2013

INTRODUCTORY
ANIMAL PRODUCTION
LECTURE NOTES
Nguyen Xuan Trach
Nguyen Thi Tuyet Le
Cu Thi Thien Thu

HANOI UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 1. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF ANIMALS ......... 6
1.1. Basic concepts .............................................................................................................. 6
1.1.1. Animals ................................................................................................................. 6
1.1.2. Animal science ...................................................................................................... 6
1.1.3. Animal production ................................................................................................. 7
1.2. The value of animals to mankind ................................................................................... 8
1.2.1. Consumables (food) ................................................................................................... 8
1.2.2. Convertibles (materials) ............................................................................................. 8
1.2.3. Draught power ........................................................................................................... 9
1.2.4. Other contributions .................................................................................................... 9
1.3. Animal production in food security and sustainable agriculture ................................... 11
1.3.1. Animal production and food security ....................................................................... 11
1.3.2. Animal production and sustainable agriculture ......................................................... 11
Chapter 2. ANIMAL GENETICS AND BREEDING ................................................................ 15
2.1. Fundamental principles of genetics ................................................................................. 15
2.1.1. Transmission Genetics ............................................................................................. 15
2.1.2. Molecular Genetics .................................................................................................. 16
2.1.3. Population Genetics ................................................................................................. 17
2.2. Animal selection ............................................................................................................. 19
2.2.1. Purpose of animal selection...................................................................................... 19
2.2.2. Methods of animal selection .................................................................................... 19
2.3. Breeding schemes ........................................................................................................... 19
2.3.1. Purebreeding ............................................................................................................ 19
2.3.2. Crossbreeding .......................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 3. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION .................................................................................. 25
3.1. Reproductivion in mammalian animals ........................................................................... 25
3.1.1. The reproductive systems ......................................................................................... 25
3.1.2. Reproductive processes ............................................................................................ 26
3.2. Reproduction in poultry .................................................................................................. 31
3.2.1. The reproductive system .......................................................................................... 31
3.2.2. Puberty ................................................................................................................... 32
3.2.3. Breeding .................................................................................................................. 32

1
 3.4. Reproductive technology ....................................................................................................................... 33
3.4.1. Artificial insemination (AI) .......................................................................................................... 33
3.3.2. Embryo transfer (ET) ..................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 4. ANIMAL NUTRITION AND FEEDING ................................................................................ 36
4.1. Nutrients and their functions ................................................................................................................ 36
4.1.1. Water ................................................................................................................................................... 36
4.1.2. Protein ................................................................................................................................................. 37
4.1.3. Carbohydrates ................................................................................................................................... 38
4.1.4. Fats....................................................................................................................................................... 39
4.1.5. Minerals.............................................................................................................................................. 39
4.1.6. Vitamins ............................................................................................................................................. 40
4.2. Nutrient requirements ............................................................................................................................. 40
4.3. Feed.............................................................................................................................................................. 41
4.4. Ration and diet .......................................................................................................................................... 42
4.5. Digestion and metabolism ..................................................................................................................... 43
4.5.1. Digestion ............................................................................................................................................ 43
4.5.2. Metabolism ........................................................................................................................................ 46
Chapter 5. ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR AND WELFARE ........................................................................... 47
5.1. Animal behaviour .................................................................................................................................... 47
5.1.1. Introduction to animal behaviour ................................................................................................ 47
5.1.2. Types of behaviour in farm animals .......................................................................................... 48
5.2. Animal wefare .......................................................................................................................................... 52
5.2.1. Concepts of animal welfare .......................................................................................................... 52
5.2.2. Assessment of animal welfare ..................................................................................................... 53
5.2.3. Welfare of farm animals ................................................................................................................ 55
Chapter 6. ANIMAL HEALTH ........................................................................................................................ 57
6.1. Basic animal health concepts ............................................................................................................... 57
6.1.1. Animal disease ................................................................................................................................. 57
6.1.2. Transmission of animal diseases ................................................................................................. 58
6.1.3. The immune system and immunity ............................................................................................ 59
6.2. Animal disease prevention .................................................................................................................... 60
6.2.1. On-farm biosecuruty ....................................................................................................................... 60
6.2.2. Vaccination programs .................................................................................................................... 61
6.2.3. Herd/flock health management.................................................................................................... 61
6.3. Animal disease control ........................................................................................................................... 62
6.3.1. Animal disease monitoring and surveillance ........................................................................... 62

2
 6.3.2. Treatment of diseased animals .................................................................................................... 63
6.3.3. Control of animal disease outbreaks .......................................................................................... 64
6.4. Socio-economic impacts of animal diseases .................................................................................... 65
6.4.1. Animal diseases and human health ............................................................................................ 65
6.4.2. Animal health economics .............................................................................................................. 66
Chapter 7. SWINE PRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 68
7.1. Swine breeds ............................................................................................................................................. 68
7.1.1. Local pig breeds of Vietnam ........................................................................................................ 68
7.1.2. Exotic swine breeds ........................................................................................................................ 70
7.2. Swine production cycle and pork chain ............................................................................................ 72
7.2.1. Swine production cycle.................................................................................................................. 72
7.2.2. Pork chain .......................................................................................................................................... 74
7.3. Swine production systems ..................................................................................................................... 76
7.4.1. Farrow-to-finish systems ............................................................................................................... 77
7.4.2. Farrow-to-feeder systems .............................................................................................................. 78
7.4.3. Feeder-to-finish systems................................................................................................................ 78
Chapter 8. POULTRY PRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 80
8.1. Types of chicken breeds ........................................................................................................................ 80
8.1.1. Egg laying chickens ........................................................................................................................ 80
8.1.2. Meat chickens ................................................................................................................................... 80
8.2 Production cycle of chicken farming systems .................................................................................. 81
8.2.1. Breeder farm cycle .......................................................................................................................... 81
8.2.2. Layer farm cycle .............................................................................................................................. 83
8.2.3. Meat chicken farm cycle ............................................................................................................... 84
8.3. The principles of poultry husbandry .................................................................................................. 86
8.3.1. Use of good quality and right class of stock ............................................................................ 87
8.3.2. Provision of good housing ............................................................................................................ 87
8.3.3. Maintanance of good health ......................................................................................................... 88
8.3.4 Nutrition for economic performance........................................................................................... 89
8.3.5. Good stockpersonship .................................................................................................................... 90
8.3.6. Maximum use of management techiniqes ................................................................................ 90
8.3.7. Use of records ................................................................................................................................... 91
8.3.8. Good marketing practice ............................................................................................................... 91
Chapter 9. BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 92
9.1. Beef cattle breeds ..................................................................................................................................... 92
9.1.1. Temperate beef cattle breeds ........................................................................................................ 92

3
 9.1.2. Tropical beef cattle breeds ............................................................................................................ 93
9.2. Beef cattle production cycle and beef chain .................................................................................... 95
9.2.1. Beef cattle production cycle ......................................................................................................... 95
9.2.2. Beef chain .......................................................................................................................................... 96
9.3. Beef production systems ........................................................................................................................ 97
9.3.1. Extensive systems ........................................................................................................................... 97
9.3.2. Mixed farming systems.................................................................................................................. 97
9.3.3. Intensive specialised systems ....................................................................................................... 98
9.3.4. Beef cattle production systems in Vietnam ............................................................................. 99
Chapter 10. DAIRY CATTLE PRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 101
10.1. Dairy cattle breeds.............................................................................................................................. 101
10.1.1. Temperate dairy cattle breeds ................................................................................................. 101
10.1.2. Tropical dairy cattle breeds ..................................................................................................... 102
10.2. Dairy cattle production cycle and milk chain............................................................................. 102
10.2.1. Dairy cattle production cycle .................................................................................................. 102
10.2.2. Milk commodity chain ............................................................................................................. 104
8.3. Dairy farming systems ........................................................................................................................ 107
8.3.1. General chracteristics of dairy farming systems ................................................................. 107
8.3.2. Types of dairy farming systems ............................................................................................... 107

4
 INTRODUCTION

This course is designed to introduce students to basic concepts and principles of animal science
and their application in animal agriculture. The objective of the course is to help the student to:
Develop an overview of the nature of animals and animal production,
Become familiar with terminology used in animal science as it relates to the industry,
management practices, equipment and animals,
Develop an understanding of animal species and breeds that compromise the
livestock production and their relative importance from economic and social
perspectives,
Develop a basic understading of the value and contributions which animals can
contribute to the human needs,
Develop a basic understanding of animal genetics and breeding, animal nutrition, and
reproduction, behaviour and welfare,
Develop a basic understanding of current management practices as it relates to raising
the common farm animal species, viz. swine, poultry, and cattle.
The primary compensation for students taking this course is that they will have an invaluable
knowledge of the basics of animal agriculture. The knowledge attained and retained will not only
help the student become better prepared for their professions, but also they will become well-
informed consumers for the remainder of their life.

5
 Chapter 1

THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF ANIMALS

Humans keep domesticated animals because they provide something of value. Animal products
provide one-sixth of human food energy and more than one-third of the protein on a global
basis. Animals make many additional contributions to the well-being of humans and the society.
Ultimately food supply and other aspects of quality of life for all people are very much dependent
on animals. This chapter is about basic concepts related to animals and their socio-economic
contributions.

1.1. Basic concepts

1.1.1. Animals
Animals are a major group of multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or
Metazoa. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently.
Animals are also heterotrophs, meaning they must ingest other organisms for sustenance.
Herbivores eat plants; carnivores eat flesh; omnivores, such as humans, eat nearly everything.
Parasites inhabit and subsist in other organisms. Animal evolution has resulted in a vast number
of adaptations for successful life under all sorts of conditions, so that there are now more kinds
of animals than of all other living things combined.
Livestock is a nebulous term and may be defined narrowly or broadly. On a broader view,
livestock refers to any breed or population of animal kept by humans for a useful, commercial
purpose. This can mean domestic animals, semi-domestic animals, or captive wild animals.
Semi-domesticated refers to animals which are only lightly domesticated or of disputed status.
These populations may also be in the process of domestication. Some people may use the term
livestock to refer just to domestic animals or even just to red meat animals. The term as usually
used does not include poultry or farmed fish; however the inclusion of these, especially poultry,
within the meaning of 'livestock' is common.

1.1.2. Animal science

Animal science is described as "studying the biology of animals that are under the control of
mankind". Historically the animals studied were farm animals but courses available now look at
a far broader area to include companion animals for example dogs, cats, horses and captive
animals. The study of animal science is now concerned with the scientific understanding of how
animals work: from the physiology and biochemistry of tissues and major organ systems down to
the structure and function of biomolecules and cells. Where particular emphasis is given to the

6
study of growth, reproduction, nutrition and lactation of farm and companion animals and how
these processes may be optimised to improve animal productivity, health and welfare.

1.1.3. Animal production

Animal husbandry, also called stockbreeding, is the agricultural practice of breeding and
raising animals/livestock. Raising animals is an important component of modern agriculture. It
has been practiced in many societies, since the transition to farming from hunter-gather
lifestyles. Farming practices vary dramatically worldwide and between types of animals.
Livestock are generally kept in an enclosure, are fed by human-provided feed and are
intentionally bred, but some livestock are not enclosed, or are fed by access to natural feeds, or
are allowed to breed freely, or any combination thereof.
Livestock raising historically was part of a nomadic or pastoral form of material culture. The
enclosure of livestock in pastures and barns is a relatively new development in the history of
agriculture. When cattle are enclosed, the type of ‗enclosure‘ may vary from a small crate, a
large fenced pasture or a paddock. The type of feed may vary from natural growing grass, to
highly sophisticated processed feed. Animals are usually intentionally bred through artificial
insemination or through supervised mating. Indoor production systems are generally used only
for pigs and poultry, as well as for veal cattle. Indoor animals are generally farmed intensively,
as large space requirements would make indoor farming unprofitable and impossible. However,
indoor farming systems are controversial due to: the waste they produce, odour problems, the
potential for groundwater contamination and animal welfare concerns.
Other livestock are farmed outside, although the size of enclosure and level of supervision may
vary. In large open ranges animals may be only occasionally inspected or yarded in "round-ups"
or a muster (livestock). Working dogs such as sheep dogs and cattle dogs may be used for
mustering livestock as are cowboys, stockmen and jackaroos on horses, or with vehicles and also
by helicopters. Since the advent of barbed wire (in the 1870s) and electric fence technology,
fencing pastures has become much more feasible and pasture management simplified. Rotation
of pasturage is a modern technique for improving nutrition and health while avoiding
environmental damage to the land. In some cases very large numbers of animals may be kept in
indoor or outdoor feeding operations (on feedlots), where the animals' feed is processed, offsite
or onsite, and stored on site then fed to the animals.
Animal production is the technology applied to the keeping of animals for profit. It includes
feeding, breeding, housing and marketing.
Industrial animal production is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to the
industrialized production of livestock, including cattle, poultry (in "battery farms") and fish.
Most of the meat, dairy and eggs available in supermarkets are produced by industrialized
agriculture. Confined industrial animal agriculture of livestock and poultry are commonly

7
referred to as factory farming and are criticised by opponents for the low level of animal welfare
standards and associated pollution and health issues.

1.2. The value of animals to mankind

Humans keep domesticated animals because they provide something of value. We can divide
animal contributions to mankind into different categories as follows.

1.2.1. Consumables (food)

Livestock's most universal and significant productivity is in terms of milk, meat and/or eggs for
direct consumption by the animal owners or for sale to others. Diets based on meat, eggs and
dairy products contain proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins present in appropriate
amounts and readily digestible forms to meet all human nutritional requirements.
Mammalian species such as cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, equines, yaks, cameloids, buffaloes,
reindeer and poultry yield substantial consumable commodities. The number of contributors
becomes larger when exotic birds such as ostriches, guinea fowl, pheasants, quail, pigeons and
Cornish hens are included and expands even further with poikilotherms such as fresh or salt
water fish, shrimp, lobsters, crabs, oysters, mussels, squid, clams, scallops, frogs, turtles and
even honey bees. The total contributions from domesticated animals, while not approaching the
proportions derived from plants, are still quite large, providing approximately 34% of human
food protein and 16% of food energy supply.

1.2.2. Convertibles (materials)

Domesticated animals provide many materials used in manufacturing. Wool and leather are the
most abundant products but furs and silk are also important. Although the world no longer relies
on bone or ivory for buttons, other animal products such as feathers and pearls are still in
demand for decoration.
Animal manure, although often referred to as a waste product in industrialized countries, is
valuable for use as fuel, fertilizer or building material. Many Asian and some African livestock
owners mix cattle, buffalo, yak or camel dung with straw and dry this into convenient-sized
cakes or blocks for use as a cooking or heating fuel. In some regions dung is mixed with mud or
clay forms building materials. Animal manure can be placed in fermentation chambers to
generate methane gas, which can be used as fuel for lighting, warming water, heating or even
driving machinery such as water pumps. Manure can also be a valuable source of feed for other
animal species. Poultry and pig manure can also be used to generate algae as a feed for fish.
Probably, the most universal and principal use for manure is as fertilizer. Throughout the
developing world, manure is the primary source of plant nutrients for traditional rainfed crops.

8
1.2.3. Draught power
Animals can be trained to perform a great variety of tasks, especially for draff power. This is
done by conditioning them – rewarding them for correct behaviour. Cattle, buffaloes, horses,
donkeys, mules, reindeer, yaks, elephants, dogs, camels and other cameloids all provide draft
power for plowing, harvesting, transportation, lifting water and skidding logs.
Since the dawn of humanity, animals have been used for work, be it for agricultural production
or for improving social status. But over the past century, with increasing mechanisation, the
animal work force has dwindled in developed countries, whereas they still contribute enormously
towards fuel energy economy in most developing countries. Although machines deriving energy
from fossil fuels replaced draft animals in some regions, mechanization is too expensive or not
suited to many cultivated terrains. Thus, motive power will continue to be important throughout
the developing world and might be revived to some extent even in industrialized countries.

