emphasis is on
using a systematic approach to science-based instruction in agriculture. The manual
includes an overview of the contents of the book, as well as suggestions for teachers in
providing the instruction. Suggested teaching strategies include the use of motivational
approaches and the application of the content in supervised experience programs.
Professional preparation of agriculture teachers has increasingly focused on the
strategies and learning theories suggested in the Teacher’s Manual. The newly
released book Foundations of Agricultural Education (Pearson Education, Inc.,
2014) is a professional preparation book for teachers. The book stresses approaches
used in this teachers manual and in AgriScience. A wide range of resources can be

6
 used to enhance instruction. Local community resources, as well as those in the school
facilities, are suggested. Collaboration with science teachers may be practical, depending
on the situation. The agriscience teacher may choose to use the facilities in the science
department of the school. Or, in other situations, the agriscience teacher may collaborate
the science teacher to provide some of the instruction. Regardless, the approach used is
intended to be easy for teachers to follow in providing quality instruction.

FORMAT OF THE TEACHER’S MANUAL

This Teacher’s Manual uses a format that is common in agricultural education. The
format is easy to follow in planning and delivering quality, systematic instruction. The
Teacher’s Manual is divided into various sections that will help the teacher in gaining stu-
dent interest, providing the instruction, reviewing and re-teaching the concepts, evaluat-
ing achievement, and incorporating hands-on experiences into science-based agricul-
ture.
The Teacher’s Manual is divided into 30 chapters corresponding to the chapters in
AgriScience, Sixth Edition. Each chapter is further divided into several sections:

1. Chapter Summary—This section contains a short summary of the chapter in the

book. Additional information helpful to the teacher may be included.
2. Instructional Objectives—The objectives for each chapter are stated in measur-
able and observable terms from the perspective of the teacher. These objectives
are the behaviors that learners should have upon completion of the instruction.
3. Interest Approach—This section presents a possible motivational interest
approach based on the introduction to each chapter. Teachers are encouraged to
relate the information to situations in the local area. Personalizing the interest
approach will make it more effective with the learners.
4. Instructional Strategies and Teaching Plans—This section presents possible
teaching strategies to achieve the objectives. The suggestions include strategies
that can be used both with the book and with the Activity Manual. Pointers that
may help in achieving equity in diverse student populations are also given. In
addition, approaches for the integration of mathematics and communication skills
are suggested. Strategies for higher-order thinking and problem-solving skills are
often recommended. Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor strategies are
included.
5. Review and Evaluation—Procedures for reviewing and evaluating the achieve-
ment of the objectives are given for each chapter. Re-teaching suggestions are
also included, if re-teaching is needed.
6. Safety—Some activities could present special concerns about student safety.
These concerns are mentioned, as appropriate, and reinforced in the Activity
Manual. Safety concerns may also focus on the environment and with animals.
7. Additional Resources—This section contains references and other materials
that the teacher may find useful in providing the instruction.
8. Answers to Questions—The answers to the review questions and the “Evaluat-
ing” section at the end of each chapter in the book are presented here.

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 OVERVIEW OF STUDENT EDITION
AgriScience, Sixth Edition, presents the fundamental content for science-based
instruction in agriculture. It explains the broad nature of science in agriculture and relates
agricultural practices to various areas of science, including biological science, earth sci-
ence, and physical science. The agricultural mechanics chapter has been expanded to
include sections on water systems (both supply and wastewater) and on maintenance of
small internal combustion engines. Mathematics, as the science of computation, is inte-
grated throughout the book. Several appendixes presenting formulas and applications in
agriculture are at the back of the book. New content on veterinary science has been
included. Greater emphasis has been placed on the useful and important role of technol-
ogy, with a “Technology Connection” in each chapter.
A companion publication to AgriScience is the Activity Manual. This student-centered
manual is designed to reinforce the major concepts in the book as well as provide valu-
able hands-on learning of science principles. Maximum learning will result when the
teacher uses both the book and the Activity Manual. The Activity Manual is divided into
30 chapters that are parallel with those of the student edition.
In both publications, to the extent possible, the reading level has been kept at or below
ninth grade, making the text most appropriate for use in upper junior high/middle school
or high school grades. Hundreds of photographs and line-art illustrations have been used
to enhance the content. Many focus on youthful models and subjects of interest to stu-
dents. Spacious layout and design enhance student and teacher use of the materials.
Emphasis is on practical, real-world experiences in agriscience and technology. Stu-
dents are encouraged to carry what they learn beyond the classroom and laboratory into
supervised experience activities and FFA participation through career development
events, proficiency awards, or other areas.
AgriScience is divided into eight parts, or units. The 30 chapters are clustered into
these eight parts. This structure is convenient for students and teachers in systematic
instruction and learning. Teachers may sequence the instructional areas to best meet the
needs of their students. In curriculum or instructional planning, the parts may be treated
as instructional areas. The parts and chapters are:

Part One: The World of AgriScience

Part One introduces students to the meaning and importance of the Agriculture,
Food, and Natural Resources Career Cluster. It lists and explains the eight commonly
accepted career pathways. It also introduces important concepts of horticulture, for-
estry, and the modern agricultural industry. Emphasis is on a sustainable approach in
using all natural resources. Part One has been revised to contain a chapter on Suc-
cess and Safety in Careers. This part has three chapters:
Chapter 1—Science and Technology in Agriculture
Chapter 2—The Agricultural Industry
Chapter 3—Success and Safety in Careers

Part Two: Science in Agriculture

Part Two provides fundamental information on the meaning and importance of sci-
ence in agriculture. It includes information on Earth’s living things and how these

8
relate to nonliving resources. It also shows the relationship between all living things
and the processes that are involved. The new domain approach to the classification
of living organisms is included. Genetics and biotechnology are covered in Part Two.
This part has five chapters:
Chapter 4—Science Relationships
Chapter 5—Living Things
Chapter 6—Classifying and Naming Living Things
Chapter 7—Genetics Applications in Agriculture
Chapter 8—Biotechnology in Agriculture

Part Three: Plant Science

This part includes the basics of plant biology and applications to gain products needed
by human life. It presents the basic principles of plant and soil science as well as the pro-
cedures in culturing crop and ornamental plants. Culural practices with key crops are
presented. A section on home vegetable gardening is included. The content is the per-
fect background for classes in horticulture, forestry, or crops. The chapters are:
Chapter 9—Plant Structure and Growth
Chapter 10—Reproducing Plants
Chapter 11—Plant Growth and Culture
Chapter 12—Plant Health
Chapter 13—Soil and Land Science
Chapter 14—Plant Production

Part Four: Animal Science

Part Four includes the fundamentals of animal biology, with emphasis on the major
livestock, poultry, and aquaculture species. This part contains information on the biol-
ogy of animals and general cultural practices. It contains information on veterinary
science, with information useful to students who may be thinking of veterinary medi-
cine as a career or pursuing another animal health career. The content provides a
good foundation for advanced courses in animal production, veterinary science, com-
panion (small) animals, animal wildlife, and related areas. The chapters are:
Chapter 15—Animal Biology
Chapter 16—Animal Nutrition and Feeding
Chapter 17—Animal Breeds and Breeding Systems
Chapter 18—Promoting Animal Health
Chapter 19—Animal Care and Well-Being
Chapter 20—Veterinary Science

Part Five: Natural Resources and Earth Science

This part covers the role of earth science in agriculture. Basic natural resources and
environmental science information, is included. The two chapters should provide a
strong background for advanced classes in environmental science, forestry, or natu-
ral resources. The content also integrates effectively with academic courses, includ-
ing those dealing with meteorology and weather. The chapters are:
Chapter 21—Natural Resources and the Environment
Chapter 22—Earth Science

Part Six: Physical Science and Technology

This part includes fundamental content on chemistry and physics in agriscience. Impor-
tant chemistry and physics concepts are presented and applied to agriculture. The con-
tent on physics includes simple machines and their applications in agriscience. The
9
 chapter on agricultural mechanics introduces important knowledge and skill areas. New
information is in Chapter 25 on water supply and wastewater systems and on the mainte-
nance of small internal combustion engines. The chapters are:
Chapter 23—Chemistry in AgriScience
Chapter 24—Physics in AgriScience
Chapter 25—Mechanics in AgriScience

Part Seven: Consumers and Products

Part Seven stresses the processes involved in moving food, fiber, and forestry prod-
ucts from the producer to the consumer. It begins with background information on
economics and economic systems, free enterprise, and business ownership. It
describes supply-and-demand factors, including the interaction of the supply-and-
demand curve. The emphasis is on the technology in the processes to meet con-
sumer demand. The two chapters are:
Chapter 26—Agricultural Economics: Management and Marketing
Chapter 27—Processing Agricultural Products

Part Eight: AgriScience Education and You

This part introduces the importance of work and careers. It covers how to go about
gaining the education and experience for success in the agricultural industry. Super-
vised experience, FFA, and leadership are covered. Special emphasis is placed on
being a capable leader in the agricultural industry. This part has three chapters:
Chapter 28—Education and Experience in Agriculture
Chapter 29—Student Organizations
Chapter 30—Leadership Development

GENERAL CHAPTER FORMAT

Each chapter begins with a short introduction that provides background information for
the chapter. This is followed by a list of objectives and a list of important terms in the
chapter. The content follows, with sections based on the objectives. Important terms are
in colored bold italics. A summary reiterates the main ideas at the end of the contents of
each chapter. Review questions, which follow the summary, are designed to help both
the teacher and the students review the chapter content and to help the teacher reinforce
and re-teach, as necessary. A short evaluation section is included. Hands-on “Exploring”
activities are suggested at the end of each chapter in the text.
Local situations and needs may dictate the sequence and depth of instruction in the
instructional areas. Teachers can vary these to suit individual preferences and stu-
dent motivations.

Appendixes
The textbook contains appendixes filled with mathematical conversions, equivalents,
and formulas. Practical examples of approaches in calculating volumes, areas, and
other agriscience work are included. Weights and measures as commonly used in
agriculture have been included. The formulas for board foot calculations and temper-
ature conversions have useful applications in agriscience.

CLUSTER AND STANDARDS

The States’ Career Clusters Initiative (SCCI) and the National Agriculture, Food, and
Natural Resources (AFNR) Career Cluster Content Standards are having an impact on
10
 the organization and structure of programs and instruction in agricultural education.
These are national efforts that states turn to for guidance in the delivery of agricultural
education. Local programs of agricultural education are being influenced by these efforts.

CAREER CLUSTERS
The States’ Career Clusters Initiative was launched over a decade ago (2002). It is an
effort established under the National Career Technical Education Foundation (NCTEF).
The goal is to provide career clusters as a tool for seamless transition from education to
careers. The SCCI has materials available to aid in the implementation of the career clus-
ters as the structure of curriculum planning and delivery. (For more details, go to
www.careerclusters.org/.)
All occupations have been divided into 16 career clusters. One of the career clusters is
AFNR. Within the clusters, further divisions are made into pathways. Pathways reflect similar
knowledge and skill within a career cluster. AFNR has eight pathways. The pathways are
briefly summarized in the accompanying table. Chapter 1 of the textbook has some detail
appropriate for student use. (Note: All materials of the SCCI are protected by copyright. Infor-
mation presented here is a summary and paraphrased to assure appropriate use.)

A Summary of AFNR Career Pathways

Animal Systems—This pathway deals with the production and care of animals and their products,
such as those used for food, clothing, and companionship. Examples of occupations include poul-
try scientist, fish nutritionist, beef cattle producer, dairy farmer, veterinarian, small animal breeder,
and sheep rancher.
Plant Systems—This pathway addresses the production and care of plants and their products,
including those used for food, clothing, shelter, and beautification. Examples of occupations
include wheat producer, tree surgeon, forester, agronomist, greenhouse grower, floral designer,
cotton farmer, and grain inspector.
Power, Structural, and Technical Systems—This pathway deals with the use of machinery,
power, fuels, and other inputs for production in AFNR, including agricultural mechanics areas, such
as wood construction, metals fabrication, and electricity. Examples of occupations include tractor
mechanic, farm equipment operator, poultry house builder, agricultural engineer, remote-sensing
specialist, and agricultural welder.
Biotechnology Systems—This pathway was added by the agricultural education profession. It
was not provided as an AFNR pathway by the SCCI. The pathway deals with the use of organisms
and their processes to achieve products and gain important benefits; genetics, molecular biology,
and various technologies are used in the cluster. Examples of occupations include soybean geneti-
cist, agricultural molecular biologist, plant biotechnology technician, animal disease researcher,
and corn breeder.
Agribusiness Systems—This pathway addresses the application of business principles and
practices in AFNR; emphasis may be on nonfarm applications. Examples of occupations include
agricultural economist, chemical sales representative, agricultural accountant, commodity broker,
and farm loan officer.
Food Products and Processing Systems—This pathways focuses on the application of science
and technology to develop, prepare, preserve, and otherwise improve human food materials and
processes. Examples of occupations include milk sampler, meat grader, produce buyer, cannery
manager, quality control specialist, food safety biologist, and frozen-food plant manager.
Natural Resources Systems—This pathway deals with the use and protection of natural
resources to assure sustainability in meeting future human needs. Examples of occupations
include wildlife specialist, soil conservationist, ecologist, water quality technician, range manager,
mine specialist, and fishing guide.

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 Environmental Service Systems—This pathway deals with the use of technologies in assuring a
quality environment, including providing for human needs and managing wastes. Examples of
occupations include wastewater technician, solid-waste technician, landfill manager, recycler, haz-
ardous materials specialist, toxicologist, and air quality control specialist.

STANDARDS
The agricultural education profession set about to develop curriculum content standards
through the National Council for Agricultural Education in the early 2000s. Collaboration of
all professional components in agricultural education and the National FFA Organization
helped move standards development through a highly rigorous process of industry, educa-
tor, and scientist involvement and validation. The final version of the AFNR Content Stan-
dards was released in early 2009 by The Council. The standards development work was
carried out by the Center for Agricultural and Environmental Research and Training
(CAERT), Inc., under contract with the National Council for Agricultural Education.
The standards are organized by career pathway and in three levels of educational attain-
ment. The levels of educational attainment are: Level I—comparable to introductory high
school; Level II—comparable to upper high school; and Level III—comparable to advanced
high school, postsecondary, or college knowledge and skill. Further, the AFNR validated stan-
dards were aligned with national academic standards in four areas: science, mathematics,
social studies, and English language arts. This alignment increases the utility of the standards
in local schools seeking integration of academic content into agricultural education classes.
The contents of AgriScience, Sixth Edition, will promote achievement of many of the
Level I standards. For example, one of the standards in the Animal Systems pathway is:
“AS.02.01.02.a. Identify major animal species by common and scientific names.” This
standard is met by AgriScience, Sixth Edition, in Chapter 6. Since these standards are
copyright protected, you should gather the complete standards for your individual profes-
sional use at the following Web site: www.teamaged.org/councilindex.cfm. The stan-
dards in the eight career pathways have been carefully written, authenticated, and vali-
dated for use in agricultural education.
In recent years, the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) have begun to have a sub-
stantial impact on the delivery of academic education in a number of states. The National
Association of State Directors of Career Technical Education and the Association for Career
and Technical Education have attempted to address the CCSS by setting forth a document
promoting better understanding of the role of career and technical education with the CCSS.
As a part of Career and Technical Education, agricultural education has a substantial role in
promoting academic achievement. More information is available in Common Core State
Standards & Career and Technical Education: Bridging the Divide between College and
Career Readiness, (2012). Individuals desiring more information can access this publication
online at: http://www.achieve.org/files/CCSS-CTE-BridgingtheDivide.pdf.
An initiative in agricultural education that some schools and teachers are using is
known as CASE: Curriculum for Agricultural Science Education. With CASE, individuals
are setting a relatively consistent curriculum nationwide. Participation in CASE requires
considerable financial investment by schools. Teachers must attend inservice education
to qualify as a CASE teacher. Science and mathematics are areas of emphasis. For more
information, go to: www.case4/learning.org/.

INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
Instructional planning philosophies and approaches in agricultural education vary in
the United States. The direction offered by states varies. Some states have specific cur-
riculum guides and standards that are to be followed in all local schools. Other states
12
 allow local schools and teachers considerable flexibility in program planning. Regardless,
teachers have increasing accountability in the educational process.
As Talbert, Vaughn, Croom, and Lee state in their book entitled Foundations of Agricul-
tural Education (2014; Pearson Education, Inc.), “Increasing pressure is felt from parents,
the private sector, and government agencies for schools, programs, and teachers to be
accountable for student learning.” They explain that “accountability means that the school,
program, or teacher is held answerable or responsible for student learning and achieve-
ment” (page 142). They further present several curriculum models that may be useful in
planning a local program of agricultural education. Course content, sequence, and expec-
tations are felt to be important in student achievement. Using local advisory groups and fol-
lowing state guidelines can be very useful in having accountability in agricultural education.
Talbert, et al., continue in their book with instructional resource needs, such as labora-
tories, materials, and instructional resources. They indicate, “Achieving goals in educa-
tion requires resources just as much as making achievements in other areas of our lives
and society” (page 181). Schools vary in the instructional resources provided. How does
the lack of adequate instructional resources play into accountability? How can a teacher
be held accountable when the needed resources are not available?
Many schools have found that providing modern student-focused materials and allow-
ing teachers to provide on-task instruction promotes student mastery as assessed on
standardized tests. Fortunately, agricultural educators often have laboratory facilities to
give meaning to the content through hands-on participation.

INSTRUCTIONAL INTERACTIONS
Highly important instructional interactions occur in an agricultural education classroom
and laboratory. These interactions are built upon the planning that has gone into develop-
ing the program and delivering the instruction. They reflect the standards for agricultural
education as developed at the state and local levels as well as national input into occupa-
tional competencies and guidelines for instruction. Funding to local schools for agricul-
tural education may be associated with the classes offered, curriculum outline, and
achievement of students on standardized tests in agricultural education.
The instructional interactions reflect a contract between the teacher and the learners.
Each learner’s participation and perceptions vary depending on past experiences and values
toward education. The strength of the contract depends on the commitment of each to the
learning interactions. Teachers are there to teach; learners are there to learn. Both must
exert effort for a transaction (learning) to occur. A teacher has the responsibility of promoting
an efficient interaction even with a student who may not always be committed to the process.
A short summary of proven teaching strategies is presented here. For more details,
teachers should refer to Foundations of Agricultural Education, Second Edition, cited earlier.

TEACHING AND LEARNING

Two major interactions occur in agriscience instruction: teaching and learning. Teach-
ing is directing the learning process of others. A wide variety of strategies and resources
are available. Teachers must select those that have the greatest return in terms of stu-
dent achievement.
Learning is acquiring information, skills, or attitudes so that future responses are dif-
ferent from those of the past. “Learnings” vary widely. They may involve, among other
things, the ability to read and comprehend information, to carry out a demonstration, or to
perform a skill related to a process.
13
 The ultimate goal of all teaching is to facilitate learning. The learning process must be
so managed that the student efficiently and maximally acquires the desired learnings.
The focus must be on the student.
Teachers who are not familiar with current learning theories may wish to familiarize them-
selves with those summarized in the book Foundations of Agricultural Education, by Talbert,
et al. Behaviorism is still prominent but is being enhanced with the cognitive and brain-based
theories. Constructivism is a learning theory that focuses on how students process new infor-
mation and skills. Each learner has a guide, abstract though it may be, that organizes experi-
ences and concepts in the learning process. The newer theories well accommodate the
“learning by doing” philosophy that is so important in agricultural education.

STUDENT-FOCUSED TEACHING
Student-focused teaching is instruction that actively involves students in the teach-
ing-learning interaction. It is a directive process but allows flexibility for student and situa-
tion differences. Students may need to be taught how to benefit from student-focused
teaching. Contrast student-focused teaching with teacher-focused teaching, in which only
the teacher has learning materials and is the sole source of information.
The teaching strategy for student-focused teaching in agriscience is RLRWP-E. The
model is supported by planning and resources. Planning includes both curriculum and
instructional areas. Resources include those used by both students and the teacher.
RLRWP-E is a process of student involvement that uses continual student assessment
and feedback. The process is carried out with teacher involvement and learner direction.
Both teachers and students are active.
Here is the meaning of RLRWP-E:

R—Reading
L—Listening
R—Responding
W—Writing
P—Practicing
E—Evaluation

Student-Focused Teaching Model Using RLRWP-E

Evaluation
Reading

Listening
Practicing

Responding
Writing

Teaching and Learning Resources

Curriculum and Instructional Planning

14
 All stages of RLRWP-E engage students in meaningful activity directed toward master-
ing agriscience content objectives. Repetition using varied student roles and sensing
receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) enhances learning. The stages do not necessarily fall in a spe-
cific sequence, though some sequence is inherent in RLRWP-E. Students can read, listen,
respond, write, and practice at various times throughout a lesson. Teachers can enrich the
process with locally relevant examples, applications, and instructional resources.

Reading
Students learn by reading. Students also increase their ability to read and expand their
vocabulary by reading. Reading should be carefully directed by the teacher on content that
promotes achievement of the instructional objectives. Reading involves visual acuity. The
sense of vision detects codes, known as letters, that are used to form words. The reader
derives meaning from the words and supporting illustrations. Student-friendly textbooks are
essential. That is why AgriScience, Sixth Edition, was so carefully designed. It has appro-
priate terms, is well illustrated, and provides for the needs of the teaching-learning interac-
tion. The textbook is written at the appropriate reading level. Reading may be assigned as
homework, be included in supervised study, or be done aloud in class.
When combined with listening, responding, writing, and practicing, directed reading
helps produce strong learning results.

Listening
Listening uses the sense of hearing. Students hear words and subjects discussed.
Some students may lack the ability to listen. If so, the ability to listen may require some
skill development by speaking and having students respond orally and by rote with infor-
mation that was spoken.
Listening helps students internalize information and become articulate in the content
they have read. The teacher may use realia (real things) in presentations to help students
make connections between what they hear and technical content. Realia include models,
specimens, demonstrations, experiments, supervised experience, audiovisual media,
and other enriching resources. The use computer-based and online learning approaches
is enhancing sensory involvement in agricultural education. Such learning opportunities
should be carefully chosen and reviewed by the teacher within local school policies.

Responding
Responding requires an active role by students. They are expected to speak or other-
wise communicate the information involved in the teaching-learning interaction.
Responding may involve students answering questions, providing oral reports, and dis-
cussing content topics. Other approaches with student response include having students
prepare computer-based presentations, develop posters, or build displays.
Responding can follow reading. As some students respond, others are listening and hear
content information being spoken. Responding may also raise the need for additional read-
ing to prepare a report or to carry out an activity or practice. How the teacher directs the pro-
cess involves continual assessment of student engagement, mastery, and participation.

Writing
Writing further reinforces terms, meanings, processes, diagrams, and other content-ori-
ented information. It also promotes reading, spelling, and communication skills. Writing
involves having students record key concepts from their reading, listening, and responding.

15
 The writing stage is recording information in notebooks. The information is often that
which was summarized on the writing surface by the teacher. This may be partially accom-
plished by having students answer questions and define terms from the textbook or do the
activities in a lab or activity manual. Students may prepare written reports on field trips,
resource-person presentations, or other observations or feelings about subjects related to
the class. In some cases, laptop computers may substitute for paper notebooks.

Practicing
Practice is a major way of reinforcing student mastery and providing meaning to
abstract concepts. Examples of practice are performing experiments, conducting demon-
strations, doing skill-oriented activities, and manipulating various devices.
Practice is often carried out in the school laboratory but may be done elsewhere in
other ways. Supervised experience is an excellent opportunity for practice in a real-world
setting. FFA activities also promote practice in career development events, proficiency
awards, and leadership development events.
Practice activities should be selected to support the instructional objectives. Choosing
activities that are not related to the objectives is contrary to the notion of systematic
instruction.
Many resources are available to help with practice. One example is the student activity
manual. Often referred to as a lab manual, this item integrates review and enhancement
of basic information with hands-on learning. Many of today’s textbooks have activity man-
uals that are directly correlated with the content of the textbooks.

Evaluation
Evaluation is a continuing process. Teacher observation of the extent to which stu-
dents focus on achieving the objectives is ongoing. Student participation and response in
RLRWP-E is the basis of evaluation. The “Evaluating” section at the end of each chapter
is useful but is only the beginning of continual student assessment, feedback, re-teach-
ing, and other teacher functions to assure learning. Teacher-made tests, as well as test
banks, activity manual results, and actual performance, are important in evaluation.

•••

The next section of the Teacher’s Manual is organized by chapters parallel to those in
the student edition of AgriScience.

•••

Note: It is essential that each student have a copy of AgriScience, Sixth Edition, issued
to him or her. At the time of issuance, it will likely be a good idea to go over the book briefly
with the students while emphasizing content and organization. The students need to appreci-
ate that AgriScience is an integral learning resource for their use. Throughout the class,
strive to assist students in understanding how to use a textbook as a quality learning tool.
The RLRWP-E model will certainly promote the goal of student mastery.

16
 PART ONE:
THE WORLD OF AGRISCIENCE

1
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN
AGRICULTURE

CHAPTER SUMMARY from off the farm have increased productivity. Market-
ing and processing provide the products in convenient
Agriscience education is the study of science princi- and wholesome forms. Together, these comprise the
ples in producing food, fiber, and wood products. In agricultural industry.
agriscience, the application of science is often viewed In addition to meeting food, fiber, and shelter needs,
interchangeably with technology. Technology is the appli- the agricultural industry deals with the areas of orna-
cation of science through inventions and other means. mental horticulture, renewable natural resources, and
Only appropriate technology should be used; it is the outdoor recreation. Pets and exotic plants and animals
technology that best meets the needs of people in a are also a part of the agricultural industry. The use of
practical way. animals in competitive events, such as rodeos and
Instruction in agriscience is organized around the racing, has expanded.
Agriculture, Food, and Natural Resources (AFNR) Many career opportunities are found at all levels in
Career Cluster and the eight pathways. The pathways the agricultural industry. The education and experience
are animal systems; plant systems; power, structural, of the people who work in these careers are important.
and technical systems; biotechnology systems; agri- Nearly 20 million people are employed in the broad agri-
business systems; food products and processing sys- cultural industry in the United States. With only 2 million
tems; natural resource systems; and environmental of these people working in production agriculture, the
service systems. greatest number of opportunities are in the supplies and
AFNR promotes activities that meet human needs. services, marketing, and processing areas.
Basic human needs are for food, fiber, and shelter.
Throughout history, these needs have been met in dif-
ferent ways. Early humans hunted for plants and ani- INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
mals. Gradually, the plants and animals were domesti-
cated to make it easier for humans to obtain needed The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
food, fiber, and shelter. Many changes have occurred learners understand the broad nature of the modern
over the centuries in how people meet their needs. agricultural industry and the interdependence of the
Modern agriculture provides for these needs by nations of the world.
incorporating science and technology to produce qual- Upon completion of Chapter 1, the student will be
ity products that are convenient to use. The notion that able to:
agriculture is hard-labor farming has changed; agricul-
ture is now high technology that involves the most 1. Define and relate the meaning of science and
sophisticated scientific practices. technology in agriculture.
Agriculture is the science of growing crops and rais- 2. Explain the meaning and importance of AFNR.
ing animals. Many inventions, supplies, and services 3. Identify career pathways in AFNR.

17
 4. Explain the importance of AFNR in human agriscience notebook in which salient information is
needs. recorded. The major headings (corresponding to
5. Discuss the economic impact of agriculture in the objectives) are at the top of a page in bold type and
United States. with a line above and below. These headings may be
“readable amounts” for students.
Careful class discussion and review may be appro-
INTEREST APPROACH priate for the career cluster and pathway information. In
some schools, students may be responsible for devel-
Many approaches are available to teachers to stim- oping career cluster plans of study. These plans are
ulate interest and to motivate students as Chapter 1 is intended to connect student studies in school with
taught. Much of this rests with the creativity of the future career entry and advancement. As content on
teacher. Teachers usually have techniques that are the career pathways is being discussed, the concepts
suited to their particular situations and student needs. of plans of study may be introduced.
One approach is given here. The questions at the end of the chapter can be used
After the students have read the introductory part of to structure the discussion or to review the content.
the chapter, ask them to name their favorite foods. List Most teachers find it best to use classroom presenta-
these on the writing surface. Ask the students to com- tion to cover the content and the questions to review or
pare their preferences with those of people in other evaluate learning.
areas of the world. Move from the interest approach to Techniques of teaching should include relating the
the food needs of people, as presented in the first part information in the chapter to agriculture in the local
of the chapter. Teachers may also wish to review the area. A local historian could be asked to serve as a
objectives at this time. This may involve referring stu- resource person to describe how agriculture has
dents to the list in the book, having the students read changed. Another technique would be to have a
the objectives aloud, reading the objectives to the stu- resource person from another country describe food,
dents, or using prepared electronic presentation mate- fiber, and shelter uses and preferences in that particu-
rials. Regardless, students need to know that the major lar region. In some cases, exchange students may be
headings in the chapter correspond to the objectives at enrolled in the class and can assist with international
the beginning of the chapter. understanding.
A part of the chapter focuses on helping students
identify possible careers of interest. Students could
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES interview people who work in the agricultural industry or
AND TEACHING PLANS invite resource people to the class. Students could pre-
pare written or oral reports. In some cases, students
After the interest approach, the teacher may use a could complete one or more of the “Exploring” activities
variety of techniques. Activities in the Activity Manual at the end of the chapter. This discussion can be com-
will help reinforce major terms and concepts as well as bined with discussion of the economic impact of agri-
provide hands-on learning opportunities. Students may culture in the United States. Additionally, this can be
complete the activities in the Activity Manual after the related to states and local area communities.
chapter content has been covered. The Activity Manual The Career Profile, AgriScience Connection, Tech-
may be assigned as homework or may be completed nology Connection, Internet Topics, and Academic
during supervised study or laboratory time during the Connection can be used as best fits the instructional
regular class period. sequence, available time, and student needs and inter-
One strategy is to have the students read the ests. These can be used to enrich, motivate, or other-
chapter outside of class or to have them read sec- wise create interest.
tions in class during supervised study. This should be The introductory part of the Activity Manual (prior to
done deliberately and in a sequence that best meets Chapter 1) could be covered here to introduce students
instructional needs. Reading is followed by a general to laboratory safety and procedures. This will enhance
presentation and discussion of the chapter content the emphasis on science in the agriculture program.
so the RLRWP-E model is implemented. Major con-
cepts or points are listed on the writing surface. Stu-
dents are asked to provide the information to cover REVIEW AND EVALUATION
the concept. The key words are written underneath
the major concepts on the writing surface. Each stu- After covering the chapter objectives, review
dent should participate orally and should keep an achievement and assess each student’s mastery of the

18
content. This can be accomplished in several ways. 1. What is agriscience? What is the distinction
Some teachers prefer having students explain each of between applied and basic agriscience?
the objectives and terms at the beginning of the chap-
Agriscience is the use of science principles in
ter. Other approaches include using sections in the
producing food, fiber, and wood products (often
Activity Manual and written or oral testing. Teachers
used for shelter). Applied agriscience is the use
can use tests they have developed or select questions
of knowledge in the production of plants and ani-
from the computer test file. In addition, they can assess
mals. Basic agriscience deals with how a pro-
achievement through the responses of students in
cess works though the information may appear
supervised practice activities, science activities, and
to have little practical value.
other activities. Computer test banks and online testing
may be used in some schools.
2. What is technology?
The “Evaluating” section at the end of the chapter
can be used as appropriate for completion during Technology is the practical application of sci-
supervised study or as homework. Follow-up class dis- ence through inventions or research and devel-
cussions are ideal with this activity to reinforce student opment.
learning and mastery.
3. What is AFNR? Why is it an important career
cluster?
SAFETY AFNR is the abbreviation for Agriculture, Food,
and Natural Resources. It is an important career
The objectives of this chapter do not include learn-
cluster because it deals with meeting the funda-
ing outcomes that would pose safety hazards. Safety
mental needs of human life.
should always be an integral part of instruction even if
hazards unique to a particular chapter or lesson are not 4. What is a career pathway?
present.
The Activity Manual has an introductory section on A career pathway is a group of careers based
safety in the laboratory. Covering this part of the Activ- on similarities of duties, subjects, and skills.
ity Manual can help students understand the impor-
tance of safety and the safety codes that are used. 5. What are the career pathways in AFNR?
Name one occupation in each pathway.
The career pathways in AFNR are Animal Sys-
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES tems; Plant Systems; Power, Structural, and
Technical Systems; Biotechnology Systems;
The additional resources that would be most appro- Agribusiness Systems; Food Products and Pro-
priate here are reports of agricultural information for the cessing Systems; Natural Resource Systems;
local area and state. Statistical information on produc- and Environmental Service Systems. (The occu-
tion, the number of farms and agribusinesses, and the pations named in each pathway may vary. Refer
kinds of employment opportunities would be useful. to Table 1–1 in the textbook, pages 8–9, for a
The division of agriculture at any college or univer- greater listing of occupations.)
sity will likely have excellent materials for the area it
serves. Some materials may be available online 6. What is a human need? How do human
through the Web site maintained by the land-grant col- needs relate to AFNR?
lege or university in your state.
A human need is an essential element or com-
ponent that supports human life. AFNR produces
ANSWERS food, clothing, and wood materials that help sat-
isfy human needs.

END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS 7. What are the three main kinds of human

needs met through AFNR?
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to The needs of people are food, fiber, and wood
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may products like shelter. These are important for
require more complete information, the use of complete nutrition and health and to protect the human
sentences, or other details in the answers. body from dangers in the environment.

19
 8. What are the two major sources of food? kinds of products are lumber, plywood, veneer,
Briefly explain each source. composition board, and paper. These help meet
The two main sources of food are plants and human needs for shelter and housing comforts.
animals. Both plants and animals are living 11. What is the distinction between feed grains
organisms that can be cultured for their products. and food grains?
Plant sources are the parts of plants, such as
leaves, fruit, and roots. Animal sources are the A feed grain is a grain crop grown to provide
animal products that are used to meet human feed for animals. A food grain is a grain crop
needs. grown to be used as a source of human food.

9. What is fiber? What are the sources of fiber? 12. What is the Census of Agriculture? How often
is it done? How is the information collected?
Materials used to make clothing and fabric
products for the home are called fiber. (In addi- The Census of Agriculture is an initiative of the
tion, some forestry products are known as fiber— Federal government to collect and report detailed
for example, paper.) The major source of fiber is agricultural information. It is done every five
cotton, which is a plant; others are linen from flax years (years ending with a 2 and a 7). Informa-
and twine or rope from hemp. Three common tion is collected from farm and ranch producers
animal fibers and examples of the animals that by mailing a survey form to them.
produce them are wool, sheep; fur, rabbit; and
silk, silkworm. EVALUATING

10. What is forestry? How does it relate to meet- 1=b, 2=g, 3=a, 4=i, 5=c, 6=h, 7=j, 8=d, 9=f, and 10=e
ing human needs?
Forestry entails all of the processes in growing
trees and manufacturing them into products. Five

2
THE AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY
CHAPTER SUMMARY skills and knowledge of people who are highly trained
to help with production.
The agricultural industry is a complex system that
provides for basic human needs with food, clothing, Production agriculture is the farming part of the agri-
and wood products (shelter). The industry is large and cultural industry. It involves crops, livestock, and live-
diverse. Agriculture is the science of growing crops and stock products. The people who do the work are known
raising livestock and other animals used for food, fiber, as farmers or agricultural producers. Today’s farms are
and other purposes. The agricultural industry is all of specialized. Most farms produce only one or two crops
the processes involved in getting the products of agri- or products. For example, a dairy farm will likely pro-
culture produced and made available to the consumer. duce only milk to sell. A corn farm may grow corn and
It includes three major areas: supplies and services, nothing else. The corn is sold to a mill or to a farmer
production, and marketing and processing. who has livestock to feed. These are commercial farms
Today, plant and animal production requires many because they are producing for a specific market.
things from off the farm. These inputs are known as Marketing and processing are important in provid-
supplies and services. Agricultural supplies are the ing the kinds of products people want. People who
inputs (materials, equipment, etc.) used to grow crops buy and use products are known as consumers. Not
and to raise livestock. Agricultural services are the many people buy directly from producers. Consumers

20
often buy specially prepared products, such as for ease
of cooking.
INTEREST APPROACH
A major event in the history of agriculture was the Use an approach to gain the interest of students and
domestication of some plants and animals. This was a to motivate them to achieve the objectives that are rele-
long, gradual process. The emergence of commercial vant to the local situation and student needs. One
agriculture and the use of scientific means were big approach is suggested here. Various modifications can
steps forward. Today, the agricultural industry is a be made to suit student needs and interests.
highly technical and highly sophisticated endeavor. Have students read the introductory part of the
Biosecurity is the use of approaches to manage risk chapter. Using the questioning process, ask about
superstitions. Determine if the students know of local
and to assure the production of disease-free animals
superstitions related to agriculture, such as planting
and other products. The goal is to prevent the inten-
crops by the signs of the moon and treating cattle for
tional damage of a product or damage caused by bio-
hollow-tail disease. In addition, give other examples of
logical agents and pathogens, which could result in the superstitions, such as bad luck caused by breaking a
products being unsafe for consumption. mirror or allowing a black cat to cross in front of a per-
Agricultural practices vary in areas around Earth. son. Ask students to explain how science helps over-
Some nations have agricultural systems that are tech- come superstitions. Science is used to find answers to
nologically very advanced; others continue to be primi- questions. (Teachers may wish to review the objectives
tive. at this time.)
A number of organizations are important in the agri- Another strategy is to have a member of a local
cultural industry. These organizations serve useful commodity group serve as a resource person and dis-
roles for their members. Collectively, the members of cuss the mission and goals of the organization. In
these organizations have more power than individual some cases, students’ families may be members.
members would have alone. Some organizations are
for individual members; others are for businesses or
companies. Most have some sort of dues structure to
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
finance their operation. Organizations may focus on AND TEACHING PLANS
membership development, improvement of a commod-
Following the interest approach, the teacher can
ity, political action to gain favorable laws, and promo- use several strategies to cover the content of the chap-
tion of a commodity. In agriscience, all organizations ter. The Activity Manual has useful activities to rein-
are grouped into one of two categories: professional or force terms and concepts, to help students develop
commodity. thinking skills, and to provide hands-on experiences.
The teaching strategy and plan could consist of hav-
ing the students read the chapter or sections of it prior
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES to class or in supervised study. The chapter content
should be presented and discussed. Major concepts
The objectives of this chapter are intended to help should be listed on a writing surface or shown with
learners understand the broad nature of science and electronic presentation software. Students should
technology in agriculture. Areas of science are record the information in their agriscience notebooks.
reviewed as related to agriscience. (Remember, RLRWP-E is a strategy of repetition
Upon completion of Chapter 2, the student will be involving different student senses in the learning
able to: process.)
The terms “agriculture” and “agricultural industry”
1. List and describe three major areas of the agri- should be carefully defined. Students should be called
cultural industry. on to provide feedback orally on the concepts involved.
The three major areas of the agricultural industry
2. Discuss major events in the history of agriculture. should be carefully covered: supplies and services, pro-
3. Compare international agricultural practices. duction, and marketing and processing. Examples of
farms and businesses involved in these areas in the
4. Explain the meaning and importance of bio-
local community can be identified and discussed. Refer
security.
students to Tables 2–1 and 2–2. Ask them to relate the
5. Explain the role of professional and commodity tables to agriculture in the local community. Also, cover
organizations. terms such as agronomy, horticulture (including

21
landscaping, olericulture, floriculture, and pomology), teachers may also wish to include reference materials
forestry, animal science, poultry science, and aqua- on international trade and biosecurity.
culture.
Go over the highlights of agricultural history. Stu-
dents may take a field trip to a local agricultural history ANSWERS
museum. In some cases, a knowledgeable resource on
local agricultural history may be used. END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Biosecurity has emerged in recent years as a con-
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
cern. Have students list examples of local practices in
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
agriculture related to biosecurity.
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
Go over the roles of professional and commodity require more detailed information, the use of complete
organizations in agriculture. Distinguish between the sentences, or other details in the answers.
two kinds of organizations. Students can also discuss
the goals of organizations with members of local orga-
1. What is the meaning of agricultural industry?
nizations or commodity groups.
The agricultural industry is all of the processes
involved in getting the products of agriculture
REVIEW AND EVALUATION produced and made available to the consumer in
the desired forms.
After the chapter has been taught, review the con-
2. What are agricultural supplies and services?
tent and evaluate student achievement. Re-teaching in
Why are they important?
some areas may be needed. Involve students in
reviewing by having them answer the questions at the Agricultural supplies are the inputs used to
end of the chapter. This will be helpful in reviewing and grow crops and to raise livestock. Agricultural
evaluating. services are the skills and knowledge of people
Students should complete the items in the “Evaluat- who are highly trained to help with production.
ing” section for positive reinforcement and for assess- These are important because they allow the
ment. A written test can be used after the chapter has modern agricultural industry to be productive.
been covered. Activities in the Activity Manual may also Producers do not have to be self-sufficient with
help in review and evaluation. These same activities the inputs used.
are beneficial in re-teaching and reinforcing important
concepts. 3. What is production agriculture?
How students perform in their supervised practice, Production agriculture is the farming part of the
as related to chapter objectives, is an excellent way to agricultural industry. It is growing crops and rais-
evaluate their learning. ing animals and their products.

4. What are the major crops and animal species

produced in the United States?
SAFETY
Major crops include rice, cotton, wheat, corn,
The activities involved in achieving the objectives of and others as listed in Table 2–1. Major animals
this chapter do not present safety concerns. and animal products are hogs, sheep, goats, cat-
One topic in the chapter particularly lends itself to a tle (beef and dairy), and horses. Others listed in
discussion of safety issues: food safety. Students may Table 2–2 also would be good answers for this
be asked to give examples of food that was unsafe or question.
of people who got sick from eating bad food.
5. What is horticulture? What are four areas of
horticulture?