1.2.4. Other contributions

Animals are also used by humans in a number of other ways:
Recreation, warship and companionship
Animals in sport, warship, companionship, ceremonies and leisure are all very important aspects
of human association with animals. However, none of these is free of ethical implication. Much
of the debate centres on the extent of the exploitation of animals. Some people argue the
specially bred animals enjoy what people get them to do, but others might say that the animals
have no choice.
Fashion
Throughout history, fur has been seen as a luxury item of clothing, conferring high status on its
wearer. Opponents of the fur trade have engaged in direct action for many years, and have had a
high level of publicity. This has meant that fur has become less fashionable since people‘s
awareness of animal welfare and conservation issues has been raised.
Health research
There are three main types of scientific research in which animals can be used:
―Pure‖ research: basic investigation into aspects of the biochemistry, physiology and
anatomy usually of mammals for biomedical research.
Research into the causes and treatment of disease: investigation into pathological
biochemistry, and physiology.
Testing of products for safety of use.

9
Biological control
The grazing of livestock is sometimes used as a way to control weeds and undergrowth. For
example, in areas prone to wild fires, goats and sheep are set to graze on dry scrub which
removes combustible material and reduces the risk of fires. Sheep have also been used to control
weeds in sugar cane fields, lowering the cost of herbicides, and providing an additional income
from meat production. Such systems also safeguard the environment and avoid chemical
pollution while supplying additional organic material to the soil.
Income and security
Livestock production is a major component of the agricultural economy of developing countries
and goes well beyond direct food production. Sales of livestock and their products provide direct
cash income to farmers. In fact, livestock are often the most important cash crop in many small
holder mixed farming systems. This source of disposable income is important for purchase of
agricultural inputs and other family needs.
Livestock give increased economic stability to farm households, acting as a cash buffer (small
stock), a capital reserve (large animals) and as a hedge against inflation. In mixed farming
systems, livestock reduce the risk through diversification of production and income sources and
there is therefore a much greater ability to deal with seasonal crop failures and other natural
calamities. Livestock represent liquid assets which can be realized at any time, adding further
stability to the production system. Livestock are the living bank for many farmers for whom
animal ownership ensures varying degrees of sustainable farming and economic stability.
Employment
Increased production implies higher employment. Dairying is labour intensive at farm level and
women are active in production and marketing. Labour typically amounts to over 40 per cent of
total costs in small harder systems. Goats, sheep, poultry and rabbits, and especially from
backyard production systems, are an important source of part-time work, particularly for landless
women and children.
The processing sector has also been identified as a focus for generating employment and limiting
rural depopulation. Small scale milk processing and marketing is labour intensive (50-100 kg per
workday) and generates employment (and income) from local manufacture of at least part of the
equipment used. The meat sector also provides employment for slaughter, marketing and
processing.
Recycling
Different types of by-products can be efficiently recycled by animals. Slaughterhouse wastes,
when adequately processed, are useful protein (offals and viscera) and mineral (bones)
supplements in animal feeds. Household wastes are commonly fed to pigs and small animals in

10
backyard systems in developing countries. In urban and periurban areas, restaurant and catering
wastes can easily be processed for pigs. Industrial fish waste creates pollution around canning
plants. It is usual to dry it, at very high cost, for fish meal for export to developed countries.
Preservation of fish waste in molasses for feeding has been shown to be technically and
economically feasible for use by poor farmers.

1.3. Animal production in food security and sustainable agriculture

As mentioned above, livestock have multipurpose contributions to food and agricultural
production and thus live stock production has both direct and indirect contributions to food
security and sustainable development in the developing countries.

1.3.1. Animal production and food security

If food security is defined as "...access to enough food for an active healthy life" livestock can
make a major contribution. Livestock may contribute to food security through increased output
of livestock and non-livestock products and by employment and income generation that may
assure access to food. An adequate quantity of balanced and nutritious food is a primary
indicator of quality of life, human welfare and development. Animals are an important source of
food, particularly of high quality protein, minerals, vitamins and micronutrients. Quality foods
derived from animal sources have major importance for optimizing human performance in
chronically mild to moderately malnourished populations. This is especially important for young
children.
Increased livestock production in developing countries may add to food security in several ways:
- First, many poor small holders will have direct access to more food of livestock origin.
- Second, increased production will keep livestock product prices down and allow low
income groups access to such food. Producers should gain in the face of lower prices because
livestock products are both price and income elastic, so lower prices should increase demand,
total production and farm revenue. In many countries, low income people suffer more from
energy than they do from protein deficiency. Increased production and low prices may allow
consumers on low incomes to increase consumption of livestock products and help overcome the
energy-protein deficiency simultaneously.
- Third, increased domestic production will reduce imports and save foreign exchange
which can then be diverted to productive investment and indirectly contribute to food security.
Some countries generate revenue by taxing imported goods including animal products. Taxing
increased income from domestic production may serve the same purpose.

1.3.2. Animal production and sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture refers to the ability of a farm to produce food indefinitely, without

11
causing severe or irreversible damage to ecosystem health. Two key issues are biophysical (the
long-term effects of various practices on soil properties and processes essential for crop
productivity) and socio-economic (the long-term ability of farmers to obtain inputs and manage
resources such as labor).
Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals: environmental stewardship, farm
profitability, and prosperous farming communities. These goals have been defined by a variety
of disciplines and may be looked at from the vantage point of the farmer or the consumer.
Sustainable agricultural systems involve animals for their unique ability to use noncompetitive,
nonrenewable resources, and for their integration with other farm practices. They complement
plant production systems, and provide biological and economic diversity. Management of such
mixed or integrated systems is the greatest challenge.
Integrating livestock and agriculture increases short term benefits to and long term sustainability
of agriculture. Nutrient recycling is an essential part of any strategy for sustainable agriculture.
Integration of livestock and crops allows for efficient recycling through use of crop residues and
by-products as animal feeds and for animal manure as crop fertilizer. In addition, manure returns
organic matter to the soil, helping to maintain its structure as well as its water retention and
drainage capacities
An integrated system of plant and animal production practices has a site-specific application that
will, over the long term:
satisfy human food and fiber needs
enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural
economy depends
make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and
integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls
sustain the economic viability of farm operations
enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.
The integrated farming systems in Vietnam, like elsewhere, involve the combination of one or
more types of domesticated animals with crops and fish in a manner such that, although each of
these sub-systems may function independently, they are nevertheless complementary and their
products are additive. The output from one sub-system (e.g. excreta) becomes the input to the
others (e.g. as feed for fish). This synergism and integration of the sub-systems thus produce a
greater output than the sum of their individual effects. These systems allow for minimizing waste
through recycling, which in turn reduces the need for raw materials from outside, minimizing
risks for farmers. In addition to waste recycling the such integrated systems help to protect the
environment and conserve biodiversity owing to using indigenous inputs, which also require less

12
agro-chemicals. Among the integrated crop-animal systems in Vietnam, the well-known VAC
systems (Figure 1) can be herewith introduced as an example.

Garden
(trees &
vegetables)

food
water excreta
feed feed
Family
&
Market
food food

Pond excreta Animals

(fish & water
(poultry, pigs,
plants) feed ruminants)

Figure 1.1: The garden-pond-animal (VAC) systems

These systems have been known as the VAC systems, which integrate gardening (V), fish
farming (A) and animal keeping (C). While gardening, fish farming and animal keeping provide
main products for family consumption or for sale, by-products from one sub-system are used as
inputs to the others, reducing the need for external chemicals and minimizing pollution.
There are many other modifications of the above systems in different agro-ecological settings.
For example, in mountainous areas the VAC systems are combined with forestry (R) into so-
called VACR systems (agro-forest systems). The VACR systems can provide complementary
advantages of forage production, supply of fuel wood, improvement of soil fertility, maintenance
of permanent soil cover and thus environmental protection.
More attention should be paid to developing farming systems that exploit the complementarity
and synergism between plants and animals in resource-conserving systems.

Review excercises
1. Define animals, livestock, animal science, animal husbandry, animal production.
2. Develop a modest understanding of contributions of animals as consumables (food).
3. Give an overview of all the many nonfood uses of animals.

13
4. What are the roles of animals in traditional crop production?
5. What are the roles of animals for resource-poor farmers?
6. What can animal manure be used for?
7. What are the roles of animal production in food security?
8. Define and describe sustainable agriculture.
9. Elaborate on the place of animals in sustainable agricultural systems.
10. Elaborate on the roles of animals in the ―VAC‖ systems in Vietnam.

14
 Chapter 2

ANIMAL GENETICS AND BREEDING

Animal breeding is a traditional way of changing the performance of domestic animals through
successive generations. Farmers achieve this goal by selecting animals with outstanding
performance in production traits, and using them as parents for the next generation. Animal
breeding as a science applies the principles of genetics and biometry to improve the efficiency of
production in farm animals. Animal breeding for genetic change plays a major role towards the
increase in the range and efficiency of animal production. Farm animals, particularly food
animals, have been the subject of the most intensive breeding efforts. This chapter outlines first
the fundamental principles of genetics as basis for animal selection and breeding schemes that
follow.

2.1. Fundamental principles of genetics

Genetics studies how living organisms inherit features from their ancestors. Genetics tries to
identify which features are inherited, and work out the details of how these features are passed
from generation to generation.
Genetics may be conveniently divided into 3 areas of study: transmission genetics, molecular
genetics and population genetics.

2.1.1. Transmission Genetics

Transmission genetics is concerned with identifying the genes that affect a particular
characteristic, and also the patterns by which these genes are transmitted from generation to
generation, or from cell to cell.
The total genetic complement of a cell or organism is called a genome. The particular version of
a genome carried by an individual is called the genotype, which is a set of genes. A gene is
defined as the smalest unit of inheritane. Threfore, genes are the determiners of heridity.
The outward manifestation of the expression of the genotype is called the phenotype. Genes
may express themselves in the phenotype in two general ways, known as additive and
nonaditive phenotypic expressions. Individual genes can be identified through phenotypic
inheritance patterns, but only if some variation is present in the phenotype. Some phenotypic
variation is discontinuous, e.g, yellow versus green pea seeds. Discontinuous variation often can
be explained genetically by different forms of a gene called alleles: in an example from peas, Y
is the allele for the yellow phenotype, and y for green. Plants and animals carry a pair of each

15
gene, so in the pea example, an individual pea can be YY, Yy or yy. Because the Y allele is
dominant (written as a capital) the Yy individual is yellow phenotype.
Some phenotypic variation takes the form of a continuous range of values (eg, very short through
all intermediate values to very tall). Continuous variation often can be explained by a number of
interacting genes (polygenes); the greater the number of genes involved, the greater the possible
range of variation. Environmental variation also contributes to continuous variation, so one of
the analytical problems in studying such phenotypes is trying to partition continuous variation
into genetic variation from environmental variation.
Transmission genetics has found widespread use in traditional agricultural practices, especially
in plant and animal breeding. Many plants and animals used in commerce have been developed
by breeding procedures. Furthermore, many diseases are known to be genetic in origin, resulting
from a mutation to produce a disease-causing allele.

2.1.2. Molecular Genetics

Molecular genetics focuses on the structure and function of the genetic units, ie, the chemical
composition of genes and their expression in determining the structure of proteins, the most
important functional components of cells.
All animals (and plants as well) are made of small building blocks called cells. The main parts of
the cell include the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus is the heart and brain of the cell and
contains the chromosomes. Each species of animals possesses a characteristic number of
chromosomes for that species (humans have 2 sets of 23 chromosomes, each parent contributing
a set, for a total of 46).
Genes, the determiners of heredity, are carried on
chromosomes. Each chromosome contains a 50 mm
length of a threadlike chemical called DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid); however, as each
chromosome is less than 0.005 mm long, the DNA
must be very efficiently packed through coiling and
supercoiling. A gene is simply a functional segment
on the DNA thread. It embodies a coded message, in
the form of a sequence of chemical units called
nucleotides.
The sequence of most genes dictates the sequence of amino acids that make up a specific protein
molecule. Proteins are crucial in phenotypic expression because when you look at an organism
what you see is either a protein or something that has been made by a protein. Some proteins
(called enzymes) control chemical reactions taking place in cells, and some are important
structural components of cells, such as microtubules or muscle myofilaments.

16
DNA has the unique property of being able to make copies of itself (ie, replicate). That is, the
gene as a portion of a DNA molecule has the ability to replicate itself when new cells are
formed. Bacteria consist of single cells without a membrane-bound nucleus; each cell carries a
single circular DNA chromosome that replicates before the cell divides by binary fission,
producing daughter cells that are an exact genetic copy of the original cell. Plants, animals and
fungy are composed of one or more cells having membrane-bound nuclei. The body cells of
plants and animals contain two sets of linear chromosomes per nucleus, and fungal cells one set
per nucleus. These chromosomes replicate before body cell division, and the chromosome copies
are partitioned equally into daughter cells during an orderly nuclear division process called
mitosis.
Animals also undergo a specialized nuclear division (meiosis) during the sexual cycle. In
animals, meiotic division results in sperms and eggs (or ovum), which contain only one
chromosome set per cell. When sperm and egg unite, the resulting cell (the zygote) is the
progenitor cell of the body of a new individual, and contains the usual two chromosome sets.
During meiosis different allele pairs can assort into new combinations, so zygotes are of many
different genotypes, all differing from the two parents.
Infrequently, DNA undergoes a sequence change, termed a mutation, that alters both genotype
and phenotype. This is the ultimate source of all genetic variation. Mutations without obvious
cause are referred to as spontaneous mutations; induced mutations result mainly from damage to
genes caused by environmental chemicals and radiation. Mutations are the material on which the
environment acts to result in evolution; thus, a mutation that gives an organism an advantage
may permit it to produce more offspring which, in turn, contain the mutated gene. Over time, an
entire population may change.
A revolution in molecular genetics occurred upon the invention of recombinant DNA
technology. This technology allowed genes to be isolated by cloning, characterized in detail by
DNA sequencing, and manipulated experimentally in a test tube (in vitro mutagenesis).
Improvements of recombinant DNA technology have led to the ability to characterize whole
genomes. Recombinant DNA technology also allows genes to be removed from their original
organism and spliced into the chromosomes of other organisms, to create transgenic organisms.

2.1.3. Population Genetics

Population genetics analyses the pattern of distribution of genes in populations of organisms, and
changes in the genetic structure of populations.
Different populations of organisms show different frequencies of various alleles. Population
genetics attempts to measure these allele frequencies in order to compare the genetic
compositions of different populations. The purpose of these measurements can be for ecological
studies, or to study evolutionary changes in the population. One fundamental tool is the Hardy-

17
Weinberg formula, which states that under conditions of random mating and with no change of
2
allele frequency, the structure of a very large population can be described as p of genotype AA,
2
2pq of Aa and q of aa, where p and q are the frequencies (proportions) of alleles A and a in that
population. This will give a stable population structure. The Hardy-Weinberg proportions can be
changed by mutation, selection, random changes in allele frequency (genetic drift), and
migration, all of which can be considered to be evolutionary forces.
In other words, population genetics is the study of the allele frequency distribution and change
under the influence of the four evolutionary processes: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation
and gene flow. It also takes account of population subdivision and population structure in space.
As such, it attempts to explain such phenomena as adaptation and speciation. Population genetics
was a vital ingredient in the modern evolutionary synthesis, its primary founders were Sewall
Wright, J. B. S. Haldane and R. A. Fisher, who also laid the foundations for the related discipline
of quantitative genetics.
Quantitative genetics is the study of continuous traits (such as height or weight) and its
underlying mechanisms. It is effectively an extension of simple Mendelian inheritance in that the
combined effect of the many underlying genes results in a continuous distribution of phenotypic
values.
The phenotypic value (P) of an individual is the combined effect of the genotypic value (G) and
the environmental deviation (E):
P=G+E
The genotypic value is the combined effect of all the genetic effects, including nuclear genes,
mitochondrial genes and interactions between the genes. It is therefore often subdivided in an
additive (A) and a dominance component (D). The additive effect described the cumulative
effect of the individual genes, while the dominance effect is the result of interactions between
those genes. The environmental deviation can be subdivided in a pure environmental component
(E) and an interaction factor (I) describing the interaction between genes and the environment.
This can be described as:
P=A+D+E+I
The contribution of those components cannot be determined in a single individual, but they can
be estimated for whole populations by estimating the variances for those components, denoted
as:
VP=VA+VD+VE+VI
The heritability of a trait is the proportion of the total (i.e. phenotypic) variation (VP) that is
explained by the genetic variation. This is the total genetic variation (VG) in broad sense
2
heritabilities (H ), while only the additive genetic variation (VA) is used for narrow sense

18
 2
heritabilities (h ), often simply called heritability. The latter gives an indication how a trait will
respond to natural or artificial selection.

2.2. Animal selection

2.2.1. Purpose of animal selection

The purpose of animal selection is to identify and select superior breeding ainimals which
possess a large proportion of superior genes for a desirable trait, or traits.

2.2.2. Methods of animal selection

Methods of selection are within and between family selection, individual or mass selection,
sibling selection, and progeny testing, with many variations.
Within family selection uses the best individual from each family for
breeding. Between family selection uses the whole family for selection.
Mass selection uses records of only the candidates for selection. Mass selection is most
effective when heritability is high and the trait is expressed early in life, in which case all that is
required is observation and selection based on phenotypes.
When mass selection is not appropriate, other methods of selection, which make use of relatives
or progeny, can be used singularly or in combination.
Modern selection technologies allow use of all these types of selection at the same time,
which results in greater accuracy.

2.3. Breeding schemes

Once superior animals are identified and selected as breeding stock, which is a group of animals
used for purpose of planned breeding, it is necessary to devise breeding schemes (mating
systems) which will give the most genetic improvement. The different breeding schemes may be
grouped into purebreeding and crossbreeding.

2.3.1. Purebreeding
Purebreeding is the mating of males and females of the same breed. Purebred breeding aims to
establish and maintain stable traits, that animals will pass to the next generation. By "breeding
the best to the best," employing a certain degree of inbreeding, considerable culling, and
selection for "superior" qualities, one could develop a bloodline or "breed" superior in certain
respects to the original base stock. Such animals can be recorded with a breed registry, the
organisation that maintains pedigrees and/or stud books. The goal of purebreeding should be to

19
supply genetics (seedstock) to the commercial production. Seedstock are marketed as sire and
replacement dams to other seedstock producers or to commercial operations.
In purbreeding, there may be also special schemes called inbreeding and linebreeding.
Inbreeding/Closebreeding
Inbreeding or closebreeding may be defined as the production of progeny by parents that are
more closely related than the average of the population from which they came. Inbreeding is
often described as ―narrowing the genetic base‖ because the mating of related animals results in
offspring that have more genes in common. Inbreeding is used to concentrate desirable traits.
Mild inbreeding has been used in some breeds of dogs and has been extensively used in
laboratory mice and rats. For example, mice have been bred to be highly sensitive to compounds
that might be detrimental or useful to humans. These mice are highly inbred so that researchers
can obtain the same response with replicated treatments.
Inbreeding is generally detrimental in domestic animals. Inbreeding depression is reduced
fitness in a given population as a result of inbreeding. Increased inbreeding is accompanied by
reduced fertility, slower growth rates, greater susceptibility to disease, and higher mortality rates.
As a result, producers try to avoid mating related animals. This is not always possible, though,
when long-continued selection for the same traits is practiced within a small population, because
parents of future generations are the best candidates from the last generation, and some
inbreeding tends to accumulate. The rate of inbreeding can be reduced, but, if inbreeding
depression becomes evident, some method of introducing more diverse genes will be needed.
The most common method is some form of crossbreeding.
Linebreeding
Line breeding is the most conservative form of inbreeding, is usually associated with slower
improvement and limited risk of producing undesirable individuals. It can involve matings
between closely or distantly related animals, but it does not emphasize continuous sire-daughter,
dam-son, or brother-sister matings.
The main purpose of linebreeding is to transmit a large percentage of one outstanding ancestor's
genes from generation to generation without causing an increase in the frequency of undesirable
traits often associated with inbreeding.
Because linebreeding is not based strictly on mating closely related individuals (with very
similar gene types), it does not necessarily cause a rapid increase in homozygous gene pairs.
Consequently, it will not expose undesirable recessive genes as extensively as closebreeding. For
this reason, linebreeding is generally a safer inbreeding program for most breeders.
Intensive inbreeding (and resulting increased homozygosity) is often directly related to an
increase in the expression of many undesirable traits. Therefore, the linebreeder should carefully

20
study pedigrees for each prospective mating and determine if, and how closely, the male and
female are related. By following certain guidelines, the breeder can limit inbreeding (and,
therefore, homozygosity) within their herd. At the same time, they may increase the influence of
a common ancestor upon the entire strain or family.
Outbreeding/Outcrossing
Outbreeding or outcrossing is the mating of males and females from unrelated families in the
same breed. Outcrossing is the practice of introducing unrelated genetic material into a breeding
line. It increases genetic diversity, thus reducing the probability of all individuals being subject
to disease or reducing genetic abnormalities (only within the first generation).
It is used in line-breeding to restore vigor or size and fertility to a breeding line. "Line-breeding",
is where animals carry a common ancestor in their pedigrees and are bred together, should be
considered distinct from the term "in-breeding" which is the production of offspring by parents
more closely related than the average

2.3.2. Crossbreeding
Crossbreeding involves the mating of animals from different breeds. Crossbreeding offers two
primary advantages: the opportunity for breed complementarity and heterosis (also called
hybrid vigor). Normally, breeds are chosen that have complementary traits that will enhance the
offsprings‘ economic value. An example is the crossbreeding of Yorkshire and Duroc breeds of
pigs. Yorkshires have acceptable rates of gain in muscle mass and produce large litters, and
Durocs are very muscular and have other acceptable traits, so these breeds are complementary.
Another example is Angus and Charolais beef cattle. Angus produce high-quality beef and
Charolais are especially large, so crossbreeding produces an animal with acceptable quality and
size.
The other consideration in crossbreeding is heterosis, or hybrid vigour, which is displayed when
the offspring performance exceeds the average performance of the parent breeds. This is a
common phenomenon in which increased size, growth rate, and fertility are displayed by
crossbred offspring, especially when the breeds are more genetically dissimilar. Such increases
generally do not increase in successive generations of crossbred stock, so purebred lines must be
retained for crossbreeding and for continual improvement in the parent breeds. In general, there
is more heterosis for traits with low heritability. In particular, heterosis is thought to be
associated with the collective action of many genes having small effects individually but large
effects cumulatively. Because of hybrid vigour, a high proportion of commercial pork and beef
come from crossbred animals.
There are unlimitted crossbreeding schemes. The most commonly utilized crossbreeding
schemes include:

21
 two-breed cross
two-breed rotational cross
three-breed rotational
cross static terminal sire
rotational terminal sire
These schems are listed in order from least to most demanding in terms of facilities and labor.
The same ranking applies to the realized benefits; the two-breed cross is the easiest to manage
but results in the least heterosis and little opportunity for breed complementarity. Use of artificial
insemination (A.I.) or multiple breeding pastures is required for use of complex systems.
Following is a brief description of each system for cattle crossbreeding:
Two-Breed Cross
Use of a two-breed cross involves maintaining purebred/straightbred cows of a single breed and
mating all females to a bull of another breed. This is a simple system that requires only one
breeding pasture, but realizes less than half of the possible heterosis. Use of a two-breed cross
allows realization of direct heterosis (advantages of a crossbred calf), but not maternal heterosis
(advantages of a crossbred cow). All other systems result in both direct and maternal heterosis. A
further drawback is that straightbred females must be purchased as replacements to continue the
breeding program. A possible use of this system is for generation of F1 (purebred x purebred)
replacements for sale to producers who are using more complex systems. This would be a means
for owners of small cowherds to "add value" to their cattle.
Two-Breed Rotational Cross
In this scheme, bulls of two breeds are used. Females sired by a bull of a particular breed are
mated to a bull of the other breed. Thus, after several generations, approximately two-thirds of
the genetics of each calf result from breed it was sired by, one-third from the other breed. The
two breeds will be equally represented within the cowherd if the number of each breed culled
each year is equal. If natural service is used, this system requires at least two breeding pastures
and requires that both breeds used be approximately equal in terms of size, nutritional
requirements and maternal potential.
Three-Breed Rotational Cross
Nearly all of the possible heterosis is realized with proper management of a three-breed
rotational crossbreeding system. This system is similar to the two-breed rotational cross except
that three breeds are used. As in the two-breed rotational cross, females are mated to a bull of the
breed that is least related to them (the sire breed of their maternal grandam). Benefits include a
high degree of heterosis and potential for outstanding breed complementarity. However, this

22
system is more difficult to maintain than the two previously described and at least three breeding
pastures are required if A.I. is not used. In herds of less than 100 cows, the cost to maintain
adequate bull power in each of three breeds may be prohibitive. Furthermore, inclusion of three
breeds may make it difficult to maintain a uniform cowherd.
Static Terminal Sire
In this scheme the cowherd consists entirely of F1 females that are mated to bulls of a third,
terminal sire breed. All calves are marketed. Only one breeding pasture is required and heterosis
and breed complementarity can be nearly maximized. However, F1 replacement females must be
purchased. Locating a steady supply of economical, high-quality replacements can be difficult in
most areas.
Rotational Terminal Sire
This scheme, which is used in many swine herds, is similar to the static terminal sire system
except that a portion of the herd (typically 20 to 30 percent) is designated for production of
replacement females. These females are maintained separately from the rest of the herd and
mated to bulls of a maternal breed, possibly in a two-breed rotational system. The majority of the
cows in the herd are mated to a terminal sire and all calves marketed. This can be a demanding
scheme to maintain but will produce excellent results.
A more feasible variant may be to mate all heifers to maternal breed bulls and keep replacements
from them while the mature cowherd produces only terminal-sired calves. The logic behind this
is that heifers should be managed separately from mature cows anyway and that most (but by no
means all) maternal breed bulls are easier calving than terminal breed bulls. This may make A.I.
of heifers to high-quality maternal bulls a practical way to upgrade the maternal performance of
the herd over time.

Review excercises
1. What is genetics and its areas of study?
2. Elaborate on transmission genetics.
3. Elaborate on molecular genetics.
4. Elaborate on population and quantitative genetics.
5. How does animal breeding utilise trait variations?
6. What are the purpose and methods of animal selection?
7. Describe the role and different methods of animal selection.
8. What is purebreeding? Describe its different breeding schemes.

23
9. What is crossbreeding? Describe its different breeding schemes.
10. Determine what breeding schemes the two following figures represent?

24
 Chapter 3

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced.
Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the
result of reproduction. The reproductive cycle management is a very important consideration in
different animal production systems. To provide basic understanding of animal reproduction,
this chapter identifies the primary reproductive structures, their associated functions and
reproductive technologies applied to improve reproduction of farm animals.

3.1. Reproductivion in mammalian animals

3.1.1. The reproductive systems

a. The female reproductive system
The female reproductive system contains two main divisions: the vagina and uterus, which act as
the receptacle for the male's sperm, and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. All of these
parts are always internal. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus
is attached to the ovaries via the Fallopian tubes. At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum
(the singular of ova), which passes through the Fallopian tube into the uterus.
If, in this transit, it meets with sperm, the
sperm penetrate and merge with the egg,
fertilizing it. The fertilization usually occurs in
the oviducts, but can happen in the uterus
itself. The zygote then implants itself in the
wall of the uterus, where it begins the
processes of embryogenesis and
morphogenesis. When developed enough to
survive outside the womb, the cervix dilates
and contractions of the uterus propel the fetus
through the birth canal, which is the vagina.
The ova are larger than sperm and are
generally all created by birth. They are for the
most part stationary, aside from their transit to Figure 3.1. The female reproductive system
the uterus, and contain nutrients for the later
zygote and embryo. Over a regular interval, a process of oogenesis matures one ovum to be sent

25
down the Fallopian tube attached to its ovary in anticipation of fertilization. If not fertilized, this
egg is flushed out of the system through menstruation in humans and great apes and reabsorbed
in all other mammals in the estrus cycle

b. The male reproductive system

The male reproductive system contains two main divisions: the penis, and the testicles, the latter
of which is where sperm are produced. In humans, both of these organs are outside the
abdominal cavity, but they can be primarily housed within the abdomen in other animals (for
instance, in dogs, the penis is internal except when mating). Having the testicles outside the
abdomen best facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which require specific
temperatures to survive. Sperm are the smaller of the two gametes and are generally very short-
lived, requiring males to produce them continuously from the time of sexual maturity until
death. Prior to ejaculation the produced sperm are stored in the seminal vesicle, a small gland
that is located just behind the bladder. A sperm cell is motile and swims via chemotaxis, using
its flagellum to propel itself towards the ovum.

A sperm, from the ancient Greek word

σπέρμα (seed) and ζῷον (living being) and
more commonly known as a sperm cell, is
the haploid cell that is the male gamete. It
joins an ovum to form a zygote. A zygote is
a single cell, with a complete set of
chromosomes, that normally develops into
an embryo. Sperm cells contribute half of the
genetic information to the diploid offspring.
In mammals, the sex of the offspring is
determined by the sperm cell: a
spermatozoon bearing a Y chromosome will
lead to a male (XY) offspring, while one
bearing an X chromosome will lead to a
female (XX) offspring (the ovum always
Figure 3.2. The male reproductive system
provides an X chromosome).