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Horticulture is the science of growing vegeta-

ble, ornamental, fruit, and similar plants to meet
Additional resources for the chapter include exam- human needs and to create a more pleasing
ples of the following: reports of research from agricul- environment. Four areas of horticulture are:
tural experiment stations, agricultural magazines, and ornamental horticulture, floriculture, landscaping,
reference materials on various areas of science. Some and olericulture. A fifth area is pomology. Any

22
 four of the five areas would be appropriate for the huge labor savings in separating seed and lint.
answer. Other examples are in Table 2–3 of the textbook.
Students may choose to name any of them and
6. What is forestry? What are three products
provide who made the invention and why it was
from forestry?
important.
Forestry is the science of growing and using
trees. The trees are used for lumber, paper, fur- 11. How do agricultural practices vary among
niture, and other materials. Student answers can nations?
reflect any of the products listed on page 16 in
the textbook. Agricultural practices vary among nations
based on mechanization, improved crops, com-
7. What is the importance of marketing and pro-
merce, education of people, and soil and climate.
cessing?
Some variation may be based on the social cus-
Marketing and processing serve useful connec- toms and preferences.
tions between the producer and the consumer.
Marketing moves products from farms to process- 12. What is biosecurity? How is food security a
ing facilities, distribution centers, and retail stores. part of biosecurity?
Processing is the act of changing the forms of
products to better meet consumer demand and to Biosecurity is the use of approaches to man-
protect the products from spoilage. age risk and to ensure the production of good
products. With biosecurity, the focus is on keep-
8. What is food safety?
ing consumable products safe and preventing
Food safety is taking steps to ensure that food contamination with diseases or other hazards.
is wholesome and safe to eat. It is protected from
contamination. The food may be canned, frozen,
13. What are two categories of organizations
pasteurized, or otherwise treated to prevent or
in the agricultural industry? Distinguish
slow spoilage.
between the two.
9. What is domestication? Why was it important
The two categories of organizations in the agri-
in agriculture?
cultural industry are professional and commodity.
Domestication is taming or controlling wild A professional organization is developed around
plant and animal species and producing them for the career pursuits of its members. A commodity
specific purposes. Domestication made it easier organization is developed around the production,
to have a dependable food supply.
marketing, or processing of a commodity or prod-
10. What is one example of an agricultural inven- uct.
tion? Who made the invention, and why was
it important? EVALUATING
One example of an agricultural invention is the
cotton gin made by Eli Whitney, which resulted in 1=d, 2=f, 3=h, 4=a, 5=e, 6=b, 7=g, 8=c, 9=j, and 10=i

23
 3
SUCCESS AND SAFETY IN CAREERS
CHAPTER SUMMARY Keep clothing clean, in good repair, and properly
pressed. Shoes should be clean, and dress
People want to be successful with their work. No shoes should be polished.
one wants to fail. Employers have expectations of the
• Personal hygiene—Keep clean and free of odor.
people they hire. Employer expectations are focused
Daily baths and use of deodorant are important.
on those behaviors employers seek and reward in their
Oral hygiene (brushing your teeth) helps in
employees. Some expectations require considerable
appearance, reduces bad breath, and prevents
skill. Others relate to being at work on time and focus-
tooth decay.
ing on the work to be done.
A few examples of personal traits are: • Grooming—Keep hair an appropriate length.
Avoid extreme colors and styles. Fads are not
• Wholesome life style—People need to have an popular with employers or customers!
approach to life that makes them good workers. • Jewelry—Keep jewelry simple and suitable.
What a person does after work can affect his or Body piercings and tattoos are quite distracting
her ability at work. and are inappropriate in most job settings. Tat-
toos are difficult and costly to remove and may be
• Willingness to learn new things—Work
on your skin for the rest of your life.
demands change. People must learn new job
skills. Always be willing to learn. Be anxious to do • Fitness—Get regular exercise and eat properly.
a better job for your employer. Avoid substances that damage the body. Get
plenty of sleep and rest. Regular medical and
• Loyalty—Employers like employees who are
dental checkups are important to assure fitness
loyal. They want employees to say good things
and good health.
about work and the employers.
• Demeanor—Be happy, and let it show. Be
• Acceptance of others—All people can make
friendly. Avoid holding grudges and talking nega-
contributions. A person should never be biased
tively about someone.
toward others. Skin color, gender, language, and
other differences should never be the basis for
Being safe at work is important to the worker, the
judgment.
employer, and other workers. Safety is the condition of
• Respect for others—All people deserve respect. being free of harm and danger. Always follow appropri-
Differences of opinion must be settled in con- ate safety rules. Never take unnecessary risks.
structive ways. Violence is never acceptable at Areas in labs and shops are often color coded for
home or away from home. Physically abusing safety reasons. Yellow designates caution. Danger
anyone—friend, coworker, spouse, child, parent, areas and stop buttons are designated with red.
or sibling—is unacceptable. A fire extinguisher is a device used to control fires.
• Sense of humor—A sense of humor is the ability Some are pressure tank-type devices while others are
of a person to see the amusing side of situations. class grenades that can be thrown. Other means of fire
Often it helps to be able to laugh at mistakes and prevention and control may be used. Extinguishers are
then take actions to correct them. often classified by the classes of fire that they extin-
guish. Class A extinguishers (designated with a green
Personal appearance is also important. Several triangle) are for ordinary fires such as paper, wood, and
guidelines for personal appearance are: plastics. Class B extinguishers are used with flamma-
ble or combustible liquids such as gasoline, oil, and
• Clothing—Select appropriate clothing; do not grease. A red square is used on such extinguishers.
overdress or underdress. Clothing should be con- Class C extinguishers are used on fires involving elec-
servative and stylish and should fit properly. trical equipment, circuit breakers, outlets, and the like.

24
The material is such extinguishers does not conduct examples of each and keep notes on the content. Next,
electrical current. A blue circle is the symbol used on go over the personal traits.
Class C extinguishers. Class D extinguishers are used After students have read “Interpersonal Skills,” use
in chemical laboratories and similar places where the writing surface to develop key terms, using student
chemical are kept. The symbol is a yellow decagon. input. Relate the importance of personal appearance.
Class K extinguishers are for fires involving cooking Some role playing might be used regarding clothing,
oils, fats, and transfats found in kitchens. The symbol is grooming, jewelry, and demeanor. Of course, no one
a black hexagon. Extinguishers should be obtained should be embarrassed or feel overly self-conscious
based on the kinds of materials in the area where the during these activities. Also, cover the meaning of citi-
extinguisher may be used. Fire extinguishers with ABC zenship.
classification are often recommended for home use. Move into the section “Safety.” Define the term, and
go over safety in the lab, at work, and in daily living.
Cover the use of PPE, and allow students to try various
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES kinds of PPE so they know how to use it. Cover the
meaning of first aid. Have students observe and inven-
The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
tory a first-aid kit. Review school policies in case of an
learners understand some life basics. The focus is on
accident.
fundamental processes and methods for personal
Following the safety section, go into safety color
development. Learners are shown steps to take toward
codes, fires, and fire extinguishers. Bring examples of
a successful future.
extinguishers into class and show the color of decal
Upon completion of Chapter 3, the student will be
that is present. If practical, demonstrate how to use an
able to:
extinguisher. It may be more appropriate to show a
video on fire extinguisher use. An online example is:
1. Identify needed job skills for your success.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=IUoj)1HvC8c.
2. Explain and develop appropriate interpersonal skills.
3. Demonstrate appropriate citizenship skills.
4. Describe and follow appropriate safety practices. REVIEW AND EVALUATION
5. Name fire extinguisher classes and describe the After the objectives of the chapter have been cov-
use of each. ered, the content should be reviewed, and student
achievement should be assessed. The approaches
should be student-centered. For example, have stu-
INTEREST APPROACH dents demonstrate their accomplishment of the objec-
tives. This could be done by asking class members to
Students are often concerned about their futures.
orally explain each objective in class. Students could
Education, jobs, and other life events create stress.
also define the terms at the beginning of the chapter or
This chapter can help students better manage stress
answer the end-of-chapter review questions.
as related to job success and improving relationships.
Activities in the Activity Manual can be especially
Have students read the introductory paragraphs of
helpful in reviewing, reinforcing, and re-teaching the
the chapter. Follow this by calling on one or more class
chapter concepts. Students should demonstrate their
members to explain what the paragraphs meant. Use
understanding of the concepts in how they go about
this time for discussion of success and failure. What do
their supervised experience programs. In some cases,
the terms mean? (Success is achieving worthy goals.)
these programs may be laboratory-based and involve
After discussion, go over objectives for the chapter.
preparing entries for a science fair or demonstrations
Then move into the first section of the chapter.
for parents and students.
Written or oral tests can be used to assess student
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES achievement. This can be a teacher-made test or a
prepared test from the Instructor’s Resource Guide or
AND TEACHING PLANS from an online testing system.
A variety of strategies can help students achieve the
chapter objectives. Begin by having students study the
fundamentals of career success. Use student input to
SAFETY
develop a list of employer expectations on the writing The major safety areas here may involve the use of
surface. Carefully go over the list. Have students name the laboratory in the examination of cells and plant and

25
animal processes. The Activity Manual presents a sum- have little control over some of our personal fea-
mary of the safety procedures for these activities. tures, but we can be neatly groomed, clean,
Teachers must instruct students in laboratory safety keep fit, avoid excess jewelry and tattoos, and
practices applicable to the laboratory situation. Safety have a pleasant facial expression.
instruction and discussion can extend beyond the con-
tent of the chapter as related to organisms in our lives. 4. What are the major expectations of employers?
Some pose safety hazards; others need human inter- Major expectations of employers are the will-
vention to provide for their well-being. Keeping PPE ingness to accept responsibility, the ability to
clean and in good condition is a safety-related matter. communicate, the ability to do the job, the willing-
ness to be a team player, the practice of profes-
sionalism, the consistent use of honesty, and the
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES use of customer service skills.
Additional resources for this chapter include those in 5. What are the important citizenship traits?
the school as well as those in the community. At
school, the agriscience teacher may wish to use the Important citizenship traits include the follow-
laboratory facilities and safety equipment of the sci- ing: abide by the law, vote, support the well-
ence or biology area. In addition, the teacher(s) in this being of others, be patriotic, support charity, take
area may be asked to assist with these activities. In pride in your community, and be a productive
some cases, safety reference materials may be helpful. person at school, home, and work.
Beyond the school facilities, teachers may find valu- 6. What areas are included in personal appear-
able community resources. Locations of placement ance?
supervised experience may present opportunities for
assessment, discussion, and action. Areas included in personal appearance are
clothing, personal hygiene, grooming, jewelry, fit-
ness, and demeanor.
ANSWERS 7. Why is practicing safety important?
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS Practicing safety helps us be free of harm and
danger. It protects us as well as those around us.
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to 8. What safety hazards might be present in a
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may school lab?
require more complete information, the use of complete Safety hazards that might be present in a
sentences, or other details in the answers. school lab are chemicals, organisms, fire and
heat, equipment, and sharp instruments.
1. What important personal skills are needed for
career success? List any four. 9. What safety hazards may be found at work?
The answer may include any four personal traits Safety hazards that might be found at work are
for career success: loyalty, wholesome lifestyle, dangers posed by hand and power tools and
willingness to learn new things, acceptance of oth- equipment, engines and motors, electricity, and
ers, respect for others, and sense of humor. water.

2. What principles guide our social behavior? 10. What safety suggestions should be followed
(List any four.) in operating motor vehicles?
Several principles guide our social behavior. There are many safety features to consider
The textbook lists eight. Any four will satisfacto- with motor vehicles. The kind of vehicle and
rily answer the question. Examples are be cour- where it is operated are important, including
teous, respect property, respect rights of other homes, highways and driving, and recreation.
people, properly greet people, use appropriate Keep the vehicle in good condition. Always know
grammar, be caring, and have empathy. and follow safety rules. Obey signs and decals
on the equipment. Avoid fast starts and stops.
3. Why is personal appearance important? Note: Others are listed in the textbook that could
Personal appearance is important because it is be included in the answer. Three good sugges-
what other people see when they look at you. We tions will be sufficient.

26
11. What three conditions are necessary for com- flammable liquid such as gasoline; Class C—
bustion to occur? electrical equipment such as switch boxes and
Combustion is a chemical reaction that applicances; Class D—combustible chemicals
requires three conditions: a flammable material, such as magnesium and sodium; and Class
temperature to ignite the material, and oxygen to K—kitchen fires typically involving grease or
support combustion. cooking oil.

12. What are the five classes of fires? Identify an EVALUATING

example of a combustible material in each
class. a=d, 2=a, 3=g, 4=f, 5=e, 6=b, 7=h, 8=c, 9=j, and 10=i
The five classes of fires are: Class A—ordinary
materials such as paper or wood; Class B—

27
 PART TWO:
SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

4
SCIENCE RELATIONSHIPS

CHAPTER SUMMARY • Identify the problem.

• Get information.
Agriscience and technology are often used together.
Agriscience is the use of science in producing food, • Suggest an answer.
fiber, and shelter. Technology is the use of science in • Experiment.
practical ways to produce these commodities. Both • Form conclusions.
involve considerable science applications.
Four major areas of science are presented: In addition, the results of research should be
reported. This shares what has been learned with oth-
• Life science—This is the science of living things, ers and helps them make better choices about experi-
often referred to as biology. (Note: Additional ments.
chapters will cover the life science area in greater Computer technology has wide use in agriculture.
detail as related to living organisms, particularly Uses range from keeping records to preparing reports,
plants and animals.) exchanging information, marketing, preparing plans
• Mathematics—This is the science of numbers, and designs, and complying with regulations. In all
including statistics. uses, digital safety is very important. This is sometimes
known as online or Internet safety.
• Physical science—This is the science of the
Information is knowledge or news about something
nonliving world around us, which includes chem-
or an event. The process of using information involves
istry and physics. (Note: Later chapters in the stu-
several tasks: locating information, assessing quality of
dent edition will offer more detail and practical
the information, and using information. Increasingly,
applications on the physical sciences, particularly
online sources are being used to access research bul-
Chapters 23 and 24.)
letins, market reports, and other needed information.
• Social science—This is the science of human
society and the behavior of people.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Each of these is related to the agricultural industry.
Agriscientists use skills in these areas on almost a daily The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
basis. New areas of scientific application and investiga- learners understand major relationships that exist
tion are rapidly emerging. These include biotechnol- between agriculture and science.
ogy, genetic engineering, animal identity and traceabil- Upon completion of Chapter 4, the student will be
ity, precision farming, remote sensing, laser able to:
technology, computational science, and radiation.
Agriscientists use the scientific method to solve 1. Identify and describe areas of science in agri-
problems and to make decisions. The steps in the sci- science.
entific method are: 2. Use the scientific method in problem solving.

28
 3. Describe the meaning and importance of research Cover the section “Computer Technology in Agricul-
and development. ture” by having students read it in supervised study or
4. Identify new and emerging areas of technology. as homework. Call on individual students to explain the
meaning of computer technology. Next, call on another
5. Discuss the use of computer technology in agri- student and have the student describe applications of
culture. computer technology. Have another discuss the mean-
6. Locate, assess, and use agriscience information. ing of digital safety. Be sure to summarize content and
clarify concepts, as needed.
Next, go over the section “Agriscience Information.”
INTEREST APPROACH Call on students to explain the meaning of information,
describe how to locate information, information format,
Trying to interest and motivate students may require providers (sources) of information, assessing informa-
more creativity for this chapter. Students often do not tion, and using information. Have students experience
know and appreciate science relationships in various formats such as published bulletins, brochures,
agriscience. They may not understand or appreciate and online materials available from the local land-grant
use of the scientific method. Begin by having students university.
read the introductory paragraphs to the chapter. Call on
one or more individuals to summarize the meaning of
these paragraphs. Inquire about science classes stu- REVIEW AND EVALUATION
dents are taking. Determine if these classes help stu-
The objectives should be reviewed after the chapter
dents understand that we use science to learn about
has been covered. Ask individual students to explain
the world in which we live. Move from the interest
the content related to the objectives. Re-teach areas
approach into the chapter objectives. Prepare to use
where students appear to have not mastered the objec-
the RLRWP-E instructional procedure.
tives. The chapter summary, as well as the terms at the
beginning of the chapter, may be used in the review
process. Many teachers also use the Activity Manual
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES for review and evaluation.
AND TEACHING PLANS Evaluation will involve observation of student perfor-
mance in the class and in the Activity Manual. Teach-
The teaching strategies for the chapter may be ers may give written and/or oral tests on the objectives.
shaped by the interest approach that is used. Begin by Practical evaluation will occur when teachers observe
having students read the first major section “Relation- how students use the information in their supervised
ships with Science.” Afterward, outline major concepts experience programs and science fair projects.
on the writing surface, using student input. Refer stu-
dents to the normal distribution curve in Figure 4–8.
Have them explain the curve and how it applies to the SAFETY
characteristics of populations. Students should take
notes on the summary of the information. The objectives of this chapter present few learning
Next, have students read the section “New Technol- activities that have safety hazards. However, teachers
ogy.” Afterward, use the writing surface to list emerging should always be on the alert for safety problems and
technologies and key statements about each. Students should stress safety in their instruction. The Activity
should record information in their notes. Relate the Manual presents safety illustrations throughout all of
content to examples that may be found locally. the activities.
Move into the next section “The Scientific Method.”
Have students read this section. Indicate that this is the
general approach used by scientists in conducting
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
experiments and carrying out research efforts. Relate Teachers may need additional materials on the clas-
information about the agriscience project that could be sification and naming of organisms in the local area.
carried out under auspices of FFA. Have students Science teachers and university specialists may be
name examples of problems and state the steps they able to provide the needed information to classify the
would follow with the problems. Students may work species. Publications specific to geographic regions
individually or in pairs or small groups on problems to that describe how to classify common plants and ani-
investigate with the scientific method. mals found locally are usually available.

29
 Students would likely benefit from observing sci- 5. What is mathematics?
ence fair projects or investigating literature about sci- Mathematics is the science of numbers.
ence fairs.
6. What two systems of measurement are used?
The two systems of measurement are the cus-
ANSWERS tomary or English system and the metric or Inter-
national System (IS).
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
7. What is statistics?
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and
require more detailed information, the use of complete presentation of data.
sentences, or other details in the answers. 8. What is the scientific method? What steps
are used? Briefly explain each step.
1. What is science? Why is it important?
The scientific method is an organized way of
Science is knowledge of the world around us. asking questions and seeking answers. It is the
It is important in helping us understand the envi- problem-solving approach used by scientists with
ronment and how organisms interact with the experiments. Step 1: Identify the problem. For
environment. example, a pig is not eating. Step 2: Get informa-
tion. For instance, were the food ingredients
2. What are the four major areas of science?
changed recently? Is the temperature different?
Define each.
Step 3: Suggest an answer. The pig may not be
The four major areas of science are life sci- eating because a change in ingredients is result-
ence—the study of living things; physical sci- ing in indigestion. Step 4: Experiment. Return to
ence—the study of nonliving things; mathemat- the previous feed ingredients. Step 5: Form a
ics—the science of numbers; and social conclusion. The pig still did not eat, so something
science—the study of human society. else must be wrong. Step 6: (Optional) Some sci-
entists report the results of their findings.
3. What are the two major areas of life science?
Why are these areas important in agrisci- 9. What is a normal distribution?
ence?
The normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve
The two major areas of life science are botany that attributes the characteristics of a population
(the study of plants, which helps us understand to a normal distribution.
the needs of plants and how to more effectively
produce them) and zoology (the study of ani- 10. What are the new areas of technology?
mals, which helps us understand the needs of Briefly explain each. Give examples of how
animals and how to care for their well-being). each can be used in agriscience.
New areas of technology are biotechnology—
4. What are the areas of physical science? How the application of science and life processes to
does each relate to agriscience? gain products; genetic engineering—artificially
The major areas of physical science are earth altering the genetic makeup of an organism; ani-
science, chemistry, and physics. Earth science mal identification and traceability—the ability to
helps us understand the structure of the surface follow the identity of an animal through the mar-
of Earth, with some relationship to soil and its for- keting process; precision farming—using crop-
mation. Chemistry is the science concerned with ping practices to improve yields based on land
the makeup of matter, and many things in agri- needs and yield history data; remote sensing—
science need to be understood so better prac- gathering and recording information from a dis-
tices can be found. Physics is the study of the tance; laser technology—the use of devices that
physical nature of objectives, such as light, use lasers for guidance and other purposes;
forces, and mechanical advantage. Understand- computation science—the use of computers to
ing physics often results in improved production solve problems; and radiation—the use of energy
practices. that travels in waves.

30
11. What are some ways computers are used in (is the date current), illustrations (is the informa-
agriculture? Briefly explain each. tion clarified through illustrations), safety (are safe
In agriculture, computers are used keep practices and precautions covered), and availabil-
records, prepare reports, exchange information, ity (is the information readily available).
marketing, and other uses would be acceptable
in the answer. Answer should include some EVALUATING
explanation of each. 1=d, 2=a, 3=b, 4=h, 5=j, 6=c, 7=i, 8=g, 9=f, and 10=e
12. What is information? What should be consid-
ered in assessing information?
Information is knowledge or news. In assessing
information, consider: source (is it reputable), date

5
LIVING THINGS

CHAPTER SUMMARY Organisms pass traits from parents to offspring. The

study of how the traits are transmitted is known as
Organisms are living things that carry out life pro- genetics. Various factors in heredity are involved. With
cesses. All living things have similarities. This means sexual reproduction, a union of male and female sex
that all living things carry on certain processes. When cells occurs. The offspring have traits of both parents
these processes stop, life ends and death has but are different from the parents. With asexual repro-
occurred. Decomposition of the organism will return its duction, no such union occurs, and the offspring are
nutrients to the soil for use by another organism in its identical to the one parent. This is especially useful
life processes. when the parent has a very desirable trait.
Organisms are unique. These unique traits relate to Cell division is an important part of growing and
species as well as individuals within a species. No two reproducing. One type of cell division is mitosis. Organ-
are identical in all regards. All are made of carefully orga- isms become larger and replace damaged cells by
nized substances. These substances provide chemical dividing. Cell division to produce sex cells is known as
processes as well as structure for an organism. meiosis. Various approaches, such as controlled
Organisms carry out certain life processes that are breeding and genetic manipulation, are used to try to
essential for the living condition. Eight processes are improve organisms.
presented. The processes are getting and using food,
movement (locomotion), circulation, respiration, growth
and repair, secretion, sensation, and reproduction. The
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
processes are carried out by plants and animals. The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
Organisms are made of tiny building blocks known learners understand the structural bases of life. The
as cells that are much alike in plants and animals. A focus is on fundamental processes as well as struc-
membrane surrounds the cell and is enclosed within a tures of organisms. Learners are shown that plants and
cell wall in plants. A nucleus is located near the center animals are different and alike.
of the cell and is surrounded by cytoplasm. Upon completion of Chapter 5, the student will be
Many organisms are made of more than one cell; able to:
they are known as multicellular organisms. Cells spe-
cialize into tissues, organs, and organ systems. Most 1. Explain important characteristics of living
all plants and animals produced for food, fiber, and organisms.
shelter are multicellular. 2. Explain the meaning and stages of life span.

31
 3. Name and discuss the life processes of living Once the life processes have been taught, the
organisms. objectives on the structural bases of life should be cov-
4. Describe the structural bases of living organisms. ered. Students should be given instruction on cells and
5. Identify cell growth processes. cell structure (use the microscope here) and multi-
cellular organisms with the specialization of cells into
tissue, organs, and organ systems. These should be
INTEREST APPROACH covered in a general or in a basic way. The specifics of
each are dealt with in other chapters of the book.
Students are often inquisitive about the nature and
Introduce students to the cell growth processes.
structure of plants and animals. The teacher can use
Mitosis is cell division for growth and repair. Meiosis is
this inquisitiveness as a basis for developing an inter-
est approach. Several features in the chapter can be cell division in sexual reproduction. (See figures 5-26
used to promote interest, such as the Technology Con- and 5-27.)
nection and AgriScience Connection. Local situations
and interests can also be used.
One approach is to have the students read the intro- REVIEW AND EVALUATION
ductory section to the chapter. Then, ask students to
explain how they think animals are alike. Next, ask After the objectives of the chapter have been cov-
them to explain how animals and plants are not alike. ered, the content should be reviewed, and student
This can be followed with plant similarities and differ- achievement should be assessed. The approaches
ences. The scene shown in Figure 5–1 can also be should be student-centered. For example, have stu-
used by asking students to look at the picture and to dents demonstrate their accomplishment of the objec-
explain the biological processes of plants in growth. tives. This could be done by asking class members to
Summarize by explaining how understanding life pro- orally explain each objective in class. Students could
cesses is important in producing plants and animals also define the terms at the beginning of the chapter or
that are used for food, fiber, and shelter. (Teachers answer the end-of-chapter review questions.
may wish to review the objectives at this time.) Activities in the Activity Manual can be especially
helpful in reviewing, reinforcing, and re-teaching the
chapter concepts. Students should demonstrate their
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES understanding of the concepts in how they go about
AND TEACHING PLANS their supervised experience programs. In some cases,
these programs may be laboratory-based and involve
A variety of strategies can help students achieve the preparing entries for a science fair or demonstrations
objectives of this chapter. Hands-on activities in the for parents and students.
laboratory and activities in the Activity Manual will be
Written or oral tests can be used to assess student
most appropriate. Some of these may include the use
achievement. This can be a teacher-made test or a
of microscopes for viewing cells and other building
blocks and processes of living things. Throughout the prepared test from the Instructor’s Resource Guide or
chapter, refer students to the figures and have them from an online testing system.
discuss what they see.
A general approach is to have students read various
sections or all of the chapter. This material can be SAFETY
reviewed in class discussions and presentations. The
important concepts to cover early in the chapter are The major safety areas here may involve the use of
organisms are unique; organisms have life spans and the laboratory in the examination of cells and plant and
go through life stages; and organisms grow, reproduce, animal processes. The Activity Manual presents a sum-
and respond to their environment. mary of the safety procedures for these activities.
The middle part of the chapter provides important Teachers must instruct students in laboratory safety
information on the life processes of organisms, includ- practices applicable to their laboratory situation. Safety
ing plants and animals. These processes need to be instruction and discussion can extend beyond the con-
presented in a general way that is applicable to plants tent of the chapter as related to organisms in our lives.
and animals. The major processes are receiving and Some pose safety hazards such as the allergic reaction
using food, movement, circulation, respiration, growth to poison ivy or the puncture wound that may be cre-
and repair, secretion, sensation, and reproduction. ated by the bite of a dog.

32
 5. Describe the difference between autotrophs
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES and heterotrophs.
Additional resources for this chapter include those in An autotroph is an organism that captures
the school as well as those in the community. At energy from sunlight or chemicals and uses the
school, the agriscience teacher may wish to use the energy to produce food. Examples are plants,
laboratory facilities and equipment of the science or some algae, and certain bacteria. A heterotroph
biology area. In addition, the teacher(s) in this area relies on other organisms for its energy and food
may be asked to assist with these activities. In some supply. Examples are cats, cows, and canaries.
cases, biology reference materials may be helpful.
Beyond the school facilities, teachers may find valu- 6. Name the five types of heterotrophs, and give
able community resources. These range from speci- examples of each.
mens that students bring from their homes to the labo- Five types of heterotrophs and examples are
ratories and the personnel of agribusinesses. herbivores (e.g., sheep) that eat plant materials;
carnivores (e.g., dog) that eat the flesh of ani-
mals; omnivores (raccoons) that feed on plants
ANSWERS and animals; detrivores (e.g., earthworm) that
feed on nonliving plant and animal remains; and
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS decomposers (e.g., certain bacteria) that feed on
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- dead organic matter.
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to 7. Name and define the five stages of life.
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
require more complete information, the use of complete The five life stages are beginning—how a spe-
sentences, or other details in the answers. cies reproduces; growth—a time of rapid
advancement; maturity—organism is fully devel-
1. What is an organism? oped; decline—organism loses its ability to main-
tain itself; and death—when the organism can no
An organism is a living thing. longer replenish itself.
2. Name and describe five important character- 8. How do organisms respond to their environ-
istics of organisms. ment? List examples of plants and animals
Organisms are chemically and structurally and their preferred environment.
unique (includes chemical processes in proto- Organisms grow best in environments in which
plasm and structural characteristics in cells); they are adapted. For example, rice grows best
need energy (energy comes from food and is in a warm, moist environment. Winter wheat can
needed for activity); have a life span (the period survive and grow in a cold climate.
of life); are capable of growth and reproduction
(growth is increasing in size and replacing body 9. What are the life processes of living organ-
structures as they wear out); can reproduce (giv- isms? List and explain each.
ing rise to new organisms of the same kind); and The life processes of organisms are obtaining
respond to their environment (organisms must and using food—food is needed for growth and
often make adjustments to their surroundings). repair; movement—within an organism to carry
out life processes (e.g., movement of lungs) and
3. Name the three parts of the cell theory.
as locomotion to obtain food; circulation—move-
The three parts of cell theory are all living ment of food nutrients and other materials within
things are made of cells; cells are the basic units an organism; respiration—how an organism pro-
of structure and function in living things; and new vides its cells with oxygen; growth and repair—
cells are produced from existing cells. how an organism increases in size and replen-
ishes its cells when they wear away; secretion—
4. What is the difference between living and the production and availability of certain chemical
nonliving things? substances; sensation—how an organism
When protoplasm activity stops in living things, responds to its environment and certain sensa-
they become nonliving. Life processes no longer tions; and reproduction—how an organism pro-
occur. duces new individuals of its species.

33
10. What is a cell? What are the major parts of a 12. How are tissues, organs, and organ systems
cell, and what are their functions? related?
A cell is the structural basis of life-building Tissues are structures of specialized cells and
blocks of organisms. Major parts of a cell are the do specialized jobs in an organism. Organs are
cell membrane, which surrounds the cell and collections of tissues that perform certain func-
controls movement of materials into and out of it; tions. Organ systems are composed of several
the nucleus, which stores genetic material near organs that work together to perform an activity.
the middle of a cell; and the cytoplasm, which
13. Name and explain the two kinds of cell division.
has a thick, semi-fluid material inside the cell but
outside the nucleus that contains organelles. Mitosis is cell division for growth and repair.
Meiosis is the sexual reproduction of organisms.
11. What is cell specialization?
EVALUATING
Cell specialization consists of the differences
that occur in cells so they can perform unique 1=j, 2=a, 3=i, 4=b, 5=g, 6=e, 7=c, 8=n, 9=h, 10=d,
activities for an organism. 11=m, 12=l, 13=f, and 14=k

6
CLASSIFYING AND NAMING
LIVING THINGS

CHAPTER SUMMARY All living organisms are classified into one of three
domains except for pre-cellular viruses. The domains
All known living things have been classified and are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Eukarya is the
named. Modern classification involves a system that most important in agriculture as it consists of organ-
shows relationships among and differences between isms that have nuclei in cells. Within Eukarya, four
organisms. No two have the same name. New organ- kingdoms are used: Kingdom Protista, one-celled
isms that have not been named are discovered each organisms that are more advanced than the Bacteria
year. Many of these are in aquatic environments, par- and Archaea; Kingdom Fungi, consists of yeasts,
ticularly in deep parts of oceans. molds, and mushrooms; Kingdom Plantae, consists of
species known as plants (many phyla; important agri-
The modern classification system is composed of
culture and horticulture crops); and Kingdom Animalia,
seven divisions or stages that show relationships and
important in agriculture and as companions (14 phyla).
differences: domain, kingdom, phylum or division,
Note that the kingdoms are often written with Latin
class, order, family, genus and species. In addition,
spellings, such as animals being the Kingdom
agriscientists often use varieties, plant lines, cultivars, Animalia.
and breeds. A variety is a group of related organisms in Cladograms are often used to show how character-
a species. A plant line generally refers to a genetically- istics separate species. Diagrams can also be used to
altered species such as corn that has been engineered depict evolutionary development from a root ancestor.
to resist insects and/or allow the use of herbicide. A Scientific names contain two-word names, known
cultivar is a crop variety that retains its features when as binomial nomenclature. These names are written in
reproduced. A breed is composed of animals of the italics.
same species that have definite identifying characteris-
tics and a common origin.

34
 Tables giving the scientific names of many common of this chapter is that organisms are now classified into
agricultural species are listed in Chapter 6 of Agri- domains, which is new in the study of agriscience.
Science. Use the writing surface (chalkboard or other) to
present the modern classification system. List the divi-
sions in the system (in order) on the writing surface.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES Include variety, cultivar, and breed as further divisions
in the system that are important in agriculture. Discuss
The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
how scientific names allow people in all parts of the
learners understand the classification and naming of
world to communicate clearly about plants and ani-
living organisms. Emphasis is on the important horticul-
mals.
ture and agriculture species, though relationships to
Present the three domains and four kingdoms in the
other organisms are important.
Eukarya domain and examples of the phyla in each.
Upon completion of Chapter 6, the student will be
List common examples in the local community for each
able to:
phyla. (This part of the instruction must be kept relevant
and in areas with which the students can identify.) Use
1. Describe the classification of living things. taxonomy keys for the local area, and have students
2. Explain scientific names and identify species by identify common plants and animals. In some cases,
scientific and common names. students could bring specimens of leaves or insects to
3. Discuss three classification domains. school for identification.
4. Describe the Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Present the objectives on scientific names by using
Animalia Kingdoms and list examples of each. the system known as binomial nomenclature. (Refer
students to Table 6-2 in the text that contains the scien-
tific names of common agricultural and horticulture
INTEREST APPROACH species.)
Conclude the instruction by emphasizing the role of
Trying to interest and motivate students may require scientific names in culturing plants and animals and in
more creativity for this chapter. Many students may not laboratory work.
find classification and naming as exciting as other
areas of study. Teachers should use approaches that
are appropriate for their students. One example is pre- REVIEW AND EVALUATION
sented here.
Have students read the introduction to the chapter in The objectives should be reviewed after the chapter
the text. Use this as a basis for discussing how people has been covered. Ask individual students to explain
get their names. Call on students to give names in their the content related to the objectives. Re-teach areas
families and to tell how their family members got the where students appear to have not mastered the objec-
names they have. Ask students to tell how people of tives. The chapter summary, as well as the terms at the
different cultures name their children. For example, beginning of the chapter, may be used in the review
names reflect cultural background. Relate all of the dis- process. Many teachers also use the Activity Manual
cussion to the classification and naming of organisms. for review and evaluation.
(Teachers may wish to review the objectives at this Evaluation will involve observation of student perfor-
time.) Prepare to use the RLRWP-E instructional pro- mance in the class and in the Activity Manual. Teach-
cedure. ers may give written and/or oral tests on the objectives.
Practical evaluation will occur when teachers
observe how students use the information in their
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES supervised experience programs. For example, the
ability of students to use the scientific names of plants
AND TEACHING PLANS in selecting pesticides and other products in their work
is important in evaluation.
The teaching strategies for the chapter may be
shaped by the interest approach that is used. Empha-
sis should be on helping students achieve the objec-
tives by using local examples in classifying and nam-
SAFETY
ing. Having students read the chapter and refer to the The objectives of this chapter present few learning
tables in the chapter will be most beneficial. A highlight activities that have safety hazards. However, teachers

35
should always be on the alert for safety problems and 4. How do members of the four kingdoms of the
should stress safety in their instruction. The Activity domain Eukarya provide for the needs of peo-
Manual presents safety illustrations throughout all of ple? Give two examples for each kingdom.
the activities.
Kingdoms in Eukarya and examples of what
they provide are protista—provide some foods,
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES (e.g., seaweed) and provide oxygen for the envi-
ronment; fungi—provide better food products,
Teachers may need additional materials on the clas- (e.g., yeast in bread making) and medicine (e.g.,
sification and naming of organisms in the local area. penicillin); plants—provide many forms of food,
Science teachers and university specialists may be fiber, and shelter; and animals—provide many
able to provide the needed information to classify the forms of food, fiber, and shelter.
species. Publications specific to geographic regions
describe how to classify local common plants and ani- 5. What are the scientific names for the follow-
mals and are usually available. ing animals: horse, sheep, goat, hog,
chicken, humped cattle, and turkey?
ANSWERS The scientific names are horse, Equus cab-
allus; sheep, Ovis aries; goat, Capra hircus;
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS hog, Sus scrufa; chicken, Gallus domesticus;
humped cattle, Bos primigenius indicus; and
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- turkey, Meleagris gallopavo.
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may 6. What are the scientific names for the follow-
require more detailed information, the use of complete ing crop plants: wheat, corn, cotton, and soy-
sentences, or other details in the answers. beans?

1. What is taxonomy? The scientific names are wheat, Triticum

Taxonomy is the classification of living things. aestivum; corn, Zea mays; cotton, Gossypium
Taxonomy is also known as systematics. hirsutum; and soybeans, Glycine max.

2. What are the eight divisions in the modern 7. What are the scientific names for the follow-
classification system? What is the sequence ing trees: live oak, sweetgum and shortleaf
of the divisions from the broadest group to pine?
the most specific group?
The scientific names are live oak, Quercus
The eight divisions (in sequence) are domain, virginiana; sweetgum, Liquidambar styra-
kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, ciflua; and shortleaf pine, Pinus echinata.
genus, and species. (Note: Sweetgum and shortleaf pine will require
additional resources to answer.)
3. What three domains are used to classify
organisms? Briefly describe each domain.
8. Why is the use of scientific names important?
The three domains are bacteria, which are
one-celled organisms with cell membranes, cell Scientific names are important because they
walls, and cytoplasm, but not nuclei; Archaea, allow people to accurately communicate informa-
which are one-celled organisms with cells that tion. Scientific names are used all over the world.
lack nuclei but have cell walls; and Eukarya, They help communicate cultural practices as well
which are a large domain of important species, as the results of research.
though some have one cell and others have
many cells. Eukarya are the most important in EVALUATING
agriculture because plants and animals are in
this domain. 1=g, 2=e, 3=a, 4=b, 5=i, 6=d, 7=c, 8=h, 9=f, and 10=j

36
 7
GENETICS APPLICATIONS IN
AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER SUMMARY INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Genetics is increasingly important in the study of The objectives of this chapter are designed to help
agriscience. Scientists have used modern approaches students understand the meaning and importance of
in genetics (specifically molecular approaches) to genetics and the areas that are being used and devel-
develop new understanding and methods of improving oped. Many of the practices followed in growing crops
organisms. Genetics is the science of heredity—the and raising livestock involve genetics applications.
transmission of parental traits to offspring. All of the Future developments may change many of the current
production practices.
genetic makeup of an organism is its genome. Chromo-
Upon completion of Chapter 7, the student will be
somes and genes are increasingly important in under-
able to:
standing genetics. A chromosome is a threadlike struc-
ture inside a cell nucleus that contains genetic material
1. Discuss the meaning and use of heredity in agri-
and protein. Chromosomes are found in pairs, with, for
culture.
example, a hog having 20 pairs. A gene is a segment on
2. Define and explain important genetics concepts.
a chromosome that contains heredity traits. Different
forms of genes are known as alleles. Genotype is the 3. Explain the use of genetics in trait expression
genetic combination for a trait. Phenotype is the appear- and prediction.
ance of an organism as related to genotype. Trait 4. Describe the use of genetics to improve organ-
expression is often in two major groups: dominant and isms.
recessive. Knowledge of genetics can be used to
improve organisms, including genetic modification.
INTEREST APPROACH
Genetics is applied in two major ways to improve
organisms: organismic and molecular. Organismic Genetics is an important area in agriscience. Stu-
genetics deals with helping intact or complete organ- dents may already have some background information.
isms live and grow better. Molecular genetics (particu- By questioning, explore their level of knowledge, and
larly as applied in biotechnology) involves changing the use the examples they list in class as the basis for the
structure and parts of cells. It changes the genetic interest approach.
material of an organism. Another interest approach is to have the students read
the introductory part of the chapter. Ask students to
Selection (the choosing of parents with desired
explain the following statement: “Agriscience is reaching
traits) is genetics-based. Marker-assisted selection is
the point that being able to dream it means being able to
now used on a limited basis. Cloning, increased fertility,
do it!” Have them relate their discussion to the production
greater production, culturing aquaculture products,
of plants and animals. Also, to the fullest extent possible,
ultrasonics, animal nutrition and feeds, and predicting use local agriculture examples to explain new plant and
the future involve genetics. animal forms and ways in which they are produced.
The set pattern of the heredity material in a cell is a (Teachers may wish to review the objectives at this time.)
genome. Chromosomes are the threadlike parts in a cell Have students read the introductory paragraphs of
nucleus that contain genetic material, made of DNA, and the chapter. Afterward, call on one or more students to
protein. Genes are the segments of chromosomes that discuss what was read. Refer students to Figure 7–1.
contain the heredity traits of organisms. The genetic Ask students to explain how genetics is important in
makeup of an organism is known as its genotype. Some planting and producing cotton, including the variety or
genetic factors are dominant, and others are recessive. plant line to plant.