3.1.2. Reproductive processes

a. Puberty
Puberty is the time in an animal's life cycle when the animal reaches a developmental state in
which it is capable of reproducing. By defination, it is the time in adolescence when male and

26
female gonads are capable of releasing gamates. This happens several weeks before sexual
maturity; the first gamates are usually incapable of fertilization. A number of factors influence
the age at which an animal reaches puberty. Among the factors are: animal species, breed,
climate, season, nutrition, sex, management system, and stress.
In a production system that relies on reproduction to be profitable, the sooner an animal reaches
puberty, the sooner the manager will be able to realize a profit from the animal. Once animals
reach puberty, we tend to concentrate our attention on the female, since she is producing the
desired product. It is not necessary to keep as many males as females for breeding purposes, and
when artificial insemination (AI) is used, there may be no intact male animals in a livestock
production system. However, until or unless cloning of animals from somatic cells becomes
economically feasible and socially acceptable the male will continue to play an important role in
reproduction.
b. The estrous cycle
The estrous cycle (also oestrous cycle) is the cycle in the female reproductive system that
prepares it for reproduction. The estrous cycle comprises the recurring physiologic changes that
are induced by reproductive hormones in most mammalian placental females. Estrous cycles
start after puberty in sexually mature females and are interrupted by anestrous phases or
pregnancies. The length of the estrous cycle varies with species (Table 3.1) and can be divided
into 4 phases: estrus, metestrus, diestrus and proestrus. Because females can only become
pregnant and produce offspring during a short interval within the estrous cycle, it is very
important to understand the cycle and be able to identify animals at critical stages of the cycle.
Proestrus
One or several follicles of the ovary are starting to grow. Their number is specific for the species.
Typically this phase can last as little as one day or as long as 3 weeks, depending on the species.
Under the influence of estrogen the lining in the uterus (endometrium) starts to develop. Some
animals may experience vaginal secretions that could be bloody. The female is not yet sexually
receptive.
Estrus
Estrus refers to the phase when the female is sexually receptive ("in heat," or "on heat" in
British English). Under regulation by gonadotropic hormones, ovarian follicles are maturing and
estrogen secretions exert their biggest influence. The animal exhibits a sexually receptive
behavior, a situation that may be signaled by visible physiologic changes. A signal trait of estrus
is the lordosis reflex, in which the animal spontaneously elevates her hindquarters.
In some species, the vulvae are reddened. Ovulation may occur spontaneously in some species
(e.g. cow), while in others it is induced by copulation (e.g. cat). If there is no copulation in an

27
induced ovulator, estrus may continue for many days, followed by 'interestrus,' and the estrus
phase starts again until copulation and ovulation occur.
Metestrus
During this phase, the signs of estrogen stimulation subside and the corpus luteum starts to form.
The uterine lining begins to secrete small amounts of progesterone. This phase typically is brief
and may last 1 to 5 days. In some animals bleeding may be noted due to declining estrogen
levels.
Diestrus
Diestrus is characterised by the activity of the corpus luteum that produces progesterone. In the
absence of pregnancy the diestrus phase (also termed pseudo-pregnancy) terminates with the
regression of the corpus luteum. The lining in the uterus is not shed, but will be reorganised for
the next cycle.
Table 3.1. Puberty on set and estrous cycle in some farm animals

Puberty onset Estrous cycle

Species
Ave. Age Age Range Ave. Length Range Estrus Duration
Cow 12 months 4-18 months 21 days 18-24 days 18 hours
Mare 12 months 10-24 months 21 days 19-26 days 6 days
Ewe 9 months 5-12 months 16.5 days 14-20 days 30 hours
Sow 7 months 4-9 months 21 days 18-24 days 2-3 days
Heat detection is an important livestock management tool as missed heats (estrous cycles in
which an animal remains "open" or is not bred) result in:
Increased parturition intervals, decreased numbers of offspring produced per year or
lifespan of the female;
Longer dry periods and consequently decreased milk production per year or lifespan of a
diary cow;
Less use and reduced efficiency of facilities
(milking parlors, farrowing barns, calving and lambing
sheds, etc.);
Reduced profits due to the costs of upkeep for
animals that are not producing at their optimal efficiency.

Detecting estrus is a challenge to all livestock production

systems relying upon reproduction for their survival.
Some livestock systems keep intact male animals and
intermingle them with the females, letting the males do
the job of heat detection. However, if hand breeding or Figure 3.3. Heat detection

28
artificial insemination is used, it is important for the herdsperson to be able to identify animals
that are in estrus. Also, it is important to know the approximate time of parturition, and in order
to predict that, one must know when the female was bred. Consequently, observation and
recording of estrus and breeding activity are important management practices in a livestock
operation. The above described behavioral and physical signs can be used to identify an animal
in the estrus phase of the estrous cycle.
Currently, the best means of heat detection is observation of the animals.
o Observation should be done during the animals' normal activities;
o Observation is usually done during morning hours, when the animals are normally more
active. (With cattle, observation must be done twice daily, or estrus may be missed due to the
short 18 hour length of estrus);
o Recording of dates and times of estrus activity will allow the herdsperson to carefully
observe the animal at the anticipated time of estrus in the next cycle;
o Recording of the time of certain events such as weaning, will allow the herdsperson to
carefully observe groups of animals in which estrus would be expected within a few days. For
example, animals that are suckling offspring will often exhibit anestrus (no cyclic activity) until
the offspring are weaned. At that time the animal will rapidly enter proestrus and will exhibit
signs of estrus within a few days.
The primary sign of estrus is the female animal standing to be mounted. This is the most
important and most reliable sign of estrus and receptivity for breeding to establish pregnancy.
Some animals, however will not exhibit this primary sign and the herdsperson will have to rely
on secondary signs of estrus to determine when to breed the female. A number of other devices,
however, are available to aid the farm manager in this task.
c. Fertilization
Fertilisation (also known as conception, fecundation and
syngamy), is the fusion of gametes to produce a new
organism. In animals, the process involves a sperm fusing
with an ovum, which eventually leads to the development
of an embryo. Depending on the animal species, the
process can occur within the body of the female in
internal fertilisation, or outside in the case of external
fertilisation.
Figure 3.4. Fertilisation
d. Pregancy
Pregnancy is that period of time from the successful breeding of an animal with fertilization of
the ovum, until offspring are born from that breeding. This is often referred to as the "gestation"
of the animal. During this period of time the fetus develops, dividing via mitosis inside the

29
female. The fetus receives all of its nutrition and
oxygenated blood from the female, filtered through
the placenta, which is attached to the fetus' abdomen
via an umbilical cord. This drain of nutrients can be
quite taxing on the female, who is required to ingest
slightly higher levels of calories. In addition, certain
vitamins and other nutrients are required in greater
quantities than normal, often creating abnormal eating
Figure 3.5. The female reproductive
habits.
The length of gestation, called the gestation period, varies greatly from species to species:
Cow = 283 days; approximately 9 months
Ewe = 148 days; approximately 5 months
Sow = 114 days; approximately 4 months
Mare = 336 days; approximately 11 months
In animal management systems where reproduction is important to profitibility, it is important to
shorten the interval between each pregnancy as much as possible. As a consequence, estrus or
heat detection is important to identify animals eligible for breeding and pregnancy testing is
advisable to make sure that breeding resulted in pregnancy. If breeding did not result in
pregnancy, it is important to identify the lack of pregnancy at the earliest possible time to
decrease the amount of time the dam is "open". The profitablity of a herd will decrease with an
increase in the number of days open for the brood herd. There are a number of ways in which to
determine whether an animal is pregnant or not. The three most commonly used methods are:
rectal palpation, ultrasound, and hormone measurements.
e. Parturition
Parturition is the act or process of giving birth to offspring. The terms used to describe
parturition vary with the species of animal it is being used to describe. The following are
examples of parturition terminology:
A dog whelps and gives birth to puppies
A cow calves and give birth to a calf
A sow farrows and gives birth to piglets
A ewe lambs and give birth to lambs
A horse foals and give birth to a foal
Once the fetus is sufficiently developed, a number of
physical, physiological and hormonal changes take
place to prepare the dam and fetus for parturition,
which begins with contractions of the uterus and the Figure 3.6. Parturition

30
dilation of the cervix. The fetus then descends to the cervix, where it is pushed out into the
vagina, and eventually out of the female. The newborn should typically begin respiration on its
own shortly after birth. Not long after, the placenta is passed as well. Most mammals eat this, as
it is a good source of protein and other vital nutrients needed for caring for the young. The end of
the umbilical cord attached to the young‘s abdomen eventually falls off on its own.

3.2. Reproduction in poultry

So far, we have examined reproduction in mammalian species in which the offspring develop
inside the body of the dam and, after birth, are provided nourishment in the form of milk
produced by the dam. In the avian species, however, the dam produces an egg in which, if
fertilized, the offspring will undergo growth and development outside the body of the dam. The
dam does not suckle it's young, either. As a consequence, there are a number of contrasts
between avian and mammalian reproductive life cycles.

3.2.1. The reproductive system

The reproductive tract of the hen is also different from mammals, and different functions are
performed in different segments of the tract. The major structures are as follows:
Ovary - containing immature and
mature follicles. The mature follicles
consist of the egg "yolk" and the
unfertilized ovum.
Infundibulum - yolk with
attached ovum is snatched up by the
infundibulum. It is at this point in the
reproductive tract that the ovum is
fertilized if the hen has been mated with a
cockerel. Spermatozoa from the cockerel
are stored in "sperm nests" located within
the infundibulum and are capable of
fertilizing ova for up to 30 days after
mating.
Magnum - while traveling
through this part of the oviduct, the
albumin or egg white is formed.
Isthmus - the tough outer
membrane located just beneath the egg
shell is formed in this part of the oviduct.
Uterus - also referred to as the
"shell gland", this is where the egg shell Figure 3.7. The reproductive systems of the hen

31
is formed. Most of the transit time from ovulation until the egg is laid is spent in the uterus.
Vagina - the egg travels through the vagina into the cloaca, from which it is "laid."
Cloaca - this is the common external opening from which the contents of the urinary tract
(urates), the intestinal tract (feces) and the reproductive tract (eggs) exit the hen.

3.2.2. Puberty
The hen reaches puberty and starts to produce eggs at 4-5 months of age. As with mammals, the
reproductive system is not functioning completely normally at the onset and hens at puberty
produce small egg sizes and high percentages of eggs with twin yolks. Since these eggs do not
produce viable offspring, hens are not bred to produce young until they reach 5-6 months of age.
The cockerel is capable of insemination at 4-5 months of age, but, like the hen, is not used for
breeding until 6 months of age to insure viable sperm.

3.2.3. Breeding
The natural instinct of the hen is to lay a "clutch" of eggs, become "broody", stop laying eggs
(ovulating), and set on eggs to hatch. This broodiness has, for the most part, been bred out of our
commercial breeds of poultry, and hens will produce eggs continuously. Hens do not have an
estrus cycle, and will lay an egg nearly every day.
In contrast with mammalian species in which both ovaries are functional and either ovulate
simultaneously, or alternately, 99% of hens have only one functional ovary.
General information on reproduction of the hen is as follows:
A hen is capable of producing an egg every 25 hours.
Eggs are produced and laid regardless of whether the hen has been mated and the
eggs are fertile or not.
A hen is capable of laying approximately 270 eggs per
year. The embryo in a cracked fertile egg will not develop.
Incubation and hatching of fertile eggs:
o humidity & temperature control are important factors in the hatchability of
fertilized eggs.
o Chicken eggs incubate 21 days; spend 1 day in hen; 22 days from fertilization
to birth of chick
o Turkey, duck eggs incubate 28 days for a total of 29 days from fertilization to
birth.

32
In addition to differences in the reproductive physiology, the development of avian offspring
differs significantly from mammals in a number of other ways:
The shell takes the place of the uterus or womb in providing a dark, warm, moist
sterile environment in which the offspring develop.
The albumin or egg white serves as a shock absorber for the developing embryo, just
as the amniotic fluid does within the mammalian amniotic membranes (birth sac).
The yolk provides nourishment to the developing chick just as the umbilical cord
provides nourishment to the developing mammal. The yolk also provides maternal antibodies to
the chick to protect against infectious agents in the environment to which the hen has developed
an immunity (this is similar to colostrum in mammals).
The chick develops outside and independent of the hen, and does not need the hen for
survival provided that the proper environment is provided by man for incubation of the egg.
Mammals develop inside the uterus of the dam and are dependent upon the health and well-being
of the dam throughout the entire gestation for their health and well-being.

3.4. Reproductive technology

3.4.1. Artificial insemination (AI)

Artificial insemination (AI) is the process by which
sperm is placed into the reproductive tract of a female
for the purpose of impregnating the female by using
means other than sexual intercourse. Specifically,
freshly ejaculated sperm, or sperm which has been
frozen and thawed, is placed in the cervix
(intracervical insemination) (ICI)) or in the female's
uterus (intrauterine insemination) (IUI) by artificial
means. In the actual procedure which has become
widely used in animal breeding nowadays, semen is obtainedFigure 3.7. Artificial insemination
from a male animal and, after being diluted,
is deep-frozen, after which it can be stored for long periods of time without losing its fertility.
For use, the semen is thawed and then introduced into the genital tract of a female animal in heat.

The practical use of artificial insemination in animals was developed during the early 1900s in
Russia and spread to other countries in the 1930s. Its chief advantage is that the desirable
characteristics of a bull or other male livestock animal can be passed on more quickly and to
more progeny than if that animal were mated with females in a natural fashion. Ten thousand or
more calves have been produced annually from a single bull through the use of artificial

33
insemination. Through use of AI, new genetics can be introduced into the herd or flock without
running the risk of inroducing disease agents that may be carried by an apparently healthy
animal.

3.3.2. Embryo transfer (ET)

Embryo transfer (ET) refers to a technology

whereby one or several embryos are placed into
the uterus of the female with the intent to
establish a pregnancy. The practice of embryo
transfer is an ever changing science that involves
three major events. It begins with selection,
superovulation, and artificial insemination (AI) of
the donor animal. Next, the embryos are
recovered from the donor through either surgical
or nonsurgical means, evaluated, and then frozen
or transferred fresh. Lastly, the recipient animals
are synchronized to be in the same stage of the
estrous cycle as the donor when the embryo was
recovered and receive the embryos through
surgical or nonsurgical techniques.

There are many reasons a producer might select

embryo transfer for his/her particular operation.
The first reason would probably be the potential
for genetic improvement in the herd. Through
artificial insemination, superior male genetics can
be spread across a herd; with embryo transfer,
superior female genetics can also be spread across
a specific herd or even many herds. Figure 3.8. Embryo transfer

Superovulation and embryo transfer allows one particular female to produce many offspring in a
given year and many more over her reproductive lifetime. Each of these offspring would
potentially carry the superior traits of the mother, such as increased weight gain, improved
carcass merit, or even increased milk production. The transfer of embryos provides the
opportunity to introduce genetic material into populations of livestock while greatly reducing the
risk for transmission of infectious diseases. Embryo transfer may also eliminate the stress of
parturition on a desirable animal, thereby increasing her reproductive life span. ET allows the
continued use of animals such as competition mares to continue training and showing, while

34
producing foals. Salvage of reproductive function and potential twinning are a few of the other
benefits of embryo transfer. Finally, the impact embryo transfer has had and will have on the
research environment cannot be overlooked. Techniques such as gene insertion, embryo
splitting, embryo sexing, and pronuclear DNA injections would not be as feasible without
embryo transfer technology.

Review excercises
1. Describe the female reproductive systems of mammalian animals.
2. Describe the male reproductive systems of mammalian animals.
3. Describe the reproductive system of the hen.
4. What is the estrous cycle? Describe the different phases of the cycle.
5. Why is heat detection an important and what is the best way to detect an animal on heat?
6. Describe the processes of fertilization, gestation and birth in farm animals.
7. Describe the main features of puberty and breeding of the hen.
8. What are the main differences in reproduction between mammalian animals and poultry?
9. Outline the purpose and steps of artifition insemination.
10. What are the purposes and main steps of embryo transfer in farm animals?

35
 Chapter 4

ANIMAL NUTRITION AND FEEDING

Nutrition contributes to wellness and productivity of animals. Poor nutrition results in poor
reproduction, poor growth, poor productivity, and higher feed costs. Poor nutrition can have
injurious impacts on health, while many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated
with good nutrition. Animal nutrition as a science is the study of feed, including how feed
nourishes animal bodies and how feed influences animal health. The objective of this chpater is
to establish a common understanding of some nutrition basics and an appreciation for proper
livestock nutrition.

4.1. Nutrients and their functions

A nutrient is defined as "any feed constituent or group of feed constituents of the same general
chemical composition that aids in support of animal life". Animals need a variety of nutrients
to meet their basic needs. They are used to build and repair tissues, regulate body processes and
are converted to and used as energy. Animals must have nutrients in each of six major classes:
water, protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Organic nutrients include
carbohydrates, fats, proteins (or their building blocks, amino acids), and vitamins. Inorganic
chemical compounds such as dietary minerals, water, and oxygen may also be considered
nutrients. A nutrient is said to be "essential" if it must be obtained from an external source, either
because the organism cannot synthesize it or produces insufficient quantities. Nutrients needed in
larger quantities are called macronutrients and those that are needed in very small amounts are
micronutrients. The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins, and water. The
micronutrients are minerals and vitamins. The effects of nutrients are dose-dependent and
shortages are called deficiencies.