37
 teacher should always review the appropriate safety
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES practices. The Activity Manual presents safety precau-
AND TEACHING PLANS tions with each activity.
Lab activities require considerable emphasis on
Begin by defining genetics and heredity. Students safety. Learning is enhanced with meaningful activities,
can read these sections and help provide the content such as tissue culture and other approaches in cloning.
as you summarize it on the writing surface. Define Stress safety in all regards. Be sure students us appro-
terms. Use a deliberate approach to ensure student priate PPE. Properly dispose of laboratory wastes.
comprehension. Use Punnett square activities to aid in
developing understanding.
Move into the section “Controlled Breeding.” Have ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
students read the section and provide information as
the content is summarized. In discussion, be sure to The textbook and the Activity Manual can be used to
cover concepts associated with selection, inbreeding, achieve the objectives of the chapter. In some cases,
crossbreeding, and hybridization. teachers may wish to use specific materials on genet-
ics. An introductory book on genetics will be useful.
Begin the content on asepsis. Relate the role of
Some materials can be obtained from a college or a
asepsis in genetics work. Demonstrate how it is
university with an agriculture program.
achieved in the school lab. Demonstrate cloning, and
have students perform cloning and tissue culture activi-
ties. Be sure to list key terms and their definitions on
the writing surface. Ask students to explain the defini-
ANSWERS
tions. Give examples of each, as presented in the text- END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
book. Use field trips or laboratory activities for students
to see firsthand examples of aquaculture, ultrasonics, Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
and other areas of organismic biotechnology. Also, tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
have students go to a grocery store where they will be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
make a list of the different products that involve new require more complete information, the use of complete
applications of genetics such as baby carrots and long sentences, and other details in their answers.
shelf-life tomatoes. If time permits, students can con-
struct a small growth chamber in the laboratory by 1. What is heredity? Genetics?
using a plastic bottle or a bucket. Heredity is the transmission of parental traits to
offspring. Genetics is the science of heredity and
variations in organisms.
REVIEW AND EVALUATION
2. What is a genome?
The textbook and the Activity Manual can be used
for review and evaluation. A genome is the total genetic makeup of an
For review, have students define the terms at the organism.
beginning of the chapter and answer the end-of-chap- 3. Distinguish between dominant and recessive
ter review questions. This may be done orally as a genetic traits.
group activity or as supervised study with the students
writing out the answers. Activities in the Activity Manual A dominant trait covers or masks the alleles for
will also be useful. recessive traits. A recessive trait is masked by a
Evaluation can involve some of the same activities dominant trait.
as the review. The “Evaluating” section is one useful 4. What is controlled breeding?
assessment tool. Oral and/or written tests can also be
given. All of the activities can be implemented in re- Controlled breeding is the selective act of mat-
teaching, as appropriate. ing plants and animals to achieve desired traits in
the offspring.
5. Distinguish between selection, inbreeding,
SAFETY crossbreeding, and hybridization.
Achieving the objectives of the chapter should Selection is the act of choosing parents with
involve few safety hazards. However, activities beyond desired traits for breeding with hope of graining
the classroom could present safety problems. The these traits in offspring. Inbreeding is the mating

38
 of offspring of the same parents to each other in 10. What is asepsis?
an attempt to gain desired traits of parents.
Crossbreeding is the mating animals of the same Asepsis is the condition of being free of disease-
species but of a different breed, such as an causing germs.
Angus to a Hereford. Hybridization is the breed-
ing of two different but closely related plants or 11. What is recombinant DNA? Relate the pro-
animals resulting in the combined traits of both cess of gene splicing to vectors and breaking
parent strains with common heredity. and joining.

6. What are the contents of a genome? Recombinant DNA is DNA that is taken from
one chromosome and moved to another (same
A genome is the set pattern of heredity mate-
as gene splicing) in the laboratory. Only a tiny
rial in a cell. It contains the chromosomes.
piece is involved. Vectors are small organisms
7. Distinguish between genotype and pheno- that are used to carry DNA into a cell. Breaking
type. and joining DNA involves ligation—the attaching
Genotype is the genetic composition of an of two DNA fragments of different organisms.
organism. Phenotype is the appearance of an Scientists use this process to change the genetic
organism. If parents of offspring are not pure- material in an organism. Note: Students may
bred, the offspring may have different genotypes need to refer to Chapter 8 for this answer.
and phenotypes. The more genetically similar the
parents are, the more the offspring will be alike in 12. What areas of agriscience have develop-
genotype and phenotype. ments underway using genetic engineering?

8. What is the Punnett square? Genetic engineering is being used for develop-
ments in the following areas: herbicide-resistant
The Punnett square is a diagram used to pre-
plants, insect-resistant plants, disease-resistant
dict the outcome of breeding.
plants, transgenic animals, frost protection, lon-
9. Distinguish between homozygosity and ger storage life, and new animal products. Note:
heterozygosity. Students may need to refer to chapter 8 for
Homozygosity means the offspring tend to assistance with this answer.
be like their parents because there is less vari-
ation in the parents. Heterozygosity occurs EVALUATING
when the parents provide the offspring with dif-
ferent genes for traits. 1=g, 2=h, 3=i, 4=a, 5=d, 6=e, 7=f, 8=b, 9=c, and 10=j

8
BIOTECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE

CHAPTER SUMMARY processes. Deciding what is proper and ethical is a

problem for some people. Students have much the
The mention of biotechnology immediately gets the same impressions. Of course, we know that the bene-
attention of most people. Some of them think about the fits far outweigh the hazards. And, with good research
positive uses of biotechnology; others think about and testing, hazards are minimized.
potential hazards. The media have helped inform many Biotechnology involves using biological processes to
people that stem cells can be used in biotechnology get new or better plants and animals. Organisms can be

39
made better and then used to produce new products. genetically-altered organisms before release or
Because our society in general is uninformed about the use. Those released must be safe; those not safe
benefits of biotechnology, many issues are associated should never be released.
with using biotechnological processes. • Genetically altered organisms may mate with
In agriscience, biotechnology is the applied science- unmodified organisms of the same species. This
based operations in producing, food, fiber, shelter, and might result in organisms that are neither the
many related products. This includes horticulture, for- desired altered form nor the “natural” unaltered
estry, agricultural supplies, and agricultural processing form. This might have occurred but no serious
and marketing. It also applies to wildlife, aquaculture, signs of damage are present.
natural resources, and the environment. Biotechnology • Genetically altering an organism is against moral
is often referred to as multidisciplinary—a long word or religious beliefs. Good education is needed.
that means “many branches of learning and work.” People need good information about genetic
Biotechnology can be broken down into two levels: engineering to adjust their beliefs.
organismic and molecular. Organismic biotechnology
deals with helping intact or complete organisms live and A good knowledge of nucleic acid science is needed
grow better. Cloning is an example. Molecular biotech- in biotechnology, including the pattern and structure of
nology involves changing the structure and parts of heredity material in a genome. Chromosomes are the
cells. It changes the genetic material of an organism. thread-like parts in a cell nucleus that contain genetic
Science methods are used to artificially alter the genetic material, made of DNA, and protein. Genes are the
makeup of organisms. Complex science processes are segments of chromosomes that contain the heredity
involved. Individuals with in-depth education in science traits of organisms. The genetic make-up of an organ-
do the work. Genetic engineering is a major part of ism is known as genotype. Some genetic factors are
molecular biotechnology. Genetic engineering is chang- dominant, and others are recessive. DNA forms a
ing the genetic makeup in a cell to achieve a desired structure known as a double helix. Segments of DNA
goal. In simple words, a trait in a cell of one organism can be cut out and new ones inserted, which is known
may be isolated, cut, and moved to a cell in another as recombinant DNA. Work in this area is often known
organism. The other organism is changed as a result of as genetic engineering. In 2013, 93 percent of soy-
moving the trait, such as the ability of a dairy animal to beans, 85 percent of cotton, and 76 percent of corn in
resist mastitis. the United States was planted to GMO plant lines.
Issues sometimes associated with biotechnology are:
Gene stacking is the process of combining two or
more genes of interest into a single plant line. The
• Genetically altered organisms may be patented
goal is to have a single plant line that is, for example,
resulting in restrictions on the use of the organ-
resistant to an insect and a herbicide or more.
ism and provide profits to the holder of the patent.
Stacked genes in a plant line are achieved by
Agribusinesses need the assurance of profit from
crossbreeding a transgenic line for one trait with a
a research investment. If not, the agribusiness
transgenic line for another trait. Plants with stacked
would not invest in the research.
genes are becoming the dominant forms of geneti-
• Genetically altered organisms produce inferior cally-modified (GM) crops. It has been primarily used
food. Some uniformed people might say that the with corn and cotton to achieve combinations of insect
food is harmful. Substances or genetic alterations protection and herbicide tolerance. Corn, for example,
in a plant or animal should not appear in food is sometimes triple stacked or quad stacked. A triple
products. For example, if a grain plant is modified stacked plant line would have three goals such as
to resist disease, the grain should not contain the resistance to two different insect pests as well as her-
protective agent. Some foods from genetically bicide resistance. A quad stacked would be created
altered organisms may be safer, such as milk for four goals of either insect or disease resistance or
from a cow genetically modified to resist disease. herbicide resistance.
• Genetically altering an organism will create a mon- Gene stacked lines are widely planted in the United
ster. Such is always a possibility but never very States. Corn is a good example. Stacked varieties of
likely because of the careful controls of scientists. corn accounted for 71 percent of the genetically-modi-
• Genetically altering an organism will result in the fied corn that was planted in 2013. Insect only was 5
loss of members of the same species that have percent and herbicide tolerance only was 14 percent.
not been genetically altered. The gene pool for Much work is underway exploring the potential of
the species will be tainted or permanently molecular biotechnology. Molecular biotechnology has
changed. Fortunately, scientists carefully study been used to develop herbicide-resistant plants, as well

40
as plants that are insect- and disease-resistant. Other mal forms and ways they are produced. (Teachers may
traits are being developed through genetic engineering wish to review the objectives at this time.)
are: transgenic animals, frost tolerance and protection, Have students read the introductory paragraphs of
longer storage life and new animal products. Scientists the chapter. Afterward, call on one or more to discuss
feel that genetic engineering holds tremendous potential. what was read. Refer students to Figure 8-1. Ask why
Biotechnology is far more than for agricultural uses. precision and care in laboratory work is essential in
“Biofactories” are producing genetically modified doing research related to biotechnology. Allow stu-
yeasts and other organisms using computer programs dents to offer a few suggestions such as “the work
that direct robotic equipment in producing the new needs to be done correctly or the results will be unreli-
forms. Some authorities are signaling that the spiraling able.” Next, move into the content of the chapter.
new developments are creating a third industrial revo-
lution, according to Ariana Eunjung Cha in an article
entitled “Companies rush to build biofactories for medi- INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
cines, flavorings, and fuels “in The Washington Post
(October 24, 2013). These biotechnology developments
AND TEACHING PLANS
are sustainable and immune to weather and disease Begin with the first section in the textbook, “Biotech-
issues that plague “natural” methods. Our future may nology: Meaning and Issues.” Have students read the
well be tied to biotechnology. section as homework or during supervised study. First,
define biotechnology. Ask students to offer definitions.
Indicate that the text book uses the Office of Technol-
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES ogy Assessment of the U.S. Congress, which defines
biotechnology as “any technique that uses living organ-
The objectives of this chapter are designed to help
isms or substances from those organisms to make or
students understand the meaning and importance of
modify a product, to improve plants or animals, or to
biotechnology and the areas that are being used and
develop microorganism for specific uses.” That defini-
developed. Many of the practices followed in growing
tion includes so many areas, particularly of science.
crops and raising livestock involve forms of biotechnol-
Explain that in agriscience biotechnology is the
ogy. Future developments may change many of the
applied science-based operations in producing, food,
current production practices.
fiber, shelter, and many related products. This includes
Upon completion of Chapter 8, the student will be
horticulture, forestry, agricultural supplies, and agri-
able to:
cultural processing and marketing. It also applies to
wildlife, aquaculture, natural resources, and the envi-
1. Discuss the meaning of biotechnology ronment. Biotechnology is often referred to as
2. Describe the use of nucleic acid science multidisciplinary—a long word that means “many
3. Describe methods used in nucleic acid science branches of learning and work.”
4. Explain the meaning and importance of genetic Biotechnology is at two major levels: organismic and
engineering molecular. Ask students to name and explain them.
First, organismic biotechnology is working with intact
organisms or their cells. The organisms are not artifi-
INTEREST APPROACH cially genetically altered. Natural heredity and genetic
variations are studied and used to gain desired results.
A possible interest approach is to refer students to Traditional breeding programs in agriculture are used,
Figure 8-2. After a short time for them to study the illus- such as selection and hybridization. Also used are
tration, ask what meaning can be drawn from the cloning, including tissue culture, grafting, layering, and
graph. Call on individual students to explain the mean- budding. These do not involve intrusion into the natural
ing in terms to crop growers adopting and using geneti- genetics of an organism.
cally engineered crops. Next, cover molecular biotechnology. Call on stu-
Another interest approach is to have the students dents to explain molecular biotechnology. Indicate that
read the introductory part of the chapter. Ask students it is using science methods to artificially alter the
to explain the statement “Agriscience is reaching the genetic makeup of organisms. Complex science pro-
point that being able to dream it means being able to do cesses are involved. Individuals with in-depth educa-
it!” Have them relate their discussion to the production tion in science do the work. Genetic engineering is a
of plants and animals. Also, to the extent possible, use major part of molecular biotechnology. Genetic engi-
local agriculture examples to explain new plant and ani- neering is changing the genetic makeup in a cell to

41
achieve a desired goal. In simple words, a trait in a cell teacher should always review the appropriate safety
of one organism may be isolated, cut, and moved to a practices. The Activity Manual presents safety precau-
cell in another organism. The other organism is tions with each activity.
changed as a result of moving the trait, such as the Lab activities require considerable emphasis on
ability of a dairy animal to resist mastitis. safety. Learning is enhanced with meaningful activities,
After students have read the section of the chapter in such as DNA extraction. Stress safety in all regards. Be
the text called “Nucleic Acid Science” ask them to pro- sure students us appropriate PPE. Properly dispose of
vide input as you summarize terms and processes on laboratory wastes.
the writing surface. If time permits, use the Activity Man-
ual or other materials to extract DNA from strawberries,
onions, or other materials. Discuss the meaning and role ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
of DNA profiling in the identification or organisms such
as those that cause food poisoning. Relate how it can be The textbook and the Activity Manual can be used to
used to trace food materials to their sources. achieve the objectives of the chapter. In some cases,
teachers may wish to use specific materials on biotech-
After students have read the part of the chapter on
nology. An introductory book on biotechnology will be
molecular biotechnology and genetic engineering, ask
useful. Some materials can be obtained from a college
a member of the class to review the definition of molec-
or university with an agriculture program.
ular biotechnology. Use presentation and discussion
methods to review genetics and cell structure. List key
terms along with their definitions on the writing surface.
Have students read the section of the chapter in the
ANSWERS
text called “Molecular Biotechnology.” Use presentation
and discussion methods to cover recombinant DNA, END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
including vectors and ligation. Direct students in doing the Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
activities in the Activity Manual, with emphasis on the tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
construction of the double helix. Have students name and be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
discuss examples of genetic engineering in agriscience. require more complete information, the use of complete
sentences and other details in their answers.
REVIEW AND EVALUATION 1. What is biotechnology?
The textbook and the Activity Manual can be used Biotechnology is using biological processes to
for both review and evaluation. get new or better plants and animals.
For review, have students define the terms at the
beginning of the chapter and answer the end-of-chapter 2. What is nucleic acid?
review questions. This may be done orally as a group Nucleic acid is the substance in cells that
activity or as supervised study with the students writing directs all cellular structures and activities. Two
out the answers. Activities in the Activity Manual will types have been identified: DNA and RNA.
also be very useful.
Evaluation can involve some of the same activities as 3. What are the two natural types of nucleic
review. The “Evaluating” section is one useful assess- acid? Briefly describe each.
ment tool. Oral and/or written tests can also be given. All The two types of nucleic acid are deoxyribonu-
of the activities can be implemented in re-teaching, as cleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
appropriate. DNA is the molecule that codes the genetic infor-
Refer to the list of objectives in the textbook. Call on mation of living things. It is said to form a two-
students to demonstrate that they know the content stranded double helix. RNA is a single strand of
associated with each objective. Reteach areas where nucleotide units. RNA is comprised of short seg-
students appear deficient. ments rather than long segments of DNA.

4. What is a double helix?

SAFETY
A double helix is the two-stranded structure
Achieving the objectives of the chapter should formed by DNA. It has alternating units of sugar
involve few safety hazards. However, activities beyond and phosphorus that are held together by hydro-
the classroom could present safety problems. The gen bonds. The structure has a ladder-like

42
 appearance because of the arrangement of the pests; others are to create tolerance to the use of
bases in DNA. herbicide to manage weeds.
5. What is DNA profiling? 9. What is a vector?
DNA profiling is the process of identifying indi- A vector is a carrier of new DNA into a cell.
viduals of a species based on DNA profiles. A Yeast and bacteria cells are often used as vectors.
DNA profile an encrypted or coded set of num-
bers that reflect an individual’s DNA makeup. A 10. What is genetic engineering?
DNA profile can be used to identify an individual
Genetic engineering is a molecular form of bio-
organism, such as a human. (Note: A DNA pro-
technology.The genetic information in a cell is
file is not the same as a genome sequence.)
changed or used to make a product.
6. What is DNA isolation? Describe a common
process for DNA isolation. 11. What is recombinant DNA? Relate the pro-
cess of gene splicing to vectors and breaking
DNA isolation is the process of extracting and and joining.
separating DNA from other materials in a cell.
The procedures vary with the cells or tissues Recombinant DNA is DNA that is taken from
being used. Overall, the process involves: break- one chromosome and moved to another (same
ing down the cell wall or membrane; digesting as gene splicing) in the laboratory. Only a tiny
cellular components with a detergent substance; piece is involved. Vectors are small organisms
separating the polar compounds, and extracting that are used to carry DNA into a cell. Breaking
and precipitating the DNA. The cells of strawber- and joining DNA involves ligation, or the attach-
ries, onions, and bovine thymus glands are used ing of two DNA fragments of different organisms.
in school situations. Scientists use this process to change the genetic
material in an organism.
7. What is transgenesis?
Transgenesis is the process of moving a gene 12. What areas of agriscience have develop-
from one unrelated organism into another living ments under way using genetic engineering?
organism so that the organism exhibits new traits Genetic engineering is being used for develop-
that can be transmitted to offspring. Genetically ments in the following areas: herbicide-resistant
engineered corn is an example. plants, insect-resistant plants, disease-resistant
plants, transgenic animals, frost protection, lon-
8. What plant lines have been developed ger storage life, and new animal products.
through genetic engineering?
The most widely cultured plant lines developed EVALUATING
through genetic engineering include those of
corn, cotton, and soybeans. Some are to resist 1=g, 2=h, 3=i, 4=a, 5=d, 6=e, 7=f, 8=b, 9=c, and 10=j

43
 PART THREE: PLANT
AND SOIL SCIENCE

9
PLANT STRUCTURE AND GROWTH
CHAPTER SUMMARY the stem. Woody stems, such as those on trees, have
Plants are important to human life. Many human many cells with strong walls. Herbaceous stems are
foods and other products are of plant origin. The culture soft and often green and contain woody cells. Stems
of plants to meet human demand is a major force in the contain tissue that transports materials known as xylem
agricultural industry. Understanding the basic princi- and phloem in plants.
ples of plant science can help us grow plants. Plant Root systems are of two types: fibrous and taproot.
species are adapted to specific climates. However, Fibrous root systems have many small roots that
plant species are found in nearly all climates. Important branch out through the soil. Taproot systems have one
climate features are temperature, precipitation, light, main root that grows downward. Roots anchor a plant
and plant adaptations. and absorb nutrients from the soil.
Plants are classified on the basis of their life cycles, Tropism is the movement of plants. Most plants are
as follows: annuals, plants that have a complete life anchored in one place but are able to move during
cycle in one year; biennials, plants that have a com- growth and in response to their environment.
plete life cycle in two seasons; and perennials, plants
that live for more than two growing seasons. Some
plants are cultured so their growth is different from what
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
it appears to be (carrots are a biennial that is planted The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
and harvested in one growing season). learners develop an understanding of the fundamentals
As multicellular organisms, plants have several of plant life. Emphasis is on the structure and functions
important parts. Plant parts are of two major types: veg- of plant parts.
etative and reproductive. Important vegetative parts are Upon completion of Chapter 9, the student will be
leaves, stems, and roots. Reproductive parts include able to:
flowers, fruit, and seeds.
Leaves are of two major types: monocots and 1. Describe how plants are adapted to climate.
dicots. Monocot leaves have parallel veins. Dicot 2. Explain plant life cycles.
leaves have branching veins. Many kinds of leaves are 3. Identify the major vegetative parts of plants, and
found on agricultural plants. Leaves make food for the discuss their functions.
plant by photosynthesis.
4. Explain the meaning and kinds of tropisms.
Stems vary on the basis of their location and struc-
ture. Stems are typically thought of as being above the 5. Identify useful plants.
ground; however, some are subterranean. Potatoes
are tubers, which are stems below the ground. Onions
are bulbs, which have layers resembling leaves below INTEREST APPROACH
the ground level. Corms are similar to bulbs but have The interest approach can be localized to the plants
thinner leaves. Rhizomes are long underground stems. that grow in the community. Emphasis can be on agri-
The stem structure is based on the amount of wood in cultural crops, horticulture, or forestry. Students should

44
be aware of many of the plants that grow locally. The Tropism is a concept that may need additional
Career Profile, Technology Connection, and Agri- emphasis for student comprehension. Present the kinds
Science Connection can be used as part of the interest of tropism, and explain each. If time permits, demon-
approach or as the chapter is taught. strate phototropism with a plant near the window in the
One approach is to have students read the intro- classroom or laboratory, or use the Activity Manual.
duction to Chapter 9. This could be followed with a Conclude the instruction in this chapter with a
discussion of the role of plants in the lives of all living review of the chapter summary.
things. Animals depend on plants for their food.
Humans use plants for food, fiber, and shelter. On the
writing surface, list plants that are grown in the local REVIEW AND EVALUATION
area for food, fiber, and shelter. Remind students that
only about 1,000 of the 350,000 known species of Review the objectives of the chapter by having stu-
plants are used for food, fiber, and shelter. Develop a dents orally explain each. Questions at the end of the
list of plants found in the local area that are not used chapter and the terms at the beginning can also be
for food, fiber, and shelter. Conclude the interest used in review. Activities in the Activity Manual are also
approach by having each student select the most excellent for review of the chapter objectives.
important plant that is listed. (Teachers may wish to The Internet Topics can be used as part of review
review the objectives at this time.) and to allow students to investigate content beyond the
scope of the chapter.
Evaluation can involve the preceding review activi-
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES ties as well as oral and written testing. Performance on
AND TEACHING PLANS Activity Manual activities is another source of evalua-
tion. Supervised experience activities can also be
Many strategies can be used in helping students
used, particularly if the students’ experiences involve
achieve the objectives of this chapter. The terms, con-
cepts, and applications in the Activity Manual will be plants.
most beneficial.
Better learning will result when the students are
more involved in the learning processes. This includes
SAFETY
reading the book, answering questions at the end of The objectives of this chapter do not involve learn-
the chapter, defining the terms at the beginning of the ing outcomes and activities that are hazardous. How-
chapter, and engaging in the “Exploring” activities at ever, laboratory activities that necessitate cutting plant
the end of the chapter. materials and otherwise using equipment could pose a
One strategy could involve having the students con- danger. Teachers should always make students aware
trast plant and animal life. The differences and similari- of possible hazards. Further, some students have aller-
ties could be listed on the writing surface. In addition, gies to specific plant species, such as poison ivy. Stu-
use the writing surface to list the ways in which plants dents should be taught to identify such species, if
are adapted to climate. List each of the ways and the appropriate.
main points of the content for each.
Present the types of plants based on life cycle. List
the life cycles. Then give a brief definition of each. For ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
each of the types, have students name plants grown
locally. Relate how plants that fit these cycles can be Additional resources may include reference materi-
changed, such as growing tomatoes in a greenhouse in als on plant biology, such as the biology texts used in
the winter. the school. Other reference materials on plant sci-
Use the writing surface and text to list key points that ence, horticulture, and agronomy may also be used
describe plant parts. Sketch a plant on the writing sur- for enrichment. Another resource that may be particu-
face, and label the parts as they are discussed. Sum- larly useful is the National Plant Database at the fol-
marize the functions of each part in a list on the writing lowing Web address: http://plants.usda.gov/. Other
surface. Name and describe the kinds of leaves, stems, useful Web sites include: Cradle of Forestry—
and roots. Have students complete the appropriate www.cradleofforestry.com; The United States
sections in the Activity Manual on the parts and func- National Arboretum—www.usna.usda.gov/; and The
tions of plants. (Refer to Figure 9–17 in the text.) National Arbor Day Foundation—www.arborday.org.

45
 8. What is the role of the stem?
ANSWERS
The stem has five functions: support the
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS leaves; support flowers and fruit; transport water
and other materials between roots and leaves;
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- grow; and store food.
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may 9. What are the two major kinds of stems? Dis-
require more complete information, the use of complete tinguish between them.
sentences, or other details in the answers. The two major kinds of stems are woody and
nonwoody (herbaceous). Woody stems have
1. What are the factors in the adaptation of cells with strong cell walls. Herbaceous stems
plants to climate? are soft and green. Most herbaceous stems con-
The major factors in the adaptations of plants tain only a small amount of xylem.
to climate are temperature, precipitation, and 10. What are the parts of a stem? (Sketch a cross
light. section of a woody stem, and label the parts.)
2. What are the three ways of classifying plants From the outside to the center, the parts of a
based on life cycle? Distinguish between the woody stem are bark (outer covering that pro-
life cycles. tects the stem); cortex (located between the bark
Plants are classified as follows on the basis of and phloem; the primary tissue in a stem);
life cycle: annuals (complete their life cycle in phloem (transports sugar in the plant); cambium
one year), biennials (complete their life cycle in (located between phloem and xylem, the cam-
two growing seasons), and perennials (live for bium is the layer of cells where growth occurs);
more than two growing seasons or years). xylem (conducts water and nutrients from the
roots to the leaves); and pith (center of stem
3. How can the life cycles of plants be altered? where moisture and food are stored). Refer to
Plant life cycles can be altered by changing the Figure 9–29 in the text for a sketch.
environment in which the plants grow. Plants
damaged by cold weather can be grown in struc- 11. What does the root system do for a plant?
tures that protect them from the weather, such as The root system anchors the plant, takes up
in greenhouses. Light can also be used to alter water and nutrients from the soil, and stores
the processes associated with the photoperiod. food.
4. What is the major role of leaves? 12. What are the two major kinds of root sys-
Leaves make food for the plant. tems? Distinguish between them.
5. What are the major parts of a leaf? (Sketch a The two major kinds of root systems are
leaf and label its parts.) fibrous and tap. The fibrous system has many
The major parts of a leaf are the blade, veins, roots that branch out in the soil. The taproot sys-
epidermis, stomata, internal cells, waxy coating, tem has one large root with smaller roots
petiole, and stipule. (Refer to Figure 9–19 in the attached to it.
text for a sketch.) 13. What are the parts of a root system? What are
6. What are the types of leaves? Give an exam- the functions of these parts?
ple of each. Root systems have primary roots, secondary
The two major types of leaves and examples roots, and root hairs. The primary root grows
are simple (corn and magnolia) and compound from the seed and has secondary roots attached
(locust and clover). to it. The secondary roots branch from the pri-
mary root and have root hairs attached to them.
7. How are leaves attached to plants? What pat- In addition to the kinds of roots, root systems
terns are found? also have root caps on the ends of the roots to
Leaves are attached to plants in specific pat- protect them as they grow through the soil. The
terns. The three patterns are alternate, opposite, root hairs absorb water and pass it to the sec-
and whorled. ondary roots, which pass it to the primary roots.

46
14. What is tropism? Name three kinds, and to light), and geotropism (how plants respond to
explain how they affect plants. gravity).
Tropism is the movement of plants. The three EVALUATING
kinds are thigmotropism (how plants respond to
solid objects), phototropism (how plants respond 1=j, 2=e, 3=i, 4=g, 5=h, 6=f, 7=a, 8=d, 9=b, and 10=c

10
REPRODUCING PLANTS

CHAPTER SUMMARY This involves a complex process in which two sperm

are formed by a pollen grain.
Horticultural and agricultural plant producers know Seed form after fertilization. Many seed form in ovaries
the importance of plant reproduction. Without it, no new that develop as fruit. The forms of fruit vary considerably.
plants would exist. New plants are regularly started and Seed must be viable. They must come up and grow.
grown. Success in growing plants depends on under- Germination is the sprouting of seed to grow a new
standing the fundamental processes of plant reproduc- plant. In addition to seed viability, certain things must
tion, which is often called propagation. be present in the environment of the seed for it to grow.
Plants propagate by sexual and asexual means. Asexual propagation involves using vegetative parts
Sexual propagation means seed are used. Asexual of the plant (e.g., stems, leaves, and roots) to repro-
propagation is using the vegetative parts of the plant to duce it. Asexual propagation has the advantage of pro-
reproduce it. Some plants asexually propagate on their ducing offspring that are exactly like the parent. Meth-
own, such as strawberry plants. Others are asexually ods of asexual propagation include layering, cuttings,
propagated by artificial means, such as with a graft. budding, grafting, and tissue culture.
Sexual propagation involves two kinds of seed: Quality seed from improved varieties should be
monocot and dicot. Monocot seed have one seed leaf used. Only varieties that are suited to a climate and
inside a seed that is structured different from the dicot. produce a quality product should be planted.
Dicots have two seed leaves. The structure and parts
of monocot and dicot seed vary.
Seed are borne by flowers. Flowers vary greatly in
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
structure and appearance. Flowers may be complete or The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
incomplete, or they may be perfect or imperfect. Com- learners develop skills in propagating plants. Basic prin-
plete flowers have four principal parts: sepals, petals, ciples are presented along with practical information.
stamens (male part of the flower), and pistils (female Upon completion of Chapter 10, the student will be
part of the flower). Incomplete flowers do not have one able to:
or more of these parts.
Perfect flowers have the stamen and pistil in the 1. Explain how plants reproduce.
same flower. Flowers that lack a stamen or a pistil are 2. Identify the kinds and parts of seeds and explain
imperfect. Plants with both male and female imperfect their functions.
flowers on them are known as monoecious plants, 3. Explain the types and functions of flowers.
such as corn. Dioecious species have plants that bear
male or female flowers, such as strawberries. 4. Describe germination and the conditions needed
for it to occur.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther
on the stamen to the stigma of the pistil. Fertilization 5. Explain the use of vegetative propagation.
occurs when the pollen cell unites with the ovule (egg). 6. Explain the importance of seed variety and quality.

47
 Use presentation and discussion to cover the mean-
INTEREST APPROACH ing and process of germination. Define the term “viabil-
Have students read the introductory part of Chapter ity.” Have each student use the Activity Manual to con-
10. Ask members of the class to explain the importance duct a rag doll seed germination test. On the writing
of new crops and animals being grown every year. Ask, surface, write a list of the items needed for seed germi-
“How would farmers produce wheat or other crops if nation. Provide these as best as possible for the rag
they did not reproduce plants?” Involve students in a doll tests. (Several days will be required for the rag doll
discussion of the importance of having a good “stand” tests; therefore, other content of the chapter will be
of crop plants in a field. Help them in understanding covered while the tests are underway.)
that reproducing plants is essential for successful crop Present asexual reproduction of plants. List and
production. explain the benefits and methods of vegetative repro-
duction. Have students propagate plants by using lay-
Other strategies may be used, depending on the
ering, cuttings, budding, grafting, and tissue culture.
needs of the students. In some cases, the examples
The Activity Manual will be most helpful for these activi-
will be easy to localize to the community, the school
ties.
greenhouse, the horticulture laboratory, or the school
Discuss the meaning and importance of improved
farm. Special features in the chapter can be used ini-
seed. Relate seed quality to the results of the rag doll
tially or throughout the chapter to promote interest and
tests. Have students review labels on seed packages
motivation. These features include the Career Profile,
for percent of germination information.
AgriScience Connection, Technology Connection,
Internet Topics, and Academic Connection.
Teachers may wish to review the objectives for the REVIEW AND EVALUATION
chapter upon completion of the initial interest
approach. The summary at the end of the chapter can be used
in the review process. The terms at the beginning of the
chapter and the end-of-chapter questions can also be
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES used as a part of the review.
Evaluation can involve a number of procedures,
AND TEACHING PLANS including those in the review process. Use the items in
the “Evaluating” section. Materials in the Activity Man-
After the initial interest approach, direct the students ual can be helpful in evaluation. Written and/or oral
in a discussion of why plant reproduction is important. tests can be used to assess student achievement.
Use presentation and discussion methods to develop a
list of reasons explaining why plants reproduce.
Use the writing surface or electronic means to pres- SAFETY
ent the ways in which plants reproduce. Give a brief
explanation of each way and examples of crops that The objectives of this chapter include few learning
are included with each. Ask students to name exam- outcomes that pose any safety hazards. Having stu-
ples of crops that reproduce sexually and asexually. dents propagate plants asexually by using sharp knives
They should record the information in their notebooks. and other instruments could result in possible dangers.
Using the writing surface and discussion tech- Instruct students in the proper use of all instruments.
niques, present the material on the sexual propagation Appropriate safety precautions are listed in the
of plants. Distinguish between the kinds of seed and Activity Manual.
between differences in the structure of dicots and
monocots. (Refer students to Figure 10–8 in the text for
details on the structure and parts of monocot and dicot
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
seed.) The objectives of this chapter can be achieved with
After students have read the section of the chapter few additional resources. The Activity Manual will be
on how seed are formed, use presentation and discus- most helpful. References on plant propagation, espe-
sion procedures to point out the kinds and parts of flow- cially tissue culture, may be useful. Bulletins containing
ers. (Refer students to Figure 10–13 in the student text- materials on layering, cutting, and grafting may be
book for an illustration of the parts of a flower.) Explain available at no charge from the Cooperative Extension
pollination and fertilization processes. Explain how Service in your state. Web sites that address plant pro-
seed are formed and explain the role of fruit. duction may be useful.

48
 8. How is seed formed?
ANSWERS
Seeds are formed in the ovary of a flower after
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS fertilization of the ovule. The ovary may form fruit
in which the seed develop. Once fertilization has
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- occurred, the flower is no longer needed.
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may 9. What kinds of fruit are produced by plants?
require more complete information, the use of complete Two types of fruit are produced: fleshy and dry.
sentences, and other details in the answers. Fleshy refers to large fibrous fruit, such as
apples. Dry fruit refers to fruit that develops as
1. What is the purpose of plant propagation? pods (beans) or hulls (wheat).
The purpose of plant propagation is to create 10. What is germination? Why is it important?
more plants.
Germination is the sprouting of seed to grow a
2. Distinguish between the two major ways in new plant. Seed must germinate for new plants
which plants are propagated. Give advan- to be produced.
tages and disadvantages of each.
11. What does a seed need to germinate?
The two major ways in which plants are propa-
gated are sexually and asexually. Sexual propa- Seed need the following to germinate: proper
gation involves using seed to produce more moisture, temperature, and oxygen.
plants. Asexual propagation entails using the 12. Why is vegetative propagation used?
vegetative parts of plants to make more plants.
Vegetative propagation is used because it
3. What is a seed? Sketch a seed, and label its results in the offspring having true traits of the
parts. parents.
A seed is a container of new plant life. Refer to 13. What parts of plants can be vegetatively
Figure 10–8 in the text. propagated?
4. What is the purpose of flowers? The parts of plants that can be vegetatively
Flowers are the reproductive parts of flowering propagated are below-ground parts (tubers,
plants. They are specially made to achieve the bulbs, corms, and rhizomes) and above-ground
development of seed. parts (leaves, buds, and stems).

5. What are the parts of a complete flower? 14. What methods of vegetative propagation are
Sketch a flower, and label its parts. used?
A complete flower has sepals, petals, sta- The methods of vegetative propagation are
mens, and a pistil. (Refer to Figure 10–13 in the layering, cuttings, grafting, budding, and tissue
text for the location of the parts of a perfect culture.
flower.) 15. Why should quality seed be used? What
6. What is pollination? How does it occur? determines seed quality?
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an Good-quality seed come up, grow, and make
anther to a stigma of a flower of the same spe- the intended plant. Seed quality is determined by
cies. Wind, insects, and other means move the having purity of variety; being free of contamina-
pollen. tion; having good percent germination; being uni-
form in size; being free of damage or breakage;
7. What is fertilization? being free of disease; having been treated to
Fertilization is the union of the pollen cell and prevent disease; and being from a grower or a
the ovule (egg). The pollen grain grows a long dealer who has a good reputation.
tube through the style toward the ovule. Two
sperm are formed. One of the sperm unites with EVALUATING
the ovule in the ovary. The other sperm forms tis- 1=i, 2=a, 3=j, 4=b, 5=c, 6=e, 7=d, 8=f, 9=h, and 10=g
sue known as endosperm.

49
 11
PLANT GROWTH
CHAPTER SUMMARY INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Producing plants when, how, and where we want The objectives of the chapter are intended to help
them is more involved than some people think. People students develop an understanding of several impor-
must know the requirements for plant growth and how tant practices that help plants grow. These practices
to provide what plants need. are based on the growth processes and needs of
Growth is by mitosis—a type of cell division. Plants plants.
have two kinds of growth: primary and secondary. Pri- Upon completion of Chapter 11, the student will be
mary growth occurs when plants get larger; stems and able to:
roots grow longer and leaves and flowers grow. Second-
ary growth takes place when the stems and roots 1. Describe how and why plants grow.
increase in diameter. Encouraging primary and second-
ary growth involves understanding growth processes. 2. List and explain factors in plant growth.
Plants grow because of phytohormones. These 3. Explain photosynthesis and why it is important.
substances naturally occur in plants and regulate the
growth and development of plants. Several kinds of 4. Explain transpiration and why it is important.
hormones are found, and growth can be encouraged 5. Name the nutrients plants need, and describe
by providing additional hormones. A common hormone how plants get them.
used in horticulture is gibberellic acid.
6. Discuss nitrogen fixation in legumes.
Photosynthesis is the important process whereby
plants produce sugar. Plants use carbon dioxide and 7. Explain the use of fertilizer.
water in the presence of light and chlorophyll to pro-
duce simple sugar and oxygen.
Plant growth processes must consider respiration INTEREST APPROACH
and transpiration. With respiration, the sugar produced
by photosynthesis is used by the plant for energy. Tran- Various strategies can be used in the interest
spiration is the loss of water from the plant through the approach to motivate students. Relating the needs of
stomata. The stomata on the leaves open and close in plants found in the local climate and agriculture is one
an attempt to provide a good environment for the plant. effective strategy. Give examples of local crop needs,
If too much water is lost, the plant will suffer. Several such as fertilizer and irrigation. Then have students dis-
cultural practices can be used to help plants avoid cuss what would result if these practices were not
water loss. used.
Plants require several nutrients for growth. These Another interest approach is to have the students
are known as essential elements. Twenty elements read the introductory part of the chapter in the text. Ask
have been found to be essential for plant growth. Of them to explain what is meant by “producing plants
these, 17 elements have been carefully documented when, how, and where they are wanted.” They might
through research. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas- suggest that growing tomatoes in a greenhouse in the
sium are the three elements that are needed in the winter requires knowing the requirements of tomatoes.
largest amounts. The same is true with other crops. Conclude the inter-
Fertilizers are chemical substances used to provide est approach by reminding students of the importance
plant nutrients. Crops have varying needs, just as soil of knowing the principles of plant science. If we know
varies in available nutrients. Soil testing and plant tis- how plants grow, we can do things to help them grow
sue analysis are used to determine the nutrients that better. (Teachers may wish to review the objectives at
need to be added to the soil for a particular crop. this time.)

50
 INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES REVIEW AND EVALUATION
AND TEACHING PLANS The summary at the end of the chapter can be used
to help review the content of the chapter. The activities
Use teaching strategies for the objectives of this
in the Activity Manual are also useful. Some teachers
chapter that focus on effective methods of teaching the
may wish to incorporate the end-of-chapter review
principles of plant growth. Using the writing surface for
questions and the terms at the beginning of the chapter
presentation and discussion will be helpful with much of
in the review.
the content. Have the students read the chapter and
Evaluation can involve implementing some of the
participate in the class discussion to improve their
review activities as well as using written and oral
learning. As information is presented on the writing sur-
tests. Teachers can observe the performance of stu-
face or discussed in class, students should take notes.
dents in the school laboratory and in their super-
Remember that RLRWP-E will result in the greatest
vised experienced programs. The same techniques
mastery of the content.
can be used for re-teaching, as needed and as
Various techniques can be used in the teaching plan
appropriate.
to enrich instruction. Examples of plants can be brought
to class for students to use in studying primary and sec-
ondary growth. Have students distinguish between sec- SAFETY
ondary and primary growth. Plants can be treated with
phytohormones, such as gibberellic acid, so the growth of The objectives of the chapter involve few learning
those that are treated can be compared with the growth of activities that pose safety hazards. However, some
those in a control group that receive no treatment. Activi- activities carried out in the teaching strategies (e.g.,
ties in the Activity Manual will also be helpful. Refer stu- using chemicals to test soil and using fertilizers) could
dents to Figure 11–9, parts of a tree. Move outside to a pose safety problems. The teacher should carefully
lab environment where trees are present. Ask students to review these safety problems with the students prior to
point out the crown, trunk, and roots. Present a cross sec- the learning activities. Safety practices are presented in
tion of a tree or a piece of wood that shows plant growth the Activity Manual.
rings. Have students count the rings as a means of esti-
mating the years required for the wood to grow. Another
observation is to locate mistletoe in a tree and to discuss ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
relationships between the mistletoe and the tree. The objectives of the chapter can be achieved with
Collecting soil samples and conducting analyses to few additional resources. A good book that carries
determine the nutrients present in the soil will help pro- beyond the content of AgriScience is Introduction to
vide hands-on learning. The information gathered Plant & Soil Science and Technology (available from
should be compared to the needs of crops, as pre- Pearson Education). The content will have additional
sented in Table 11–2 in the text. meaning if it is related to situations in the local area.
Various types of fertilizer should be brought to the Bulletins and materials about crop fertilization and
classroom, as appropriate. Students may tour a farm other cultural practices can be obtained from the divi-
supplies business to observe the labeling and product sion of agriculture at a college or a university. Here are
formulation of different fertilizers. Tags from fertilizer a few university Web sites with information: University
containers should be used to help students learn about of Illinois (hydroponics): www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/
fertilizer analysis. Students can obtain experience in html_pubs/hydro/require.html; West Virginia Univesity
the different methods of fertilizer placement and han- (forage plants): www.caf.wvu.edu/~forage/growth.htm;
dling in the school laboratory or in their supervised Colorado State University (plant growth): www.ext.
experience programs. colostate.edu/mg/gardennotes/ 141.html; and Texas A&M
This chapter presents much practical information that University (Master Gardener): http://aggie-horticulture.
can be used in growing plants. Application of the informa- tamu.edu/.
tion in the school laboratory will be most beneficial.

51
 ANSWERS 6. What is respiration?
Respiration uses sugar and oxygen to produce
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS energy to help plants grow and reproduce. (Note:
Respiration is the reverse of photosynthesis.)
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to 7. What is transpiration?
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant.
require more complete information, the use of complete Most of the loss is through the stomata of the
sentences, and other details in the answers. leaves.

1. How do plants grow? 8. Why do plants wilt? What can be done to pre-
vent wilting?
Plants grow by cell division (mitosis).
Plants wilt because they do not have enough
2. What kinds of growth occur in plants? Distin- water. Wilting could be due to excessive transpi-
guish between the two. ration or other causes. Wilting can be prevented
by avoiding damaging plants during cultivation,
The two kinds of growth in a plant are primary
planting drought-tolerant species, fallowing,
and secondary growth. Primary growth is linear
using no-till culture, mulching, terracing, and irri-
growth; the stems and roots grow longer, and the
gating.
leaves and flowers grow. In secondary growth,
the stems and roots increase in diameter 9. What are the essential nutrients for plants?
(become thicker). List their names and chemical symbols.
3. What kinds of hormones are found in plants? The essential nutrients are carbon (C), hydro-
What does each do for the plant? gen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), potassium (K),
phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg),
The hormones found in plants are auxin (regu- sulfur (S), sodium (Na), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), cop-
lates stem growth and fruit production); gibberel- per (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), manga-
lins (regulate stem and leaf growth, fruit develop- nese (Mn), chlorine (Cl), cobalt (Co), vanadium
ment, flowering, and cell division); cytokins (V), and silicon (Si).
(promote cell division); ethylene (regulates
growth and reproductive processes); and 10. What is the importance of nitrogen? What are
abscisic acid (promotes dropping of leaves and the sources of nitrogen?
fruit from plants). Nitrogen makes leaves healthy and green and
helps plants grow fast. It is essential in proto-
4. What is photosynthesis? What are the major
plasm. The sources of nitrogen are nitrate (NO3!)
phases of the process?
and ammonium (NH4+) forms in fertilizer. Some
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants nitrogen is naturally in the soil. Legume plants
make sugar. The two major phases are energy have the ability to “fix” nitrogen.
gathering and sugar making. Energy is gathered
from the sunlight. 11. What is a legume?
A legume is a plant that has the ability to take
5. How is photosynthesis carried out? Write the nitrogen from the air and put it into nodules that
equation. grow on their roots.
Photosynthesis is carried out by plants in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Energy 12. What is the importance of phosphorus and
from the sun produces chemical energy, which potassium?
rearranges the elements of carbon dioxide and Phosphorus is needed for plants to store and
water. Sugar and oxygen are produced. (Refer transfer energy and to grow. It is also needed for
to Chapter 11, page 277 in the text for the seed germination. Potassium is needed for
equation.) plants to carry out photosynthesis, move sugar,

52
 and perform other functions. Both phosphorus and the third number is the percent of potash in
and potassium are needed for plants to be the fertilizer.
healthy and to grow.
16. How is fertilizer placed?
13. How is the appropriate fertilizer determined? Fertilizer is placed so it will be available to the
The fertilizer to use depends on the needs of plants without damaging them. The methods are
the plants, the nutrients in the soil, and the pH of pre-planting (before the crop is planted), planting
the soil. Soil samples are taken and tested for (at the time of planting), and post-planting (after
nutrients. The tissues of plants may be analyzed the crop is up and growing).
to determine nutrient deficiencies. Different crops 17. What are the important rules to follow in han-
use varying nutrients. dling fertilizer?
14. What types of fertilizer are used? The rules to follow in handling fertilizer are use
The types of fertilizer are dry, liquid, and other only the recommended kind and amount; apply
forms (e.g., gases). fertilizer only where it is needed; store fertilizer in
dry places where nutrients will not be lost; clean
15. What does “fertilizer analysis” mean? equipment after it is used to apply fertilizer; wear
Explain the following label on a fertilizer bag:
protective clothing; and wash after using fertil-
5-10-5.
izer.
Fertilizer analysis tells what the nutrients are in
the fertilizer. The first number is the percent of EVALUATING
nitrogen in the fertilizer; the second number is
the percent of phosphoric acid in the fertilizer; 1=i, 2=d, 3=e, 4=a, 5=j, 6=g, 7=f, 8=b, 9=c, and 10=h

12
PLANT HEALTH

CHAPTER SUMMARY 86,000 species of insects are found in North America.

Insects are often classified by their mouthparts: chew-
Plants are subject to attack and damage by certain ing or sucking. They are also classified by their life
pests. Understanding pests, including their prevention cycles: complete metamorphosis or incomplete meta-
and control, can help a producer to be more efficient in morphosis. Insects can cause damage at different
crop production. times in their life cycles.
Plants can be damaged by insects, nematodes, dis- Although some insects are pests, other insects are
eases, weeds, rodents, and other animals. Three con- beneficial. They may help crops grow by pollinating
ditions must be present for pest problems to develop: a flowers, preying on other pests, and more.
pest, a susceptible plant, and an environment favorable Nematodes are tiny worm-like animals that live in
for the pest to take advantage of the plant. the soil and attack the roots and stems of plants.
Entomology is the branch of zoology that deals with Diseases are abnormal conditions in living plants.
insects. Insects are small animals (Domain Eukarya) Diseased plants may not grow or produce a crop. In
that damage plants by eating leaves, stems, fruit, or some cases, they die. Diseases are of two types: envi-
roots or by sucking the juices from them. Some ronmental and parasitic. Environmental diseases are
insects raise their young on plants. Approximately caused by conditions in the environment of plants. In

53
contrast, parasitic diseases are caused by tiny organ- the writing surface, list the examples of ways they have
isms (e.g., fungi and bacteria) and by viruses. seen plants sick. Have them name the kinds of plants
Weeds are plants that are growing where they are that have been sick. Next, ask students to describe
not wanted. Weeds are classified on the basis of their how sick plants affect people (less food, fiber, and shel-
life cycles: annuals, biennials, and perennials. Weeds ter; increased cost; etc.).
compete with plants, waste valuable nutrients, lower The interest approach could be localized. Examples
the quality of the crop, make harvesting more difficult, of particular disease problems could be discussed.
serve as hiding places for insects and disease, and
Perhaps the school laboratory has had insect or dis-
look bad in a crop or a lawn.
ease problems the students have observed. If so, these
Pests cause damage in many ways. The major loss
could be related in the interest approach. (Teachers
is the reduction of the amount of crop that is produced.
may wish to review the objectives at this time.)
Some pests cause other kinds of damage, such as
rodents that make holes in the ground. Another potential interest approach is to begin with
Prevention is far better than trying to control a pest a quadrat sampling activity. Students can fairly easily
after it has gotten into a crop. Following good cultural make population counts and use the data they collect
practices can keep away many pests. Getting rid of as a part of an interest approach.
pests may involve using mechanical methods, such as
plowing to kill weeds; chemical methods, such as
insecticides to kill insects; biological methods, such as INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
using insects that eat other insects; and genetic meth-
ods, such as developing crops that are pest-resistant.
AND TEACHING PLANS
Integrated pest management (IPM) is an accepted Many strategies can be a part of the teaching plans
approach to the overall welfare of society. It involves for achieving the objectives of this chapter. The general
using a variety of prevention and control methods. content of the chapter will need to be covered. Use stu-
Safety is a major issue in using some of the meth- dent reading and involvement as well as presentations
ods of pest control. If these methods are used care- whereby key terms and information are summarized on
lessly, the individuals using the materials and society the writing surface. The RLRWP-E process will pay big
as a whole can be harmed. dividends in terms of student achievement of basic sci-
ence and associated concepts.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES Sequentially cover the chapter content. Remember
that each objective has an “A” heading that begins a
The objectives of this chapter are intended to help section at the top of the page. This organizes the con-
students develop fundamental knowledge of practices tent for ease of reading. After students have read a
in preventing and controlling plant pests. Emphasis is
section, list key points on the writing surface. Then
on prevention and on protecting the environment from
have students provide information that explains and
hazards.
gives the content associated with each key point.
Upon completion of Chapter 12, the student will be
able to: As much as possible, “real things” should be used in
the instructional process. Specimens of insects, dis-
1. Explain plant health and how pests cause dam- eased plants, and other items will be helpful. The Activ-
age. ity Manual will provide hands-on learning activities.
Preparing and calibrating sprayers and measuring
2. Discuss the major kinds of pests.
materials are also useful activities. (Note: For safety
3. Explain the role of entomology in plant health. purposes, in measuring, teachers may wish to use
4. Identify conditions that may result in pest dam- water rather than dangerous chemicals.)
age to plants. A few student-centered activities include making
5. Describe the meaning and use of integrated pest insect collections and classifying the insects by the
management. type of mouthparts and metamorphosis; collecting
6. List safety practices in using pesticides. specimens of diseased plants; collecting weed leaves
and then classifying them by the type of life cycle; and
collecting the labels of containers of pesticides. In
INTEREST APPROACH some cases, students can be involved in preventing
Have students read the introductory part of the and controlling pests in the school laboratory or in their
chapter. Ask them to explain how plants get sick. On supervised experience programs.

54
 of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service,
REVIEW AND EVALUATION USDA, may be helpful. Go online and chose from a
Review can involve a number of approaches. The range of options at www.aphis.usda.gov/.
summary at the end of the chapter will bring closure to
the chapter content. Students can be called on to
explain the content of the various objectives. Other ANSWERS
students can define the terms given at the beginning
of the chapter. The end-of-chapter review questions END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
are also helpful in reviewing and re-teaching, as
needed. The Activity Manual will aid in reviewing the Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
content as well as in evaluating the achievement of tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
the chapter objectives. be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
Evaluation can involve any of these review require more complete information, the use of complete
approaches as well as the “Evaluating” section and oral sentences, and other details in their answers.
or written testing. Observing the performance of stu-
dents in their supervised experience programs will also 1. What is a plant pest?
provide useful evaluation information.
A plant pest is anything that causes injury or
loss to plants.
SAFETY 2. What are insects? How are they identified?
The objectives of this chapter can be achieved with-
out students being exposed to safety hazards; how- Insects are small animals with three pairs of
ever, safety is particularly important with the hands-on legs and bodies divided into three sections:
activities that could be a part of this chapter. head, thorax, and abdomen. The legs and wings,
The handling and use of pesticides is always an if any, are on the thorax. The head has antennae
area of considerable safety concern. Students should and mouth parts. The abdomen has no attach-
be taught how to read labels and how to respond to the ments but may be divided into segments.
safety precautions that are given. Students may have
contact with hazardous pesticides in their supervised 3. What are the life stages of insects? How do
experience. They need to know how to properly use the stages relate to plant damage?
pesticides in approved and legal ways and how to The life cycle of insects is known as metamor-
respond in the event of an emergency. phosis. A complete metamorphosis has four
The Activity Manual addresses safety practices with stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The incom-
the activities contained therein. Be sure to cover this plete metamorphosis has three stages: egg,
section with the students. nymph, and adult. Insects live on and/or attack
The last part of Chapter 12 in the text contains plants in the different stages. The larva form is a
important safety practices. Carefully go over each item. damaging worm that often harms many plants.
Have students offer examples. Some adult forms feed on plants.
Teachers may wish to invite specialists on pesticide
safety to serve as resource people in class. In some 4. What is a beneficial insect? List three ways
cases, pesticide applicator training may be provided. insects are beneficial.
Beneficial insects help crops grow. They make
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES the environment better for plants. Insects are
The objectives of this chapter can be achieved with beneficial because they improve the soil, polli-
few resources outside of the text and Activity Manual. nate plants, and destroy other insects.
However, local materials on keeping plants healthy can
5. What is a nematode? How do nematodes
be obtained and used as resources in the class. These damage plants?
include information on pests in the crops, lawns, for-
ests, and other areas in the local community. This infor- A nematode is a tiny worm-like organism that
mation can be acquired from any agriculture college or lives in the soil and attacks the roots and stems
university. Literature on pesticide safety and related of plants. Nematodes damage the plants and
issues may also be useful. The Academic Connection keep them from growing as they should. They
and Internet Topics sections may be beneficial in may also carry disease from one plant to
assessing and using additional resources. Resources another.

55
 6. What is a plant disease? What are the signs 13. What methods are used to manage pests?
of plant disease? Briefly describe each.
A plant disease is an abnormal condition in liv- Methods used to manage pests are mechani-
ing plants. The signs of disease include rotting cal methods (plowing, mowing, and mulching);
plant parts; leaves turning yellow; leaves and cultural practices (rotating crops, roguing, trap
stems twisting; buds not developing into flowers cropping, burning, using resistant varieties, and
and fruit; and dead plants. cleaning around fields); chemicals (sprayed or
otherwise applied to crops and pests); biological
7. What are the types of plant disease? methods (using living organisms to control
The types of plant disease are environmental pests); and genetic methods (developing crops
and parasitic. that are resistant to pests).
14. What is the relationship between the way an
8. What is a weed? What are the kinds of
insect gets its food and the kind of pesticide
weeds?
that may be used?
A weed is a plant that is growing where it is not Insects get their food by chewing or sucking.
wanted. The kinds of weeds are annuals, bienni- Chewing insects eat leaves and any insecticide that
als, and perennials. They may further be classi- may be on the leaf; therefore, they can be controlled
fied as winter and summer weeds. with stomach poisons. Sucking insects do not eat
the surfaces of leaves; therefore, the poison must
9. How do weeds cause problems for plants?
be sprayed on the insects or in the juice of the plant.
Weeds cause problems by keeping the Insecticides sprayed on insects are known as con-
desired plants from growing; wasting nutrients; tact poisons. Fumigants and systemic poisons will
lowering the quality of the crop; making harvest control chewing and sucking insects.
more difficult; serving as a hiding place for
insects and diseases; and looking bad in a field. 15. Distinguish between selective and non-
selective herbicides.
10. What conditions must exist for pests to dam- Selective herbicides will kill only certain kinds
age plants? Explain each. of plants. Nonselective herbicides kill all plants
Three conditions must be present: a pest (If a upon contact. Selective herbicides may be
pest isn’t where crops are grown, it can’t cause a known as translocated herbicides.
problem!); a susceptible plant (Some plants are 16. What is integrated pest management?
more likely to be attacked by a pest than other
Integrated pest management (IPM) is a
plants.); and the right environment (Pests and crops
planned process of using methods that have the
can sometimes grow together without problems until
best outcomes for society. It is a blend of pest
a change makes the crop plants more susceptible.).
prevention techniques in a planned program.
11. How do pests damage plants? How does the Some levels of pests are tolerated. Emphasis is
damage affect the producer? on reducing pest numbers with a minimum
amount of damage.
Plants may be damaged when pests chew
holes in plants, attack the vascular system, 17. What are the important safety practices when
attack fruit, contaminate products, rob plants of using pesticides? Select three that you feel
food, and damage the land. Producers are are most important.
affected by reduced yields, lowered quality, Eleven safety practices are listed. Use only
increased production costs, hiding places for approved pesticides; know the pesticides; use a
other pests, and restricted marketing. pesticide with low toxicity; use pesticides only when
needed; do not contaminate resources; wear pro-
12. How are plant pest problems prevented? tective clothing; wash the skin after contact; properly
Plant pest problems can be prevented by dispose of empty containers; apply in good weather;
planting good seed, destroying diseased plants, use the right equipment; and know the emergency
applying the right fertilizer, disinfecting equip- procedures. (Students should feel free to select any
ment, using good water, controlling animal move- three of these safety procedures and to identify
ment, applying chemicals properly; and using them with a check mark or in some other way.
tests to check for insects. Teachers may want students to justify their choices.)

56
18. What is entomology? What does it include? EVALUATING
Entomology is the branch of zoology that deals
1=i, 2=c, 3=a, 4=f, 5=g, 6=e, 7=b, 8=h, 9=d, and 10=j
with insects. It may include other noninsect spe-
cies, such as spiders, mites, and centipedes. All
are in the Domain Eukarya.

13
SOIL AND LAND SCIENCE

CHAPTER SUMMARY Soil profile is a vertical section of the soil at a partic-

ular place. Four horizons are found. Some of the hori-
Soil is not dirt! In some situations, soil can become zons may be very thin or nonexistent.
dirt. Using appropriate terminology is important when Soil contains water in varying amounts. The water
referring to soil. Many people refer to soil as dirt. Soil table is the depth of the natural level of free water
provides for human needs; dirt doesn’t! Having plenty below the surface of the earth. The forms of water in
of food, fiber, and shelter requires productive soil. Soil the soil include: capillary water (water that coats parti-
is the top few inches of the earth’s crust that support cles of soil and is free to move about); hydroscopic
plant growth. It is made of four materials: minerals, water (thin layers of water that adhere to soil particles
organic matter, water, and air. and do not move about in the soil); and gravitational
water (water that fills cracks and air spaces between
The mineral materials in soil are sand, silt, and clay.
soil particles). Water is lost from the soil by runoff,
Sand has the largest particle size, and clay the small-
evaporation, transpiration, percolation and harvested
est. Organic matter is made of the remains of plants crops. The degree of internal drainage is determined by
and animals in various stages of decay. how readily water moves through the soil. Some soils
Soil has two important physical qualities: texture have poor internal drainage, especially those high in
and structure. Soil texture is the proportion of sand, silt, clay or with underlying rock.
and clay in the soil. A soil triangle is often used to show Soil pH refers to the acidity or the alkalinity of the
the makeup of different soils. (Refer to Figure 13–11 in soil. The pH is determined by testing a sample of soil.
the text.) Structure is concerned with the arrangement The soil pH can be changed by adding materials, such
of the particles into shapes or pieces. as lime to acid soils to make them more alkaline and
Soil tilth is the physical condition of the soil when it is sulfur to alkaline soils to make them more acidic. Crops
tilled. Good tilth means that the soil is loose and easily have varying pH preferences. Soils are modified to suit
worked when seed are planted and other activities are the crop that is to be grown.
performed. Soil salinity refers to salt in the soil. Salinity may be
a problem in some areas, especially in those where irri-
The chemical nature of soil refers to the elements
gation is widely used.
that are present as well as to the soil pH.
Several management practices are needed to pre-
The biological nature of soil refers to the living vent soil loss and to make the soil more productive.
organisms that are found in it. Earthworms, bacteria, Erosion is the loss of soil (usually by water and wind)
nematodes and other organisms live in the soil. In addi- and should obviously be kept to a minimum. Some land
tion, the roots of plants grow in the soil. may need drainage to help make it more productive.
Soil is formed from parent material. The nature of Land forming shapes the land so that it is better suited
the soil is a function of its parent material. Thousands to farming.
of years of weathering may be required to change lime- Land is more than soil. Eight land capability classes
stone and other parent materials into soil. are used to grade land on the basis of its highest use.

57
Some land is unsuited for cultivation. Land surveying is Begin covering the content of Chapter 13 with the
used to measure and mark real property–land. Various first major heading and move sequentially through the
instruments are used to measure land such odometer chapter.
wheels (distance or linear measurements), compass
(direction), clinometer (elevation), and area in acres
calculated from linear measurements. Land is INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
described with two systems: metes and bounds and
rectangular. The rectangular system is most widely
AND TEACHING PLANS
used in the United States and is based on a system of The instructional strategies used with this chapter
base lines and meridians. Legal descriptions require should focus on the achievement of the objectives. The
accurate and precise information. teaching plans should provide for application of the
information on soil in the local area.
Have students read the section of the chapter in the
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES text called “Soil Composition.” List the key terms on the
writing surface and then, with student input, develop a
The objectives of this chapter are intended to help definition for each term. Bring samples of the soil mate-
students develop a fundamental knowledge of the rials to the classroom for students to observe and feel.
soil. The emphasis is on soil materials, formation and After students have read the section of the chapter
productivity. on Soil Characteristics, use presentation and discus-
Upon completion of Chapter 13, the student will be sion methods to cover the content. List key terms and
able to: then their definitions on the writing surface. Refer stu-
dents to the soil triangle in Figure 13–11. Give students
1. Discuss the meaning and composition of soil. samples of various soils to try to identify based on the
2. Identify and describe the characteristics of soil. soil triangle. Use the activities in the Activity Manual.
3. Explain how soil is formed. Present the information on soil structure, tilth, and con-
sistency in outline form on the writing surface.
4. Explain the meaning and importance of soil Describe the chemical and the biological nature of
profiles. soil. Have students collect soil samples and study the
5. Identify and distinguish between the kinds of soil organisms in the soil. Use the activity in the Activity
water. Manual to determine the microorganisms present in a
6. Explain soil fertility, pH, and salinity. soil sample.
After students have read the section of the chapter
7. Name and explain soil management practices.
in the text called “Soil Formation,” use presentation and
8. Explain the meaning of land and how it is classi- discussion to cover the content. Relate soil formation to
fied. the soils found in the local area.
9. Discuss how land is measured and described. After students have read the section of the chapter
in the text called “Soil Profile,” write the key terms and
their definitions on the writing surface. Take a field trip
INTEREST APPROACH in the local area to study the profile of the soil. While
there, have students identify the soil texture and parent
The interest approach used with this chapter should material. (Refer students to Figure 13–18 for the hori-
focus on local soils to the extent possible. The kinds of zons in a soil profile.)
crops grown can be related to the nature of the soil. After students have read the section of the chapter
Have students read the introductory part of Chap- in the text called “Soil Water,” write the key terms and
ter 13 in the text. Ask them to explain how having their definitions on the writing surface. Also, list the
plenty of food, fiber and shelter is related to the soil. ways water is lost, and have students name ways the
Also, have them describe their observations of varia- losses can be prevented.
tions in soil from one place to another. (This may be in Have students read the section of the chapter on
the local community or as they have traveled to other soil pH. Using Figure 13–25, review the meaning of pH.
places.) List key terms on the writing surface, and then explain
Another approach that may be taken is to clarify the how pH can be determined and modified. Use the
terms “dirt” and “soil.” Encourage students to make it a activities in the Activity Manual to collect soil samples
habit to use the word, soil, when referring to soil. (Teach- and test the pH. Relate the sample results to the growth
ers may wish to review the objectives at this time.) of crops in the local area (refer to Table 13–2).

58
 Salinity can be covered, as appropriate in the local instruction. These materials can be obtained from a
area. college or university in the area that has an agriculture
After students have read the section of the chapter in program. The soil scientists at an agricultural experi-
the text called “Land,” use presentation and discussion ment station can be helpful. Technicians with the local
to cover the key terms and their definitions. Ask students office of the Natural Resources Conservation Service
to explain how land differs from soil. Describe the factors (NRCS) can provide accurate information on the soils
that determine the land capability classes. Review the and land in the area. The NRCS Web site may also
classes that are best suited for cultivation and then have useful information: www.nrcs.usda.gov.
relate them to the local area. Also, cover land classes
that are unsuited for cultivation. Take a field trip so stu-
dents will be able to observe different land capability ANSWERS
classes. Have them assess whether the land is being
used properly. END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
After students have read the section of the chapter in
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
the text called “Soil Management Practices,” use presen-
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
tation and discussion to cover the main concepts. Place
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
key terms and concepts on the writing surface. Erosion
require more complete information, the use of complete
and the kinds of erosion should be defined. The ways
sentences, and other details in their answers.
erosion is controlled should be reviewed. The erosion sit-
uation in the local community should be discussed, with
students assessing soil losses and potential practices for 1. What is soil? Where is it found?
conserving the soil. Drainage and land forming may be Soil is the top few inches of the earth’s crust,
included with the instruction on erosion. and it supports plant life. It is the medium in
which many plants grow.

REVIEW AND EVALUATION 2. What are the ingredients in soil? How do

these ingredients determine the nature of the
Review and evaluation can involve similar strate- soil?
gies. Review by having the students describe the con-
tent of the objectives for the chapter. The students can The four major ingredients in soil are minerals,
also define the terms at the beginning of the chapter organic matter, water, and air. The amounts of the
and answer the end-of-chapter review questions. ingredients vary. The proportion of each of these
Evaluation can be based on the performance of stu- ingredients determines the nature of the soil.
dents in the review as well as in the activities in the 3. What is organic matter? How is it formed?
Activity Manual. A written test may be given on the con-
tent. The test may be developed by the teacher or Organic matter is made of plant and animal
drawn from the computer test bank. remains in various stages of decay. Organic mat-
ter naturally develops, but cultural practices (e.g.,
plowing) encourage its formation.
SAFETY 4. What is the soil triangle? Why is it useful?
Achieving the objectives of the chapter involves few The soil triangle illustrates how different soil tex-
safety hazards. However, activities that expand the tures are related to the different materials in the
content to the local community could present safety soil. The triangle is useful because it shows the
problems. Teachers should instruct students in the relationships between the different soil textures.
safety areas that are involved. Any activities in which
chemicals are used to test soil should include safety 5. Why is biological activity important in the soil?
instruction. The Activity Manual has appropriate safety Biological activity is important because it helps
precautions for conducting the activities. break down organic matter, aerates the soil, and
adds fertility.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 6. How is soil formed? What processes are
The text and the Activity Manual can be used to involved?
achieve the objectives of the chapter. Materials on local Soil is formed over many years by erosion.
soils will be needed to give additional relevance to the The continual processes involved are weathering

59
 of parent material, climate, plants, animals, (make soil less alkaline). Limestone may be
slope, and drainage. added to raise the pH (make soil less acidic).

7. What is a soil profile? What horizons are 14. What is land classification? What factors are
found? used in determining the class of land?
A soil profile is a vertical section of the soil at a Land classification is the grading of land on the
particular place. The horizons are A (surface), B basis of certain factors that determine its capabil-
(subsoil), C (parent material), and R (bedrock). ity. The factors are surface texture, internal drain-
age, depth of topsoil and subsoil, erosion, slope,
8. Explain water table. and surface runoff.
The water table is the depth of the natural level 15. Distinguish between the two major classes of
of free water below the surface of the earth. land.
When a hole is dug in the soil, the water table is
the level at which water will collect and stand. The eight major classes of land are listed here.
Land suited for cultivation: Class I—very good
9. What forms of water are found in soil? Distin- land with no or few limitations; Class II—good land
guish between the forms. with slope not exceeding 8%; Class III—moder-
Three forms of water are found in soil capillary, ately good land with slope not exceeding 10%; and
hydroscopic, and gravitational. Capillary water is Class IV—fairly good land with slope and internal
a coating of water on soil particles that moves drainage that may restrict its use. Land not suited
from one particle to another. Hydroscopic water for cultivation: Class V—unsuited for cultivation
is a thin layer of water on soil particles that sticks and best suited for pastures, hay crops, and for-
to the particles and does not move. Gravitational estry; Class VI—not suited for row crops because
water is the water that fills the cracks and spaces the slope is too great; Class VII—highly unsuited
between the soil particles. for cultivation because of erosion and other prob-
lems; and Class VIII—land unsuited for plant pro-
10. How is water lost from the soil? What can be duction because it is very steep or it is in marshes
done to reduce the loss? or bayous.
Water is lost from the soil by runoff, evapora-
tion, transpiration through plants, percolation, 16. What is erosion? How is it prevented?
and harvested crops. Various management Erosion is the loss of soil. The soil may be
practices can be used to conserve water. For washed away by water or blown away by wind.
example, building terraces will help to reduce Erosion is prevented or reduced by using mini-
runoff, and mulching will help to decrease mum and no tillage cropping, mulching, terrac-
evaporation. ing, strip cropping, contour plowing, crop rota-
11. What is internal drainage? Why is it important? tion, diversion ditches, and levees.
Internal drainage is determined by how readily 17. What management practices may be used to
water moves through the soil. It is important in make land more productive?
how well crops grow on the land. Soil with poor
Management practices to make land more pro-
internal drainage may be too wet for some crops.
ductive include drainage and land forming. Drain-
12. What is pH? What pH ranges are found? Why age removes excess water. Land forming
is pH important? changes the shape of the surface of the land so it
The chemical way of expressing the acidity or is more productive.
alkalinity of soil is called pH. It refers to the
18. What measurements are made of land, and
hydrogen ion concentration in the soil. The range
how are these commonly made?
of pH is from 0 to 14, with 7.0 being neutral. It is
important because different crops have varying Measurements that may be made of land are
pH preferences. The crops grow better in soil linear (made with tapes, chains, by pacing, using
that has the appropriate pH. odometer wheels), direction (made with a com-
pass), elevation (made with differential leveling
13. How is pH changed? and clinometers), and area (made with linear
The pH is changed by the addition of materials measurements and calculations; remote meth-
to the soil. Sulfur may be added to lower the pH ods may also be used).

60
19. What two systems of describing land are meridians and base lines to create a network of
used? Distinguish between the two. squares).
The two systems of describing land are metes
and bounds (start at a known point to establish EVALUATING
boundaries and run lines in directions for speci-
fied distances) and rectangular survey (use 1=i, 2=j, 3=a, 4=f, 5=g, 6=c, 7=b, 8=e, 9=d, and 10=h

14
PLANT PRODUCTION
CHAPTER SUMMARY Cotton is graded by staple, color, and freedom
from trash. Staple is the length of the fibers, with
Plants provide many products that are essential in
these designations used: upland cotton, which is
human life (and also in animal life). Cultural practices
7/8 to 1 5/16 inches long; extra-long staple (ELS)
are used to ensure a safe, dependable supply of these
cotton, which is 1¼ to 1 9/16 inch; and short staple
products. Proper management of Earth’s resources is
cotton, which is ½ to 1 inch staple. Flax, hemp,
needed to promote sustainability.
jute, sisal, and kenaf are also grown for fiber. In
Areas of plant production include field, horticultural
addition to fiber, cotton seeds are used to manu-
and forestry crops. The field crops area is concerned
facture oil.
with producing plants in fields (a field is an open land
area where crops are planted). • Turf crops–A turf crop is one that is grown for aes-
Major field crops are: thetic, recreational, or functional purpose created
by the surface of the plants. Most are grasses,
• Grain crops–Grain crops are species that are such as a fescue lawn, but Bermudagrass, bent
members of the grass family that are produced grass, and Kentucky blue grass are other exam-
for seed or kernels known as grain. Major grain ples. Turf is important on athletic fields, golf
crops include corn, rice, and wheat. Others courses, lawns, and similar areas.
include oats, barley, rye, and grain sorghum. • Forage crops–A forage crop is one that is grown
These serve as major food and feed crops in the to provide vegetation for consumption by ani-
United States and in other nations. mals. Pastures, hay crops, silage crops, and oth-
• Sugar crops–Sugar crops are produced for sugar ers are examples. Pastures may be permanent or
or sweetener in human foods and beverages. temporary; they may be comprised of native or
Syrup (a sweat liquid) is obtained from the watery improved.
juices of some plants. This syrup is produced to • Horticultural crops–These crops may be of two
produce sugar. The two major sugar crops are broad types: ornamental and food crops.
sugar cane and sugar beets. Ornamentals include cut flowers, potted plants,
• Oil crops–These crops are grown to produce shrubs and trees and turf in landscapes. Food
vegetable oil. In most cases, oil is processed horticultural crops may be vegetables or fruits
from the seeds. The most important in the United used for food purposes. Vegetables include
States are the soybean, canola, cotton, and pea- tomatoes, potatoes, green peas, broccoli, and
nuts. Safflower and sunflower seeds are also many others. Fruit includes oranges, apricots,
used for oil processing along with flax, sesame, peaches, apples, strawberries, pears, pineap-
olives, and tung. ples, and others. In addition, nut crops are often
• Fiber crops–A fiber crop is one that is grown for its included as a horticultural crop with fruits, with
fiber, with cotton being by far the most important. examples being almonds and pecans.

61
 • Forestry crops–Forestry is the production of trees Upon completion of Chapter 14, the student will be
for wood products and, sometimes, non-wood able to:
tree products such as maple syrup and rubber.
1. Describe important areas of plant production.
Successful plant production depends on a number 2. List and explain general practices in plant pro-
of factors, including climate, soil, moisture, technology, duction.
market, labor, and skills. Additional considerations 3. Describe practices in the production of selected
include traditional versus organic methods and field crops.
sustainability. 4. Identify general practices in ornamental plant
Product practices include: selection of plant line or production and management
variety, seedbed preparation, planting and seeding,
5. Identify general practices in forestry production.
fertilization, pest management, irrigation, harvesting,
post-harvest management of the product, and post- 6. Identify general practices in home gardening.
harvest field management. Specific practices vary with
the crop that is raised. Corn, for example, is the most
important crop in North America. Considerations
INTEREST APPROACH
include type, planting, growing degree day (GDD), and A possible interest approach is to make a tour of a
cultural practices. Rice is another important crop that is crop farm, greenhouse facility, forest, or home garden.
classed by grain length and cultural method. Wheat is a After a short time call on students to describe what they
cereal grain crop grown primarily for its grain though have seen. Ask how they would like to produce a par-
other parts of the plant may have limited value. Wheat ticular crop. Call on individual students to list and dis-
is classified by time of planting, color, and kernel hard- cuss practices in plant production that they have
ness. observed (indicate that the practices will be covered in
A greenhouse is a specialized structure for growing the chapter).
plants that would not grow efficiently or survive based Another interest approach is to have the students
on the outside weather. Bedding plants, flowering read the introductory part of the chapter. Ask students
plants, food crops, and other plants may be grown in to explain the statement, “The products of plants are
greenhouses. Bedding plants are later set outside. important.” Have them tell what plant products are
Silviculture is the art and science of growing trees. important and ask them to names examples of impor-
Practices to improve productivity are known as timber tant plant products. Also, to the extent possible, use
stand improvement (TSI). Practices include planting, local agriculture examples to explain new plant prod-
pest management, thinning, cleaning, liberation cut- ucts and ways they are produced. (Teachers may wish
tings, and harvest cuttings. Forest fire protection is a to review the objectives at this time.)
major responsibility. Harvesting may be for poles, logs, Have students read the introductory paragraphs of
and other products. the chapter. Afterward, call on one or more to discuss
Home gardening is producing vegetables on a small what was read. Refer students to Figure 14-1. Have
plot or in containers for consumption by a family. Impor- them to describe the contents of the picture with
tant duties include: planning, site selection, site protec- emphasis on the role of technology in plant production.
tion, layout, soil preparation, seed and transplant selec- Next, move into the content of the chapter.
tion, planting and transplanting, fertilizing, managing
pests, irrigating, mulching, thinning and staking/train-
ing, harvesting, and end of season site cleaning. INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
AND TEACHING PLANS
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES Begin with the first section in the textbook, “Areas of
Plant Production.” Have students read the section as
The objectives of this chapter are designed to help homework or during supervised study. First, define field
students understand the cultural practices in the suc- crop and ask students to name examples in the local
cessful production of plants. Several species of field area followed by in the state, nation, and on Earth. Go
crops are covered in more detail. Information is also over each field crop sequentially beginning with grain
presented on forestry, horticulture, and home garden- crops followed by sugar crops, oil crops, fiber crops,
ing. The practices may be applied in supervised experi- turf crops, forage crops, horticultural crops, and forestry
ence, school facilities, or elsewhere as students crops. Identify examples of each crop and discuss the
develop important plant production skills. importance and cultural issues. Be sure to distinguish

62
bedding plants, flowering plants, and foliage plants in practices can be discussed in terms of the school gar-
horticulture. Also, distinguish food crops from orna- den, family gardens of students, or other garden
mental crops. Spend considerable time on each of situations in the local community. In some cases, stu-
these crop areas. dents may be involved with production of vegetables
Next, have students read “Growing Plants.” After- for local sales or on a larger scale in commercial vege-
ward, call on individuals to summarize the information. table production. Refer students to Figure 14-27 and
List general considerations on the writing surface. Dis- to Table 14-9. Have each student prepare a sketch of
cuss each and ask students to elaborate on each. Be a garden layout and choose the vegetable crops to be
sure to cover the concept of “organic agriculture” as grown. Note that seed catalogs, garden brochures,
compared to traditional agriculture. Go over sustain- and online gardening information may be useful.
able agriculture and have students discuss why Some students may wish to include species of vegeta-
sustainability is important. The general considerations bles that are not included in the Table 14-9. Note that
have been covered, go over the section “Production organic gardening can be introduced in this section of
Practices.” List each practice on the writing surface the chapter.
and use student input to explain the appropriate con-
tent. Observe the practices on a farm, in the school
greenhouse, or elsewhere in plant production. REVIEW AND EVALUATION
Have students read the section “Field Crop Produc-
The textbook and the Activity Manual can be used
tion.” You may wish to have them read a subsection of
for both review and evaluation.
this at a time, such as “Maize” may be sufficient for one
For review, have students define the terms at the
reading assignment and discussion. Cover maize in
beginning of the chapter and answer the end-of-chap-
detail, including measurement, corn type, and as a
ter review questions. This may be done orally as a
crop. Summarize major points on the writing surface;
group activity or as supervised study with the students
have students keep notes on this information. Next,
writing out the answers. Activities in the Activity Manual
cover “Rice.” Have student read the section and pro-
will also be very useful.
vide information for outlining the topic on the writing
Evaluation can involve some of the same activities
surface. Students should take notes on the information.
as review. The “Evaluating” section is one useful
Next, cover wheat much as was done with maize and
assessment tool. Oral and/or written tests can also be
rice. Remember, your local community may have other
given. All of the activities can be implemented in re-
crops that may need to be covered here or the commu-
teaching, as appropriate.
nity may not have one of these and, therefore, it can be
Refer to the list of objectives in the textbook. Call on
omitted.
students to demonstrate that they know the content
Students should read the section “Plant Production
associated with each objective. Reteach areas where
in Greenhouses.” Use student input to define the term,
students appear deficient.
greenhouse, and describe a typical greenhouse struc-
A practical approach to review and evaluation is to
ture as a frame covered with a plastic or glass covering.
grow a school crop or garden. Students can be
Ask students to tell why a greenhouse would be
involved in all of the practices. Some students may use
used–control environment, temperature, light, mois-
these activities as directed laboratory supervised expe-
ture, and air quality.
rience.
Next, have students read the section “Forest Pro-
duction.” Cover the content using student input to out-
line the major points on the writing surface. Define the
term silviculture. Have students discuss the meaning of
SAFETY
TSI and list and explain the practices that are included. Achieving the objectives of the chapter should
Go over the equipment used in forestry work as pre- involve few safety hazards. However, activities beyond
sented in Table 14-7 in the textbook. Indicate that for- the classroom could present safety problems. The
ests often require protection. Use student input to teacher should always review the appropriate safety
name and discuss the major causes of damage to for- practices. The Activity Manual presents safety precau-
ests and how the damage possibilities are minimized. tions with each activity.
Cover the meaning of forest harvesting, including the Activities involving tools, equipment, pesticides,
use of cruising. fertilizers, treated seeds, and similar plant production
Have students read the section “Home Gardening.” inputs may pose safety hazards. These should be
Use student input to name and discuss the general identified, discussed, and appropriate steps taken to
practices in being successful with a home garden. The minimize risk. In some cases, such as gases in

63
greenhouses, students may need to take major steps sources of vegetable oil are soybeans, cotton
using personal protective equipment. seed, and sunflower seed (students could name
other examples).

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 5. What are three plant sources of fiber?

The textbook and the Activity Manual can be used to Three plant sources of fiber are cotton, flax,
achieve the objectives of the chapter. In some cases, and kenaf. (Students could name other examples
teachers may wish to use specific materials on plant as per content of the textbook.)
production. An introductory book on plant science will be
6. What is turf? Name an example of a turf spe-
useful. Some materials can be obtained from a college
cies.
or university with an agriculture program, such as rec-
ommendations in plant production including varieties or Turf is short-growing, matted grass. Examples
plant lines, fertilization, pest management, and cultural include fescue, Bermudagrass, rye grass, and
practices. Online resources may also be useful. Most Kentucky blue grass.
every land grant university has online materials related
to vegetables adapted in the state. Here are a couple of 7. What is forage? Distinguish between pasture,
Web sites for beginning study: National Gardening hay, and silage.
Association - www.garden.org/foodguide/ browse/ Forage is vegetation that is used as livestock
veggie and Smart Gardener - www. smartgardener.com/ feed. Pasture is land on which annual or peren-
nial grasses and legumes are grown for grazing
by livestock. Hay is green plant material that has
ANSWERS been cut, dried, and stored for later use as ani-
mal feed. Silage is chopped green plant material
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS that has fermented.
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- 8. What are bedding plants? Name two examples
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to of ornamental species and two vegetable plant
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may species.
require more complete information, the use of complete
sentences and other details in their answers. Bedding plants are typically annual species
that are set in masses in flower beds for color or
1. What is a field crop? Name one important other appeal. These plants are often started in
example. greenhouses or other structures before the dan-
A field crop is one that produced in a field or ger of frost has passed. Examples include the
large area of land. Examples are corn, cotton, petunia and the zinnia. (Some vegetable plants
wheat, and soybeans. are managed similarly, such as tomatoes started
in a greenhouse and later set in a garden or
2. What is the source of grain? field.)
Grain is the seed or kernel of a cereal grain
9. What is forestry?
plant.
Forestry is the production of trees for wood
3. What are the two main sources of sugar? Com- and other products. (Forestry is not to be con-
pare and contrast the two in a couple of sen- fused with fruit trees grown in orchards and the
tences. like.)
The two main sources of sugar are sugar cane
and sugar beets. Cane is a grass plant; the beet 10. What is a cultural practice? Name four gen-
is a root crop. Juice (and sugar) is processed eral cultural practices with plants.
from the stalk of cane and extracted from the An activity or treatment needed for a plant to
engorged beet root. survive, grow, and be productive. Examples of
practices are variety or plant line selection, seed-
4. What is vegetable oil? Name three plant spe- bed preparation, planting and seeding, fertilizer
cies that are sources of vegetable oil. application, and pest management. (Five prac-
Vegetable oil is a type of fat obtained from tices were named; others from the textbook
seed or fruits of certain plants. Three major would be acceptable.)