4.1.1. Water
This nutrient provides the basis for all the fluid of the animal‘s body. The blood stream must be a
liquid in order for circulation to occur. Digestion requires moisture for the breakdown of the
nutrients and the movement of the feed through the digestive tract. Water is needed to produce
milk. It is needed to provide fluid for the manufacture of all the bodily fluids. It provides the
cells with pressure that allows them to maintain their shape. It helps the body maintain a constant
temperature. Another vital function of water is that of flushing the animal‘s body of wastes and

36
toxic materials. This nutrient is so vital that over half the animal‘s body is composed of water. A
loss of 20 percent of this water will result in the death of the animal.
Animals may require more water in some periods than at others. A horse that is working hard in
hot weather will sweat profusely and will need more water intake to replenish the fluid lost from
its body. Likewise, a sow that is nursing a litter of 12 piglets requires a lot of water to produce
milk for the young.
Since water is essential for sustaining life, animals must have frequent intakes of water to remain
alive. Animals generally need about 3 pounds of water for every pound of solid feed they
consume. Some of this water comes in the feed itself. For instance, animals that graze obtain
water from the succulent green forages they eat. Some water can be obtained in feeds such as
silage that have relatively high water content. However, most of the water an animal needs
comes from the water it drinks. Since water is so essential, producers make sure that animals are
given a constant supply of clean water.

4.1.2. Protein
Proteins are composed of compounds known as amino acids. Amino acids are often said to be
the building blocks of life because they go into the formation of tissues that provide growth for
the animal. Muscle production in particular is dependent on the amino acids found in protein. To
a certain degree, protein is also used to provide energy.
Like water, some animals need larger amounts of protein than others. Young, rapidly growing
animals need more protein than mature animals. This is because the amino acids in the protein
are needed to build muscle, skin, hair, bones, and all of the other cells that go into the growth
process. A cow that is giving large amounts of milk needs more protein than an animal that is not
lactating.
In all, there are over 20 different types of amino acids that an animal‘s body uses. Of these, there
are 10 essential amino acids that the animal must obtain from its feed. The other amino acids can
be synthesized by the animal‘s digestive tract. This means that the 13 nonessential; amino acids
can be made from the 10 that the animal consumes. In this sense, the 10 are essential in that they
cannot be manufactured by the animal and must be consumed from feed.
Protein can come from basically two sources: animal and plant. Carnivores (animals that eat
other animals), such as dogs, cats, and foxes, get almost all of their protein from meat. After all,
the muscles in an animal‘s body are primarily composed of protein and can serve as feed for
another anima. Omnivores (an animal that eats both plants and animals), such as human and pigs,
can get protein from both plants and animals. Animals that eat only plants are called herbivores,
and they must get protein exclusively from plants.

37
Most feedstuffs that are rich in protein come from plant sources. Much of plant protein that goes
into the feed of animals comes from the vegetable oil industry. Cooking oil is usually pressed
from cottonseed, soybeans, peanuts, or corn. These seeds are run through huge presses where the
oil is squeezed out. The material that is left is in the form of a cake composed of the seas minus
the oil. It is dried and ground into meals for feed. This material is usually 40-50 percent crude
protein and can greatly increase the percentage of protein in a feed. This feedstuff is the mixed
with the other feedstuffs in the proper ratio to give the desired protein content for the feed.
Animals may not be able to digest all the protein in a particular feed. The total amount of protein
in a feed is called the crude protein content. Digestible protein is the protein in a feed that can be
digested and used by the animal. The digestible is usually about 50-80 percent of the crude
protein.

4.1.3. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO). They include
sugars, starch, and cellulose, and are the major organic compounds in plant. Almost all
carbohydrates come from plants and are developed by photosynthesis. The main source of
energy for animals comes from carbohydrates.
Starch is generally found in grain. It is used by the plant as energy storage for the seed. Grains
such as wheat and corn contain a lot of starch and therefore a lot of energy for the animal to use.
Feeds that are high in grain content are known as concentrates because of the high concentration
of carbohydrates. Starches are composed of sugars, and as digestion occurs, the starch is broken
down into the component sugars.
There are several different types of sugars. Two broad groups are monosaccharide (the simple
sugars) and disaccharides (the more complex sugars). Simple or complex refers to the chemical
composition of the sugar and the different ways the molecules are formed. There are several
common simple sugars (monosaccharide); among these are glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Glucose is the simplest of all the sugars and is found in a low concentration in plant material‘s
blood. The animal‘s body breaks down some of the other sugar into glucose. Fructose is found in
fruits and honey and is the sweetest of all the sugars. Common table sugar (sucrose) is a
disaccharide composed of fructose and glucose. Galactose is obtained from the breakdown of the
disaccharide lactose (milk sugar).
Cellulose is the portion of cell walls that gives the plant its rigid structure. The enzymes in an
animal‘s digestive system can‘t break down cellulose. However, some animals have
microorganisms in their digestive system that break down the cellulose fiber so the enzymes can
digest the material.

38
4.1.4. Fats
Fats are part of a group of organic compounds known as lipids. These compounds will not
dissolve in water but will dissolve in certain organic solvents. Besides fats and oils, lipids also
include cholesterol. Fats are found in both plants and animals. They serve as concentrated
storage places for energy. Oil within seeds such as peanuts and soybeans is an example of plant
fats.
Fats serve the purpose of providing energy for the animal and of storing excess energy. When an
animal consumes more energy (especially in the form of fats) than it needs to provide for all the
needed bodily functions, the excess is stored in the form of fat. When the body does not take
enough energy to perform the normal bodily functions, these reserves of fat are used.
Certain acids, referred to as the essential fatty acids, are also derived from fats. These acids are
necessary in some animals for the production of some hormones and hormone like substances.
The most important sources of fats in feed for agricultural animals are the grains that contain oil.
Corn and most other feed grains contain oil that is used as a fat source by the animal. Some types
of animals, pig for example, may have problem if fed too much oil. Hogs fatted on oily feeds
such as whole peanuts may produce soft, oily pork that is not acceptable to the consumers.

4.1.5. Minerals
Minerals are the only group of nutrients besides water that are inorganic. Animals must have a
sufficient intake of these inorganic materials to provide the building materials for their body
structure. Bones are formed by a combination of calcium and phosphorus. In addition to building
bones, minerals provide other essential needs. They aid in the construction of muscles, blood
cells, internal organs, and enzymes. Animals with a deficiency in minerals never develop
properly and are more susceptible to diseases.
The mineral elements required by animals include seven macrominerals (required in relatively
large amounts in the diet) and nine microminerals of trace minerals (required in very small
amounts in the diet). The macrominerals are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, magnesium,
potasium, and sulphur. The microminerals are cobalt, copper, fluorine, iron iodine, manganese,
molybdenum, selenium, and zinc.
Minerals are usually added to the feed of animals in their chemical form. Calcium is sometimes
added from other animal sources. For example, ground up oyster shells and eggshells are fed to
laying hens to provide materials for their bodies to create strong eggshells.
Minerals are often fed free choice. This means that the animals are given free access to the
minerals and are allowed to eat all they wish. For cattle, this is done by a mineral box or trough,
or by the use of a salt block. Essential minerals are in the block, and the animals get them as the
lick or the block for salt.

39
4.1.6. Vitamins
Vitamins are considered to be micronutrients. This means that the body needs them in very small
amounts. Even though only small amounts are required, vitamins are essential for life. They are
essential for the development of normal body processes of growth, production, and reproduction.
They are also vitally important in providing the animal with the ability to fight stress, disease,
and to maintain good health.
There are 16 known vitamins. The B vitamins and vitamin C are water soluble. Fat soluble
vitamins are A, D, E, and K.
Some animals are able to synthesize certain vitamins in their body tissues. Other vitamins cannot
be created by the animal from other nutrients and must be obtained from the diet or by microbial
synthesis in the digestive system.

4.2. Nutrient requirements

In order for an animal to go on living, growing, reproducing, and performing all of the bodily
functions, it must have nourishment in terms of:
Energy to maintain the body and produce (milk, meat, work). The principal use of feed
by the body is as a source of energy. All organic nutrients (protein, carbohydrates, and fats)
supply energy.
Protein is needed for body building (growth) and maintenance as well as milk
production. Without protein there would be no body weight gain nor milk production. Excess
protein is converted to urea and fat.
Minerals help in body building as well as in biological regulation of growth and
reproduction. They are also a major source of nutrients in milk.
Vitamins help regulate the biological processes in the body and become a source of
nutrients in milk
Water helps all over in body building, heat regulation, biological processes as well as a
large constituent of milk production as well as eggs.
Nutrient requirement is the daily requirement for each nutrient for each animal species at the
recognized stages of life and production. Nutritional requirements may be classified into those
needed for maintenance and production (growth, pregnancy, lactation, and work). A certain level
of nutritional needs, known as the maintenance requirement, must be met first. This is the level
of nourishment needed by the animal to maintain its body weight and not lose or gain weight.
Nourishment over that amount can be used for growing, gestating, and producing milk or other
products.

40
4.3. Feed
Feed is material which, after ingestion by animals, is capable of being digested, absorbed and
utilized. In the wild, most animals eat a variety of feeds. This variety of feeds gives the animals
the nutrients they need to support their bodily functions. In confinement, the animals have to eat
what the producer gives them. In agricultural operations, producers balance the feeds of their
animals to ensure that the proper nutrients are consumed. A lot of research has gone into the
development of feeds that give animals exactly that the need to remain healthy and to perform at
their peak. One type of feed may supply several of the needed nutrients, but usually a certain
feedstuff contains a certain concentration of a particular nutrient.

Feedstuffs contain the substances that are the nutrients required by animals. A feedstuff is an
ingredient in a ration. Feed can mean the same as feedstuff, but feed can also mean a mixture of
feedstuffs as a "finished feed" or "complete feed". Most animal feed is from plants, but some is
of animal origin. A feedstuff is generally a feed component that producers would not normally
give by itself, but combined with other types of feedstuffs. It helps comprise the animal‘s feed.

Animal feeds generally consist of roughages and concentrates. Each has two types:
carbonaceous feed (high in carbohydrates such as hays and grains) and protein rich feed (high in
protein such as legumes and meals). Animal feeds may also be classified into 8 different classes
as follows: high energy feed (concentrate), dry roughages, pasture and grain grass, silage and
hay, protein supplements, mineral supplements, vitamin supplements, and non-nutritive feed
additives.
Grain is a class of feedstuffs. Examples of grains include corn, sorghum, wheat, oats, and barley.
What these feedstuffs have in common is energy: they all consist of the seed of the plant, and the
seed is rich in high-energy compounds. Grains are essential components of most animal diets
because the need for energy is what drives animals' appetites. The most important grain is corn
grain. Corn is such a dominant grain that the term grain is sometimes used to refer to corn grain
specifically.
Fodder refers particularly to feed given to the animals (including plants cut and carried to them),
rather than that which they forage for themselves. It includes hay, straw, silage, compressed and
pelleted feeds, oils and mixed rations, and sprouted grains and legumes.
Forage is a class of feedstuffs. Examples of forage include pasture, green chop, hay, hay crop
silage, corn silage, and browse. What these feedstuffs have in common is fiber: they all include
the portions or stage of the plant when fiber is highest. Because of their relatively high fiber
content, forages are sometimes called roughages. The term roughage, however, lost favor among
many nutritionists because it has, for some, a negative connotation. The reality is that some diets

41
suffer for lack of roughage. Although there will be exceptions, forages are generally homegrown
feedstuffs and grains are generally purchased from feed mills.
Unlike fodder, which is harvested plant matter fed to animals in bunches or bales, forage is plant
matter that is literally grown in a confined area with the intention of having it grazed upon by
various livestock. It can be composed of legumes, grasses, corn, oats, alfalfa and other edible
plants. The act of eating or grazing upon the plant matter is known as foraging.
One of the most common types of feeds used by commercial farmers is compound feed.
Compound feeds are feedstuffs that are blended from various raw materials and additives. These
blends are formulated according to the specific requirements of the target animal. They are
manufactured by feed compounders as meal type, pellets or crumbles. Compound feeds can be
complete feeds that provide all the daily required nutrients, concentrates that provide a part of the
ration (protein, energy) or supplements that only provide additional micronutrients, such as
minerals and vitamins.

4.4. Ration and diet

A ration is a mixture of feedstuffs formulated to meet the daily nutrient requirements for the
target animal during a twenty-four hour period. Usually it specifies the individual ingredients and
their amounts and the amounts of the specific nutrients such as carbohydrate, fiber, individual
minerals and vitamins.

A balanced ration is one that has all the nutrients the animal needs in the right proportions and
amounts. As commonly used feed ingredients may vary considerably in the content of the six
basic nutrients, one must "balance" the ratio of different feed ingredients to meet the individual
animal's needs. A ration which has been balanced contains appropriate proportions of the
principal nutritional components that are carbohydrates, protein, fat, minerals and vitamins, for
the specific class, including especially age and lactation status, of livestock for which the ration
is formulated.

Of all the ingredients in an animal‘s feed, protein is usually the most costly. Although protein
can be found in most feedstuffs, some have a much lower content than others. For example,
yellow corn has a protein content of around 8 percent. A growing pig may need a ration that
consists of 16 percent protein. Being fed corn alone will not give the pig an adequate amount of
protein. This means that a feedstuff that is higher in protein content will have to be added.
A complete ration or total mixed ration (TMR) refers to a ration fed to a confined animal in
which all of the constituents are mixed together and fed at the one time. It does not require
supplementation other than drinking water.
The diet refers to the ration without reference to a specific time period. In intensely managed
animal operations, the composition of the diet is described by the ration. The main factors

42
influencing the nutritive value of a diet are the ingredients employed and their chemical
composition (McDonald, 2002).
Feeding/nutrient allowance is the total feed provided to an animal for a day. It includes its basic
nutritional requirements plus allowances for waste in the feeding process, special allowances for
special states and activities, and for special qualities of the feed being used.
As feed accounts for approximately 75% of the total cost of raising livestock, it is necessary to
develop rations that are as economical as possible. Therefore, for formulation of a ration, besides
the availability of feeds and thier composition, feed price is a very importsnt factor to be taken
into consideration. In addition, safety of feed, convenience of farmers, sustainability of the
feeding system are other important factors for ration formulation.
In addition to meeting an animal's basic nutrient requirements, a diet must also meet the "3 P's"
to be useful as a livestock feed.
Palatable - must be edible, accepted, and eaten by the animal;
Profitable - if the livestock producer cannot make a profit feeding certain ingredients,
he/she won't be in business very long. Approximately 75% of the out-of-pocket costs in livestock
production is feed costs;
Productive - animals eating the diet must be productive. The least cost ration may just
barely meet the animal's nutrient requirements, but not allow the animal to function at it's most
productive level. The optimal ration is athe ration that can be produced for the least cost for the
benefit returned in animal performance (growth, productivity, longevity, reproductive
performance, etc.).

4.5. Digestion and metabolism

4.5.1. Digestion
Animals use nutrients on a cellular basis - all of the different nutrients that an animal takes in
must be converted to a form that the cells in the body can use. The system that performs this task
is referred to as the digestion system. The organs that make up this system are known as the
gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The gastrointestinal tract is also referred to as the alimentary
canal. This is the tract reaching from the mouth to the anus, through which feed passes following
consumption and where it is exposed to the various digestive processes. The digestive system
includes the various structures, organs, and glands involved with the procuring, chewing,
swallowing, digestion, absorption, and excretion of feedstuffs. Although there are similarities in
the digestive systems, farm animals are often classified according to the nature of their digestive
system. There are basically two types of digestive systems. One is known as monogastric (single
– compartment stomach); and the other is known as ruminant (multicompartment stomach).