64
11. What types of corn are produced? Which is provide a good environment for the growth of
the most important for grain? plants. Greenhouses are used to protect tender
The types of corn are dent, flint, floury, and plants from a harsh weather environment and to
sweet (as well as few others of little importance). provide the environment needed to gain certain
The most important for grain is dent corn. plant growth, such as flowering.

12. What is a growing degree day? 16. What is silviculture? What practices are
A growing degree day (GDD) is a measure of included in silviculture?
the temperature requirements for best corn growth.
It is determined with a mathematical formula. Silviculture is the art and science of growing
trees. The practices include planting, pest man-
13. What are the two ways rice is classified? Dis- agement, thinning, cleaning, liberation cuttings,
tinguish between the two. and harvest cuttings.
Two ways of classifying rice are: grain length
and cultural method. Grain length may be short, 17. What general practices are followed in home
medium, and long. Cultural method is of two vegetable gardening?
major types: lowland and upland. Lowland rice is
grown in large, flat fields. Upland rice is grown in General practices in home vegetable garden-
small areas on hillsides. ing are: planning, site selection, site protection,
site layout, site preparation, seed and transplant
14. What are the three general ways wheat is
selection, planting and transplanting, fertilizing,
classified? Define each.
pest management, irrigation, mulching, training
Wheat is classified by time of planting, color, and staking, harvesting, and end of season site
and kernel hardness. Time of planting is often in cleaning.
two groups: spring wheat and summer wheat.
Spring wheat is planted in the spring and har-
18. What is garden site protection? Why is it
vested in the summer. Winter wheat is planted in
needed?
the fall and grows slowly through the winter with
increasing growth rate in the spring when maturity Garden site protection is preventing animals
is reached. Color is determined on the basis of the such as rabbits, deer, and livestock from damag-
color of the seed coat: red or white. Kernel hard- ing a growing vegetable plant population. It is
ness is either soft or hard. Hardness is deter- needed because these animals can destroy a
mined by the endosperm inside the seed coat.
vegetable crop or greatly reduce yield.
15. What is a greenhouse? Why are greenhouses
used? EVALUATING
A greenhouse is a framed structure covered
with a transparent material that is designed to 1=f, 2=b, 3=e, 4=c, 5=a, 6=i, 7=h, 8=j, 9=d, and 10=g.

65
 PART FOUR:
ANIMAL SCIENCE

15
ANIMAL BIOLOGY
CHAPTER SUMMARY the movement of animals; (3) nervous system, which is
a highly developed system that conducts impulses from
Scientists have identified over a million different
the brain to the muscles; (4) circulatory system, which
kinds of animals on the earth. Of these, only a few are
moves digested food, oxygen, wastes, and other mate-
important in providing food, fiber, and shelter for
rials around the body; (5) respiratory system, which
humans. Knowing how to care for these animals prop-
moves gases to and from the circulatory system; (6)
erly helps people in producing them.
excretory system, which rids the body of wastes from
Animals are members of the kingdom Animalia.
cell activity; (7) digestive system, which prepares food
They are made up of many cells, can move about, and
for use by the body; (8) reproductive system, which car-
get their food from other sources. Animals can be
ries out reproduction and varies in parts and functions
grouped according to body structure, their habitation,
between female and male animals; and (9) mammary
and the products they produce.
system, which develops only in females to provide milk
The two main groups on the basis of body structure
for baby animals.
are vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates are the
most important animals in agriscience. Vertebrates All the body systems are similar in the same spe-
have backbones. Fish, birds, and mammals are verte- cies, except for variations in the reproductive systems
brates. Mammals are animals that give birth to live of males and females and the mammary system of the
young and produce milk to feed them. Invertebrates females. Of course, most fish and poultry do not give
have exoskeletons, or crusty coverings on the outside birth to live young or have mammary glands that pro-
of their bodies. Examples are insects, crustaceans, and duce milk for the young.
mollusks. Each system performs vital functions for animals.
Animals are either terrestrial or aquatic. Most of The failure of a system will likely result in the death of
those produced on farms and ranches are terrestrial, the animal. Understanding the systems and how they
but the production of aquatic species is increasing. function can help producers provide for the needs of
Animals produce many kinds of products, including animals.
food and fiber. Other products are medicine, glue,
soap, pet food, floor wax, and paintbrush bristles.
The anatomy and physiology of animals vary among INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
the species, but there are many common features.
Anatomy is the study of the form, shape, and appear- The objectives of the chapter are intended to help
ance of animals. Physiology deals with the functions of students have a rudimentary understanding of the prin-
the cells, tissues, organs, and systems of the body. ciples of animal science. Emphasis is on the anatomy
The major body systems of animals are (1) skeletal and physiology of the common vertebrates produced
system, which is made of bones and cartilage and on farms and ranches.
gives the body a framework; (2) muscular system, Upon completion of Chapter 15, the student will be
which is the largest system of the body and provides for able to:

66
 1. Identify and describe animal species. stress fish or poultry will need to use additional
2. Explain principles of animal anatomy, morphol- resources. (The treatment in the chapter is from the
ogy, and physiology. perspective of mammals. All mammals tend to have
3. Identify organ systems, and describe the struc- many similarities in anatomy and physiology.)
ture and functions of each. Students should read the chapter in the book sec-
tions at a time or in its entirety, depending on the teach-
4. Identify reproductive system anatomy and pro-
ing strategy. In general, reading sections is appropri-
cesses.
ate. This chapter, as are all chapters, is laid out with the
5. Identify the mammary system anatomy and pro- “A” heads corresponding to the objectives of the chap-
cesses. ter. The figures (both line art and photographic) in the
6. Explain reproductive processes with poultry. text will be important in helping students understand
the location and structure of the anatomy of the ani-
mals. The activities in the Activity Manual will be very
INTEREST APPROACH useful with this chapter.
The interest approach can be localized, based on Following the interest approach, the grouping of ani-
the needs and interests of students. Animals found in mals can be covered. Use the writing surface to con-
the local area, especially those found at the homes of trast vertebrates and invertebrates. Bring specimens of
the students, should be emphasized. In some cases, crawfish, insects, or other animals to class to illustrate
students may have supervised experience that invertebrates. Use farm or companion animals, fish, or
involves animals. These students can be asked to tell birds to illustrate vertebrates. The place where animals
about their animals and give some information about live involves habitat and climate. On the writing sur-
the care provided the animals. face, develop lists of animals that are adapted to differ-
One approach, after students have read the intro- ent habitats and climates.
duction to the chapter, is to have them name the ani- Use the writing surface or presentation technology
mals found in the local area. The emphasis should be to develop lists of the products people get from ani-
on those that provide food and fiber or are companion mals. Have students bring examples of these products
animals. In some cases, wildlife may also be appropri- to class. Relate these to the species of animals that are
ate. After a list has been developed on the writing sur- produced in the local area.
face, ask students to name some differences between The first section, “Animals and Their Body Fea-
and similarities of these animals. List these on the writ- tures,” should be carefully covered to assure that stu-
ing surface. Conclude by indicating that the focus of dents have mastery of the information. Use the writing
this chapter is on the differences between and the simi- surface to outline content using student input. Be thor-
larities of animals and how these differences and simi- ough in distinguishing invertebrates and vertebrates.
larities influence the ways people raise them. Give detail to the important species of vertebrates such
Another approach in gaining student interest is to as livestock, swine, and poultry. Also, go over compan-
refer students to the Technology Connection, “Wrinkled ion animals and the most common species.
Hogs.” Have students read the material. Call on one or Begin the instruction on anatomy and physiology by
more students to talk about what the content means. having students read “Anatomy, Physiology, and Mor-
Ask if any students have seen a hog that has the phology” in the textbook and explain how animals are
appearance of the one shown. complex living organisms. Define the terms anatomy,
Teachers may wish to review the objectives at this physiology, and organ systems, and then write a short
time. definition of each on the writing surface.
Instruction on the skeletal system should include
careful study of Figures 15–18 and 15–19. Ask stu-
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES dents to tell how chickens and hogs are alike and dif-
AND TEACHING PLANS ferent. Also have them examine the bones of chick-
ens and hogs. (These can be from food and brought
In developing teaching plans for this chapter, teach- to school by students.) Have students observe the
ers must decide the depth of knowledge students will structure of the different bones. (At this point, you
need to demonstrate an understanding of animal anat- may wish to call the attention of students to the Aca-
omy and physiology and the species of animals to be demic Connection.)
highlighted. The species that predominate in the local Instruction on the muscular system should focus on
area should be emphasized. Teachers who wish to muscles as the major food parts of animals. Stress the

67
importance of good muscling in animals. From a physi- The function and major parts of the mammary sys-
ology standpoint, distinguish between voluntary and tem should be listed on the writing surface and then
involuntary muscles. Have students name activities described. Students can be referred to Figure 15–36,
associated with each of the kinds of muscles. structure of the udder. Afterward, differences as related
The major parts of the nervous system should be to poultry can be covered.
listed on the writing surface, and their purposes
explained. Describe the receptors and their roles. Have
students compare the nervous system of farm animals REVIEW AND EVALUATION
with that of humans. Emphasis can be on the receptors.
Instruction on the circulatory system should include Review and evaluation are important in assessing
an explanation of blood. On the writing surface, list and student achievement of the objectives. The sugges-
define the kinds of blood cells. Have students refer to tions presented here are also useful in re-teaching, as
Figure 15–22 for the parts of the circulatory system of a appropriate. Review can involve several approaches,
horse. List the parts and their functions on the writing including having individuals in the class explain the
surface. content related to each objective. The summary at the
Since students often incorrectly consider respiration end of the chapter as well as the end-of-chapter ques-
to be the same thing as breathing, extra attention may tions and terms at the beginning of the chapter can be
need to be given to the meaning of respiration. Review used in review. The Activity Manual has excellent activ-
the parts of the respiratory system, and then list the ities that can be used for reviewing and for reinforcing
functions of each part. Describe the breathing pro- learning. Participation by students in science fairs and
cesses and how the rate of breathing is related to the the agriscience program of the National FFA Organiza-
need of the animal for oxygen. Have students observe tion is also beneficial.
the breathing rate of an animal.
Evaluation can involve observation of student per-
The function of the excretory system should be
formance throughout the instruction as well as perfor-
described. The major parts of the system, along with a
mance on the end-of-chapter questions, the “Evaluat-
brief statement of the functions of each part, should be
ing” section, and activities in the Activity Manual.
listed on the writing surface.
Written and/or oral tests may be used.
Instruction on the digestive system should begin
with a description of its function. The kinds of digestive
systems should be listed and compared. Have stu-
dents review Figure 15–26 to identify the parts of the SAFETY
digestive system of a cow. List the major advantages of
Achieving the objectives of this chapter involves few
the ruminant over the nonruminant. Have students
safety hazards. However, some of the activities could
review Figure 15–28 for the digestive system of a
pose possible dangers to students. The Activity Manual
chicken. Next, refer students to Figure 15–29 for the
digestive system of a dog. Ask students to describe the lists the major areas of safety that should be observed
movement of food through different kinds of digestive in the activities. Any activity that involves using animal
systems. A fish or another animal could be dissected specimens always poses potential safety hazards. If
so that the students can observe the digestive system dissection is done, students should be properly
as well as other systems. instructed in how to dissect an animal safely.
Instruction on the reproductive system will involve
describing the purpose and structure of the male and
female systems. The concepts of puberty and sexual ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
maturity should be explained. Have students review
Figures 15–31 and 15–32 for the reproductive parts Additional resources can be used to enhance the
of a cow and a bull. The process of reproduction instruction. Specimens of animals may be appropriate.
should be described, with key terms and definitions Books with more detail on anatomy and physiology of
written on the writing surface. Instruction may include animals will probably be helpful. Introduction to Live-
having students observe bovine sperm under a stock & Companion Animals (available from Pearson
microscope; the parts of reproductive systems in dis- Education) is a popular textbook used in secondary
sected animals, such as fish; and the incubation of schools. High school biology textbooks may also be
chicken eggs. useful references.

68
 7. List the major body systems of animals.
ANSWERS Briefly describe two important functions of
each.
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
The organ systems of animals and two func-
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- tions are skeletal system—protects internal
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to organs and keeps them properly arranged; mus-
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may cular system—provides for locomotion and other
require more complete information, the use of complete kinds of movement; nervous system—conducts
sentences, and other details in their answers. impulses from the brain to the muscles and col-
lects information from the environment; circula-
1. What are vertebrates and invertebrates? Dis- tory system—moves digested food and oxygen
tinguish between the two. around in the body; respiratory system—moves
gases to and from the circulatory system; excre-
Vertebrates are animals with backbones. tory system—rids the body of wastes and main-
Invertebrates do not have backbones. Nearly all tains balance in the animal’s body; digestive sys-
animals have skeletons that give structure to tem—prepares food for use by the body and
their bodies. Invertebrates have outer shells or breaks it into molecules for absorption; reproduc-
coverings known as exoskeletons. tive system—creates new animals, with males
2. What are the distinguishing characteristics of producing sperm and females producing eggs;
the phylum Arthropoda? List examples of and mammary system—produces milk for
species in this phylum. babies. (Note: In some cases, the systems may
perform only one important function.)
Arthropods have hard outer shells or coverings
that give their bodies protection and support. 8. Distinguish between voluntary and involun-
Shrimp, crawfish, lobster, and insects are exam- tary muscles.
ples. Voluntary muscles are controlled by the think-
ing part of the brain. A message must be sent for
3. What important animals are in the phyla them to move. Involuntary muscles are automati-
Annelida and Mollusca? cally controlled by a lower part of the brain.
Earthworms and leeches are examples of
9. What are the major parts of the nervous sys-
Annelida animals. Snails, oysters, and clams are
tem?
examples of Mollusca animals.
The major parts of the nervous system are the
4. What important animals are in the phylum central nervous system—composed of the brain
Chordata? and the spinal cord; autonomic nervous sys-
tem—made up of nerves connected to the invol-
Fish, birds, and mammals are Chordata ani-
untary muscles; and peripheral nervous sys-
mals.
tem—composed of all nerves outside the brain
5. What important animals are in the following and the spinal cord connected with the voluntary
classes: Osteichthyes, Aves, and Mammalia? muscles.
Osteichthyes include the bony fish, such as 10. What is blood? What liquids and solids does
trout and catfish. Aves includes birds, such as it contain?
chickens, ducks, and turkeys. Mammalia Blood is the fluid in the circulatory system. It
includes all mammals, such as dogs, cattle, contains plasma (the liquid part) and solids in the
horses, goats, and hogs. plasma (glucose, vitamins, blood cells, minerals,
and amino acids). Blood contains red and white
6. Define anatomy, morphology, and physiol-
cells and platelets.
ogy.
Anatomy is the study of the form, shape, and 11. Distinguish between internal and external
appearance of an animal. Morphology is the respiration.
study of the form, structure, and configuration of Internal respiration is the exchange of gases
an organism. Physiology is the study of the func- between the cells and the blood within the body.
tions of cells, tissues, organs, and systems. External respiration is the exchange of gases in

69
 the lungs between the blood and the atmo- ment for fertilization and growth of the new ani-
sphere. mal. The major purpose of the male reproductive
system is to produce sperm and to deposit them
12. What is breathing? What determines the rate in the reproductive tract of the female.
of breathing?
Breathing is the process whereby air enters 17. What occurs after an egg is fertilized?
and leaves the lungs. The rate is regulated by After fertilization, the egg travels down the ovi-
the amount of oxygen the animal needs. duct and attaches itself to the wall of the uterus,
where it gets nourishment and grows by cell divi-
13. What wastes are given off by the excretory sion into another animal.
system?
The wastes given off by the excretory system 18. How does the frequency of breeding vary
are wastes from cell activity, excess water, and between males and females? Why is this
blood substances. important to producers of animals?
Males can breed a number of females
14. Distinguish between ruminants and non-
because they have no role in carrying the devel-
ruminants. List a major advantage and disad-
oping embryo and fetus. Females can be bred
vantage of each.
only at the time of estrus. This is important
Ruminants chew cuds and have compound because a producer can use one male to breed
stomachs. Nonruminants have simple stomachs several females.
with one compartment and do not chew cuds.
Ruminants eat large amounts of roughage and 19. Why do females have mammary systems?
make poor use of grain, unless it is cracked. What is lactation?
Nonruminants do not make good use of rough- Mammary systems produce milk for feeding
age but are able to eat grain. babies. Lactation is the production of milk.
15. What is puberty? 20. Since chickens and turkeys do not have
Puberty is the age at which an animal is capa- mammary systems, how do their babies
ble of reproducing. receive needed nutrition?

16. What is the major purpose of the female Young chickens and turkeys start eating small
reproductive system and the male reproduc- particles of food shortly after hatching.
tive system?
EVALUATING
The major purpose of the female reproductive
system is to provide an egg and a good environ- 1=i 2=a, 3=j, 4=b, 5=g, 6=d, 7=h., 8=c, 9=e, and 10=f

16
ANIMAL NUTRITION AND FEEDING
CHAPTER SUMMARY utilize feed to maintain themselves, grow, reproduce,
lactate, perform work, and produce other products.
Feed provides the nutrients that animals must have Feeds are made of products that contain nutrients.
to live and grow. The feed animals receive should meet
Nutrients are the chemical substances in feed that sup-
their needs. The feed needed depends on an animal’s
port the life of the animal. A ration is the total amount of
age, reproductive status, and other conditions. Animals
feed an animal gets in a 24-hour period. A balanced

70
ration is one that provides all the nutrients needed by
the animal.
INTEREST APPROACH
The major nutrient needs are energy, protein, miner- After students have read the introductory part of the
als, vitamins, and water. Energy supports all life pro- chapter, have them describe the feed needs of ani-
cesses and is provided by carbohydrates and fats. Pro- mals. Ask them to indicate what the feed needs of their
tein is needed for maintenance, growth, and pets (dogs, cats, fish, and horses) are. Further, ask
reproduction. Protein is made of amino acids. Twenty- them about the food needs of humans, as presented in
three amino acids have been identified, with 10 being Chapter 1. Students who have animals as part of their
essential. Minerals are needed for maintenance, supervised experience may be called on to explain the
growth, reproduction, and other uses. Eighteen miner- feed care that they provide their animals. What do the
als are needed by animals. Vitamins are important in animals eat? How are they fed?
many life processes. On the writing surface, make a list of the feed needs
that the students indicate for each species. Students
Feedstuffs are the contents of a ration. Feedstuffs
could bring to class labels from feed containers so that
are classified on the basis of fiber content. Roughages they can obtain more information about feed ingredi-
are high in fiber and low in energy. Pasture, hay, silage, ents. Indicate that the primary purpose of the chapter is
and similar feedstuffs are common roughages. Con- to help students learn about the feed needs of animals.
centrates are low in fiber and high in energy. Examples (Teachers may wish to review the objectives at this
are grain and protein supplements. Supplements also time.)
include minerals and vitamins.
Good feedstuffs provide the nutrients animals need.
These nutrients vary according to the species of ani- INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
mal. Feedstuffs should supply nutrients, be palatable AND TEACHING PLANS
and free of hazardous materials, provide variety, be
economical, and be easily stored. Feed may be manu- Students will more efficiently achieve the objectives
factured on the farm or by commercial feed mills. if the instructional strategies are closely tied to both the
Animals are fed in different ways, depending on the text and the Activity Manual. Have students read the
species and the stage of development. Free-access chapter or several sections at a time, as best fits the sit-
feeding means that the animals have access to as uation. Use class discussion and presentation to cover
much feed as they want at any time. Scheduled feeding the content. List key points on the writing surface.
means that animals are fed at certain times of the day. Go over the feed needs of animals. List the needs
on the writing surface and have students explain each
of the needs. Relate the needs to animals of different
ages and stages in life.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES Explain nutrient, ration, balanced ration, and diet.
The objectives of the chapter are intended to help Write the terms and their definitions on the writing sur-
students acquire a fundamental knowledge and under- face. On the writing surface, list the major nutrient
needs of animals. Ask students to describe each and to
standing of animal nutrition. The emphasis is on the
give examples of sources of the nutrients. Summarize
requirements of nutrients and the sources of the nutri-
key points on the writing surface.
ents, including how animals are fed.
Define feedstuff. Explain how feedstuffs are classi-
Upon completion of Chapter 16, the student will be fied by fiber content. List examples of feedstuffs, and
able to: then summarize the meaning and characteristics of
each. Emphasize distinctions between roughages and
1. Describe nutrition needs of animals. concentrates. Also, describe the kinds and roles of
2. List and explain the functions of nutrients. supplements, additives, and implants.
On the writing surface list the requirements of good
3. Identify and select feedstuffs that provide feedstuffs. Ask students to explain the meaning of each
nutrients. requirement and to give examples of feedstuffs that
4. Explain the characteristics of good feed. meet the requirements. Students may wish to indicate
these in terms of the food they eat.
5. Discuss the role of quality forages.
Explain how feed is manufactured and the forms
6. Describe how animals are fed. that are used. List key terms on the writing surface.

71
Have students analyze the information on a feed label.
(Have students refer to Figure 16–29 as an alternative ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
to using an actual label.) The objectives of the chapter can be easily achieved
Cover the section “Pastures and Forage Crops” by by using the text and the Activity Manual. Additional
first having students read the section. Follow this by information that could enrich learning can be obtained
outlining content on the writing surface using student from feed labels and from books that present informa-
input. Indicate that pastures provide productive use for tion on feed, such as Introduction to Livestock & Com-
land that otherwise would not be productive. Use of panion Animals and Aquaculture (available from
pastures allows animals to graze low-quality forages Pearson Education).
that are converted into protein by the animals. Go over
the kinds of pastures and examples in the local com-
munity. Discuss carrying capacity, stocking rate, and ANSWERS
animal unit. Review important practices in pasture
management. Cover the qualities of hay, silage, and END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
other roughages.
Have students describe how animals are fed. List Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
the key terms on the writing surface. Have students tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
give examples of each method of feeding animals in be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
the local community. They can also give examples that require more complete information, the use of complete
relate to their pets. A field trip to a feed mill or a farm sentences and other details in their answers.
supplies store that has a wide range of feeds would be
appropriate. Some farms have their own feed mills and 1. How do animals use feed? How do these
store feedstuffs. uses vary with the age and size of the ani-
mal?
Animals use feed to maintain their bodies and
REVIEW AND EVALUATION for growth and other processes (e.g., reproduc-
tion, lactation, and producing other products as
Use the summary at the end of the chapter to begin
well as for work). Young animals need more feed
the review process. Call on students to explain the
for growth. Older animals need feed for mainte-
objectives for the chapter. Use the end-of-chapter
nance and other processes, such as reproduc-
review questions and the list of terms at the beginning
tion, lactation, and producing products.
of the chapter for review. The activities in the Activity
Manual are good for reviewing and re-teaching, as 2. What are the nutrient needs of animals?
appropriate. Briefly describe each.
Evaluation will involve observing student perfor-
mance on each of the review activities as well as on a The nutrient needs of animals are energy—
written or oral test. Supervised experience programs in supports life processes; protein—needed for
which students feed animals provide for evaluation on maintenance, growth, reproduction, and other
a firsthand basis. functions; minerals—needed for maintenance,
growth, reproduction, and other functions; vita-
mins—needed for regulating body functions and
SAFETY for keeping the body healthy; and water—
needed for body processes.
Achieving the objectives of this chapter involves few
safety hazards. However, learning activities, such as 3. What feedstuffs provide the nutrients needed
field trips, can create opportunities for hazardous situa- by animals? Distinguish between the feed-
tions. Teachers should instruct students in all areas stuffs and give examples.
related to safety, as they arise. The Activity Manual lists Feed ingredients are feedstuffs. Feedstuffs
safety considerations for all activities, as appropriate. include roughages (feedstuffs high in fiber, such
Safety of humans who handle animals as well as the as pasture and hay); concentrates (feedstuffs
safety of animals creates important instructional con- low in fiber, such as grain and protein supple-
cepts. Animals can create human injuries. Always ments); supplements (mineral and vitamin
know and respect animals as a potential hazard. sources); and feed additives (additives placed in

72
 feed during manufacture to preserve the feed 8. How is feed obtained? What is involved with
and to enhance animal growth). the sources?
Feed may be produced on the farm or ranch,
4. What kinds of pasture may be used? or it may be obtained from a commercial feed
Pasture is land that has grass and other plants mill. Getting feed involves obtaining the feed-
for animals to graze. Pastures may be perma- stuffs; grinding or otherwise preparing the feed-
nent or temporary. Permanent pastures are have stuffs; mixing the ingredients in the proper
grasses, clovers, and other plants that live and amounts; and preparing the feed in the form that
grow for years. Temporary pastures may be will be used.
planted for summer, winter, or semipermanent 9. What is a mixed feed?
grazing.
A mixed feed is made from a variety of ingredi-
ents.
5. What determines the quality of hay?
10. How are concentrates made into feed?
Hay quality is determined by the age and the
species of the plants that are cut for hay. It Concentrates are made into feed by one or
should also be free of weeds and should be more of the following processes: cracking and
properly dried and stored. rolling, grinding, and extruding.
11. What is a feed label? What information does
6. What are feed additives and implants? Distin-
a label have on it?
guish between how the two get into the bod-
ies of animals. A feed label is a written statement about the
feed. The information includes the ingredients,
Feed additives are placed in feed during man- nutritional content, and weight of the product in
ufacture to help preserve the feed and to provide the container (bag, can, or other container).
for the additional needs of animals. Animals
receive the additives in their bodies by eating the 12. How are animals fed? Distinguish between
feed. Implants are solid materials that are placed the methods.
under the skin to release substances over a Animals are fed using free access or sched-
period of time. Hormones are often given to ani- uled feeding. With free access feeding, the ani-
mals with implants. mals have access to the feed all of the time and
can eat when they so desire. Scheduled feeding
7. What are the basic requirements of feed? means animals are fed only at certain times of
the day.
Feed must contain balanced nutrient content,
be palatable, be free of hazardous materials, EVALUATING
have a variety of feedstuffs, have bulkiness, be
economical, and be properly stored. 1=h, 2=c, 3=a, 4=j, 5=b, 6=f, 7=i, 8=g, 9=e, and 10=d

73
 17
ANIMAL BREEDS AND BREEDING
SYSTEMS

CHAPTER SUMMARY confinement systems that are sometimes known as pig

parlors.
Animal breeding is an important part of animal pro-
Two methods of inseminating livestock are natural
duction. New animals must be produced every year to
and artificial. In natural insemination, a male is mated
replace those that are used. Breeding animals involves
with a female of the same species. In artificial insemi-
supporting the creation of new life and in the forms that
are desired. Different animals are produced for differ- nation, semen is collected from a male and placed in
ent purposes. the reproductive tract of a female. The use of artificial
Most animals produced on farms and ranches are insemination has greatly increased in recent years.
of definite breeds and bloodlines. A breed is a group Semen quality and estrus manipulation are important
of animals of the same species that share common factors in the use of artificial insemination.
traits. A bloodline is a group within a breed that has Animals must be managed properly to assure maxi-
one common ancestor. Offspring inherit various traits mum breeding potential. Knowing when to breed, test-
from their parents. In some cases, mutations occur ing for pregnancy, and managing the breeding female
when the offspring have a genetic trait that is different are important in successfully breeding animals.
from their parents. Animals belonging to a breed are Poultry production requires a different approach to
known as purebreds. Various breeds of beef cattle, breeding because of the differences in the reproductive
dairy cattle, hogs, sheep, goats, horses, and chickens processes. Aquatic animals require an approach differ-
are found in North America. In some cases, specific ent from both poultry and mammals.
breeds are not important in producing these animals
for different products.
Various breeding systems are used to produce the
kinds of animals that people want. All breeding systems
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
can be placed in two categories: straightbreeding and The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
crossbreeding. students acquire basic knowledge of, and skill in, breed-
Animals are classified by their age and sexual con- ing systems with animals. The emphasis is on areas
dition. Males are often castrated to keep them from
prerequisite to advanced study of animal breeding.
reproducing and to enhance their growth as meat ani-
Upon completion of Chapter 17, the student will be
mals. Castration involves removing the testicles.
able to:
Females are sometimes neutered by spaying, which
involves removing the ovaries. (Have students refer to
Table 17–1 in the text for a summary of the sexual clas- 1. Discuss trait inheritance in animals.
sifications of selected animals.) 2. Explain breeding systems.
Various production systems may be used. The kind
used depends on the end product that is desired. Pure- 3. List examples and identify common breeds of
bred production systems produce purebred animals. animals.
Meat-animal production systems include cow-and-calf 4. Identify the sexual classification of animals.
production and feeder pig production. These provide
5. Discuss production systems used with selected
new animals that are to be fed out for harvesting. Fin-
species.
ishing systems feed out the animals for harvesting.
Cattle are fed out in feedlots, while hogs are fed out in 6. Describe management in breeding animals.

74
 ble terms, such as heifer, ewe, castrate, spay, steer,
INTEREST APPROACH barrow and stag.
Several approaches can be used to get the interest Use a combination of lecture and discussion to
of students and to motivate them to achieve the objec- cover the production systems. Write key terms and def-
tives. Teachers should select those approaches that initions on the writing surface.
are most responsive to the needs and interests of stu- Present the methods of insemination and the pro-
dents. cesses involved. Explain the meaning of semen quality.
One approach is to have students read the introduc- If bull sperm is available, examine it with a microscope.
tory section of Chapter 17. Have the students use the Describe the female estrous cycle and its relationship
data on the per capita consumption of red meat to to breeding.
determine if the amount they eat is more or less. Ask Describe the procedures involved in managing
each student to give the number of pounds of red meat breeding animals, and then have students relate how
he or she consumes in a year, and then add up the producers in the local area manage their herds.
amounts from all the students in the class. Have stu- Ask students to explain how breeding poultry and
dents estimate the number of beef animals, hogs, and fish differs from breeding mammals. Incubate several
sheep that would be needed as meat for the class chicken eggs in the laboratory so that students can
members. Emphasize that producing new animals is observe the development during the 21-day incubation
essential in order for people to have food. Without new period. Fish eggs can also be artificially hatched in the
animals, there would soon be no meat for food. (Teach- school laboratory, which will require about a week for
ers may wish to review the objectives at this time.) catfish and other common species.
The Activity Manual contains useful activities for
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES helping students achieve the objectives of the chapter.

AND TEACHING PLANS

The instructional strategies should focus on helping
REVIEW AND EVALUATION
learners achieve the objectives in animal breeding. The Review and evaluation can involve several
learning activities should relate to the animals in the approaches. In some cases, review can also serve as
local area. Teaching plans may include a variety of evaluation. Review can consist of asking students to
activities, such as field trips to livestock shows, local explain the objectives for the chapter, having students
farms, or colleges with agriculture programs to observe define terms at the beginning of the chapter, and hav-
the different breeds. Resource persons in artificial ing students answer the questions at the end of the
breeding can be asked to demonstrate insemination chapter. Activities in the Activity Manual will be useful
procedures. for both review and evaluation.
Student achievement will be higher if the students The review activities and written or oral tests can
read the content and participate in lecture-presenta- serve as forms of evaluation. Use the findings for re-
tions in the classroom. Most teachers will choose to teaching students, as appropriate.
cover several sections of the chapter at one time. The “Evaluating” section at the end of the chapter
Following the interest approach, begin with an will also be useful as one tool in assessing student
explanation of breeds and bloodlines. Write the two mastery of selected terms.
terms on the writing surface, and then ask students to
define them. Use their definitions to develop an accept-
able definition of each on the writing surface. SAFETY
Cover the major breeds of livestock by listing the
breeds on the writing surface and then asking students Achieving the objectives of the chapter will involve
to identify the characteristics of a particular breed. few safety hazards. However, activities that carry
Summarize the major factors under each breed. instruction beyond the classroom could involve situa-
On the writing surface, outline the breeding systems tions where safety would be a consideration. An
used. Define key words, and then have students give example would be a field trip to a place where stu-
examples of the terms in breeding animals. Have stu- dents are around animals, which could result in the
dents record the information in their agriscience note- students being exposed to dangers from unruly ani-
books. mals. Laboratory activities that necessitate using ani-
Have students refer to Table 17–1 for the sexual mal fluids may pose hazards. Teachers should
classifications of common animals. Define the applica- explain to students the proper safety precautions. The

75
Activity Manual includes appropriate safety warnings with low milk fat (3.5 percent); and Jersey—low
for the activities presented in it. milk production with highest milk fat (5.4 per-
cent).

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 4. What are the common breeds of hogs? What

major traits help identify them?
Few additional resources are needed for this
chapter. In some cases, teachers may wish to have The common breeds of hogs and major traits
additional information on various aspects of breed- are American Landrace—white with occasional
ing. Materials can also be obtained from the various black spots, long sides and a level top, and ears
livestock breed associations and suppliers of drooping over the eyes; Berkshire—black with
semen. A Web site with extensive images of various six white points (feet, face, and tail switch) and
livestock breeds is at Oklahoma State University: erect ears; Chester White—white with occasional
www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/. bluish freckles on the skin; Duroc—shades of red
with ears that droop over the eyes; Hampshire—
black with a distinctive white band around its
ANSWERS shoulders; Poland China—black with six white
points (feet, tip of tail, and nose); and York-
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS shire—white with erect ears.

Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- 5. What are the classes of sheep on the basis of
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to wool quality? Give an example of one breed
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may in each class.
require more complete information, the use of complete The classes of sheep on the basis of wool and
sentences, and other details in their answers. one breed in each class are fine wool sheep—
Rambouillet; medium wool sheep—Suffolk; long
1. What is a breed? Distinguish between blood- wool sheep—Cotswold; crossbred wool sheep—
line and breed. Columbia; carpet wool sheep—Black Faced
A breed is made up of animals of the same Highland; and fur sheep—Karakul.
species that share common traits. A bloodline is
6. What are the three classes of goats? How do
a group of animals within a breed that have one
the classes differ?
common ancestor.
The classes of goats are mohair and cash-
2. What are the common breeds of beef cattle? mere—produced for their long hair; dairy goats—
Name one major trait that would help you produced for their milk; and Spanish goats—pro-
identify each breed. duced for meat and to control vegetation. The
The major breeds of beef cattle are Angus— Boer can be listed as a breed of meat goat.
black and polled; Brahman—loose skin and large
hump; Brangus—black and polled; Charolais— 7. What are the three groups of horses? Briefly
light color with pink skin; Chianina—white with distinguish between the groups. Which is
black tail switch; Hereford—red with white face; most widely found today?
Polled Hereford—polled and red with white face; The three groups of horses are light horses,
Limousin—red to yellow; Santa Gertrudis—red ponies, and draft horses. Light horses are used
with loose hide similar to a Brahman; Short- for riding, driving, and racing. Ponies are ideal as
horn—red-white mixed color; and Simmental— pets and for children to ride. Draft horses are
white or light face with red body. powerful; they pull heavy loads. Light horses are
the most widely found group.
3. What are the common breeds of dairy cattle?
What are the advantages of each breed? 8. What is a breeding system? Name and distin-
The common breeds of dairy cattle and pro- guish between the common breeding sys-
duction advantages are Ayrshire—medium milk tems.
and milk fat production; Brown Swiss—medium A breeding system is the way animals are
amount of milk production with 4.1 percent milk selected for mating to get certain results. The
fat; Guernsey—medium milk production with 5 kinds of breeding systems are straightbreeding—
percent milk fat; Holstein—high milk production mating animals of the same breed (e.g., purebred

76
 breeding, outcrossing and inbreeding) and artificially placing it in the reproductive tract of a
crossbreeding—mating animals of different female.
breeds but of the same species.
13. What are the major management practices in
9. What is a production system? How do pro- breeding animals? Briefly describe each.
duction systems differ from breeding sys- The major management practices are deter-
tems? mining when to breed females—young females
A production system is an approach to obtain- should be old enough to carry the offspring and
ing certain kinds of animals or products from ani- to give birth; testing for pregnancy—some pro-
mals. The goal is to produce the best meat ani- ducers use pregnancy testing to determine if
mals rather than purebred animals. females are pregnant; feeding and observing the
pregnant female—providing adequate nutrition is
10. What production systems are used to pro- essential, and observations help determine when
duce beef? Briefly describe each. parturition will occur; helping females give birth—
The production systems used to produce beef most females need no help but occasionally
are purebred systems—purebred animals are problems occur; caring for the females after par-
produced; cow and calf production—cows are turition—watch for problems, such as a retained
kept to produce calves; and finishing—cattle are afterbirth; and caring for the breeding male—
fattened on pasture or in feedlots for harvesting. feeding and otherwise keeping the animal in
good health.
11. What production systems are used to pro-
14. What is the general production system for
duce pork? Briefly describe each.
broilers?
The production systems used to produce pork
Broilers are young chickens grown for meat.
are purebred systems—produce purebred hogs;
Fertile eggs hatch chicks 21 days after incuba-
feeder pig production—produce pigs for finish-
tion was begun. The chicks are fed a carefully
ing; and finishing—raise hogs to market weight
selected diet for five to six weeks and sometimes
(220 pounds).
a little longer until they reach a weight of 3 to 5
12. What two methods are used to inseminate pounds. Successful broiler production involves
animals? Distinguish between the methods. providing a good environment for the chicks.
When the chicks reach broiler size, they are
The methods of inseminating animals are nat- ready for processing.
ural and artificial. With natural insemination, the
male mates with the female. The male deposits EVALUATING
semen in the female’s vagina. Artificial insemina-
tion consists of collecting semen from a male and 1=i, 2=b, 3=e, 4=c, 5=g, 6=a, 7=j, 8=f, 9=h, and 10=d

18
PROMOTING ANIMAL HEALTH
CHAPTER SUMMARY sumer expects to receive quality, tasty beef. If the ani-
mal isn’t good, 542 consumers had a deficient dining
The products of one animal can influence the quality
experience.
of the food of many people. Meat scientists at Texas
A&M University estimate that 542 consumers receive Disease causes large losses to animal producers and
steaks and roasts from one beef animal. Each con- animal product processors. Losses from animal disease
in the United States amount to more than $10 billion

77
annually to producers. Processors and others involved in
marketing often face losses due to disease or contamina- INTEREST APPROACH
tion of meats and products. Following a few simple proce- The interest approach for this chapter can be
dures can help prevent many health problems. localized, based on the kinds of animals and disease
Health is the condition of the body and is a measure problems experienced in the community. In some
of how the functions of life are performed. A disease is cases, the approach may be based on human dis-
something that causes injury, pain, or death. Good ease problems.
health is the absence of disease. One suggested approach is to have students read
In recent years, concern about biosecurity has come the introductory part of the chapter. Ask them to explain
about. This has arisen out of fear that animals might be why the producer is important in maintaining animal
harmed in some way so that their well-being is threat- health. Have students give examples of practices ani-
ened. Biosecurity is the use of approaches to manage mal producers or keepers of companion animals can
risk and assure the production of disease-free animals follow in the local area to keep their animals healthy.
and animal products. Also, have students describe situations in which ani-
Animals that are in good health eat well, are alert mals have experienced poor health. Have students
and content, have bright eyes and shiny coats, have explain the losses that occurred to the owners. (Teach-
normal feces and urine, and have normal vital signs. ers may wish to review the objectives for the chapter
Vital signs include breathing, pulse rate, and body tem- with students at this time.)
perature. All animals have certain vital signs that vary
according to the species. (Table 18–1 presents the vital
signs of major agricultural species.) INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
The environment in which animals live affects their
health. Most animals live best in environments of a cer-
AND TEACHING PLANS
tain temperature range. An endotherm is an animal that The animals that are produced in the local area and
maintains a certain body temperature. An ectotherm is the health problems that may arise should be consid-
an animal whose body temperature adjusts to the envi- ered in the instructional strategies for this chapter.
ronment. Light, moisture, moving (such as hauling), Some students will have animals of their own and can
and pollution, in addition to temperature, are important offer firsthand input on animal health.
factors in the health of animals. Students should be actively involved in achieving
Maintaining good health is an important key to suc- the chapter objectives. This includes reading the chap-
cessful animal production. Good sanitation, by keeping ter content, completing the activities in the Activity
areas where animals are raised clean, helps prevent Manual, carrying out related supervised experience
disease. Proper nutrition also keeps down disease. Iso- activities, and performing other activities that are
lating diseased animals from those that are healthy can appropriate.
help prevent the spread of disease. Trucks, equipment, After the interest approach, begin the chapter by
and human traffic can transport disease from one place having the students read the sections that are to be
to another. Preconditioning helps prepare animals for taught. In some cases, students may read the entire
shipment and other stressing activities. Immunization chapter before the instruction is begun. As with all
helps animals develop immunity to disease. chapters, maximum student mastery will occur with the
RLRWP-E procedure.
After students have read the section on animal
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES health (including both good health and ill health), ask
The objectives of this chapter are intended to help them to define health. Then, write the definition on the
students understand diseases in animals. Emphasis is writing surface. Ask them to define disease. Then, write
on the principles of prevention from a management the definition on the writing surface. List the vital signs
perspective. of good health on the writing surface. For each of the
Upon completion of Chapter 18 the student will be signs, ask students to name the characteristics of ani-
able to: mals that have good health. (Have the students refer to
Table 18–1 for the vital signs of common animals.)
1. Explain health and identify health signs. Have each student take the vital signs of an animal and
then compare his or her observations with the normal
2. Describe environmental influences on animal health. vital signs.
3. Discuss losses caused by poor animal health. Ask students to describe the general signs of ill
4. Explain how good health is promoted. health. List these on the writing surface. Explain that

78
each disease has signs of its own and may not have all instruction should be given to students before allowing
the general signs. them to administer animal medicines. Activities in the
After students have read the section on environ- Activity Manual have appropriate safety precautions
mental influences on health, list the environmental fac- listed.
tors affecting health on the writing surface. Ask stu-
dents to describe each. Carefully define endotherm
and ectotherm, and then have students give examples ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
of each. (Ectotherms were previously known as cold-
The objectives of the chapter can be achieved by
blooded animals. Scientists now refer to them as
using the textbook and the Activity Manual. The instruc-
ectothermic animals because their body temperature is
tion may result in students asking questions that
related to the temperature of their environment.)
require additional resources. Books on animal health
On the writing surface, list the kinds of losses
and related areas may be needed. Pamphlets and bul-
caused by diseases in animals. Have students give
letins from suppliers of animal medicines and agricul-
examples of each kind of loss.
tural experiment stations at colleges and universities
Use the writing surface to outline the practices
may be useful.
that should be followed to maintain good health. List
Additional resources may include use of the Internet.
and then discuss key procedures, such as sanitation,
Here are a few examples of Web sites to begin the
proper nutrition, isolation, restriction of truck and
investigation of animal disease: Centers for Disease
equipment traffic, restriction of human access, pre-
Control (CDC)—www.cdc.gov/; Food and Agriculture
conditioning, and immunization. Have students give
Organization (FAO)—www.fao.org/; Animal and Plant
examples of each.
Health Inspection Service—www.aphis.usda.gov/; and
NetVet—http://netvet.wustl.edu/.
REVIEW AND EVALUATION
Review and evaluation can be carried out simulta- ANSWERS
neously, except for the final mastery test that may be
given. Observation of student participation throughout END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
instruction in the chapter will provide useful information.
Note how students participated in discussion and lab Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
activities and how well they maintained their note- tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
books. be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
Review activities include using the summary at the require more complete information, the use of complete
end of the chapter, the terms at the beginning of the sentences, and other details in their answers.
chapter, the end-of-chapter review questions, and the
activities in the Activity Manual. The “Evaluating” sec- 1. Define animal health and disease.
tion will also be helpful. Health is the condition of the body and is a
Evaluation can involve the review activities as well measure of how the functions of life are being
as written or oral tests. Re-teaching can include the performed. Disease is something that causes
review activities described above. A teacher-made test pain, injury, or the inability to do normal things.
can also be used to help assess student mastery of the
objectives. Assessment of practical application of 2. What are the general signs of a healthy ani-
chapter content may occur in the supervised experi- mal?
ence of students. Good health in animals is indicated by good
appetite, alertness and contentment, bright eyes
and shiny coat, normal feces and urine, normal
SAFETY vital signs, and the ability to reproduce (adult ani-
The objectives of the chapter can be accomplished mals).
without safety hazards; however, developing the skills
to actually perform some of the activities may pose 3. How does the environment influence animal
safety hazards. If students are around animals, espe- health?
cially those that are sick, they should be cautioned Animals prefer certain environments. When
about proper safety procedures. (Remind students of the environment changes and the animals are
zoonosis and its meaning.) Careful and thorough safety not in the one that they are suited to, the animals

79
 are stressed. Stress results in the animals being 7. What is sanitation?
susceptible to disease.
Sanitation is the practice of keeping areas
4. What losses occur due to poor animal where animals are kept clean. It reduces disease
health? sources.
The kinds of losses due to poor animal health
are death, lower production, and human disease. 8. What is isolation? Why is it useful?

5. What practices can be followed to help Isolation is the separation of diseased and
assure good animal health? non-diseased animals. It protects healthy ani-
mals from exposure to those that are diseased.
Maintaining good health involves following
these practices: employing good sanitation; feed- 9. What is immunity?
ing animals a balanced diet for proper nutrition;
isolating the sick animals; restricting truck and Immunity is the condition of an animal being
equipment traffic; restricting human access; pre- resistant to a disease. Some occurs naturally;
conditioning animals; and immunizing animals. other is artificially induced through immunization
practices.
6. Distinguish between animals that are
endotherms and those that are ectotherms. 10. What is preconditioning? Why is it used?
How is this important in identifying an animal
with an infection? Preconditioning is the process of preparing
animals for stressful situations. Transportation, in
An endotherm is an animal species that main-
particular, is stressful to an animal. Precondition-
tains a certain body temperature such as a dog
ing helps the animal resist stress-related prob-
or hog. An ectotherm is an animal species whose
lems (builds increased resistance to disease).
body temperature adjusts to its environment, with
the snake and lizard being examples. With
EVALUATING
enthotermic animals, an elevated body tempera-
ture is a sign of an infection. 1=g, 2=a, 3=j, 4=h, 5=i, 6=d, 7=c, 8=f, 9=e, and 10=b.

19
ANIMAL CARE AND WELL-BEING

CHAPTER SUMMARY Animal well-being is the state of an animal’s health

and comfort. We provide for an animal’s well-being in
Animals are complex organisms. Knowing the ways that best meet its needs. Differences are consid-
needs of animals and how their bodies function helps ered when providing care. Producers of animals, as
us do a better job of caring for them. Some types of ani- well as those who have companion animals, must prac-
mals have been domesticated and raised for hundreds tice animal well-being. Terms such as “animal welfare”
of years. Domesticated animals are removed from their and “animal rights” are sometimes used when referring
native environments and raised in situations created by to animal well-being.
humans. Caring for animals is often known as hus- Quality assurance is an effort to promote quality prod-
bandry. Animal husbandry is the scientific manage- ucts through good management practices. The goal is to
ment and control of animals. The needs of the animals provide consumers with high-quality products that are
are met in an environment that provides for their well- safe to eat or use. Quality assurance is sometimes abbre-
being. It is essential to understand animal needs and to viated as QA. Students should practice quality assurance
properly provide for them. with animals in supervised experience programs. QA

80
may be set up as a program. A quality-assurance pro- cases, students may have supervised experience that
gram is an organized effort with specific requirements involves animals. These students can be asked to tell
promoted for compliance to occur. QA programs are about their animals and to give some information about
offered through producer organizations with support from the care that is provided to the animals.
processors and government agencies. In the U.S. One approach—after students have read the intro-
Department of Agriculture, the Animal and Plant Health duction to the chapter—is to have the students name
and Inspection Service (APHIS) is involved. the animals found in the local area. Have students view
Animal restraint is sometimes needed to manage an Figure 19–1. Ask if the well-being of the chick is being
animal. It is needed for performing exams, administer- compromised. Discuss how to care for the chick to
ing medicines, loading and transporting, and checking ensure that it is not injured or unduly stressed. (In some
identification. Only those practices that promote the cases, students may weigh chicks in the school lab and
well-being of animals should be used. make comparisons over time in terms of growth.)
Animal safety is managing animals to prevent injury Teachers may wish to review the objectives at this
or death. Often, simple practices will suffice. A few time and move into content of the lesson.
examples are: understand animal behavior, under-
stand animal biology, use safe facilities, use safe feed,
avoid excessive force, keep facilities clean, operate INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
equipment properly, avoid keeping poisons where ani-
mals are kept, and transport animals safely.
AND TEACHING PLANS
Just as animal safety is important, human safety In developing teaching plans for this chapter, teach-
around animals is also important. This involves carry- ers must decide the depth of knowledge students will
ing out management activities so that injury or death of need to demonstrate an understanding of animal anat-
humans is minimized. Regardless, all risk cannot be omy and physiology and the species of animals to be
taken away but being prudent can certainly reduce risk emphasized. The species that predominate in the local
to a minimum. area should be emphasized. Teachers who wish to
stress fish or poultry will need to use additional
resources. (The treatment in the chapter is from the
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES perspective of mammals. All mammals tend to have
similarities in anatomy and physiology.)
The objectives of the chapter are intended to help Students should read the chapter in its entirety or
students have a rudimentary understanding of the prin- sections at a time, depending on the teaching strategy.
ciples of animal science. Emphasis is on the anatomy In general, reading sections is appropriate. This chap-
and physiology of the common vertebrates produced ter—and all chapters—is laid out with the “A” heads
on farms and ranches. corresponding to the chapter objectives. The figures
Upon completion of Chapter 19, the student will be (both line art and photographic) in the text will be impor-
able to: tant in helping students understand the location and
structure of the anatomy of the animals. The activities
1. Discuss major factors in animal production. in the Activity Manual will be useful with this chapter.
2. Explain animal well-being. Have students read the section “Animal Production
Factors.” Use student input to summarize major con-
3. Explain the meaning and importance of quality-
cepts on the writing surface. List the needs of animals,
assurance programs.
and discuss how husbandry practices should consider
4. Identify and demonstrate animal restraint the needs.
practices. Move into the section “Animal Well-Being.” Have
5. Describe and practice animal and personal students read the section. The students should then
safety. provide information as the content is summarized on
the writing surface. Ask students to identify examples
of animals having been mistreated in the local commu-
INTEREST APPROACH nity. Also, identify examples where animals have
received good treatment.
The interest approach can be localized, based on The section on quality assurance has content that
the needs and interests of students. Animals found in is becoming increasingly important to animal produc-
the local area, especially those that are found at the ers. Have students read the section. Use their input
homes of the students, should be emphasized. In some to summarize the content on the writing surface.

81
Have a local animal producer serve as a resource Introduction to Livestock & Companion Animals (avail-
person to discuss quality assurance. Students may able from Pearson Education).
also conduct a Web search for information on quality-
assurance programs. A search of the APHIS site at
USDA will also be beneficial. ANSWERS
Content on animal restraint goes well with the veteri-
nary medicine information. If animals are available, stu-
dents may practice restraint procedures. Be safe! Be END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
sure students understand and practice appropriate
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
safety as related to animal species.
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
require more complete information, the use of complete
REVIEW AND EVALUATION sentences, and other details in their answers.
Review and evaluation are important in assessing
student achievement of the objectives. The sugges- 1. What is animal husbandry?
tions presented here are also useful in re-teaching, as
appropriate. Review can involve several approaches, Animal husbandry is the scientific manage-
including having individuals in the class explain the ment and control of animals (to gain useful prod-
content related to each objective. The summary at the ucts).
end of the chapter as well as the end-of-chapter ques-
tions and terms at the beginning of the chapter can be 2. What are the two native needs of animals?
used in review. The Activity Manual has excellent activ- Briefly explain each.
ities that can be used for reviewing and for reinforcing
learning. Participation by students in science fairs and The two native needs of animals are habitat
the agriscience program of the National FFA Organiza- and climate. Habitat is the environment in which
tion is also beneficial. an animal lives, such as terrestrial or aquatic. Cli-
Participation in the Veterinary Science event of mate is the weather and includes temperature
HOSA (Health Occupations Student Association) will and precipitation, among other factors.
provide valuable hands-on activity, learning, and
assessment opportunity. 3. What husbandry practices are followed with
Evaluation can involve observation of student per- animal production? Name and briefly explain
formance throughout the instruction as well as perfor- any three.
mance on the end-of-chapter questions, “Evaluating”
Husbandry practices typically followed with
section, and activities in the Activity Manual. Written
animal production are making good choices—
and/or oral tests may be used.
what and how to raise; providing nutrition and
feeding—being sure to meet the needs of ani-
SAFETY mals; promoting good health—caring for animals
to reduce stress and using practices that reduce
Achieving the objectives of this chapter involves few likelihood of disease; managing reproduction—
safety hazards. However, some of the activities could allowing or promoting reproduction to gain
pose possible dangers to students. The Activity Manual desired offspring; protecting from hazards—
lists the major areas of safety that should be observed some animals need protection from weather,
in the activities. Any activity that involves using animals predators, and other hazards; dealing with
always poses potential safety hazards. Cover safety in wastes—disposing of wastes so minimal envi-
detail before students have any contact with animals. ronmental impact occurs; and being an ethical
producer—this involves meeting the needs of
animals and never abusing them as well as rela-
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES tionships with other animal producers.

Additional resources can be used to enhance the 4. What is animal well-being?

instruction. Specimens of animals may be appropri-
ate. Books with more detail on anatomy and physiol- Animal well-being is caring for an animal so its
ogy of animals will probably be helpful. An example is health and comfort are promoted.

82
 5. What practices should be followed in promot- of the injection site, and when the medicine was
ing animal well-being? Name and briefly given.
explain any three.
11. What is restraint? Why is it important?
Practices to follow in monitoring animal well-
being are (others are included in the textbook) Restraint is the control of an animal so it can
providing food, water, and other nutrients; provid- be transported, examined, treated, groomed, or
ing housing or protection; and respecting animals otherwise managed. Proper restraint protects the
as living organisms. Discussions could indicate animal, people who are assisting with the animal,
that these help promote good health, growth, and and property from damage.
productivity.
12. What are five methods of restraining ani-
6. What is euthanasia? Why would it be used? mals? Briefly explain one of them.
Euthanasia is the act of killing an animal to Five methods that may be used in restraining
relieve it of suffering and pain. It is used when animals are feline bags—for cats; head
there is no hope for the animal to overcome its squeezes—for larger animals; chemical restraint—
disability from disease and suffering. when other methods don’t work, it is shot as a blow
7. What is the name of the federal law that pro- dart to tranquilize an animal; physical restraint—
hibits the interstate commerce with animals using a halter or head squeeze; and diversionary
for fighting? restraint—directing attention away momentarily for
an activity, such as holding a fold of skin while giv-
The name of the federal law is The Animal ing a vaccination.
Fighting Prohibition and Enforcement Act of
2005. 13. What are five principles in animal safety?
8. What is quality assurance from the perspec- Any five from text (see page 559) such as
tive of an animal producer? these: understand animal behavior, understand
Quality assurance is an effort to promote quality animal biology, use safe facilities, use safe feed,
products through good management practices. and avoid excessive force.
The production practices assure animal quality.
14. What are five principles in human safety when
9. What is the focus of food safety control working with animals?
points in quality assurance? Any five from text (see page 561) such as these:
Food safety control points focus on having a know animal behavior, understand behavioral
product that is safe to eat. change of sick animals, avoid startling animals, use
proper restraint devices, and avoid exposure to
10. What records are kept by animal producers in animal secretions, dander, and the like.
quality-assurance programs?
The records are primarily of the animal hus- EVALUATING:
bandry practices that are followed. This includes
medicines used, the amount given, the location 1= f, 2=g, 3=b, 4=h, 5=a, 6=c, 7=d, and 8=e

83
 20
VETERINARY SCIENCE

CHAPTER SUMMARY because they are caused by organisms that get into the
body of the animal. Microorganisms that cause infec-
Veterinary science is the study of the health and dis- tious diseases are known as pathogens. Examples of
eases of animals. This includes hands-on care of ani- pathogens are bacteria, protozoa, viruses, fungi,
mals to promote productivity and well-being. A major prions, and parasites. A noncontagious disease is one
part of veterinary science is veterinary medicine, which that is caused by conditions or substances that are not
is the branch of medicine that deals with animals. The transferred from one animal to another—no pathogen
veterinarian is the lead individual in providing veterinary is involved. Wounds, bone fractures, and poisons are
medical care. A doctor of veterinary medicine degree is three examples. When classified by time of affliction,
required to be a veterinarian. diseases are chronic or acute. A chronic disease is one
Veterinary medicine is carried out in veterinary hos- that afflicts an animal for a long time. An acute disease
pitals or veterinary clinics. A veterinary hospital is a vet- is one that afflicts an animal severely for a short time.
erinary facility that can keep animals overnight for med- Some diseases are known as body system diseases.
ical purposes. A veterinary clinic provides many of the These cause body system problems or failures. There
same animal care practices but does not keep animals are many common diseases, as listed in the textbook.
overnight for medical purposes. Kennels and other Animals respond to disease in a range of ways that
boarding facilities for animals may be operated in a are to defend against infection. The primary defenders
separate facility. Most all veterinary practices follow sci- are the skin and mucous membranes of the body. The
ence-based approaches in animal care though some secondary defenders become active when an infec-
may utilize alternative approaches such as acupunc- tious agent gets past the primary defenders. The anti-
ture and herbal medicine. body is a form of secondary defender. Antibodies are
A wide range of activities is carried out in a veteri- produced by the body of an animal as its response to
nary facility. Practices are often separated into small infection. These include leukocytes (white blood cells),
and large animal facilities. Small animals are typically phagocytes (cells that surround and destroy disease-
companion animals but not necessarily so. Large ani- causing microorganisms), and lymphocytes (in the ver-
mals, such as horses and cattle, may be carried for on tebrae of vertebrate animals).
a farm or ranch without transporting to a clinic or hospi- Immunity is the ability of an animal to resist disease.
tal. Veterinary services that are mobile are said to be Immunity may be natural (animal develops without vac-
ambulatory practices. Activities in a veterinary clinic or cination) or acquired. Acquired immunity may result
hospital range from greeting customers to diagnosing from an animal having a disease and developing immu-
animal conditions, providing treatments, and setting nity without vaccination. Animal care often involves
fractured bones. (Table 20-1 in the textbook presents a administering immunizing agents such as vaccines,
rather lengthy list of activities in a veterinary facility.) serums, bacterins, and toxoids.
A number of animal care practices are used in veter- Diseased animals often need medications to
inary medicine. Most all of these involve some interac- enhance their ability to destroy pathogens in their bod-
tion with animals. Here are a few examples: checking ies. Antibiotics are often used, with penicillin being
vital signs, listening to internal sounds, collecting and most widely known. Pesticides may be used with para-
analyzing specimens, giving medications, and using sites (always according to directions). Dietary supple-
diagnostic equipment such as ultrasound and radiogra- ments may be used to help animals overcome anemia
phy. Wound treatment and surgical practices are also and provide energy.
included. Medications may be administered as systemics
Diseases are classified in several ways, such as (absorbed into blood stream), topical applications (onto
contagious or noncontagious and acute or chronic. A skin or outer surface), and internal medicines (sub-
contagious disease is spread by direct or indirect con- stances placed inside an animal’s body). Injections are
tact of animals. Most are known as infectious diseases often used to administer medicine directly into the

84
blood stream with a hypodermic needle and syringe or
other device. Injections may be intradermal (just below
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
outer layer of skin), subcutaneous (just beneath the AND TEACHING PLANS
skin), intramuscular (into the muscle), intravenous (into
blood vessel), intraperitoneal (inside belly wall of ani- Begin with the first section in the textbook, “The
mals—mostly cattle), intranasal (administered into nos- Field of Veterinary Science.” Have students read the
trils), and intrammary (administered into teat canal for section as homework or during supervised study. First,
mammary infections). define “veterinary science” and ask students to discuss
what is involved. Next, go over veterinary medicine.
Relate that each veterinarian has a “practice,” and
explain that this is how they go about their work. Use
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES student input to name and list examples of activities in
The objectives of this chapter are designed to help a veterinary clinic or hospital (see Table 20-1). (This is
an appropriate time to have a veterinarian speak to the
students understand the nature of veterinary science
class about the nature of veterinary medicine and the
and its importance in promoting the health and well-
work of being a veterinarian, veterinary assist, or other
being of animals and humans. Upon completion of
individual in a clinic or hospital.)
Chapter 20, the student will be able to:
Next, have students read “Common Practices.”
Afterward, call on individuals to summarize the infor-
1. Discuss the meaning and importance of veteri-
mation and name practices. List each practice on the
nary science.
writing surface and use student input to explain the
2. List and describe common medical practices per- appropriate content. The practices to include are:
formed by veterinary staff. checking vital signs, listening to internal sounds, labo-
3. Discuss the classes of animal diseases and list ratory analysis (includes specimen collection), giving
examples. medications, and using diagnostic equipment such as
radiology and ultrasonography. Wound treatment and
4. Describe how animals defend against disease. surgical practices are also included.
5. Select methods of disease prevention. Have students read the section “Classes and Exam-
ples of Diseases.” You may wish to have them read a
subsection of this at a time, such as “Contagious Dis-
INTEREST APPROACH ease” may be sufficient for one reading assignment
and discussion. Indicate that diseases are often in two
With most students, veterinary science/medicine is groups: contagious and noncontagious. Cover the sec-
an area of high interest. The interest approach for this tion “Contagious Diseases” in detail, including con-
chapter may build upon that latent interest. cepts associated with infectious disease and pathogen.
Use student input to name and explain the major
Several possible interest approaches may be used.
pathogens: bacteria, protozoa, viruses, prion, fungi,
One is to tour an animal health care facility such as a
and parasites. Distinguish internal and external para-
veterinary hospital or clinic. Students can observe the
sites. Use student input to cover the section on “Non-
examination areas, devices used in veterinary medical contagious Diseases,” including examples. Move into
care, and other aspects of the facility. Another is to tour “Time of Affliction.” Next, cover “Body System Dis-
an animal production facility to investigate the practices eases.” Move into the section on “Common Diseases.”
used in promoting animal health. Schools with animal Use student input to list these diseases, including
laboratories may be able to provide similar observa- descriptive information, and how the disease is pre-
tional experiences in the laboratory. vented. Note: Diseases in the textbook that are not of
Another interest approach is to have the students local importance may be omitted or covered in less
read the introductory part of the chapter. Ask students detail.
to explain the statement, “getting the services of a Next, have students read the section “How Animals
team.” Have them tell how veterinary care represents a Defend Against Disease.” Use student input and the
team effort. Who all is involved? Why is veterinary sci- writing surface to present the concepts of primary
ence and medicine a prestigious career area? Allow defenders and secondary defenders.
students to tell about any experiences or observations Have students read the section “Disease Manage-
they have made of veterinary work. (Teachers may ment.” Use student input to outline concepts of immu-
wish to review the objectives at this time.) nity and pathogen destruction on the writing surface.

85
Next, go over major concepts associated with disease teachers may wish to use specific materials on veteri-
control. Have students discuss the meaning and nary science/medicine. The Web site of the American
importance of immunity and the destruction of patho- Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) is a good
gens. Use their input to outline the ways medications source of reliable information: www.avma.org/ The
are administered. Demonstrate equipment used to media library of the AVMA (available through its Web
administer medications. Have students practice load- site) is an excellent source of detailed information
ing syringes. Ask students to discuss situations with about veterinary care.
animals that they know about in terms of disease Catalogs (paper and online) are good sources of
management. information on animal care equipment and other needs.
Animal supplies stores also have equipment and medi-
cines that may be useful in instruction.
REVIEW AND EVALUATION
The textbook and the Activity Manual can be used
for both review and evaluation.
ANSWERS
For review, have students define the terms at the END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
beginning of the chapter and answer the end-of-chap-
ter review questions. This may be done orally as a Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
group activity or as supervised study with the students tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
writing out the answers. Activities in the Activity Manual be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
will also be very useful. require more complete information, the use of complete
Evaluation can involve some of the same activities sentences and other details in their answers.
as review. The “Evaluating” section is one useful
assessment tool. Oral and/or written tests can also be 1. What is veterinary science?
given. All of the activities can be implemented in re- Veterinary science is the study of animal
teaching, as appropriate. health and diseases. The overall goal is to pro-
Refer to the list of objectives in the textbook. Call on mote well-being using a science-based
students to demonstrate that they know the content approach.
associated with each objective. Reteach areas where
students appear deficient. 2. Distinguish between a veterinary hospital
A practical approach to review and evaluation is to and a veterinary clinic.
grow a school crop or garden. Students can be A veterinary hospital is an animal health facility
involved in all of the practices. Some students may use that can board animals overnight for health care
these activities as directed laboratory supervised expe- reasons. A veterinary clinic is an animal health
rience. facility that does not board animals overnight for
health care reasons.

SAFETY 3. What activities are carried out in a veterinary

clinic or hospital? List any five.
Achieving the objectives of the chapter should
Note: Any five of the activities presented in
involve few safety hazards. However, activities beyond
Table 20-1 will suffice as an appropriate answer.
the classroom could present safety problems. The
Examples include: greeting and welcoming cus-
teacher should always review the appropriate safety
tomers, vaccinating against disease, treating and
practices. The Activity Manual presents safety precau-
dressing wounds, examining and diagnosing ani-
tions with each activity.
mal health problems, and setting fractured
Activities involving tours, observing animals, admin-
bones.
istering medications, and the like pose some risk.
Appropriate safety practices should be followed. It is 4. What is a production animal veterinary prac-
well to go over the hazards and relate how risks are tice? Why are they important?
reduced. A production animal veterinary practice is a
practice that primarily deals with agricultural ani-
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES mals that are being produced for their products
such as beef and dairy cattle and swine. They
The textbook and the Activity Manual can be used to are important because of the role of products of
achieve the objectives of the chapter. In some cases, these animals as human food.

86
5. What is a chronic disease? Acute disease? 10. How do animals defend themselves against
A chronic disease is one that afflicts an animal disease?
over an extended time. An acute disease is one Animals defend themselves against disease
that severely afflicts an animal for a short time. with primary and secondary defenders. The pri-
mary defenders are the skin and the mucous
6. Distinguish between contagious and noncon- membranes of the body. The secondary defend-
tagious disease. ers are antibodies and phagocytes.
A contagious disease is one that is spread by
direct or indirect contact of animals—one animal 11. What is immunity? What are the common
can catch it from another. A noncontagious dis- kinds of immunizing agents?
ease is one that is not spread by direct or indirect Immunity is the ability of an animal to defend
contact of animals but is caused by conditions or itself against disease. Natural immunity is present
substances that are not transferred from one ani- at the time an animal is born. Acquired immunity is
mal to another. developed by the animal, sometimes as a result of
having a disease and recovering and other times
7. What is an infectious disease? Pathogen?
artificially through medical means. Producers help
An infectious disease is a disease that is animals develop acquired immunity by using
caused by organisms getting into the body of an immunizing agents known as biologicals. The com-
animal. The organisms enter, grow, and are mon immunizing agents are vaccines, serums,
active in the animal’s body. A pathogen is a bacterins, and toxoids.
microorganism that causes infectious diseases,
such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and others. 12. What may be used to help an animal over-
come disease?
8. How are diseases related to body systems?
Animals often need help in overcoming dis-
Some diseases only attack specific body sys- ease. This is provided with antibiotics, pesticides,
tems. The disease may be confined to a particu- and dietary supplements.
lar organ or organ system.
13. What kinds of medications may be used?
9. What are some common diseases of ani-
mals? What animals can have each of these The kinds of medications that may be used
diseases? What are the symptoms? How are include systemics, topicals, and internal medicines.
the diseases prevented and treated? 14. What are the kinds of injections? Describe
Note: The textbook lists quite a number of ani- how they are used.
mal diseases. Listing and providing the needed The kinds of injections and their uses are: sub-
information for any two should be a satisfactory cutaneous injection—made just beneath the
answer though teachers may establish higher skin; intramuscular injection—made through the
requirements. Example 1: anaplasmosis—parasitic skin into a muscle; intravenous injection—made
disease primarily of cattle with symptoms of mus- into a vein; intrapeitoneal injection—made
cular tremors, rapid heartbeat, and loss of appetite; through the belly wall of cattle and a few other
prevent with immunization; treatments are avail- species; intranasal injection—made into the nos-
able if disease is caught early. Example 2: rabies— trils; and intramammary injection—made into a
a highly infectious viral disease of the nervous sys- teat canal to treat diseases of the udder.
tem of several species including dogs, skunks, and
raccoons; infected animals wonder about, attack EVALUATING
without reason, fear water, paralysis, and death;
prevent with vaccination. 1=g, 2=a, 3=j, 4=h, 5=i, 6=d, 7=c, 8=f, 9=e, and 10=b.

87
 PART FIVE: NATURAL RESOURCES
AND EARTH SCIENCE

21
NATURAL RESOURCES
AND THE ENVIRONMENT

CHAPTER SUMMARY luted are air, water, soil, and aesthetics. Toxic sub-
stances may enter the environment. In addition, soil
Agriculture involves using the earth’s resources to can be lost by erosion. Waste products and discharged
produce food, fiber, and shelter. Using the resources in water (known as effluent) are major sources of pollu-
a responsible manner is essential! Chapter 21 focuses tion. Also, discarded junk and litter make the environ-
on sustainable resource use as well as maintaining the ment less attractive.
environment and using technology properly. The proper disposal of wastes is crucial. Landfills,
The environment is composed of all of the factors incineration, and recycling are used with most wastes.
that affect living things. Natural resources are all of the Agriculture can cause pollution, and steps must be
things that naturally occur in the environment. Sustain- taken to keep the sources of pollution from damaging
able agriculture is using practices to maintain our ability the environment. Using hazardous materials and
to produce food, fiber, and shelter indefinitely. releasing wastes necessitates strictly following rules
Ecosystems are made up of all of the parts of a par- and regulations. Safety is always important. Proper
ticular environment. They include living and nonliving protection of the human body from some materials is a
things. The living things are known as biotic factors must.
(plants and animals). The nonliving things are abiotic Agricultural technology, used properly, is very bene-
factors (rocks, lay of the land, and climate). The bio- ficial. However, not using some of the materials prop-
sphere is the area of Earth that supports life, which erly can cause damage to the environment and can
includes many ecosystems. injure people. The use of technology is good; its misuse
The area where a plant or an animal grows is its is bad!
habitat. How a plant or an animal responds to its habitat
is its niche. The food chain is the sequence in which liv-
ing things obtain their food. INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Renewable natural resources can be replaced.
These include soil, water, wildlife, fish, forests, and air. The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
Agriscience emphasizes employing special precau- learners understand the role of natural resources and
tions to use and maintain these resources. their responsibilities in properly using them.
Nonrenewable natural resources cannot be Upon completion of Chapter 21, the student will be
replaced, such as fuel and minerals. Alternatives to able to:
some of these have been developed. Certainly, many
of the nonrenewable resources can be recycled. 1. Define natural resources, environmental science,
Environmental pollution is the damage done to the and sustainable agriculture.
environment by people. Major resources that are pol- 2. Describe the role of ecosystems.

88
 3. List and describe examples of natural resources. Use the writing surface to outline the kinds of natural
4. Identify important wildlife species. resources. Begin by naming the two major kinds. Call
on students to define and to give examples of each.
5. Describe responsible use of wildlife. Soils will be covered in more detail later in the text.
6. Discuss the meaning and sources of pollution. Emphasis here should be on water, the cycle involved,
7. Describe methods of agricultural waste disposal. and how it is renewed and conserved. As suggested in
the Activity Manual, students can collect water samples
and run different tests to assess the water quality and
APPROACH the extent of pollution. Many students will be very inter-
ested in the wildlife area, and this should be used to
Since this chapter focuses on areas that are widely enhance their interest in the use of natural resources.
discussed in the media, student interest should already Forests and air should be discussed. Remind students
exist to some degree. The interest approach could be that forestry involves growing trees in a manner similar
localized to particular natural resource problems in the to how other crops are grown. Air tests could be made
community, or it could address a worldwide situation. to determine the particulate and other materials pres-
One approach is to use the introductory section of ent in the air.
the chapter. After students have read it, have them Nonrenewable natural resources should be of inter-
offer suggestions on how the earth’s resources could est to students from the standpoint of fuel for motor
be used to meet the food, fiber, and shelter needs of vehicles. Have students discuss what will happen when
the ever-growing human population. Ask students to and if all fuel oil is used.
explain how this relates to the goal in agriscience and Students will likely enjoy studying about wildlife in
technology to use and protect the earth’s resources. the local area. Have students read the section “Wildlife
Ask students to name places where famines and star- Management and Species.” Afterward, use student
vation have occurred. These places could be identified input to outline key concepts on the writing surface.
on a wall map. (Teachers may wish to review the objec- Relate species to those found locally that are used as
tives at this time.) game and nongame animals and plants. Move into the
(Note: The Academic Connection, Internet Topics, section “Responsible Use of Wildlife.” Have students
Technology Connection, Career Profile, and Agri- read the section and provide input as you outline the
Science Connection may be used in gaining interest or major concepts on the writing surface.
at any point during instruction on the chapter.) Along with the chapter section “Pollution,” present
local pollution concerns. Students may want to solve a
local pollution problem, such as picking up litter along a
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES road or sponsoring a recycling project. Taking a field
AND TEACHING PLANS trip to a landfill or inviting a resource person to class will
be helpful in giving relevance to waste disposal.
Follow the interest approach with a presentation and The sources of agriculture pollution and the steps
a discussion of the chapter content. Students could for preventing it should be carefully presented. Have
also read sections of the chapter and participate in the students discuss possible sources of agriculture pollu-
discussion. In addition, the Activity Manual has useful tion in the local community.
hands-on learning activities. Conclude the instruction in this chapter by having stu-
Begin by helping students learn and understand the dents discuss how agricultural technology is good when it
concepts of environment, natural resources, and sus- is not misused. They may wish to give examples of mis-
tainable agriculture. List the definitions on the writing use and to discuss the benefits of technology.
surface, and then ask students to explain them. The
students can give examples, as found in their local
communities. Also, present ecosystems and the factors REVIEW AND EVALUATION
involved: biotic and abiotic. Have students relate how
an ecosystem works. Use a local area of forest or even The chapter summary and the end-of-chapter
a part of the school grounds as a place for students to review questions can be used in reviewing and evalu-
visit and collect data. ating student learning. The end-of-chapter questions
Present the concept of sustainable agriculture. can also be used in re-teaching important concepts,
Have students explain what it means. Then offer local as needed. Laboratory activities in the Activity Manual
examples. provide an excellent hands-on review of the chapter.

89
 Achievement can be evaluated by using written or 1. What is the environment? What are natural
oral tests and supervised experience programs. Form- resources? How are they related?
ing the students into action groups to help solve prob-
lems in the local community would help reinforce learn- The environment consists of all of the factors
ing. Using the “Exploring” activities in the text would be that affect the life of a living thing. Natural
very beneficial. resources are the naturally occurring things that
support life. They are related because the envi-
ronment contains the natural resources.
SAFETY 2. What is the biosphere?
The objectives of the chapter do not include learning The biosphere is the area of the earth that sup-
outcomes that pose specific safety problems. The con- ports life.
duct of some of the learning activities could present
hazardous situations to students. Activities in the Activ- 3. What is an ecosystem? Distinguish between
ity Manual are coded to alert students to possible areas factors in an ecosystem.
of danger. Students should be aware of the safety
practices around water, in dealing with wastes, and on An ecosystem is made up of all of the parts of
field trips to collect information. In terms of environmen- a particular environment. The two factors are
tal safety, students can be referred to the Technology biotic (living things) and abiotic (nonliving things).
Connection that addresses the use of LiDAR. Relate
that the work underway focuses on air quality and hav- 4. How does an ecosystem work? Describe hab-
ing safe air. itat, niche, and food chain as parts of the eco-
Students should be instructed in safety related to system.
enjoying wildlife. The safety instruction may be through All of the biotic and abiotic factors interact in an
hunter safety education program or other approaches. ecosystem. Habitat is the area where a particular
Such may be beyond the scope of instruction in the plant or animal lives. Niche is the special way of
class. life that a plant or an animal has in its habitat.
The food chain is the sequence in which living
things obtain their food. All of these are a part of
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES the ecosystem.
Additional resources could be used to enrich the
5. What is sustaining natural resources?
content from the perspective of the local community.
Publications on natural resources, wildlife, and environ- Sustaining natural resources involves using
mental science in the local area and approaches to natural resources in such a way that they can be
waste disposal would be useful. These may be replaced. Sustainable agriculture includes all of
obtained from a college or a university, a state agency the things done by agriscientists to help people
on environmental protection, or a local government maintain the ability to produce food, fiber and
agency, such as the agency that operates a landfill. shelter. This ensures future productivity.
Local businesses and industries as well as waste man-
agement companies also may have pertinent informa- 6. Distinguish between renewable and non-
tion on waste disposal. renewable natural resources.
Renewable natural resources are those that
ANSWERS can be replaced (e.g., soil, air, and water). Non-
renewable natural resources are those that can’t
be replaced (e.g., fuel and minerals).
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
7. What are the most important renewable natu-
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- ral resources?
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may The most important renewable natural
require more complete information, the use of complete resources are soil, water, wildlife and fish, for-
sentences, or other details in the answers. ests, and air.

90
 8. What is the importance of the following large earthen pits that are carefully located and
renewable natural resources: soil, water, designed to hold wastes for decomposition.
wildlife and fish, forests, and air? Incineration entails burning wastes in specially
Soil is the resource where seeds are planted designed facilities. Recycling involves recovering
and crops grow; nutrients for plant growth are and reusing materials rather than throwing them
from the soil. Water, often called the most impor- away.
tant resource, is used by humans, other animals,
and plants (crops) to sustain life. Wildlife and fish 14. What are possible sources of agricultural pol-
are parts of nature that provide recreation and lution?
food. Trees in forests provide valuable wood Sources of agricultural pollution are introduc-
products and produce oxygen to protect the envi- ing pests, such as those in products that are
ronment. Air contains oxygen, which is needed shipped; exotic plants or animals, such as orna-
for life processes. mental plants or pets that get loose; chemicals;
9. What are the major kinds of nonrenewable waste water; processing wastes, such as leftover
natural resources? pods from a vegetable processing plant; and new
life forms, such as nonnatural plants that could
The major nonrenewable natural resources
get into the environment.
are fuel (solid, liquid, and gas) and minerals.
10. What is pollution? 15. What can people do to reduce agricultural
pollution?
Pollution is the contamination of the environ-
ment by people. People can reduce agricultural pollution by
knowing regulations, following rules, storing
11. What are five important sources of pollution?
materials properly, controlling wastes, using
Explain each.
materials correctly, disposing of containers, and
The sources of pollution are toxic products following safety practices.
(substances that contain poison or have the
potential to poison plants and animals); soil loss 16. Distinguish between consumptive and
(soil particles enter water and air); waste prod- nonconsumptive uses of wildlife.
ucts (garbage, leftover materials at a factory, and
animal manure and wastes); discharged water or Consumptive wildlife use is harvesting or tak-
effluent (water used and discarded by the pro- ing wildlife. Nonconsumptive wildlife use is enjoy-
cessing plants, farms, and other places); and ing wildlife without harvesting or taking it.
junk and litter (trash or old machinery that is no
longer used). 17. What are three uses of wildlife? How are
these carried out responsibly?
12. Name three kinds of wastes.
Wastes may be gases, such as carbon mon- Three uses of wildlife are fishing, hunting, and
oxide and carbon dioxide; solids, such as paper birding. Fishing and hunting are consumptive
and cans; or liquids, such as sewage and water and should follow all laws and regulations asso-
runoff. ciated with these activities. Birding is noncon-
sumptive but may have rules to follow.
13. What methods of waste disposal are used?
Briefly describe each.
EVALUATING
Three methods are used to dispose of waste:
landfills, incineration, and recycling. Landfills are 1=e, 2=d, 3=b, 4=j, 5=c, 6=i, 7=f, 8=g, 9=h, and 10=a

91
 22
EARTH SCIENCE

CHAPTER SUMMARY INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Space on Earth is limited. Similarly, resources are The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
also limited. Ways must be found to use resources students develop a fundamental knowledge of earth
wisely to assure that human well-being is met for many science as it relates to sustainable practices in produc-
generations into the future. Just as humans, plants, ing plants and animals.
and animals depend on the earth for their life-support- Upon completion of Chapter 22, the student will be
ing nutrients, they use the earth’s resources in support- able to:
ing their life processes.
The earth’s structure is made up of a surface (crust), 1. Describe the major features of the earth.
an interior, and an atmosphere. All these affect plant 2. Explain changes that occur in the earth.
and animal life in one way or another. Certainly, the fer- 3. Describe atmosphere and its importance in
tility of the soil and the contents of the atmosphere agriscience.
influence all life. 4. Identify and describe the major factors in
Changes occur on Earth because of movements of weather.
the planet in the solar system, movements in its inte-
5. Explain climate factors in agriscience.
rior, and weathering. Day length, seasons, changes in
the earth’s surface, and soil formation are caused by 6. Explain succession as related to agriscience.
the earth’s movements.
Weather is the general condition of the atmosphere.
Weather includes temperature, air pressure, wind,
INTEREST APPROACH
humidity, and precipitation. Weather changes because The introductory paragraphs and figure for Chapter
one or more conditions in the atmosphere change. 22 will be useful in an interest approach. Have students
Climate is the average weather conditions in an read the introductory part, and ask them to explain how
area. The earth is divided into three climate zones: the living things must share the earth’s space. Students
tropical climate zone, which is near the equator; the may also describe their impressions of Figure 22–1.
temperate climate zone, which is between the tropical Ask them to tell why scientists need to know about the
and polar climate zones; and the polar climate zone, movement of bacteria in the soil. Also, have the stu-
which includes the North and South Poles. Climate dents describe how plants provide food for animals
influences the kinds of plants and animals that can be that, in turn, die and return to the earth as nutrients.
produced. Some debate is occurring about global Examples in the local community can also be used
warming and the effect it will have on where crops are in the interest approach. These include unusual
grown. Melting of the polar ice cap is a sure sign of resources, such as minerals; natural features; and cli-
such warming. The size of the ice cap is getting smaller mate. (Teachers may wish to review the objectives at
each year. this time.)
Life succession is the pattern of growth of plants and
animals in a particular place. It involves the continual
replacement of the organisms that live there. Primary INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
succession takes place when a biotic community
develops where none has existed. Secondary succes-
AND TEACHING PLANS
sion occurs when an area is destroyed by natural Instructional strategies should be based on the
disaster or by the actions of people and a new biotic needs and interests of the students as well as on any
community develops, much as with primary succes- unusual natural resources found in the area. Teaching
sion. Cut forests and abandoned fields are examples of plans can include presentation and discussion of the
secondary succession. information related to the objectives.