43
After being consumed feed is exposed to digestion. That is the process by which feed is
converted into substances that can be absorbed and assimilated by the body, especially which
accomplished in the alimentary canal by the mechanical, chemical and enzymatic breakdown of
feeds into simpler chemical compounds. The parts of feeds that are not absorbed continue to
move down the digestive system and are eleminated from the body as feces.
Following are descriptions of processes in the two digestive systems in the order of occurrence.
Digestion in monogastric animals
Monogastric systems are those that have only one – compartment stomachs. These include the
pig, horse, dog, cat, and birds. The horse has and enlargement, known as a cecum, that enables it
to utilize high – fiber feeds by means of microbial fermentation, much as do ruminants. This
means that the horse is not typical of monogastric animals. Simple – stomach (monogastric)
animals are not capable of digesting large amounts of fiber and are usually fed concentrate feeds.
The digestive process begins in the mouth, which is the first organ of the digestive tract. Within
the mouth, the tongue is used for grasping the feed, mixing, and swallowing. The teeth are used
for tearing and chewing the feed. This is the first step in the process of breaking down the feed
into fine particles. The mouth also contains salivary glands, which consist of three pair of glands
that excrete saliva. Saliva contains several substances: Water to moisten, much to lubricate,
bicarbonates to buffer acids in the feeds, and the enzyme amylase to initiate carbohydrate
breakdown.
The esophagus is a hollow, muscular tube that moves feed from the mouth to the stomach. The
feed is pressed together and massaged by the movement of muscles in this area. In the stomach,
feed is also broken down by chemical action. The walls of the stomach secrete, pepsin, begins to
break down proteins into the amino acids. The secretion rennin acts to curdle the casein in milk.
Gastric lipase causes the breakdown of fats to fatty acids and glycerol.
The first segment of the small intestine is the duodenum. The duodenum receives secretions from
the pancreas, which act to break down proteins, starches, and fats. Here the intestinal walls
secrete intestinal juices that contain enzymes that further the process of breaking down the feed.
The next segment of the small intestine is the jejunum and the ileum. These are the areas of
nutrient absorption. Absorption is the process by which the nutrients are passed into the
bloodstream. The villi (small fingerlike projections) in these areas facilitate absorption into the
bloodstream and /or lymph system through membrane that surrounds the villi. This means that
the membrane is called a semipermeable membrane. This mean that the membrane will allow
particles to pass through in a process called diffusion.
The last organ of the digestion tract is the large intestine. This organ is divided in to three
sections. The first section is the cecum, which is a blind pouch. A cecum is of little function in

44
most monogastric animals. However, in some animals, such as the horse, this area is where
fibrous feed such as hay and grass is broken down into usable nutrients.
The second segment of the large intestine is the colon, which is the largest part of the organ. Its
function is to provide a storage space for wastes from the digestive process. Here water is
removed from the wastes and some microbial action begins on fibrous materials.
The rectum is the final segment of the large intestine and the final part of the digestive system. It
serves to pass waste material through to the anus where it is eliminated.
Digestion in ruminant animals
Animals such as cows and sheep have multiccompartment stomachs that allow them to use high
fiber feeds such as grasses and hays. These animals are often called ―cud chewers‖ because the
regurgitate boluses of feed, consumed earlier, and remasticate (chew) and reswallow.
After the feed material is reswallowed, it moves to the rumen. The rumen function as a storage
watt where feed is soaked, mixed, and fermented by the action of bacteria. The hollow, muscular
paunch fills the left side of the abdominal cavity and contains two sacks, each lined with papillae
(nipple like projections) that aid in the absorption of nutrients. Bacteria thrive in the rumen
environment and function to breakdown fibrous feeds. Carbohydrates are broken down into
starches and sugars. Volatile fatty acids are released as the carbohydrates are broken-down and
these fatty acids are absorbed through the rumen wall to provide body energy.
Bacteria also use nitrogen to form amino acids and eventually proteins. The bacteria can also
synthesize water soluble vitamins and vitamin K. By-products of the microbial activity include
methane and carbon dioxide. A small portion of these gases is absorbed by the blood but much of
the gas is eliminated by belching. Belching occurs when the upper sacs of the rumen force
ggases forward and down so the esophagus can dilate and allow gases to pass. If gases are not
eliminated due to froth or foam blocking the esophagus, a condition calledd bloat (an inflation of
the rumen) will sometimes occurs.
After leaving the rumen, the feed material passes through to omasum. The omasum is a round
organ on the right side of the animal and to the right of the rumen and reticulum. The omasum
grinds roughage using blunt muscular papillae that extend from many folds of the omasum walls.
The last compartment of the ruminant stomach is the abomasum. The aabomasums is the only
glandular (true stomach) compartment of the ruminant. The abomasum is located below the
omasum and extends to the rear and to the right of the rumen. This compartment functions
similarly to the stomach of monogastric animals. By the time feed materials reach the
abomasum, the fibers of the roughages have been broken down to the extent that they can be
handled by the abomasum.

45
The small and large intestines of the ruminant animal function much the same way as they do in
the monogastric animal.

4.5.2. Metabolism
Metabolism is the aggregate of all chemical processes that take place in living organisms,
resulting in growth, generation of energy, elimination of wastes, and other body functions as they
relate to the distribution of nutrients in the blood after digestion.
There are two phases of metabolism: the anabolic and the catabolic phases. The anabolic, or
constructive, phase is concerned with the conversion of simpler compounds derived from the
nutrients into living, organized substances that the body cells can use. In the catabolic, or
destructive, phase these organized substances are reconverted into simpler compounds, with the
release of energy necessary for the proper functioning of the body cells.
The rate of metabolism can be increased by exercise; by elevated body temperature, as in a high
fever, which can more than double the metabolic rate; by hormonal activity, such as that of
thyroxine, insulin, and epinephrine; and by specific dynamic action that occurs following the
ingestion of a meal.
The basal metabolic rate refers to the lowest rate obtained while an individual is at complete
physical and mental rest. Metabolic rate usually is expressed in terms of the amount of heat
liberated during the chemical reactions of metabolism. About 25 per cent of all energy from
nutrients is utilized by the body to carry on its normal function; the remainder becomes heat.

Review exercises
1. Discuss the nature and the role of water in supporting life?
2. Discuss the nature and the role of protein to animals.
3. Discuss the nature and the importance of carbohydrates to animals?
4. Discuss the nature and the importance of fats in the diet of animals.
5. Discuss the nature and the role minerals play in sustaining life.
6. Discuss the nature and the function of vitamins.
7. Discuss the concept of animal nutrient requirements.
8. List the common types of feed and their characteristics.
9. Discuss the relationships among nutrient requirements, ration, diet, and feeding allowance.
10. Describe the digestion process in animals.

46
 Chapter 5

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR AND WELFARE

To a large degree, how animals behave determines their usefulness as agricultural animals. By
studying how animals act in their environment, we can better understand how to keep the
animals contented and safe. Also, this knowledge helps in designing production systems that can
make best use of the animal’s nature. In addition, animal welfare has recently gained major
public exposure in the world, resulting in considerable impacts on animal production. This
chapter is thus to provide basic concepts to understand animal behavior and welfare.

5.1. Animal behaviour

5.1.1. Introduction to animal behaviour

All animals, whether wild or domesticated, have patterns in the way they behave. Different types
of animals behave in diffents ways. Most animal behavors can be divided into two categories:
instinctive and learned behavior. The most basic is instinct. Instinct is the behavior that is set in
an animal at birth and causes the animal to reponse automatically to an environmental stimulus.
This behavior is a result of genetics and is inherited. For example, most agricultural animals are
able to stand and nurse only minutes after they are born. This behavior is not taught but is with
the animals at birth. Other instinctual behaviors are breeding, eating, and drinking.
Animal can also learn behaviors. One of the most basic types of learning is impriting. Imprinting
means that an animal will attach itself to or adopt another animal or object as its companion or
parent. This usually occurs shortly after the animal is born of hatched. For instance, if a hen sit
on the duck eggs, the resulting ducklings will accept the hen as their mother. Dogs also have
been known to adopt other animals as ―their own‖. Some sheep producers make use of this
behavior by placing very young pups with a flock of sheep. The dog is raised among the and
accepts the sheep. The dog the acts as guardian to its adoptive family and keeps predators from
the flock.
Different species of animals have different abilities to learn. This is called intelligence.
Obviously, the most intelligent animals are humans. Primates, such as chimpazees, are next in
order of intelligence, follwed by ocean mammals such as dolphins and whales. Among
agricultural animals, the pig is considered to be the most capable of learning and therefore the
most intelligent.

47
Learning in animals comes about through several means. One is conditioning. This means that an
animal learn by associating a certain response with a certain stumulus. A Russian scientist named
Ivan Pavlov was famous for his theories of conditioned feflex. His experiments involved feeding
meat to a group of dogs and ringing a bell as the animals to a group of dogs and ringing a bell as
the animals were fed. Since the only time the bell was rung was when the animals were fed, they
associated the ringing of the bell with eating. After a time, the animals would begin to salivate
when the bell was rung even if ther was no food in sight.
This principle can be used by animal producers to teach animals to respond in a certain way.
Animals can also learn on their own by trial and error. For example, a horse may learn to open a
gate by tinking with the latch mechanism until it leans the proper sequence to open the latch and
get where it wants to go. A pig learns that by lifting a lid, access may be gained to feed in a
selffeeder, or it may be able to get water from a self water by applying pressure in the correct
location. Animal trainer use the natural abilities and instincts of animals to teach them to do
tricks, perform work, or be more produtive. Dogs that have a natural instinct to herd animals are
trained to herd sheep, hogs, and cattle.

5.1.2. Types of behaviour in farm animals

There are several types of behavior the livestock producers use to make raising livestock easier,
more efficient, safer, and more comfortable for animals. These behaviors have the natural
instincts of the animals as their basic. But they may have been developed or enhanced through
years of selective breeding. At any rate, there are patterns of behavior that seem to run in all
species of agricutural animals.
Social behaviour
Social behavior refer to the manner in which animals interact with each other. Most farm animals
are gregarious. This means that they tend to want to herd or flock together. Even in the wild,
cattle, sheep, and horses tend to want to group together for defense purposes. Young, old, and
wead members of the herd or flock can be better protected if the animals remain together in a
group.
There appears to be a preference among animals as to the size of the herd of group. Sheep will
band together in much larger groups, some reaching several hundred in number. Pigs in the wild
tend to band together in groups of about 10. Wild horses usually live in small groups of stallions
and his harem of mares. Other males may live in a small group together with one of the stallions
being the leader of dominant male.
Producers have made use of this gregarious behavior by moving, feeding, and caring for the
animals as a group. As mentioned earlier, the animals can be moved and controlled more
efficiently through the use of herding dogs. Within each group of animals, there is a hierarchy or
order of social dominance. Some animals within the group are recognized by the other animals as

48
having dominance of the ability to exert social influence or pressure over the other in the group.
In poultry, this is known as the pecking order. Certain chickens in the flock are allowed to have
priority for space, food, water, etc.
There is a social dominance order in most of the other agricultural animals. For example, if two
or more males are in the same flock or herd, one will be the dominant male who will mate with
most of the females. This dominance is usually established by fighting among the males with the
strongest and most vigorous emerging as the dominant male. This is nature‘s way of ennursing
that the healthiest animals are the ones that breed and raise the next generation of the species.
Producers must consider social dominance as they plan growing their livestock. For example,
males must be kept separete to prevent injury. If animals are on a limited ration, they must be
separated or the dominant animals will get too much feed and the subordinate animals will get
little.
Sexual and reproductive behaviour
All animals have certain behavior associated with mating and reproducing. Most female
agricultural animals come into estrus (heat) in preparation for mating. As this happen, the
females engage in behavior that indicates their condition. Cows may bellow, will go around
restlessly, allow other cow to mount, or mount other cows. Sows will mount other sows, appear
restless, frequently urinate, and grunt loudly. Other female agricutural animals show signs of
estrus in a similar manner.
Males actively seek out females that are in estrus to complete the mating process. Often during
mating, the males will become more aggressive or belligerent toward other animals and humans.
Particular breeds of animals may display a behavior different from other breeds of the species.
For example, Brahman cattle usually prefer to breed at night rather than in the daylight.
As the end of the gestation period approaches, females display behavior that indicates the
approach of birth. Sows, if in open pasture, will usually try to build a nest out of grass, soil, or
other materials they may find. Cows about to give birth generally appear nervour and isolate
themselves from the herd.. Sometimes they may even hide if there is enough cover from trees or
undergrowth in the pasture. A mare will usually bite at her flanks, switch her tail, and lie down
and get back up repeatedly.
After the offspring is born, the behavior of the mother changes. She most becomes more
aggressive and protective of her young. Even females that are normally very docile can become
very belligerent after the birth of offspring. This is a nature‘way of protecting the young from
predators.
Most mothers of agricultural animals generally recognize their own offspring and will allow that
individual to nurse. An exception is pigs. A sow will usually accep orphan pigs is she has enough
teats for all of the pigs to nurse. It is more difficult to get cattle and sheep to accept young that

49
are not their own. The cows or ewes recognize the scent of their newborns and will accept only
that smell, sometimes producers can fool the mother into accepting an orphan by changing the
way it smells. A cattle producer may rub both the mother‘s calf and the orphan in a strong
smelling solution. Because the cow cannot distinguish which calf is hers, she may accept both
calves. A sheep producer may take the skin from a dead lamb and cover an orphan with it to trick
the ewe into thinking the orphan is indeed her lamb. After nursing begins, the ewe will soon
accept the orphan.
Ingestive behaviour
Ingestive behavior means the manner in which animals eat and drink. Different animals have
different habits or ways in which the take food. Obviously, most of these differences in habits
reflect the way the animals are – that is, the type of digestive system the animals have and the
type of food the prefer.
Pigs that run outside in a pasture or in a lot tend to root or dig in the ground for food. This is a
carryover from the time before they were domesticated when their diet consisted of roots, grubs,
insects, seeds, and nuts. Even the modern breeds of pigs will revert to the habit of digging in the
ground with their snout. Their digestive system is a simple stomach system, and they are not
capable of digesting large amounts of fiber as are ruminants. Therefore, the type of food found
by their rooting action is proper for their digestive system.
People who are not familiar with agricultural animals think of pigs as animals that overeat.
Expression such as ― eat like a pig‖, ― pig out‖, and so on, indicate that pigs are animals that eat
so much that they make themselves sick by overeating. In fact, given the opportunity, pigs are
among the most intelligent of agricultural animals.
Ruminant animals, such as sheep, goats, and cattle, have digestive systems designed to handle
large amounts of roughage such as grass or other plants. Even though ruminant agricultural
animals eat basically, the same type of food, there are differences in the way they gather and
ingest food. Cattle, goats, and sheep have no upper front teeth and must rely on a thick dental
pad in the top of their mouths to tear off plants as the graze. Cattle wrap their tonge and around
the plant and tear them off plants and tear them off between their lower teeth and upper dental
pad. For the reason, cattle prefer to graze in forages that are at least 6 inches high. On the other
hand, sheep cut off the forage by nipping it with their teeth and dental pad and gathering it into
their mouth with their lips. This is why sheep can graze much closer to the ground than cattle
can.
Cattle tend to graze for a longer period of time per day than do sheep. Cattle usually graze from
four to nine hours a day, whereas sheep graze from nine to eleven hours per day. As ruminants
graze, periods of eating are followed by periods of rest. This allows time for ruminating, or the