92
 As with all chapters, student mastery is increased by
active involvement in reading, listening, discussing,
SAFETY
writing, and doing hands-on activities associated with The achievement of the objectives of this chapter
the objectives. Students should immerse themselves involves few safety hazards. However, activities that
into the content and learning process. enrich the learning process often present possible
After students have read the section on the earth’s safety hazards. The Activity Manual contains specific
structure, outline the content of the chapter on the writ- safety information related to the learning activities.
ing surface. Write key terms and their definitions on the
writing surface. Have students offer examples of the
different features. Focus on the earth’s crust, interior, ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
and atmosphere. The textbook and the Activity Manual can be used to
On the writing surface, list the ways the earth achieve the objectives of the chapter. In some cases,
changes. These are movements in the solar system, teachers may wish to use newspapers with weather
movements in the earth’s interior, and weathering. Use information or other reports of long-term weather data.
a globe or draw illustrations on the writing surface to Numerous Internet resources are available to support
explain how the earth rotates and revolves. Explain this chapter. A good resource for information is the
how seasons and day length relate to rotations and National Weather Service—www.nws.noaa.gov.
revolutions. Ask students to explain how seasons and Another source for weather information is weather.com—
day length pertain to plants and animals in the local www.weather.com. (Local zip codes can be entered for
area, such as the kinds of plants grown and the ways current weather information. Students might be encour-
animals are raised. aged to keep a weather log for a week comparing their
Have students read the section of the chapter on the weather measurements using school instruments with
atmosphere. Emphasize key terms about the weather, those available over the Internet.)
including temperature, air pressure, wind, and humid-
ity. Include discussion of clouds and precipitation in the
instruction. Many activities can be used with this chap-
ANSWERS
ter, including those in the Activity Manual. Keeping
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
records of temperature, precipitation, and other
weather features helps students understand the con- Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
tent. Have the students explain how weather changes tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
and what the effects of climate zones are on agricul- be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
tural production. require more complete information, the use of complete
After students have read the section on life succes- sentences, and other details in their answers.
sion, use presentation and discussion to explain the
concepts involved. Distinguish between primary and 1. What is the universe? How is the earth a part
secondary succession. Ask students to name places in of the universe?
the local area where succession is obviously under- The universe is all that exists—both known
way. and unknown—in the galaxies. The earth is in
the Milky Way galaxy, which is a part of the uni-
verse.
REVIEW AND EVALUATION
2. What are the parts of the earth’s solar sys-
The activities in the textbook as well as those in the tem?
Activity Manual can be used for review and evaluation. The solar system that the earth is in has one
Review should focus on the learning related to the sun, nine planets, more than 40 moons, and
achievement of the objectives for the chapter. Use the more than 100 billion stars.
end-of-chapter questions and the terms at the begin-
ning of the chapter in the review process. 3. What are the three major parts of the earth?
Evaluation can consist of observation of perfor- How do these parts relate to each other?
mance on the review activities as well as written or oral The three major parts of the earth are the
tests. Tests may be teacher-made or from a test bank. crust, interior, and atmosphere. Resources from

93
 all three are used to support life on the planet. 8. What is climate? List and briefly explain three
Changes in one result in changes in the others. climate zones.
4. Distinguish between continental and oceanic Climate is the average of all the weather condi-
crust. tions for an area over a period of time. The three
Continental crust is the crust that is known as climate zones are tropical, which is a wide band
land. Oceanic crust is the crust that is beneath around the earth that lies on both sides of the
the oceans and other bodies of water. equator with warm climate; temperate, which is a
band around the earth between the tropical and
5. How does Earth move in the solar system? polar zone; and polar, which includes the North
Name the kinds of movements, and explain and South Poles with cold or cool climates.
each. Why are these movements important in
producing plants and animals? 9. What is succession?
The earth moves in several ways in the solar
Succession is the process of plants and ani-
system. Two important kinds of movements are
mals growing and changing. It is the natural con-
rotations and revolutions. The earth rotates
tinual replacement of the organisms that live in
around the sun to create day and night, with 24
an area.
hours or one day required for a rotation. It
revolves around the sun to create seasons, with
10. What is primary succession? When does it
365.24 days or one year required for a revolu-
happen?
tion. These movements are important because
they create seasons and day length that are Primary succession is the development of a
important in regulating plant and animal growth. biotic community where none existed. Long peri-
ods of time may be required for it to happen,
6. What is weathering? What are the two major
such as in North America when the glaciers
kinds of weathering? Why is weathering
began to disappear and low forms of life began
important?
to grow. The low life forms were gradually
Weathering is the process whereby the rocks replaced by higher forms as better soil devel-
and minerals on the crust of the earth are oped.
changed. Rocks break into smaller and smaller
pieces. Chemical weathering takes place when 11. What is secondary succession? When does it
new substances are formed by chemical reac- happen?
tions that occur. Mechanical weathering occurs
when larger rocks break into smaller rocks. Secondary succession occurs when an area
Weathering is important because it results in the has been destroyed by a natural disaster or by
formation of soil. people. It may happen when fields are aban-
doned, forests are cleared, or land is burned.
7. What are the major elements of the weather?
Describe how each is measured. 12. How can agriscientists get involved in suc-
The major elements of weather are tempera- cession?
ture, air pressure, wind, moisture, and precipita-
tion. Temperature is measured with a thermome- Understanding succession helps agriscientists
ter; air pressure is measured with a barometer; understand growth processes. They can get
wind speed is measured with an anemometer; involved in re-seeding abandoned fields, planting
and direction is measured with a wind vane. forests, and controlling burning.
Moisture is measured as relative humidity and
involves a relationship between the air tempera- EVALUATING
ture and the humidity. Precipitation is measured
with a rain gauge. 1=i, 2=g, 3=h, 4=b, 5=a, 6=j, 7=e, 8=d, 9=f, and 10=c

94
 PART SIX: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY

23
CHEMISTRY IN AGRISCIENCE

CHAPTER SUMMARY Carbon is an important element in agriscience.

Combinations of hydrogen and carbon are known as
Chemistry is the study of the substances that form hydrocarbons. These are important in many agricul-
the building blocks of living and nonliving things. These tural chemicals and chemical processes.
“blocks” are often referred to as matter, which is any- Solutions and suspensions are often used in agri-
thing that has volume and mass. When something has culture. A solution is a mixture of two or more sub-
volume, it takes up space. Mass is the amount of mat- stances. A suspension is a solute containing a solvent
ter that an object contains. that may settle out unless kept agitated. In a suspen-
Matter can be in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. sion, often known as a colloidal suspension, materials
Changes in the state of matter occur because of are suspended in a liquid, such as a bacterin. An emul-
changes in either temperature or pressure or in both. sion is made when two liquids are combined, such as
Matter has both physical and chemical properties. oil and water for making salad dressing.
The physical properties include color, odor, melting Surfactants are used to help water spread over
and boiling points, solubility, hardness, density, and waxy or oily surfaces, such as the leaves of plants.
crystal formation. The chemical properties of matter Nearly all pesticides have surfactants added to provide
explain how it is changed when it is combined with better coverage of plants.
other matter. Three substances with electrical charges are acids,
Matter is classified into three general groups: ele- bases, and salts. An acid has a pH below 7.0, whereas
ments, compounds, and mixtures. Elements are sub- a base has a pH above 7.0. A salt has a pH close to
stances that can’t be broken down further into simpler neutral. Salts are formed when acids and bases are
materials. Compounds are made of two or more ele- combined.
ments that have been chemically combined. Mixtures Chemical changes are important in agriculture. Pho-
are made of substances with parts that have different tosynthesis, oxidation, and food preservation are three
properties. good examples.
The Periodic Table of the Elements is used to All work in agriscience chemistry necessitates mak-
group and organize the elements for study. It shows ing accurate measurements. Special care must be
relationships between the elements. All elements can taken; otherwise, dangerous and costly mistakes could
be placed into one of two categories: metals and non- result.
metals.
New chemical compounds are formed when ele-
ments bond. Valence electrons are shared. INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Four kinds of chemical reactions used in agriscience
are composition, decomposition, single replacement, The objectives of this chapter are designed to help
and double replacement. Some chemical reactions are students attain important knowledge of, and skill in, the
different from these if oxidation and reduction are application of the principles of chemistry in agriscience.
involved. Emphasis is on the fundamental processes.

95
 Upon completion of Chapter 23, the student will be refer to Table 23–1 in the text or to a Periodic Table
able to: of the Elements in Figure 23–11 for a list of the com-
mon elements.) Ask students to distinguish between
1. Explain the meaning and properties of matter. the metals and the nonmetals. Also, have students
2. Describe the major kinds of matter. explain compounds and mixtures. Remind them that
mixed fertilizer is a good example of a mixture, while
3. Explain the meaning of compounds and how
sodium chloride is a good example of a compound.
they are formed.
(Refer students to Table 23–2 in the text for a listing
4. Discuss the importance of carbon and organic of the common compounds in agriscience.)
substances. After students have read the section of the chapter
5. Distinguish between solutions and suspensions. in the text on chemical reactions, list the four kinds of
6. Distinguish acids, bases, and salts. reactions on the writing surface. Ask students to
7. Describe chemical reactions in agriscience. explain each kind and then to give an example. Stu-
dents should record salient information in their note-
8. Explain the use of measurements and conver-
books.
sions in chemistry and make calculations.
After students have read the section of the chap-
ter in the text called “Organic Chemistry,” refer them
INTEREST APPROACH to Figure 23–20 for an example of a hydrocarbon
molecule.
Some students will approach agricultural chemistry After students have read about solutions and sus-
positively; others, negatively. These feelings are based pensions, list the key terms on the writing surface. Ask
on previous experiences, such as in chemistry class. students to explain each of the terms and then to give
You can help dispel the fear of chemistry by indicating examples. Emphasize the use of solutions and suspen-
that this chapter is filled with practical approaches and sions in agriscience.
will build upon previous study. Begin by having the stu- After students have read the section of the chapter
dents read the introductory part of Chapter 23. Ask in the text called “Acids, Bases, and Salts,” list the key
them what is meant by “Everything is made out of terms on the writing surface, and then have students
something!” After discussion, explain that chemistry is offer definitions for the terms. Discussion should
concerned with the materials that “things” are made of. include naming practical examples and describing how
The interest approach can be modified, based on they are useful in agriscience work.
the interests and needs of students. Some students The important applications of chemistry in
may already have taken chemistry; others may have lit- agriscience entail many of the common processes that
tle familiarity with it. (Teachers may wish to review the occur on farms and ranches and in agribusinesses.
objectives at this time.) After students have read the section of the chapter in
the text called “Chemical Reactions,” list important
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES changes on the writing surface, and then have students
explain what is happening with the changes.
AND TEACHING PLANS Conclude the chapter with instruction on measure-
ments in chemistry. Show students examples of beak-
Objectives of the chapter should guide instructional
ers, test tubes, and other containers that are used.
content. Achieving the objectives will involve careful
Explain how they are graduated to make measurements
use of the textbook and the Activity Manual. Presenta-
easier and more accurate. Have the students practice
tion and discussion methods will also be helpful. Stu-
using the various measurements and containers. Mate-
dents should take notes on salient information.
rials in the Activity Manual will be useful with this area.
Following the interest approach, have students
read the section of the chapter in the text called “Mat-
ter.” Then, write the key terms and their definitions on REVIEW AND EVALUATION
the writing surface. Call on students to explain the
terms and to give examples of the three states of Some of the same approaches can be used for both
matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Illustrate the impor- review and evaluation. The observations of the teacher
tance of temperature and pressure in determining the regarding student achievement can be the basis for re-
states, with water being a good example. List the teaching, if appropriate.
kinds of matter on the writing surface, and then have For review, students can define the terms at the
students offer explanations of each. (Have students beginning of the chapter and answer the end-of-chapter

96
review questions. Activities in the Activity Manual will solid charcoal burns, it joins with oxygen in the
also be helpful. air to form carbon dioxide.
Evaluation can also include oral or written tests, as
well as observations of the students during supervised 3. What is an element? How many elements are
practice. known to exist naturally? Artificially? Name
five common elements, and give their sym-
bols.
SAFETY An element is a substance that cannot be bro-
The objectives of the chapter can be achieved with ken down into simpler material by ordinary
few safety hazards. However, enriching the instruction means. Scientists know of 118 elements, of
with laboratory activities may bring a number of haz- which 98 are natural and 20 are artificial. Five
ards into the instructional environment. The teacher common elements and their symbols are oxygen,
should carefully explain all areas related to safety. The O; hydrogen, H; calcium, Ca; carbon, C; and
Activity Manual offers a number of activities in which nitrogen, N. (Note: Students may name any of
safety is stressed. Students should be familiar with the the elements from a Periodic Table of the Ele-
safety procedures to follow in applying the principles of ments.)
chemistry in agriscience.
4. Describe the differences between the Fahren-
heit and Celsius temperature scales.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES The Fahrenheit scale is an English system of
measurement. It has a freezing point of 32º and a
The objectives of the chapter can be achieved by
boiling point of 212º at sea level. The Celsius
using the text and the Activity Manual. In some cases, a
scale is a metric system of temperature mea-
reference on the fundamentals of chemistry, such as a
surement, with a boiling point of 100º and a
high school chemistry book, may be helpful. Teachers
freezing point of 0º.
who wish to provide more in-depth instruction may
obtain a wall chart of the Periodic Table of the Ele- 5. What is the Periodic Table of the Elements?
ments (available from science supply houses or school How is it used?
supply firms).
The Periodic Table of the Elements is a way of
grouping the elements to show relationships and
ANSWERS differences. It also contains information about the
elements. It is used by scientists and students to
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS obtain information about how elements will react.

Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- 6. What is the Periodic Law?
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to The periodic law states that the properties of
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may elements are dictated by their atomic numbers.
require more complete information, the use of complete
sentences, and other details in their answers. 7. Name and distinguish between two catego-
ries of elements. What is a metalloid?
1. What two conditions are involved in changes
The two categories of elements are metals and
in state?
nonmetals. Metals are easily identified by their
The two conditions are temperature and pres- brilliant appearance or metallic luster or shine.
sure. Metals are good conductors of heat and can be
formed into many shapes. Nonmetals do not
2. Name and describe two properties of matter? have luster, are brittle, and are not good conduc-
The two properties of matter are physical tors of heat. Metalloids are a section of the non-
properties and chemical properties. Physical metals that have characteristics of metals and
properties include color, odor, solubility, melting nonmetals. They tend to be semiconductors of
and boiling points, hardness, density, and crys- electricity and are found along the metalloid line
tal formation. Chemical properties are often that separates the Periodic Table of the Ele-
more difficult to spot. For example, when the ments into metals and nonmetals.

97
 8. Identify the three main parts of an atom and 15. Explain the following as related to agri-
where they are located in the atom. science: filtration, surfactants, and agitation.
Parts of an atom are the nucleus (central part Filtration is used to remove solids from a sus-
of an atom), neutrons (in the nucleus), and pro- pension, such as trash from fuel, dust from the
tons (in the nucleus). air, and chemical vapors in the air. Surfactants
are wetting agents that help oil and water mix,
9. What is a compound? How is a compound such as water containing a pesticide that is
related to the Law of Definite Composition? applied to the waxy leaves of plants. Agitation is
A compound is a substance made of two or used to keep suspensions mixed well by moving
more elements. The Law of Definite Composition the liquid around. Agitation is used in pesticide
states that all compounds have a definite compo- sprayers to keep a good mix of chemicals and
sition by mass. water.

10. Identify the four main types of chemical reac- 16. What are acids, bases, and salts? How do
tions. they relate to each other?
The four main types of chemical reactions are Acids are compounds that give up protons to
composition, decomposition, single replacement, water molecules to form hydronium ions and that
and double replacement. have a pH below 7.0. Bases are compounds that
produce hydroxide ions in water and accept pro-
11. What is a mixture? Give examples. tons. The pH of bases is above 7.0. Salts are
A mixture is a substance that has parts with compounds formed when acids and bases are
different properties. The parts could be physically combined. They have a pH of about 7.0. Acids
separated from the others. and bases can be reacted to and form salts.

12. What is organic chemistry? What two major 17. What important agriscience chemical reac-
areas are involved? tions occur in oxidation and food preserva-
tion.
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon,
An important agriscience chemical reaction
which includes the study of substances contain-
that includes oxidation is the rusting of metals
ing carbon as well as the study of ways in which
used in farm structures and equipment. Painting
organisms use carbon in their structures. All
the metals and using galvanized metals will help
organic compounds contain carbon and involve
reduce rusting. Several methods of food preser-
covalent bonding.
vation, including pickling and salting, involve the
13. Explain the differences between solutions, use of chemicals.
solvents, and solutes.
18. Identify the two kinds of measurements used
A solution is a mixture of two or more sub- in chemistry in agriscience?
stances. The dissolving material (often a liquid) is
Chemistry measurements in agriscience
the solvent. The material that is dissolved is the
include linear measurements (distance between
solute.
two or more points), area measurements (multi-
14. How do suspensions, colloids, and emul- ply linear measurements), volume measure-
sions differ? ments (total size), and weight measurements
(heaviness). In agriscience, linear and area mea-
Suspensions, colloids, and emulsions are mix- surements are common.
tures of two or more compounds. Colloids, which
contain solid material in a liquid (e.g., clay parti- EVALUATING
cles in water) are usually easy to filter out. Emul-
sions are colloids made of two liquids (e.g., oil 1=f, 2=e, 3=d, 4=a, 5=c, 6=b, 7=j, 8=h, 9=i,
and water mixed together). 10=g,11=k,12=m, 13=n, and 14=l

98
 24
PHYSICS IN AGRISCIENCE
CHAPTER SUMMARY and alternating current (AC). Electrical current is mea-
sured in amperes, volts, and watts. Some materials,
The study of the principles of physics includes sev- such as copper and aluminum, are excellent conduc-
eral areas related to the use of energy and matter. tors of electrical current; others, such as glass and rub-
Some of these areas focus on getting more work ber, are insulators and do not conduct electrical cur-
accomplished with less human effort. rent. Many types of electrical controls and circuits are
The major areas of physics are mechanics, heat, used.
sound, magnetism and electricity, light, and electron Two forms of compression power are used in agri-
and nuclear physics. One of the important areas in science: hydraulic power and pneumatic power.
agriscience is mechanics, which is often known as Hydraulics involves using liquids at rest and in motion.
mechanical technology. Pneumatics involves using compressed air in both sim-
Work and power are important concepts in ple (tire pump) and complex (air-driven hammer) appli-
agriscience. Moving an object through a distance when cations.
there is some resistance to the movement is known as
work. Force is the push or pull exerted on an object in
doing work. The ability to do work is called energy. INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Power is the rate at which work is done. Time is a
The objectives of this chapter are designed to
factor because the object is moved by force in a certain
help students learn and understand the fundamen-
amount of time. Horsepower is often used in assessing
tal principles of physics and their applications. The
the power of motors and engines. One horsepower is
emphasis is on simple mechanical power and
equal to 550 foot-pounds of work per second.
related areas, including thermal energy, electricity,
Motion is a part of both work and power. It entails and compression.
moving or changing the position of something. Motion
Upon completion of Chapter 24, the student will be
is rectilinear (straight) or curvilinear (circular). Speed is
able to:
the rate of motion. Increasing the speed of an object
over time is called acceleration. Decreasing the speed
1. Identify and explain areas of physics in agriscience.
of an object over time is called deceleration.
Machines are devices that help transmit power, 2. Explain work, power, and motion.
force, and motion. All equipment and machinery is 3. Identify simple machines and relate each to
made of six simple machines. The six simple machines agriscience.
are lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, 4. Explain mechanical advantage.
wedge, and screw. Wedges and screws are sometimes
5. Describe the use of thermal energy.
considered forms of inclined planes.
Mechanical advantage explains why machines are 6. Explain the use of electrical power.
useful. It is the way in which a machine multiplies the 7. Describe the use of compression power.
force it receives. Work is a product of force and dis-
tance. Machines do not increase both force and dis-
tance. A machine does no more work than the amount INTEREST APPROACH
of work put into it. The “mechanical world” is often of high interest to
Thermal energy is the energy produced by heat. students. This is a good point to use in beginning the
Internal-combustion engines burn fuels that produce interest approach. After students have read the intro-
heat. Fuels may be gasoline, diesel fuel, liquefied ductory part of Chapter 24, have them explain how
petroleum gas, and others. mechanical power allows a person to get more work
Electrical energy involves current electricity. The done with less effort. A good example is to relate how
two forms of current electricity are direct current (DC) using a shovel to dig the soil compares with using a

99
large tractor with a disc or a plow. Other examples of commonly used by heat engines, such as gasoline and
machinery can also be given. Ask students to explain diesel.
how farming has changed as a result of mechanical Have students read the section of the chapter in the
power. (Teachers may wish to review the objectives at text on electrical energy. List the key terms on the writing
this time.) surface, and then have students explain them. Bring
Another interest approach may focus on welding as small power tools to class so that students can practice
the application of heat to fuse two pieces of material. reading the labels that describe the electrical usage.
Many students want to learn how to weld and will find Have students prepare a simple electrical circuit. The
the subject of welding of high interest. A welding dem- Activity Manual offers simple and safe examples.
onstration might be used (be sure all safety practices Cover the content on compression power, using
are followed). Relate welding back to the study of presentation and discussion methods. Use examples
physics. of hydraulics and pneumatics in making explanations.
Ask students to describe where they have seen com-
pression power at work.
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
AND TEACHING PLANS
REVIEW AND EVALUATION
A variety of instructional strategies can be used in
the teaching plans for the chapter. In all cases, stu- Review and evaluation will likely involve some of the
dents should read the chapter before class instruction. same instructional strategies. Have students define the
Teachers may have students read the chapter in its terms at the beginning of the chapter and answer the
entirety or in various sections at the time they are being questions at the end of the chapter. Activities in the
covered in class. Activity Manual are excellent for helping students
Use presentation and discussion to cover the mean- review the chapter content.
ing of physics and the areas of physics. List the key Evaluation can include observations of student per-
terms on the writing surface. Have the students provide formance on the review activities as well as on written
the definitions and examples, and then write them on and oral tests. Items for a written test can be drawn
the writing surface. from the computer test bank.
Work and power are important physics concepts
that require careful explanation for many students.
Write the key words on the writing surface, and then
SAFETY
have students provide the definitions and examples. The objectives of the chapter can be achieved with
Write the formulas on the writing surface, and then few safety hazards in the learning environment. Enrich-
demonstrate how they are used. Also demonstrate the ing the instruction beyond the minimum objectives will
use of the factor label method of problem solving. Ask provide excellent learning opportunities but may pres-
the students to give examples of problems for work, ent safety problems. The Activity Manual illustrates
power, horsepower, speed, and acceleration and appropriate safety practices involved with the activities.
deceleration. Using low-risk demonstration and practice activities will
After students have read the section of the chapter minimize the hazards. For example, rather than wiring
in the text on simple machines, list the types of simple a regular AC circuit, students can wire a small circuit
machines on the writing surface. Have students define energized by a low-voltage dry-cell battery. Teachers
and explain each type. Demonstrate the use of various should be on the alert for safety problems and instruct
simple machines in class. Let students use the the students accordingly.
machines to do work and to compare what it would be
like if they were to do work without the machines.
Students should carefully read the section of the chap- ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
ter in the text on mechanical advantage. Write the key The textbook and the Activity Manual provide suffi-
terms on the writing surface, and then have students cient information for students to achieve the objectives
explain them. Use examples to give students additional of the chapter. Many models, specimens, and other
practice in mechanical advantage calculations. materials will help enrich the instruction. Materials on
After students have read the section of the chapter electricity and electrical codes may also serve as
in the text on thermal energy, use presentation and dis- enrichment tools. High school physics textbooks and
cussion to cover the content. Stress how heat engines physical science books may be very useful with this
use thermal energy. Give examples of fuels that are lesson.

100
 (block and tackle), inclined plane (ramps), wedge
ANSWERS (hatchet or axe) and screw (c-clamp).
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS 9. What is mechanical advantage?
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- Mechanical advantage is the way in which
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to machines multiply force.
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
require more complete information, the use of complete 10. What is a heat engine? Why is heat important
sentences, and other details in their answers. in the engine?

1. What is physics? What areas are included? A heat engine is a common internal combustion
engine. Heat is produced when the fuel is burned,
Physics is the study of matter and energy and causing an expansion of the gases in the cylinder
how they relate to each other. The major areas of the engine. As the gases expand, a piston is
are mechanics, heat, sound, magnetism, electric- moved. The piston is connected to a crankshaft,
ity, light, and electron and nuclear physics. which is made to turn by the motion of the piston.
2. What is work? Power? Distinguish between
the two. 11. What is current electricity? What are the two
kinds, and how do they differ?
Work is moving an object through a distance
when there is some resistance to the movement. Current electricity is the kind of electricity that
Power is the rate at which work is done. Power is caused by flowing electrons. The two kinds are
differs from work in that power involves time and alternating and direct current. Alternating current
work does not. (AC) regularly reverses its direction of flow.
Direct current (DC) flows in one direction.
3. Calculate the amount of work if 5 pounds of
force are used to push a lawn mower 500 feet. 12. How is electrical current measured?
It would take 2,500 foot-pounds.
Electrical current is measured as amperes
4. Calculate the amount of power if it takes six (rate of flow), voltage (potential energy), and
minutes to push the lawn mower in question wattage (amount supplied or used). Combina-
three. tions of the three may also be used to measure
It would be 6.94 foot-pounds per second. electric current.

5. What is horsepower? 13. Distinguish between an electric current con-

Horsepower is the amount of power to do 550 ductor and an electric current insulator.
foot-pounds of work per second. The term was
A conductor is any substance that allows elec-
originally used to compare the power of a steam
trons to flow freely. An insulator is any material
engine to the power of a horse.
that does not conduct electricity.
6. What is motion? Speed?
Motion is moving or changing position. Speed 14. Why is a GFCI important?
is the rate of motion. A GFCI (ground fault circuit interrupter) is a
device that is designed to protect people from
7. How does speed relate to the time required to
do a job? shock when they are using electricity in a wet
area or around water.
Speed relates to how long it takes to do a cer-
tain job. Jobs may be done in less time if a faster 15. What is hydraulic power? How is it used in
speed is used. However, faster speeds are not agriscience?
always practical.
Hydraulic power involves transmitting force
8. What are the six simple machines? Name through liquids, allowing them to perform work.
examples of the use of each. Hydraulic power may be used in agriscience to
The six types of simple machines are lever lift heavy objects as well as to move equipment
(pry bar), wheel and axle (bit brace), pulley and devices and in other ways.

101
16. What is pneumatic power? How is it used in EVALUATING
agriscience?
1=f, 2=j, 3=e, 4=a, 5=d, 6=c, 7=b, 8=h, 9=g, 10=i, 11=l,
Pneumatic power is the use of compressed air. and 12=k
Compressed air is used to inflate tires, operate
tools, spray paint, and move materials.

25
MECHANICS IN AGRISCIENCE

CHAPTER SUMMARY A wide assortment of hand and power tools are

used in agricultural mechanics. Some are for use with
Agricultural mechanics is the use of machinery, wood; others are specific to metals. A few are used with
tools, and associated electronic devices to perform projects made with various materials, such as a screw-
agricultural jobs. It includes the design, construction, driver. Knowing the names of tools and the jobs they
operation, and repair of agricultural engines and imple- are designed to do is essential for efficient and safe
ments as well as areas of agricultural structures, land work. Knowing how to take proper care of tools is also
and water management, and electrical applications. important. Power tools have additional concerns in
Considerable emphasis is on mechanization, which terms of safety concerns.
is the use of machinery to replace human labor. Today, Welding is the fusion of two pieces of metal or plas-
machinery has “smart” devices, such as computers, tics. The focus in this chapter is on metal. Heat for
sensors, and controllers to operate, monitor, and welding is from two sources: electricity and gas. Elec-
record field conditions and applications. Global posi- tricity is widely used, with shielded arc welding being
tioning systems are often integrated with these “smart” more popular. The arc formed between the electrode
devices. Much of the work in agriculture is carried out and the metal being welded creates tremendous heat
with powered implements. Some implements are com- that melts the metals so they fuse together. Proper
plex. Others lack complexity, but they require careful equipment for arc welding is essential, including safety
attention during operation. Tilling, planting, applying, equipment (e.g., a helmet with the appropriate lens).
harvesting, and other functions are performed by Gas welding typically involves using acetylene and
mechanized inventions. oxygen to produce a very hot flame. Gas is also widely
The materials used in agricultural mechanics are used in cutting metals. Proper flame adjustment is
primarily those in structures, tractors, and implements. important for the desired heat.
Structures include sheds, barns, bins, growing houses, Most all agricultural activities require water. Design-
fences, corrals, and warehouses. The kinds of materi- ing, installing, and maintaining adequate water supply
als include those of wood, metal, glass, and plastic. and disposal systems requires the use of specialists in
Lumber is a widely used wood material. Mild steel is such areas. Knowing the fundamentals of supply and
commonly used in agriculture. Fasteners are often disposal systems helps in relating to the specialists and
used to secure materials in position. in maintaining the systems.
Plans are needed before work is initiated on a pro- Internal combustion engines require preventive
ject. Most plans are comprised of project drawings and maintenance care. Most all engines if two-stroke cycle
a bill of material. A drawing that is prepared to scale or four-stroke cycle require maintenance of the air sys-
includes all portions of the project drawn in relationship tem. Filters should be in place and reqularly serviced to
to its actual size. A bill of material is an itemized list of assure clean air for engine operation. Four-stroke cycle
the materials needed for a project. engines require servicing of the lubrication system.

102
Two-stroke cycle engines require the use gasoline to Use presentation and discussion to cover the mean-
which needed lubricant has been properly added. ing of agricultural mechanics and the areas that are
Always use information in the operator's manual to included. List the key terms on the writing surface.
guide servicing of engines. Then have the students provide the definitions and
examples. List their responses on the writing surface.
Cover concepts associated with power and equipment,
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES particularly equipment used in mechanized agriculture.
The objectives of this chapter are intended to help Cover the section “Materials Used in Agricultural
learners understand the broad nature of agricultural Mechanics.” Have students read portions of the section
mechanics skills and to begin the process of develop- sequentially. Use student input to outline major points
ing such skills. Upon completion of Chapter 25, the stu- on the writing surface. Bring specimens of materials
dent will be able to: into the class.
Cover the section “Plans and Bills of Material.” After
1. Explain the meaning and areas of agricultural reading, refer students to Figure 25–18, and call on one
mechanics. or more students to explain how the drawing would be
useful in constructing the sawhorse as a project. Dem-
2. Identify materials used in agricultural mechanics.
onstrate how a bill of material is prepared. Appendix J
3. Discuss the roles of a plan and bill of material. in the textbook has a sample format for a bill of mate-
4. Select fasteners for a job. rial.
5. Identify common hand and power tools used in Begin the section “Fasteners” by having students
agricultural mechanics. read the content in the textbook. Use student input to
6. Use woodworking skills to construct a project. summarize major concepts on the writing surface.
7. Use welding and cutting skills to fabricate metals. Bring specimens of fasteners to class, including vari-
ous sizes and kinds. Discuss how they are identified
8 Describe water and sewer service needs for agri- and measured.
cultural facilities.
Upon completion of the section on fasteners, cover
9. Perform routine maintenance on small internal “Hand and Power Tools.” Have students read the sec-
combustion engines. tion, and use their input to summarize the content on
the writing surface. Bring examples of tools to class.
Have students learn to identify tools by sight. In some
INTEREST APPROACH cases, time may be taken in the lab to allow students to
Many students tend to have high interests in agricul- learn how to hold and use tools. Be sure to include
tural mechanics work. Use this interest to build on in proper tool care and safety in the instruction.
creating readiness for this chapter. Begin by having Cover the section “Welding” by having students
students read the introductory paragraphs of the chap- read it. Provide suggestions as the content is summa-
ter. Call on one or more students to summarize the rized on the writing surface. Welding can be
meaning of the paragraphs. Follow this by asking them approached as the application of physics principles.
to carefully observe Figure 25–1. Ask for comments Review the line drawings, and refer to the photographs
about the nature of the work and the safety that should in the chapter. Call on individuals to explain what is
be considered. Next, review the objectives for the shown. Bring examples of equipment into class, and
chapter and begin covering the content. demonstrate how it is used. Allow students to hold the
electrode holder and welding rods. Have students try
on gloves, a helmet, and other safety devices. Depend-
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES ing on skill development, laboratory practice may be
AND TEACHING PLANS included with this part of the chapter.
Next, move into the section “Water Supply and Dis-
A variety of instructional strategies can be used in posal.” Have students read the section as homework or
the teaching plans for Chapter 25. In all cases, stu- supervised study. Use student input to outline salient
dents should read the chapter before class instruction. points. Ask students to explain why water is so impor-
Teachers may have students read the chapter in its tant in agriculture and identify sources of water for agri-
entirety or in various sections at the time they are being culture. Ask students to describe factors in water sys-
covered in class. tem design. Refer students to Figure 25-49 and review

103
the components and layout of a water system in a
home (can be applied to a simple agricultural building). ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Next, go over local regulations on water (use a county The textbook and the Activity Manual provide suffi-
sanitarian or other individual as a resource person). cient information for students to achieve the objectives
Cover the section on “Small Engine Maintenance” of the chapter. Many models, specimens, and other
by first having students read the section and then using materials will help enrich instruction. Materials on elec-
input from students to outline salient points. Have them tricity and electrical codes may also serve as enrich-
identify the two main systems that may be serviced: ment tools.
lubrication and air. Distinguish between a two-stroke Textbooks that will be very useful are Introduction to
cycle and a four-stroke cycle engine. Demonstrate ser- Agricultural Mechanics and Modern Agricultural
vicing of the systems in the lab on small engines. If time Mechanics (available from Pearson Education). The
permits, involve students in these activities on engines. latter book covers welding in more depth and offers
Be sure to stress important safety areas and have stu- considerable information on safety.
dents implement safety practices.

ANSWERS
REVIEW AND EVALUATION
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Review and evaluation will likely involve some of the
same instructional strategies. Have students define the Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
terms at the beginning of the chapter and answer the
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
questions at the end of the chapter. Activities in the
require more complete information, the use of complete
Activity Manual are excellent for helping students
sentences, and other details in their answers.
review the chapter content.
Evaluation can include observations of student per-
1. What is agricultural mechanics?
formance on the review activities as well as on written
and oral tests. Test items for a written test can be Agricultural mechanics is the use of machin-
drawn from the computer test bank. ery, tools, and other devices and procedures to
perform agricultural jobs.

2. What are the two kinds of power provided by

SAFETY tractors? Distinguish between the two.
The objectives of the chapter can be achieved with The two kinds of power provided by tractors
few safety hazards in the learning environment. Enrich- are drawbar and PTO power. Drawbar pulling is
ing the instruction beyond the minimum objectives will power to pull a load across the ground. PTO
provide excellent learning opportunities but may pres- power is a rotating power that turns a shaft or a
ent safety problems. The Activity Manual illustrates wheel.
appropriate safety practices involved with the activities.
Using low-risk demonstrations and practice activities 3. What are the four major kinds of agricultural
will minimize the hazards. For example, rather than wir- equipment? Distinguish between the four
ing a regular A/C circuit, students can wire a small cir- kinds.
cuit energized by a low-voltage, dry cell battery. Teach- The four major kinds of agricultural equipment
ers should be on the alert for safety problems and are tillage, seeding, application, and harvesting.
should instruct the students accordingly. Tillage equipment prepares and otherwise loos-
Depending on depth of instruction in welding, safety ens or manages the soil. Seeding equipment
is a very important area. Cover all safety issues. Have plants seeds. Application equipment applies
students demonstrate that they understand them and materials (e.g., fertilizer or pesticide) to plants
that they have the ability to respond appropriately. and land. Harvesting equipment reaps, picks, or
Hand and power tools pose special safety hazards as otherwise gathers products.
well. Be sure all safety practices are taught, and make
sure students can demonstrate mastery. Safe disposal 4. What is lumber?
of used lubricating oil as well as waste water should be Lumber is pieces of wood made by sawing
covered as a part of safety content. logs.

104
 5. What is the distinction between rough and 12. What general procedures should be followed
dressed lumber? Green and seasoned lum- with woodworking projects?
ber? General procedures must be followed with
Rough lumber is the quality of lumber when woodworking projects. Begin with a plan; prepare
first sawed; it has not be sent through a planing a bill of material; obtain materials using a plan;
machine. Green lumber is sawed from logs that mark cuts to make; cut properly; assemble the
were recently harvested and have not dried. The project; use fasteners appropriately; and finish
lumber will be seasoned to lower the moisture the project. (Note: Student answer may reflect
content. some variation from this list.)

6. What is plywood? 13. What is welding? What are the sources of

heat for welding?
Plywood is wood product made by gluing thin Welding is fusing two pieces of metal or plastic
layers of wood together. together. Heat from welding is usually from elec-
tric arcs or gas flames.
7. What is mild steel? Why is it widely used in
agriculture? 14. What is shielded arc welding? How is it
Mild steel is a strong and economical metal. It done?
contains 0.10 to 0.50 percent carbon. It is used Shielded arc welding is using an electric arc
because of its malleable properties and because between a coated electrode and the metal being
it is readily welded. welded to create heat. It involves using an arc
welding machine and a metal that is grounded to
8. What is fabrication? create the arc. The arc is moved along the line
Fabrication is the process of making an imple- being welded to create a puddle of metal that
ment from metal, plastic, or another material. fuses the pieces together.
15. What two gases are used in common gas
9. What is meant when a plan is prepared to welding and cutting? Why are these used?
scale?
The two gases used in welding are oxygen
Scale means that the object and its parts are and acetylene. These are used because they are
drawn in proportion to its actual size. relatively convenient and create intense heat.
10. What kinds of fasteners are used? 16. Why is water supply so important in agriculture?
Frequently used fasteners are nails, screws, An adequate supply of good water is needed
and bolts. for plants and animals to grow and be productive.
Water is needed for irrigation, cleaning, drinking,
11. What is a tool? Distinguish between hand and other uses.
and power tools. List examples of each.
17. What are the two main areas of service with a
A tool is an implement used to perform a small internal combustion engine?
mechanical job. A hand tool is a small, powerless The two main areas of service with small inter-
type of instrument. A power tool is somewhat nal combustion engines are the lubrication sys-
larger to quite large and has power from an elec- tem and the air intake system.
tric motor or another source. Examples of hand
tools are pliers, hammers, and open-end EVALUATING
wrenches. Examples of power tools are drill
presses, radial arm saws, and grinders. 1=g, 2=i, 3=j, 4=f, 5=b, 6=a, 7=e, 8=d, 9=h, and 10=c.