50
digestion of the plants. During these periods animals regurgitate and chew the plant material they
have swallowed.
Although horses eat large amounts of plant material, the do not ruminate. Instead, they have a
large section in their digestive system called a cecum that processes the roughage. Since horses
have both upper and lower front teeth, they bite the plants off as the graze. They usually prefer
pasture forages, but will eat brushy plants if no other forages are available.
Animal communication
The ability to communicate means that animals are able to pass information from one to another.
We as humans tend to think of communicating as being able to speak and express ourselves
within the context of a broad and diverse vocabulary. Obviously, animals do not talk as we do,
but nonetheless they do pass information from one to another. Their form of communication may
be through body motions, through sounds they emit, or through smell.
Perhaps the most dramatic example of animal communication is that used by honeybees to tell
other bees in the hive about nectar and pollen sources they have located. Within the bee colony,
certain bees serve the purpose of looking for food sources. For this reason the are called scout
bees. Through a series of elaborate moves and dances, the scout bees also bring back sample of
the type of the nectar that was located. By smelling and tasting the nectar, the worker bees
become aware of the smell and taste of the particular nectar. Scientists believe that scout bees
also use the sun to orient their flight and communicate the orientation to the worker bees in the
hive.
Other agricultural animals communicate as well. Through the use of certain sounds, chickens
will call other chickens to feed. A mother hen has a certain cluck that calls her chicks. Different
stances depict social standing within the flock. A chicken that stands in a crouch with unruffed
feathers, and tail feathers held close together indicates a submissive animal. On the other hand, a
chicken that stands tall, head held high, tail feathers spread wide, and body feathers ruffled is a
dominant chicken. The other chickens in the flock recognize this form of communication and act
accordingly.
When a sow lies on her side for the piglets to nurse, she will grunt in a particular manner. This
distinctive grunt calls the piglets to come and nurse. In additon, specific sounds are emitted by
pigs that warn the others of danger. In the wild or in the pasture, pigs may rub trees, stones, or
other objects as a way of marking their territory. The rubbing leaves an odor that can be detected
by other pigs.
Catte communicate by using their voices. A cow that is in estrus will bellow in order to find a
mate. A cow communicates vocally with a calf to call it to her or to warn it of impending danger.
Cows may even hide their calves in a wooded area. Body stances are also by cattle to relay
messages. A lowered head with the horns of the top of the head thrust forward indicates

51
that the animals is ready to fight. A bull pawing the ground is a sign of aggression. A twisting or
slinging of the head issues a warning. A head that is held high with the back swayed and the tail
head raised indicates that animal is about to take flight.
A good livestock producer can recognize animal communication and treats the animals
accordingly. The best producers study the behavior activities and requirements of agricultural
animals and use their studies to provide safer and more comfortable environments for the
animals. Space requirements are adjusted to provide the animals with the proper amount of
room; for example, research indicates that pigs like to be in contact with each other and that
touching other pigs is important to them. Pigs raised in isolation do not do as well as those raised
with other animals. Chickens are given enough space in the cage operation to make them
comfortable.

5.2. Animal wefare

5.2.1. Concepts of animal welfare

Animal welfare is wide-ranging and several definitions have been proposed. In a general point of
view, animal welfare is the physical and psychological well-being of animals. That is, animal
welfare includes not only the state of the animal's body, but also its feelings, and good animal
welfare implies both fitness and a sense of well-being. The term animal welfare can also mean
human concern for animal welfare. Any animal kept by man must at least be protected from
unnecessary suffering to ensure for it ―a life worth living from the point of view of the animal‖
as defined by the Farm Animal Welfare Committee (2011). In this respect, one of Mahatma
Gandhi's great quotations is: 'The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by
the way its animals are treated'.
According to the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), animal welfare means
how an animal is coping with the conditions in which it lives. An animal is in a good state of
welfare if (as indicated by scientific evidence) it is healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe,
able to express innate behavior, and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear,
and distress. Good animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment,
appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, humane handling and humane slaughter. Animal
welfare refers to the state of the animal; the treatment that an animal receives is covered by other
terms such as animal care, animal husbandry, and humane treatment. Protecting an animal's
welfare means providing for its physical and mental needs. Ensuring animal welfare is a human
responsibility that includes consideration for all aspects of animal well-being, including proper
housing, management, nutrition, disease prevention and treatment, responsible care, humane
handling, and, when necessary, humane euthanasia.
While not a definition of animal welfare, one of the most widely-used concepts of animal welfare
is found in the Five Freedoms proposed by the Farm Animal Welfare Committee (UK). While

52
animal welfare has different components, the Five Freedoms provide a summary of the five main
components as follows:
Freedom from thirst and hunger – by ready access to fresh water and a diet to
maintain full health and vigour.
Freedom from discomfort – by providing an appropriate environment including
shelter and a comfortable resting area.
Freedom from pain, injury, and disease – by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment.
Freedom to express most normal behavior – by providing sufficient space,
proper facilities and company of the animal's own kind.
Freedom from fear and distress – by ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid
mental suffering.
These freedoms define ideal states rather than standards for acceptable welfare. They form a
logical and comprehensive framework for analysis of welfare within any system together with
the steps and compromises necessary to safeguard and improve welfare within the proper
constraints of an effective livestock industry.
The Five Freedoms provide a convenient list of aspects that are considered to be important for all
animals. An animal may have different levels of each of the five freedoms – some of the aspects
may be good, while others may be poor. At the same time, each of the Five Freedoms can
overlap with the others. For example: if an animal is hungry, he/she will seek feed and eat it—
this is normal behaviour. If the animal cannot find feed, or if the environment does not allow
him/her to show normal feed-seeking behaviour, the animal may become distressed. Thus, if
animals are not free from hunger and are not free to express normal behaviour, they may also not
be free from distress.

5.2.2. Assessment of animal welfare

Animal welfare science uses measures such as longevity, disease, immunosuppression, behavior,
physiology, and reproduction, although there is debate on which indicators provide the best
information. Whereas, there is international recognition that the Five Freedoms are a good starting
point for welfare assessment. The Freedoms are ideal states and it is difficult to achieve them all.
Thus the Freedoms are not entirely realistic. For this reason, the Freedoms do not define the
minimum standard that should be provided. The Five Freedoms give an initial indication of the
relevant aspects that need to be considered in any study of animal welfare. However, the Freedoms
are not a detailed account of what should be measured in a scientific study.
Welfare assessment may take the form of assessing (i) ―inputs‖--what is provided to the animals,
and (ii) ―outputs‖—the effect of the inputs on the animal.

53
―Inputs‖ are the husbandry resources provided to the animals. Inputs are indirect measures of
welfare. They include:
• Stockman resources (e.g. how well trained the stockman is; how much time he/she has to
care for the animals).
• Environment resources (e.g. the kind of housing; the quality and amount of the animals‘
food).
• Animal resources (e.g. the animal‘s genetic makeup, which affects disease resistance).
The full text of the Five Freedoms as discussed above includes many inputs as listed in the
second part of each.
―Outputs‖ are direct measures of animal welfare. They are animal-centred, and they show the
effects of the inputs on the animals‘ welfare. Outputs include:
• Measures of performance.
• Measures of disease such as the lameness and body lesions show in the slide.
• Measures of behaviour such as the amount of time a cow spends lying down, or the
presence of stereotypic behaviour.
In some circumstances it may be more appropriate to assess the inputs. For example, assessment
of ―Freedom from thirst‖ can be made by looking for an easily-accessible water supply.
However, to assess if an animal is ―Free from fear‖, it is best to observe the animal‘s behaviour
and to measure the animal‘s physiological stress response. Both behaviour and the stress
response are outputs.
Once each of the Five Freedoms has beeb identified being potentially compromised, it is also
needed to consider:
• The severity of any welfare compromises
• The duration that the compromise has existed
• The number of animals affected.
Severity can be assessed by numerous methods. The assessment techniques vary in the level of
observation and sampling methods required. For example, cortisol is a good measure of the
stimulation of the acute physiological stress response, but it requires either careful blood
sampling (or possibly saliva or faeces) and analysis of the samples. However, observation of
some behaviour and disease aspects requires relatively simple animal observation with either
video or direct observation.
To summarise, the Five Freedoms can be used to assess welfare on a farm. Each Freedom may
be best assessed by examining the animal, by looking at buildings and equipment, by looking at
farm records and management systems or by watching or interviewing the stockperson. For each
welfare problem, it is needed to decide why it is occurring. Is it due to production pressures,

54
neglect, poor knowledge or training of stockpeople, genetic unsuitability of animals for the
system or lack of resources? Then it is necessary to decide whether the problem is inherent to the
system or avoidable. Even inherent problems might be improved by providing enrichment, more
space or regrouping animals. By that, its is possible to decide what can be done to improve
welfare for the animals on that farm.

5.2.3. Welfare of farm animals

Human beings use very large number of farm animals, more than any other domestic animal.
Animals have feelings, such as hunger, thirst, boredom and fear, and have cognitive processes;
that is, they are capable of learning and of understanding. Human beings have taken many
animal species under their control (domestication) and keep them specifically to produce meat,
milk, eggs or others. We therefore have an ethical duty to consider their interests. We should
seek to minimise suffering, hunger, thirst, injury, pain, fear and boredom. That is, we have a duty
to protect their welfare in terms of disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate
shelter, management, nutrition, humane handling and humane slaughter/killing.
Animal welfare issues arise especially when intensification is increased in order to increase
production. A major concern for the welfare of farm animals now is factory farming in which
large numbers of animals are reared in confinement at high stocking densities. Issues include the
limited opportunities for natural behaviors, abnormal behaviors such as tail-biting, cannibalism
and feather pecking, and routine invasive procedures such as beak trimming, castration and ear
notching. More extensive methods of farming, e.g. free range, can also raise welfare concerns
such as the mulesing of sheep, predation of stock by wild animals, and biosecurity. Overall, it is
fair to say that, if stockmanship is good, intensive farming cannot address the Five Freedoms as
well as extensive farming. Where stockmanship is poor, because of ignorance or lack of
resources, both extensive and intensive methods can be very bad for animal welfare.
As an example, the battery-caged hen is fed, vaccinated and protected from predators, but it is
not treated when ill, due to her low economic value. Her freedom of choice and movement are
very severely restricted; the total floor area in which the hen lives may be as small as 320square
cm per bird, two thirds the size of an A4 piece of paper. The hen may not be able to stand fully
upright and cannot carry out normal behaviours such as walking, ground pecking, wing flapping,
nesting or dust bathing . For the battery hen, all these disadvantages far outweigh the advantages
of being protected from predators.
Farm animals are sometimes artificially selected for production parameters that impinge on the
animal's welfare. For example, broiler chickens are bred to be very large to produce the greatest
quantity of meat per animal. Broilers bred for fast growth have a high incidence of leg
deformities because the large breast muscles cause distortions of the developing legs and pelvis,
and the birds cannot support their increased body weight. Therefore, they frequently become

55
lame or suffer from broken legs. The added weight also puts a strain on their hearts and lungs
and ascites can develop.
Another concern about farm animal welfare is the method of slaughter, especially ritual
slaughter. While the killing of animals need not necessarily involve suffering, the general public
considers that killing an animal reduces its welfare. This leads to further concerns about
premature slaughtering such as chick culling by the laying hen industry, in which males are
slaughtered immediately after hatching because they are superfluous; this practice occurs in other
farm animal industries raising the same concerns.
The use of drugs is also of concern about farm animal welfare. Feeding drugs such as antibiotics
to animals have been applied in practice as a preventative measure or feed additive. Traces of
those drugs may possibly show up in the meat that is to be consumed by the people. The drugs
will have an adverse effect because bacteria that the drugs are guarding against may become
immune to the antibiotics as a result of the prolonged feeding of the drugs. They are also
concerned that the bacteria will develop into strains of organisms that will not respond to modern
antibiotics. This could cause serious health problems not only for animals but also for humans.

Review excercises
1. Discuss the diference between instinctive anh learned behavior in animals.
2. What is social behavior? List some social behaviors of agricultural animals.
3. Describe sexual and reproductive behaviors in animals.
4. Describe ingestive behaviors in animals.
5. Explain how certain animals communicate.
6. Define what animal welfare is.
7. What are the Five Freedoms and their implications?
8. How can animal welfare be assessed on a farm?
9. What are the main concerns about welfare of farm animals?
10. Discribe a case with good or bad animal welfare.

56
 Chapter 6

ANIMAL HEALTH

Health is a dynamic and ongoing process in all living individuals, including animals. Animals
should be kept healthy and be given all opportunities to good welfare. We have the responsibility
to take are of the animals we keep and their well-being. Animal health care involves proper
management and husbandry as well as veterinary care. Proper management is essential for the
well-being of animals. Sound animal husbandry programs provide systems of care that permit
the animals to grow, mature, reproduce, express some species-specific behavior, and be healthy.
This chapter is about veterinary care of animals.

6.1. Basic animal health concepts

6.1.1. Animal disease

Disease: A term for any condition that impairs the normal functioning of an organism or the
body. They can be divided into three categories: intrinsic or coming from within the body;
extrinsic or emerging from outside it; and of unknown origin.
Diseases may be classified according to a number of ways:
1) Diseases by means of spreading:
Infectious disease: a disease caused by microorganisms that invade the animal‘s body.
Usually contagious diseases that the animal can pass to another animal.
Zoonotic diseases (or zoonoses): are diseases caused by infectious agents that can be
transmitted between (or are shared by) animals and humans.
Non-infectious diseases: those diseases that are not caused by a pathogen and cannot be
shared from one animal to another. They may be caused by either the environment, nutritional
deficiencies or genetic inheritances.
2) Diseases by causing agents:
Diseases caused by biological agents: virus diseases (Foot and mouth disease, Avian
Influenza, BSE…), bacterial diseases (blue ear, swine fever…), fungal diseases (aspergillosis,
dematophytosis, mycosis…) etc.
Diseases caused by chemical agents: toxic syndrome, cancer…

57
 Diseases caused by physical agents such as noise, vibration, radiation, and extremes in
temperature and pressure can cause inflamation, organ disorders…
3) System or organ affected: respiratory diseases (the term for diseases of the respiratory
system); digestive diseases (all diseases concern to gastrolintestinal tract), kidney, urinary tract
diseases; skin diseases, etc.
Infection: An infection is the detrimental colonization of infectious agent in host organism.
Pathogenicity: Capability of agent to cause disease in host organism.
Endemic: Common diseases that occur at a constant but relatively low rate in the population/ an
area. For example, chickenpox is endemic in UK, African swine fever is endemic in most of sub-
Saharan Africa.
Epidemic: The occurrence of disease in excess of expected in a given area. An epidemic may be
restricted to one locality (an outbreak), more general (an "epidemic") or even global (pandemic).
Because it is based on what is "expected" or thought normal, a few cases of a very rare disease
may be classified as an "epidemic," while many cases of a common disease (such as the common
cold) would not.