105
 PART SEVEN:
CONSUMERS AND PRODUCTS

26
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS:
MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING

CHAPTER SUMMARY tal regulations are often essential to prevent abuses

and to keep the system in balance.
Goods are created, owned, and exchanged as a Marketing is a key to success in any business ven-
function of an economic system. ture, including those in areas of agriculture, horticul-
Economics is the study of decisions about the pro- ture, and forestry. Marketing is based on providing the
duction, distribution, and consumption of goods and goods and services that people want and are willing to
services. Agricultural economics utilizes economics buy. It is obvious that marketing begins with decisions
from an agricultural perspective. It focuses on making about what to produce and all of the functions needed
choices to produce and distribute food and fiber to to get the product to the consumer in the desired form.
meet human need. All economics involves four fac- Instruction in marketing typically involves all of the
tors of production: land, labor, capital, and manage- steps between production and consumer receipt.
ment. A good is a product or material that satisfies Marketing channels are the ways in which products
human wants. A service is a non-physical product are moved from the producer to the consumer. Five
that satisfies human wants. Grain is a good; veteri- agricultural marketing channels are roadside and retail
nary care of an animal is a service. All economic markets, central locations—packing sheds and eleva-
activity involves cost; cost is the value of a sacrificed tors, processing plants, custom orders and vertical inte-
alternative to other goods or services that are avail- gration, and niche marketing.
able. People make decisions based on the limited Products vary in the functions required to get them
amount of money they have available, such as "Will I to the consumer. The functions involve processes that
buy food or a show ticket?" Producers need to have a prepare the products. The common functions are har-
profit following their efforts. Profit is the amount that vesting and assembling, grading, transporting, pro-
remains from the sale of products or services after all cessing, packaging, storing, advertising and promoting,
costs have been paid. and selling and distributing.
The free enterprise or capitalism system is used in Marketing infrastructure includes roads, trucks, spe-
the United States. This system provides for individuals cial equipment, processing plants, and many other
to own property and to profit from it. People are free to areas that support and make marketing possible. With-
organize and to conduct business. Sole proprietor- out a marketing infrastructure for a product, producers
ships, partnerships, and corporations are major ways usually will not produce it.
of doing business. Cooperatives and hybrid People (as consumers) make choices. Producers
approaches are sometimes used, such as limited liabil- must consider consumer preferences so that a product
ity companies (LLC). Supply and demand is said to desired by consumers will be produced. A demand
shape prices in a free market system. However, lead- must exist if a good or service is to be sold. Consumer
ers of the United States have learned that governmen- choices are related to standard of living. Standard of

106
living is the level of choice about both essential and purchase at a store only to find that the store was out of
nonessential goods and services that people make. the products. Ask the students to offer possible expla-
Agricultural industry increasingly uses agricultural nations of why this happened. (Teachers may wish to
trade among nations as a source of products as well as review the objectives at this time.)
a market for production. An export is a product sold into
another country. An import is a good brought into a
country from another country. Exports and imports cre- INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
ate a balance of trade. Some nations set tariffs on
goods to help limit or manage the importation of prod- AND TEACHING PLANS
ucts. Trade agreements may also be used. In the
The objectives for the chapter will require the use of
United States, products must be labeled with country of
presentation and discussion methods as well as stu-
origin information.
dent reading in the text and student completion of activ-
ities in the Activity Manual. Several strategies for teach-
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES ing plans are suggested here. Regardless of the
approach, strive for mastery of the content associated
The objectives of this chapter are intended to help with the objectives.
students develop a fundamental knowledge and under- Following presentation of the objectives, have stu-
standing of the technology involved in agricultural mar- dents read “Agricultural Economics Basics.” Follow this
keting. The emphasis is on the channels and functions with discussion that involves student input on the major
in agricultural marketing. The role of infrastructure and concepts. Some of the concepts may be abstract;
communication is also stressed. therefore, take the needed time and use local exam-
Upon completion of Chapter 26, the student will be ples to aid understanding.
able to: Next, have students read “Free Enterprise: The Set-
ting for Agricultural Marketing.” Afterward, use student
1. Explain the meaning and importance of agricul- input to outline concepts on the writing surface, includ-
tural economics. ing economic system, free enterprise, ways of doing
2. Discuss free enterprise and ways of doing busi- business, and supply and demand. Relate the impor-
ness. tant role of management.
3. Describe the role of agricultural marketing. Have students read the section “Marketing Technol-
4. Explain the ways agricultural products are mar- ogy and Consumer Demand.” List the key terms on the
keted. writing surface, and then have students explain each of
5. List and explain the major functions in agricul- them. Emphasize the definition of “agricultural market-
tural marketing. ing technology” and the concepts involved.
6. Describe the importance of marketing infrastructure. After students have read the section “How Agricul-
tural Products Are Marketed,” list the marketing chan-
7. Assess the role of consumers and their preferences.
nels or methods on the writing surface. Then have the
8. Relate the importance of international trade. students offer descriptions of the different channels.
List the major characteristics of each channel on the
writing surface. Have students give local examples of
INTEREST APPROACH each. Also, have students name the kinds of plants and
Many different strategies can be used in developing animals that are marketed through the local channels.
an interest approach. One is to have the students Students in supervised experience programs may be
name some of their favorite foods and then to trace involved in marketing, and their experiences could be
these foods from the point of production through all of most beneficial in providing local firsthand information.
the steps until they are consumed. Have students read the section “Marketing Func-
The Technology Connection may be of interest to tions.” Then ask different students in the class to
students. Relate decisions by consumers to health and explain the functions. Write the names of the functions
weight. If available, students can use a body-fat on the writing surface, and then list descriptive informa-
skinfold caliper to assess their own situation. tion, based on a student discussion regarding what
Another interest approach is to have the students they have learned from the text. Ask students to identify
read the introductory part of the chapter. Afterward, products in the local area and the functions involved in
have them give examples of products they have tried to preparing them for the consumer. Take a field trip to a

107
cattle auction or to a grain elevator to observe what other places where students are given the opportunity
takes place as the products are assembled. to observe marketing on a firsthand basis.
Marketing infrastructure may require careful atten-
tion to local situations to help students understand the
areas involved. After the students have read the chap- ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
ter, use presentation and discussion methods to list Additional resources can be used to enrich the
and draw out key information. List the components of instruction and to provide real-world experiences in
the local agricultural marketing infrastructure for the agricultural marketing technology. Local newspapers
various plants and animals that are produced. and radio and television stations regularly give market
Have students read the section “Communication in reports of the major crops and livestock products. Bul-
Agricultural Marketing.” List key terms on the writing letins obtained from an agricultural college or univer-
surface, and then have students provide an explana- sity may help localize the instruction in agricultural
tion of each of the terms. Use examples in the local marketing.
media, or have a marketing specialist serve as a Information on the Marketing Plan Project Competi-
resource person in the class. tion is available from the National FFA Organization in
Next, have students read the section "People Make Indianapolis, Indiana (www.ffa.org).
Choices." Use their input to outline major concepts.
Ask how choices relates to decisions in their family
about the products they buy and the foods they con- ANSWERS
sume.
Move into the section "International Trade." After END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
students have read the section in supervised study or
as homework, use their input to outline major concepts Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
on the writing surface. An activity could have students tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
reviewing products in a supermarket to determine be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
which are imported and the country of origin. require more complete information, the use of complete
Activities in the Activity Manual will be helpful to the sentences, and other details in their answers.
students in achieving the objectives.
Individual students may wish to prepare a market- 1. What are marketing and agricultural market-
ing plan for the National FFA Marketing Plan Project ing technology?
Competition. Marketing is providing the goods and services
that people want. Agricultural marketing technol-
ogy encompasses all of the processes involved
REVIEW AND EVALUATION in providing people with what they want, in the
form in which they want it, and when they want it.
Review and evaluation can involve several of the
same activities. Review can encompass terms at the 2. Why are consumers important?
beginning of the chapter, questions at the end of the
Consumers are important because they buy
chapter, and activities in the Activity Manual. Students
and use what has been produced. They demand
can also be asked to explain each of the objectives.
certain products.
Evaluation can consist of the review activities as
well as a written or oral test. The performance of stu- 3. What methods are used in agricultural mar-
dents in marketing activities related to their supervised keting? Briefly describe each method. Give
experience programs can be observed. In addition, an example of a plant or animal product that
evaluation can involve how students plan and develop could be marketed using each method.
their individual marketing plans for the National FFA
The methods used in agricultural marketing
Marketing Plan Project Competition.
are known as channels or links to the consumer.
The methods are roadside and retail markets—
SAFETY producers sell directly to producers from small
stores on farms or in nearby towns (fresh vegeta-
The objectives of the chapter can be achieved with- bles); central locations—places where products
out safety hazards in the learning environment. How- are delivered for grading and shipping to proces-
ever, safety hazards may be present on field trips or in sors (livestock); processing plants—facilities that

108
 convert raw products into forms wanted by con- 5. What is marketing infrastructure? What are
sumers (beef); custom orders and vertical inte- the major areas of agricultural marketing
gration—with custom orders, buyers contract infrastructure?
with producers to grow a certain plant or animal
Marketing infrastructure encompasses all of
for them, while in vertical integration, nonfarm
the things that support and make marketing pos-
processing plants provide all of the supplies to
sible. The major areas are harvesting infrastruc-
growers who are under contract and paid by the
ture, transportation infrastructure, assembling
processing plants (chickens); and niche market-
and processing facilities, finances, and people
ing—special markets that use small quantities of
with the required skills.
valued products (goats). (Note: Students can
name many different products for each of the 6. What is free enterprise? List major character-
methods of marketing.) istics.
4. What functions are involved in marketing? Free enterprise (capitalism) is an economic
Briefly describe each function. Give exam- system that allows an individual to organize and
ples of what may be done to different prod- go about business activity with a minimum of
ucts during the functions. government regulations. Individuals own the
The functions in marketing are: property used in production as well as what is
a. Harvesting and assembling—Harvesting produced.
and assembling vary considerably but
7. What are the ways of doing business in the
involve gathering crops and animals from
United States? Briefly explain each.
the fields and pastures and then collecting
them into batches for the next function in The ways of doing business are sole propri-
marketing (cattle may be rounded up and etorship—business owned by one person; part-
transported to an auction sale). nership—business owned by two or more indi-
b. Grading—Sorting products for uniformity viduals; and corporation—an artificial entity in
(eggs are graded on the basis of shell which individuals own shares. In addition, coop-
shape, size and presence of dirt). eratives are associations that serve the needs of
c. Transporting—Moving the produce from members.
one place to another (poles are hauled on
trucks to a mill). 8. What is the supply and demand curve? How
does the curve relate to price?
d. Processing—Making changes in a product
that prepares it for consumption (tomatoes The supply and demand curve is a graphical
may be peeled, cooked and canned). approach to illustrating the interaction of supply
e. Packaging—Placing products in containers and demand in establishing price. The quantity of
(eggs may be placed in cartons). a product bought at a given price occurs where
f. Storing—Keeping products until they are the two curves cross.
needed (fresh vegetables need refrigeration).
9. What is management?
g. Advertising and promoting products—
Using forms of communication media to Management is the use of resources to
encourage people to buy a product (news- achieve the objectives of a business or an enter-
paper ads may be used to tell people about prise.
a product).
h. Selling—Changing the ownership of a 10. What is an economic system?
product, which may occur several times An economic system is the way in which
between the producer and the consumer goods are created, owned, and exchanged.
(all products).
i. Distributing—Getting what is needed to the EVALUATING
right place at the right time (trucks may be
used to make deliveries). 1=i, 2=h, 3=a, 4=b, 5=c, 6=d, 7=j, 8=f, 9=e, and 10=g.

109
 27
PROCESSING
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS
CHAPTER SUMMARY Cotton and wool are the major natural fibers that are
processed. With cotton, processing begins with gin-
Most all products undergo some processing before ning, which separates the lint and seed. After ginning,
reaching the consumer. More and more consumers the lint is classed, woven, dyed, and manufactured into
expect to be able to obtain appropriately processed various products. The processing of wool involves simi-
products. Processing is preparing food, fiber, and wood lar steps, beginning with shearing, continuing with
for people to use. Meeting the needs of people requires grading and weaving, and ending with manufacturing.
considerable preparation of many plant and animal Timber is made into many wood products. Lumber is
products. a commonly used product made from logs that are fab-
Food processing includes all of the procedures ricated into boards of various dimensions. Logs are
involved in preparing food for people. The procedures sawed into boards, which are seasoned, planed, and
used vary with the product and the desired form. The treated to prevent decay and attack by pests. Different
procedures overlap the functions in marketing. The steps must be taken to convert raw wood into pulp and
major procedures in preparing food are grading, fabri- then into paper. Other wood products are made with
cating, preserving, portioning, preparing in convenient different manufacturing procedures.
forms, and packaging. Some foods undergo much Safety and product regulations are important in all pro-
more processing than others. Fresh, slicer tomatoes cessing. Sanitation is particularly important with food
have had little processing done to them. In contrast, products. Processing often creates a large amount of
wieners have had considerable processing in their waste, which requires proper disposal. Food processing
manufacture. facilities are inspected by government agency and indus-
Fiber processing involves turning raw fiber into cloth try officials to ensure a wholesome product.
and other fabrics. The method used depends on the
nature of the fiber.
Wood processing is used to make many different INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
kinds of products, such as paper, lumber, and plywood.
Specialty products may be made from very valuable The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
timber. For example, fine furniture is made from walnut students develop a fundamental knowledge and under-
or cherry wood. standing of the processing technology used with food,
Food preservation is used to keep food from spoil- fiber, and wood. The emphasis is on food processing
ing. Spoilage occurs when food becomes unsafe to eat and preservation.
and the flavor changes. Most spoilage is due to the Upon completion of Chapter 27, the student will be
growth of microorganisms in the food. Rodents, able to:
insects, undesired growth, chemical contamination, for-
eign objects, impurity, and improper preservation also 1. Explain the meaning and importance of processing.
spoil food.
2. Explain the meaning and prevention of spoilage
Common methods of food preservation are canning,
in food.
freezing, fermenting, drying, curing, refrigerating, irradi-
ating, aseptic packaging, and pickling. Other methods 3. List and describe methods of food preservation.
used to preserve food include fumigants, chemical 4. Describe methods in processing fiber products.
additives, pasteurization, jelly and jam, and cooking.
Some foods are better suited to certain methods. For 5. Describe methods in processing wood products.
example, tomatoes are more often canned than frozen. 6. Identify safety regulations in food processing.

110
 that are made of these products, and have them
INTEREST APPROACH describe the qualities of each.
The curiosity of young people about the foods they After students have read the section “Processing
eat allows for use of a variety of strategies in the inter- Wood and Timber Products,” ask them to name differ-
est approach. ent wood products found in the classroom. Discuss the
One strategy is to have the students read the intro- general procedures used in their production. Take a
ductory part of the chapter. Afterward, ask various indi- field trip to a sawmill to observe the fabrication of logs
viduals to explain why people want food, fiber, and into lumber or to a lumberyard to observe the manufac-
wood products that have been processed. Ask them if tured products.
they know of places in the local community where food, A simple hands-on activity with lumber will help stu-
fiber, or wood is processed. Student discussion of food dents develop construction skills. This will include com-
products and forms can be used as the basis of later puting a bill of materials, using wood, and identifying
instruction. and using fasteners. This will involve:
Use the chapter introduction and include discussion
of Figure 27–2. Ask students to carefully study the • Identifying or preparing a simple plan or sketch of
image. Ask what is being processed and what the per- a project made of wood
son is looking at in the photo. It is a milk processing • Preparing a bill of material—a listing and descrip-
facility, and the person is looking at a device that keeps tion of materials needed to construct a project
a continuous recording of the adjustment of the • Demonstrating the proper and safe use of hand
machine to perform its particular function. (Teachers tools and fasteners with the project
may wish to review the objectives at this time.)
After students have read the section “Safety and
Regulations in Processing,” ask them to explain the
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES meaning of safety and then to give examples of safety
AND TEACHING PLANS hazards that could exist in a processing plant. List the
key terms on the writing surface, and then have the stu-
To master the objectives, the students should read dents explain them. Ask the students to explain why
the chapter in the textbook, complete the activities in sanitation is important.
the Activity Manual, and participate in class presenta-
tion and discussion.
Have students read the section “Processing.” List REVIEW AND EVALUATION
the key terms on the writing surface, and then have the
Review and evaluation should focus on the achieve-
students explain the terms. Distinguish between the
ment of the chapter objectives.
processing of food, fiber, and wood products. On the
Review can consist of having the students explain
writing surface, list the procedures used in food pro-
each of the objectives, define the terms at the begin-
cessing. Then have students explain the meaning of
ning of the chapter, and answer the end-of-chapter
each.
questions. Activities in the Activity Manual can also be
After students have read “Food Preservation,” list
included.
key terms on the writing surface. Then have students
Evaluation can involve the review activities as well
explain the terms. Describe spoilage and the sources
as the “Evaluating” section or an oral or written test.
of food spoilage. Review the methods used to preserve
The results of the evaluation can be used for re-teach-
food. List the methods on the writing surface, and have
ing, as appropriate.
students explain the general meaning of each. List
examples of foods preserved by each of the methods.
Enrichment activities could include a field trip to a pro-
cessing plant, the processing of food in the laboratory,
SAFETY
and a survey of the ways in which foods are preserved The objectives of the chapter can be achieved with
in the local supermarket. few safety hazards. However, the activities beyond the
Have students read the section “Processing Fiber classroom may pose numerous safety hazards. Before
Products.” List the key terms on the writing surface, students participate in these activities, the importance
and then have students describe what is involved. Dis- of safety should be stressed.
tinguish between cotton and wool processing. Have In some cases, regulations may prohibit students under
students give examples of articles of clothing they own a certain age from visiting various processing sites. For

111
example, students under age 18 may be prohibited from 5. What major methods of food preservation are
entering the grounds of a lumberyard or a sawmill area. used? List and briefly describe each.
Safety precautions are included in the Activity Manual. The major methods of food preservation are:
a. Canning—placing food in a container with
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES an airtight seal and then heating the con-
tainer to kill all microorganisms
The objectives of the chapter can be achieved with b. Freezing—using low temperatures that
few additional resources. In some cases, bulletins and freeze the water in food products, which
pamphlets on food preservation may be helpful. The slows and prevents the growth of microor-
book The Meat We Eat is a great resource on meat ganisms
processing (available from Pearson Higher Education). c. Fermenting—using the action of certain
Two Web sites for HACCP information are Food Safety microorganisms to preserve food
and Inspection Service—www.fsis.usda.gov and d. Drying—removing the moisture from food
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition— products
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov. e. Curing—adding substances (e.g., salt and
sugar) to foods to prevent spoilage
ANSWERS f. Refrigeration—keeping food products at a
temperature slightly above freezing to pre-
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS vent the growth of spoilage organisms
g. Irradiation—treating food with electrically
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- charged particles that destroy spoilage
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to organisms
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may h. Aseptic packaging—sterilizing the food and
require more complete information, the use of complete its container
sentences, and other details in their answers. i. Pickling—placing foods in salt solutions to
prevent the growth of microorganisms
1. What is processing? Why is it important?
Processing is preparing food, fiber, and wood 6. How are fibers processed? List and briefly
for people to use. People want things that are describe the steps involved for cotton and
ready to use. They do not want to spend a lot of wool.
time preparing what they use. Cotton processing consists of ginning (separat-
ing seed from lint); classing (grading lint); weaving
2. What are the five major steps in processing (cleaning, spinning, and other finishing steps);
food? and manufacturing (cutting and sewing into gar-
The major steps in processing food are grad- ments and other products). Wool processing
ing, fabricating, preserving, portioning, and pre- entails shearing (cutting the wool from the sheep);
paring in convenient forms and packaging. grading (assessing the quality of the wool); weav-
ing (cleaning, weaving, and dying); and manufac-
3. What is food preservation? Why is it important? turing (cutting and sewing into products). In some
Food preservation is the treating of food to cases, wool and cotton are made into knit prod-
keep it from spoiling. Many foods will spoil if they ucts. In such cases, the fibers are woven into yarn
are not properly prepared. People cannot eat that is knitted into the finished products.
spoiled food because it can make them sick. In
severe cases, consumption of spoiled food can 7. How is lumber processed? What steps are
result in death. involved?
Lumber is processed by sawing logs into
4. What is spoilage? What causes food to spoil? boards. The steps involve saw milling (cutting
Spoilage occurs when food becomes unsafe to the logs into boards); seasoning (drying the
eat and the flavor changes. Food is spoiled by moisture from boards); planing (smoothing the
microorganisms, rodents, insects, undesired boards and then sizing to uniform dimensions);
growth, chemical contamination, foreign objects, and treating (using preservatives to prevent
impurity, and improper preservation. decay; not all lumber is treated).

112
8. How is paper made? 10. What safety and sanitation procedures
Paper is made by breaking wood into pulp with should be followed in processing?
chemical or grinding actions. The pulp is The safety and sanitation procedures to be fol-
screened and then washed to remove impurities. lowed depend on the kind of product being
Machines with rollers squeeze out the moisture made. Processing often involves using machin-
and form the pulp into large sheets. The fibers ery and equipment that could cause injury.
bond together when the paper is dried. Safety clothing, boots, and eye protection should
often be worn. Sanitation involves keeping the
9. What wood products are made in addition to
place where food is processed clean.
lumber and paper?
The major wood products made in addition to EVALUATING
lumber and paper are plywood, veneer, and
furniture. 1=i 2=a, 3=j, 4=e, 5=h, 6=g, 7=f, 8=b, 9=d, and 10=c

113
 PART EIGHT:
AGRISCIENCE EDUCATION AND YOU

28
EDUCATION AND EXPERIENCE
IN AGRICULTURE

CHAPTER SUMMARY Supervised experience (SE), often called super-

vised agricultural experience (SAE) or supervised
Today, more than one million students are enrolled occupational experience (SOE), is the planned applica-
in agriculture in the secondary schools of the United tion of skills learned in classes. The goal is to make
States. The classes have increased in popularity in learning relevant. Each student’s experience is based
recent years. Some of the increase can be attributed to on his or her interests and needs. Records are kept to
changes in curriculum, an increased science empha- show the skills learned and, in some cases, the income
sis, and more appealing activities. Agricultural educa- gained. Several types are used: exploratory, research/
tion is instruction in agriculture and related subjects, experimentation, ownership, and placement.
such as horticulture, forestry, biotechnology, wildlife,
Some students also participate in improvement projects
veterinary science, and natural resources.
and supplementary practices. Students, parents, and oth-
The three integral components of agricultural edu-
ers need to be aware of the benefits and opportunities of
cation classes are:
supervised experience. Planning is a key to success, par-
ticularly as related to certain FFA awards and events. Stu-
1. Classroom and lab instruction—This is the orga- dents should maintain good records of their experiences.
nized instruction by the teacher. Students often use Performance records as well as financial records are
textbooks as learning tools. Equipment and lab
needed. Some local schools and states have prescribed
facilities are provided as needed for a particular
record systems that are used. These should have the
area of instruction. For example, a class in small
capability to provide various financial statements, such as
animal care would need a small animal lab with the
profit and loss statements and balance sheets.
equipment necessary to care for the animals.
2. Supervised experience—Supervised experience
(SE) is the practical application of classroom and INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
lab instruction. SE may occur during the school
day, but it is usually after school hours. SE pro- The objectives of this chapter are intended to help
vides a good foundation for success in FFA. (In learners understand the opportunities for entrepreneur-
some schools, SE is known as SAE—supervised ship in agriscience. Information is provided to help in
agricultural experience.) planning an education for a career in agriscience.
3. FFA—This is the student organization portion of Upon completion of Chapter 28, the student will be
agricultural education. Time during a class period able to:
may be devoted to FFA. Most of the activities are
outside regular class hours. Many FFA awards 1. Explain agricultural education and its three
are built on success in supervised experience. components.

114
 2. Explain the purpose, benefits, and types of With the focus of this chapter on supervised experi-
supervised experience. ence, use this opportunity to engage each student in
3. Describe how to plan, manage, and advance in planning supervised experiences for themselves.
supervised experience.
4. Discuss the records needed with supervised REVIEW AND EVALUATION
experience.
Use the appropriate sections at the end of the chapter
for review and evaluation. Actively involve students in all
INTEREST APPROACH cases. Have students read and explain or discuss the
“Main Ideas.” Have students answer (orally or in writing)
The interest approach should focus on getting the the questions at the end of the chapter. Use classroom
students involved with chapter content. Begin with the observation or the reading of written answers to assess
introductory paragraphs on the first page of the chap- student mastery and the need for re-teaching.
ter. Have students read the information silently, and Use the “Evaluating” section to assess student per-
then discuss it in class. Call on students to explain the formance. Students can prepare answers as home-
meaning of the various paragraphs. Ask students to work, during supervised study, or aloud as a group in
relate examples of bad information, such as a road sign class.
that is incorrect with directions or kit instructions that
contain an error.
Some students may be aware of supervised experi- SAFETY
ence and the nature of agricultural education. These
may serve to gain their interest. You may also inquire Always know applicable safety standards and help
as to why students think so many students are enrolled students internalize the appropriate safety practices.
in agricultural education classes in the United States. Overall, the content of this lesson would pose few
safety hazards, though fundamentals of safety are
introduced.
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
AND TEACHING PLANS ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
The instructional strategies should focus around Additional resources include the Activity Manual that
student involvement and mastery of the content associ- accompanies the textbook as well as brochures, pam-
ated with the objectives. Following the interest phlets, video tapes, and related materials, including
approach and review of the objectives, have students electronic forms available for use with a computer. A
read the first section, “Education in Agriculture,” as resource person may be found in the local community
homework, in supervised study, or aloud in class. After- to help in achieving chapter objectives.
ward, have students provide information that summa- Web resources may be useful. Students may
rizes the main content. List the salient information on explore the Web site of the National FFA Organization:
the writing surface. Relate the information to local www.ffa.org/.
opportunities for agricultural education. In some cases,
a field trip to a local postsecondary school or a visit
from a teacher or admissions counselor would be ANSWERS
effective in achieving the objectives.
Continue using a sequential procedure to cover suc- END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS
ceeding sections in the chapter. Note that the major
headings are parallel with the chapter objectives. Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques-
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to
Use a local employer as a resource person to dis-
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may
cuss the expectations employers hold for employees.
require more detailed information, the use of complete
This can relate to placement supervised experience.
sentences, and other details in the answers.
Students can offer examples of good and poor situa-
tions in class as related to job performance. The same
procedures may be workable with citizenship except 1. What is agricultural education?
to use a government official or civic leader to discuss Agricultural education is instruction in agricul-
citizenship. ture and related subjects.

115
 2. What are the three components of agricul- 8. What two main types of records are kept of
tural education classes? supervised experience?
The three components of agricultural educa-
The two main types of records kept of super-
tion classes are classroom and lab instruction,
vised experience are performance and financial.
supervised experience, and FFA.
3. What is supervised experience? What are the 9. What is owner equity? Why is it important
four main types? with ownership supervised experience?
Supervised experience or SAE is the planned
Owner equity is the sum remaining after liabili-
application of skills learned in classes. The four
ties have been subtracted from assets. Owner-
main types are exploratory, research/experimen-
ship supervised experience involves inventory.
tation, ownership, and placement.
4. What is a training agreement? 10. What kinds of business financial statements
A training agreement is a written statement may be used?
that lists the terms under which the supervised
Three kinds of business financial statements
experience is to be carried out.
are profit and loss statement, balance sheet, and
5. What is a training plan? cash flow statement.
A training plan is a list of the activities included
in a supervised experience. 11. What is inventory? What two major ways are
used in keeping inventory?
6. What are three areas of management in
supervised experience programs? Briefly Inventory is an itemized list of current assets.
explain each. Two ways of keeping inventory are physical and
Three areas of management in supervised perpetual.
experience are assuming responsibility—being a
responsible person; expanding the program— 12. What is depreciation?
developing a bigger and better program; and
Depreciation is an accounting process that
keeping records—written document of super-
spreads the cost of assets over the useful life
vised experience.
of the asset.
7. What is recordkeeping?
Recordkeeping is the act of recording super- EVALUATING
vised experience and other activities. Record
books or computer programs may be used. 1=i, 2=j, 3=d, 4=h, 5=a, 6=b, 7=c, 8=e, 9=g, and 10=f

29
STUDENT ORGANIZATIONS
CHAPTER SUMMARY classroom and into many areas of life. FFA is the organi-
zation for students enrolled in agriculture classes. There
One of the special features of agricultural education are many activities worthy of student participation.
is that it is more than regular classroom learning and Career development events (CDEs) are often closely
teaching. It involves activities that extend beyond the

116
tied to classroom studies. Achieving FFA degrees of 5. Identify important factors in a successful FFA
membership requires commitment and dedication to chapter.
work. Details on these are spelled out in the Official FFA 6. Name and explain awards and events in FFA.
Manual, which is published each year and is available
online through the Web site of the National FFA Organi- 7. Identify membership degrees and requirements
zation or at http://issuu.com/nationalffaorganization/ for advancing.
docs/2013omfinal_for_ffa.org. FFA is organized from
the local or chapter level through the state level to the
national level. Student learning begins in local chapters. INTEREST APPROACH
Quality programs of activities are needed. Members
The interest approach can use the first page of the
should be actively involved in carrying out the activities.
chapter in the textbook or another approach developed
FFA is known for its important roles in the lives of
by the teacher. Have students read the paragraphs on
young people. It helps them develop self confidence, set
the first page as homework or during supervised study.
goals, and aspire to achieve. FFA recognizes young peo-
Next, call on students to explain the information in
ple for excellence while they are still in high school and as
class. Present the objectives for the chapter and begin
they enter life beyond high school. Involvement makes
covering chapter content sequentially beginning with
FFA a valuable student organization.
the first major heading.
FFA develops leadership and personal skills and
promotes career success. Its purposes and how it func-
tions have emerged throughout its existence. FFA pro-
motes learning and achievement. The emphasis is on INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
skills for career success and personal development. AND TEACHING PLANS
These skills help build self confidence, character, citi-
zenship, and healthy lifestyles. As previously men- Select instructional strategies that involve students
tioned, each year the National FFA Organization pro- using the textbook and internalizing the covered con-
duces the Official FFA Manual. This publication cepts. The major strategy will be to have students read,
provides information about FFA. Every FFA member listen, respond, write, and practice chapter content in
and advisor should have access to a current edition of some way. Evaluation is ongoing and must occur to
the manual because its contents do change from time maximize student achievement. The content of this
to time. chapter serves as the foundation for supervised experi-
The latest information on FFA and its programs is ence and FFA involvement.
available through the state FFA advisor’s office or Have students read each section of the chapter.
through the National FFA Organization (www.ffa.org). It Discuss the content, and ask students to provide infor-
is important to refer to the National FFA Career Devel- mation. Students should take notes and should be able
opment Events page of the National FFA Organization. to apply the information in some manner. Regulations
This provides details about each career development followed in the local school should be presented, dis-
event for a period of several years. cussed, and interpreted for students.
An FFA alumni member or current FFA chapter offi-
cer can be used to provide information supportive of
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES supervised experience and FFA. Proper FFA dress,
The objectives in this chapter focus on providing how to set up a meeting room, and how to hold a chap-
information on student organizations, particularly the ter meeting may be included. Be sure all students have
National FFA Organization. online access to the Official FFA Manual.
Upon completion of Chapter 29, the student will be
able to:
REVIEW AND EVALUATION
1. Identify organizations for students enrolled in
Review and evaluate student progress throughout
agricultural education.
the lesson. Have students discuss, respond, and be
2. Describe the purpose, objectives, and nature of involved in other ways to ensure mastery. The
FFA. “Reviewing” section at the end of the chapter will be
3. Trace the history of FFA. useful. The “Evaluating” section will help assess stu-
4. Explain how FFA is organized. dent mastery of terms covered in the chapter.

117
 Use personal observation of student progress • Greenhand FFA Degree—High school stu-
throughout the instruction to re-teach and otherwise dents enrolled in agriculture classes
take steps to assure student mastery. • Chapter FFA Degree—Students who have
Assessing supervised experience will require on- completed 180 hours of agriculture instruc-
site observation and can be done as part of the routine tion, and supervised experience must have
supervision that is provided. earned $150 or worked 45 hours after class
time
• State FFA Degree—Students who have com-
SAFETY pleted two years of FFA membership and
Few safety hazards exist as part of this lesson. Of agriculture instruction; a minimum of $1000
course, safety areas arise in SE and FFA. Safety earned or 300 hours worked for SE
should always be stressed as students carry out super- • American FFA Degree—For students who
vised experience. Many supervised experiences have have been out of high school for a year, been
potential safety hazards. These should be identified an FFA member for 36 months, completed
prior to the student beginning the experience and with three years of agriculture instruction, earned
the necessary steps to make sure the students practice at least $7500, or a combination of hours
safety. worked and money

4. Why is the Official FFA Manual important to

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES members?
A number of resources from the National FFA Orga- This publication provides information about
nization or the state FFA executive secretary will be FFA. It is updated each year with the latest infor-
useful. All students should have access to an Official mation about events and activities.
FFA Manual.
5. Briefly trace the history of FFA in a few para-
graphs.
ANSWERS In 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the Smith-
Hughes Act, which provided funds for agricultural
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS education. The first Future Farmers of Virginia
club was started in 1926, and it grew in other
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review
states. In 1928, students from 18 states gathered
questions are presented here. The answers are
in Kansas City, Missouri, to form the new FFA.
intended to be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers
Within a few years, FFA had expanded to all
may require more complete information, the use of
states. The first FFA office was in the U.S. Office
complete sentences, and other details in the answers.
of Education in Washington, D.C. In 1959, a new
building became the headquarters in Alexandria,
1. What is the purpose of FFA?
Virginia. In 1969, delegates at the National Con-
FFA promotes learning and achievement with vention voted to admit girls. In 1988, delegates
emphasis on skills for career success and per- voted to change the name from Future Farmers
sonal development. of America to National FFA Organization
because FFA was more than just farming. No
2. Who can be a member of FFA?
doubt, the admission of girls has been the great-
Active membership can be held by students 12 est FFA advance in its history. In 1998, the FFA
to 21 years of age. The student must be enrolled headquarters was moved to Indianapolis, Indi-
in an agricultural education program, attend ana.
meetings, work toward degree advancement,
and pay dues. 6. What makes a strong FFA chapter? List any
three basic features, and explain why they
3. What are the degrees of active FFA member- are important.
ship? Explain each.
A few basics in a strong chapter are knowing
The degrees of active FFA membership are: about FFA, involving all members, preparing a
• Discovery FFA Degree—Grades 7-8 enrolled program of activities, securing and managing
in an agriculture class finances, electing good officers, having the

118
 needed equipment, keeping records, meeting 9. What are career development events?
regularly, and gaining support. These features Career development events (CDEs) are com-
enable a chapter to remain organized, to expand petitive activities that measure individuals and
membership, and to increase support. teams in the application of classroom-acquired
knowledge. They should be based on the agricul-
7. What officers are typically elected by a local ture curriculum.
chapter?
10. What are the general requirements for the
The officers include president, vice-president, State FFA Degree?
secretary, treasurer, reporter, sentinel, and advi- The general requirements for the State FFA
sor. Some chapters may have a historian, parlia- Degree are two years of FFA membership and
mentarian, and chaplain. completion of at least two years of agriculture
instruction. A minimum of $1,000 must have
8. What is a program of activities? Why is a been earned in SE or 300 hours should have
good program of activities important to a been worked. Good records are needed. Only a
local chapter? small number of FFA members receive this
degree. (Be sure to refer to the latest edition of
A program of activities (POA) is an annual plan
the Official FFA Manual in case requirements
of the goals and procedures for an FFA chapter.
have changed.)
All members should have a role in preparing a
POA because all are involved in carrying it out. A
EVALUATING
good POA can increase interest, membership,
and support. 1=i, 2=a, 3=d, 4=g, 5=f, 6=e, 7=b, 8=c, 9=j, and 10=h

30
LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER SUMMARY ual who conforms to or accepts the ideas of leaders.

Followers strive to assure that the goals of the leader
Leadership is a relationship among people in which are achieved. No one can be a leader without followers.
influence is used to meet individual or group goals. It is Leaders must have certain traits if they are to fulfill the
the ability to guide other people to achieve a desired leadership role. Leadership traits can be taught and
outcome. This often involves organizing people, mate- learned. They are useful in many different situations.
rials, and activities to accomplish goals. Leaders need good communication skills. Commu-
Personal growth is usually a major part of leadership nication is the process of exchanging information. If
development. Leadership is far more than the act of “taking information is not accurately exchanged, the process is
charge.” It involves important ideas and values. Through not working properly. Fortunately, people can take
studies in agricultural education and FFA, students have steps toward improved communication. Teachers can
the opportunity to develop leadership qualities. help students develop communication skills. Communi-
Leaders and followers are needed for leadership to cation is a process involving a sender and a receiver
occur. A leader is a person who helps other individuals joined by a message and a medium. Feedback allows
or groups achieve goals. The leader of a group is not the sender to assess the effectiveness of the communi-
always in an elected position, and students should rec- cation effort.
ognize this. The leader role emerges by virtue of an Public speaking is a type of communication that
individual’s personal qualities. A follower is an individ- uses oral methods of conveying information. Spoken

119
words are enhanced with nonverbal symbols, such as sections of the chapter to begin developing insight into
gestures and visuals. Good preparation is needed to the nature of leadership and leadership skills.
be an effective public speaker. People who give
speeches need to understand the communication pro-
cess. They need to use the process in preparing and in INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
making their speeches. FFA has several avenues for
students and members to participate in developing AND TEACHING PLANS
public speaking abilities. These can begin in the class
Follow the interest approach with a presentation and
and in chapter levels.
Meetings are often used in FFA and other areas of discussion of the chapter content. Students could also
agriculture. A meeting is the assembly of a group of read sections of the chapter and participate in discus-
people for a particular purpose. It is usually to conduct sion. In addition, the Activity Manual has useful hands-
business or to learn about some particular topic. A on learning activities.
good meeting is held to cover matters in an efficient Begin by helping students learn and understand the
and effective manner. Some individuals develop skills “Leadership Qualities,” as covered in four areas in the
in being good presiders. This includes the ability to use textbook: Internal Traits, Technical Traits, Conceptual
parliamentary procedure. Traits, and Interpersonal Traits. Review internal, tech-
nical, conceptual, and interpersonal traits of leadership.
List these on the writing surface. Discuss each, using
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES student input to clarify information and to build under-
The objectives of this chapter are intended to help standing. Place the definitions on the writing surface,
learners understand the meaning and importance of and then ask students to explain them.
leadership and to begin the process of developing Move into the section “Communications.” Have stu-
important leadership skills. dents read this section. Outline major concepts on the
Upon completion of Chapter 30, the student will be writing surface, using student input. Spend some time
able to: comparing and contrasting verbal and nonverbal com-
munication. Ask students to offer examples they have
1. Identify important leadership qualities. observed of good and poor communication. Have them
2. Discuss the role of communication in leadership. indicate why there was a difference and what could
3. Demonstrate speaking skills. have been done to improve communication. Ask them
4. Demonstrate parliamentary procedure skills. if blockages existed.
Move into the section “Public Speaking Skills.” Go
5. Demonstrate meeting organization and manage-
ment skills. over the local FFA public speaking events and expec-
tations. Cover the chapter content on kinds of
speeches, how to be a good speaker, and how to pre-
INTEREST APPROACH pare and deliver a speech. Students may be assigned
to prepare a short speech and to deliver it in front of the
Since this chapter focuses on areas that are widely class.
discussed in the media, student interest should already
Move into the section “Parliamentary Procedure
exist, at least to some degree. The interest approach
Skills.” Ask students if they know what it is and why it is
could be localized to particular natural resource prob-
used. Students should read the section. Outline major
lems in the community, or it could address a worldwide
situation. concepts on the writing surface. Use student input to
One approach is to use the introductory section of develop the outline. Students should take notes.
the chapter. After students have read it, have them Review the FFA parliamentary procedure activities of
offer thoughts about the meaning and nature of leader- the local chapter. Have students practice using parlia-
ship. This can be associated with the personal growth mentary procedure abilities.
of individuals as they mature into adulthood. Another Move into the section “Meetings.” Have students
approach involves using a resource person who is read the information. Then go over the content in class.
qualified to discuss the meaning and development of Place key points on the writing surface. Use student
leadership abilities. input in summarizing the key points. Have students
Move from the interest approach into the chapter. prepare an order of business for a fictional meeting.
Go over the chapter objectives. Have students read Assign individuals to take minutes in an FFA meeting.

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 2. What are four general qualities or traits of
REVIEW AND EVALUATION leaders? Briefly explain each.
The chapter summary and the end-of-chapter Four general qualities or traits of leaders are
review questions can be used in reviewing and evaluat- internal traits—personal characteristics such as
ing student learning. The end-of-chapter questions can work ethic and high moral values; technical
also be used in re-teaching important concepts, as traits—leadership qualities that are more readily
needed. Laboratory activities in the Activity Manual developed (e.g., lead discussions and organize
provide excellent hands-on review of the chapter. events); conceptual traits—thinking skills (e.g.,
the ability to analyze or recognize opportunities);
Achievement can also be evaluated by using written
and interpersonal traits—skills in getting along
or oral tests and supervised experience programs.
with other people.
Forming the students into action groups to help solve
problems in the local community would help reinforce 3. What is communication?
learning. Using the “Exploring” activities in the text Communication is the process of exchanging
would be beneficial. information.
4. What are the components of the communica-
SAFETY tion process? Briefly explain each.
The four components of the communication
The objectives of the chapter do not include learning process are source, message, channel, and
outcomes that pose specific safety problems. The con- receiver. The source is the initiator of the mes-
duct of some of the learning activities could present sage. The message is an ordered set of symbols
hazardous situations to students. Activities in the Activ- that make an idea. The channel is the linkage
ity Manual are coded to alert students to possible areas between the sender and the receiver, and the
of danger. Students should be aware of the safety receiver is the interpreter or recipient of a mes-
practices around water, in dealing with wastes, and on sage.
field trips to collect information.
5. What is nonverbal communication?
Nonverbal communication is the exchange of
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES information without words.
6. What is public speaking?
Additional resources could be used to enrich the
content from the perspective of the local community. Public speaking is a type of communication
The latest materials on FFA speaking and parliamen- that uses oral methods of conveying information.
tary procedure activities may be useful. The spoken words are sometimes enhanced with
visuals.
7. What kinds of speeches may be used? Distin-
ANSWERS guish among each.
The common kinds of speeches are prepared,
END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS which are developed well ahead of time and with
delivery practiced; extemporaneous, which are
Brief answers to the end-of-chapter review ques- somewhat prepared ahead of time but not in
tions are presented here. The answers are intended to detail and notes may be used; impromptu, which
be only guidelines for the teacher. Teachers may involve no preparation; and recitation, which are
require more complete information, the use of complete prepared and fully memorized.
sentences, or other details in the answers.
8. What are the important guidelines to help a
person become a good public speaker? List
1. What is leadership?
and briefly explain any two.
Leadership is a relationship among people in The important guidelines to help someone
which influence is used to meet individual or become a good public speaker are be prepared,
group goals. be organized, use a good voice, stay within the

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 time limit, use a good introduction, be enthusias- 11. What is a main motion?
tic, use proper facial expressions, use notes,
A main motion is a motion that brings business
maintain eye contact, observe other speakers,
before an assembly.
and be knowledgeable. Note: Students may
select and discuss any two of these following 12. What is voting? How are votes taken?
information presented in the textbook.
Voting is a procedure that allows people to
9. What should be considered in delivering a make their choices known about issues or mat-
public speech? Name and explain any two ters. Votes are taken in several ways. Voice, ris-
pointers on delivery. ing, secret ballot, and roll call are the most widely
Consider the following in delivering a prepared used voting methods.
speech: practice ahead of time, be sincere, have
13. What is an order of business?
a good voice, use good posture, maintain eye
contact, and follow time guidelines. Note: Stu- An order of business is a step-by-step plan for
dents may select and explain any two using conducting a meeting. It is a list of all known
information presented in the textbook. items to be considered in a meeting.

10. What is parliamentary procedure? Why is it 14. What are meeting minutes?
important?
Minutes are the official written record of the
Parliamentary procedure is a method of con- business of a meeting.
ducting meetings in an orderly manner. It is
important because it allows everyone an oppor- EVALUATING
tunity to participate in debating issues and in
making decisions. 1=i, 2=h, 3=a, 4=j, 5=b, 6=f, 7=c, 8=g, 9=d, and 10=e

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