6.1.2. Transmission of animal diseases

Transmission is the passing of a disease from an infected individual or group to a previously
uninfected individual or group of animals.
Disease can be transmitted in two ways:
- Horizontal disease transmission, ie. from one individual to another in the same generation
(peers in the same age group). Horizontal transmission can occur by either direct contact
(licking, touching, biting), or indirect contact (vectors or fomites that allow the transmission of
disease without physical contact).
- Vertical disease transmission, ie. passing a disease causing agent vertically from parents
to offspring. Typically the mother transmits the disease by means of bodily fluid, and sometimes
breast milk.
Some common ways infectious diseases can be spread from animal-to-animal or animal-to-
human and vice versa:
4) Aerosol: Droplets are passed through the air from one animal to another. Most
exposure occurs when droplets are created from birthing tissues (placenta, birthing fluids), soil
contaminated with feces, urine or bacteria and a person breathes in the dust particles.
5) Direct contact: A susceptible animal becomes exposed when the disease agent directly
touches open wounds, mucous membranes, or the skin through blood, saliva, nose to nose
contact, rubbing, or biting

58
 6) Reproductive: A subtype of direct contact that includes diseases spread through mating
or to the fetus during pregnancy
7) Fomite: An inanimate object carrying a disease agent from one susceptible animal to
another (ex. trucks and trailers, feeders, waterers, etc.; shoes and clothing of persons who move
from farm to farm; contaminated feed and feed bags).
8) Traffic: A subtype of fomite transmission in which a vehicle, trailer, or human spreads
organic material to another location.
9) Oral: Consuming disease causing agents in contaminated feed, water or
licking/chewing on contaminated environmental objects.
10) Vector-borne: An insect acquires a disease agent from one animal and transmits it to
another (rodents and free-fying birds, mosquitoes. Insects-fowl pox and encephalitis are
commonly transmitted by mosquitoes).
11) Zoonotic: Diseases transmitted from animals to humans.
12) Environmental contamination must always be taken into consideration (contaminated
premises through soil, old litter, or bedding).
6.1.3. The immune system and immunity
The immune system is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the
body against attacks by ―foreign‖ invaders (virus, bacteria…). This system provides resistance to
disease called immunity.
There are two types of immunity:
- Innate Immunity: The innate immunity system is what animal is born with and it is
nonspecific; all antigens are attacked pretty much equally. It is genetically based and passed it on

to the offspring. This type of immunity includes skin, tears, mucus, saliva, inflammation cascade
and fetal derived immune protection.
- Adaptive or Acquired Immunity: The immunity that develops with exposure to various
antigens (e.g. acquired by infection or vaccination or by transfer of antibody, lymphocytes from
an immune donor….). Features of acquired immunity: responses occur only if invader present;
specific to type of invade; displays memory.
The organs of the immune system are bone marrow, lymph system (tonsils, spleen, lymph nodes
and lymph ducts), blood cells (leucocytes…)
Antigen: An antigen is any substance that causes your immune system to produce antibodies
against it. An antigen may be a foreign substance from the environment such as chemicals,
bacteria, viruses, or pollen. An antigen may also be formed within the body, as with bacterial
toxins or tissue cells.
Antibodies: Antibodies are soluble proteins that belong to the class of proteins called globulins
due to their globular structure…..collectively called immunoglobulins (Ig) that formed when the

59
immune system is challenged by antigens. When activated by antigens antibodies show general
functions: neutralization of toxins; immobilization of microorganisms; neutralization of viral
activity; agglutination; binding soluble antigen (precipitation); activating complement.
6.1.4. Vaccines and vaccination
A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine
typically contains a small amount of an agent that resembles a microorganism. The agent
stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as foreign, destroy it, and
"remember" it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these
microorganisms that it later encounters.
Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate an individual's
immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen. A vaccine administration may be
oral, by injection (intramuscular, intradermal, subcutaneous), by puncture, transdermal or
intranasal. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases.

6.2. Animal disease prevention

Prevention of diseases is always both better and cheaper than treatment. Even if vaccines and
other preventive measures may seem expensive, they are in the long run much cheaper than
loosing animals or letting animals loose condition and buying expensive drugs - not to mention
the fees of the vets. Therefore, animal agriculture puts the main emphasis on preventive
measures in order to keep animals healthy, rather than on curative methods. The main preventive
measures are to be briefly introduced bellow.

6.2.1. On-farm biosecuruty

Biosecurity refers to those measures taken to keep diseases out of populations, herds, or groups
of animals where they do not currently exist or to limit the spread of disease within the herd.
Successful biosecurity measures must address isolation of new animals brought to the farm,
solation of sick animals, regulation of the movement of people, animals, and equipment, correct
use of feed, and procedures for cleaning and disinfecting facilities. This responsibility lies with
the animal owners, including hobby farmers. However, as some contagious pathogens may easily
spread from one farm to another a collective approach must be taken in addressing prevention
and biosecurity measures.
Effective on-farm biosecurity measures will constitute an important criterion of zoning and
compartmentalisation procedures for disease control and/or trade purposes. Disease free status,
biosecurity measures, animal welfare measures and veterinary control will also be possible
means of rating holdings and supporting the development of the responsibility and cost sharing
scheme.

60
6.2.2. Vaccination programs
Very many animal diseases are preventable by vaccination. Practically all farm animals are
vaccinated against diseases. Poultry, cattle, pigs, sheep and goats are all routinely vaccinated
against pathogens such as Newcastle disease in poultry and swine fever in pigs. This helps to
keep the animals healthy and has no harmful effect on their products (meat, milk, etc.). There are
a number of vaccination practices:
Ring vaccination: This is the practice of vaccinating all neighbouring animals in areas of
outbreaks;
Vaccination of whole herds;
Vaccination of breeding stock only;
Sometimes pregnant animals are not vaccinated as the vaccine can damage the offspring.
Vaccination programs in a livestock herd need to be custom designed for the particular need of
the herd. Vaccination programs in the replacement stock have 2 specific goals that need to be
met. The first is to prepare the livestock against any pathogens that are causing their disease
problems. The second is to prepare the animal for entry into the adult herd with a good
foundation of protection from which to build herd immunity.

Designing a vaccination program involves a good history of the individual farm as well as a
basic understanding of the immune system. The vaccines chosen should have good solid efficacy
studies as well as effectiveness and efficiency studies, if possible, to ensure that the product can
fulfill the needs of the farm or ranch. Management decisions may be made that do not maximize
the potential of the products chosen and realistic expectations of all products should be well
explained to the producer before they are used. The owner should be involved in the vaccine
decision process so that all the information on the product is shared.

6.2.3. Herd/flock health management

Many facts of disease prevention are acquired only through experience and a well-rounded grasp
of modern animal husbandry. To prevent the introduction and dissemination of animal diseases
as far as possible, owners of animals must (among other things):
Do their best to keep animal diseases out of their
business; Ensure adequate hygiene;
Be alert to symptoms of disease;
Comply with requirements when importing animals;
Notify a vet of any suspected animal disease.

61
There are some basic principles that always should be observed. The following health
management practices aid in disease prevention:
1. Consult a veterinarian before planning a heard/flock health program.
2. Select a well-known, reliable source from which to purchase animals, one that can
supply healthy stock, inherently vigorous and developed for a specifc purpose.
3. Keep animals separate according to source and age groups. To mix animals is an
invitation to trouble.
4. Follow an ―all-in, all-out‖ program.
5. Select a reliable commercial feed, or if farm mixing is done, mix carefully according to
a dependable formula.
6. Provide an adequate supply of wholesome water. Avoid watering from surface tanks,
streams, or ponds.
7. Carry out a precise vaccination schedule for each herd or fock. Work out the vaccination
program with disease authorities in each state or local area.
8. Discourage persons other than the caretaker or essential personnel from visiting the
barns and lots. This would include vehicular traffc.
9. Observe animals frequently for signs of disease, and if a disease problem develops,
obtain an early, reliable diagnosis and apply the best treatment, control, and eradication measures
for that specifc disease.
10. Dispose of all dead animals by burning, deep burying, or disposal pit. This phase of
management often is overlooked.
11. Maintain good records relative to fock or herd health. These should include vaccination
history, disease problems and medication.

6.3. Animal disease control

6.3.1. Animal disease monitoring and surveillance

Establishment of early warning monitoring and surveillance systems, preparing for, investigating
and responding to priority diseases is very much critical in reducing morbidity and mortality in
vulnerable populations, keeping in view of protection of animal health security. Delay in the
detection of outbreaks and inadequate preparedness and response aggravates the impact of spread
of diseases, leading to increased numbers of cases, increased duration of epidemics, excess
mortality and the potential for spread to other areas nationally, regionally, or globally.

62
Animal health/veterinary surveillance is defined as the ongoing, systematic collection, analysis,
interpretation, and dissemination of data, including clinical signs and symptoms, laboratory test
results, and prevalence of behavioral and attitudinal risk factors. Epidemiologists use these data
to detect outbreaks, describe patterns of disease transmission, evaluate prevention and control
programs, and prioritize future health-care needs. Traditionally, veterinary disease surveillance
and monitoring programs have focused on control and eradication of diseases of agricultural
significance, although significance has often been defined by the zoonotic (ability for spread
between humans and animals) potential of the agent. Today, in an expanding global community,
animal disease surveillance and monitoring is largely geared toward establishing national and
regional disease status to support international trade in animals and animal products. Recently,
diseases spread from wild animals have affected both public health and agricultural disease
control programs, significantly draining valuable resources.
Veterinary surveillance provides early warning and prompt detection of animal-related threats,
together with tracking and analysis of the way diseases occur and spread. The information
generated provides crucial scientifc evidence for the governments to support decisions on
prevention and control measures, as well as assessing the effectiveness of existing approaches.
Surveillance provides the wider public, farmers and pet owners with information which they and
veterinary surgeons can use to decide how best to protect their own health and the health of their
animals. It is also essential to better understand and assess the impact of climate change on
animal health in order to enable better ―adaptation‖ of the veterinary measures. Animal keepers
and veterinarians also need effective training to be able to identify the signs of disease at an early
stage.

6.3.2. Treatment of diseased animals

Despite good care, animals sometimes get sick and diseased. They should be treated with care,
and supported to regain balance. This means, that disease is not only treated in terms of targeting
the disease and e.g. eliminate bacteria. Disease is handled by supporting the animal and giving it
care.
Treatment, or therapy, of disease may be defined as any effort to cure disease, arrest its course,
lessen its severity, or alleviate the pain and inconvenience that disease causes. It includes the
administration of drugs or medicines; physical therapy, such as massage, exercise,
immobilization with bandages or splints, and application of heat or cold; and any changes in
methods of feeding or handling that are made to insure recovery.
We need to know when it is necessary to intervene. This can be learned by observing and
knowing about animals. When we judge that it is necessary, we need to intervene very quickly
and very efficiently. If an animal becomes sick or injured despite preventative measures, that

63
animal should be treated promptly and adequately, if necessary in isolation and in suitable
housing.
Following are steps needed to treat sick or diseased animals:
First step: remove all obstacles to cure
It is not fair to the animal to only give it disease treatment, if the surroundings make it sick. The
factors which potentially can make it sick have to be identified and removed. For instance, if an
animal has become diseased because of dirty water, this should immediately be corrected and the
animal given clean drinking water, and at the same time, relevant and appropriate treatment.
Second step: take care of the diseased animal - which often is taken parallel to removing all
obstacles to cure
The next step is to take hand of the diseased and injured animal and make sure that it is treated
appropriately and is cared for. Responsible action is to decide the treatment on informed basis,
but not just to give some medicine. Always give support treatment. The type depends on the
situation. The animal needs care and extra support in terms of clean luke warm water maybe with
something tasteful added (e.g. a herb), good qualitative special feed, and maybe other things
connected to the specific condition, e.g. washing a wound gently and repeatedly with lukewarm
soap water, bathing an injured claw or hoof, massage or providing an animal with extra much
soft bedding material if it needs to lie and rest more, application of ointments, giving electrolyte
water, bandage on a swollen hock, extra milking out in case of udder diseases like mastitis etc. In
some cases, the animal can be supported to become healthy again, only through supportive
treatment. Sometimes, it will be 'extra' to supplement the medical treatment.
Third step: ensure that other animals will remain healthy
When having ensured proper care of the sick animal, the next step is to make sure that all other
animals with which the animal have been or can be in contact with, are ensured non-diseased and
not in risk of further exposure to the disease. This can be through keeping the diseased animal(s)
isolated from the herd mates, and it can by removing all obstacles to cure not only for the
diseased animal, but on herd level. Health care is important to support the immunity of all
animals in its surroundings for a long time.

6.3.3. Control of animal disease outbreaks

A disease outbreak is the occurrence of cases of disease in excess of what would normally be
expected in a defined geographical area or season. An outbreak may occur in a restricted
geographical area, or may extend over several countries. It may last for a few days or weeks, or
for several years. Like most emergencies, disease outbreak can occur at any time and can affect
both humans and animals. A single case of a communicable disease long absent from an area, or

64
caused by an agent (e.g. bacterium or virus) not previously recognized in that community or area,
or the emergence of a previously unknown disease, may also constitute an outbreak.
If the presence of a notifiable animal disease is suspected, one must contact the local veterinary
authority for investigating. Any sign of disease outbreak should be investigated and reported.
When investigating disease outbreaks, a number of widely accepted steps which should be
followed as follows:
Verify the diagnosis related to the outbreak
Identify the existence of the outbreak (Is the group of affected animals normal for the
time of year, geographic area, etc.?)
Map the spread of the outbreak as diagnosis is reported
Develop a hypothesis (What appears to be causing the
outbreak?) Study hypothesis (collect data and perform analysis)
Refine hypothesis and carry out further study
Develop and implement control and prevention systems
Release findings to the public or the authority.
In the event of an animal disease outbreak, it is extremely important the community/animal
producer heeds warnings from the agencies in charge of responding to the problem, to ensure the
disease outbreak is contained. In the event that infected animals/carcasses need to be destroyed,
the local veterinary authority works in partnership with the animal producers to ensure that
procedures are followed.

6.4. Socio-economic impacts of animal diseases

6.4.1. Animal diseases and human health

Animal farming and human health are intimately linked. Animal diseases are of considerable
importance to human welfare both as a cause of illness in humans and as a factor in reducing the
food potential of the world. Domestic animals present problems not only for their handlers, i.e.,
farmers, but also for consumers when animals are used for food. More than 30 new diseases
emerged to cause diseases in humans in the last three decades, and more than 70 per cent of them
came from the animal sector.
Zoonotic diseases are caused by a major group of pathogens (approximately 60% of all human-
infective organisms), with a diversity of animal hosts including wildlife, pets and domestic
animals. Domestic livestock (especially cattle and pigs) are an important source of zoonotic
infections to humans, due in part to the close interactions between these agricultural animals and
the people who keep them. While keeping domestic stock is an important source of rural

65
livelihoods in many countries, these animals may also expose the families who keep them to
disease risks.

6.4.2. Animal health economics

Diseases play an important role in animal production and animal trade. The economic
consequences of diseases on an animal, herd and national level can be considerable and need to
be investigated to successfully implement and evaluate animal health programs and policies.
Animal health economics play an important role in the often risky decisions that need to be made
about disease control. Many economic tools have been developed and are being applied to
support decisions in the field of animal health.
Immediate impacts of a disease outbreak include a reduction in the productive capacity of the
animal products industry and a subsequent reduction in the supply of meat products. At the same
time, disease outbreaks may reduce the demand for meat and meat products. According to the
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), one third of global meat exports is
affected by bird flu and mad cow disease outbreaks.The resulting loss in trade could rise to US$
10 billion in lost revenue in 2004 if import bans on the meat and poultry continue. The Asian
region, which comprises nine out of the twelve nations affected, is set to lose at least US$ 500
million due to the bird flu crisis. One hundred million poultry have died or been culled in the
region due to the disease. Export dependent countries are hardest hit; Thailand has already culled
25 percent of its domestic flocks.
Animal disease may prove to be a human health risk or may entail a significant consumer
response. Consumers, increasingly linked to the global media, are now more aware of food
safety issues, thus heightening the impact of a food crises. These responses have direct
implications for market prices and trade patterns. Government policies which seek to sustain
consumer confidence could mitigate market losses, thus minimizing markets impacts, both in-
country and globally. Therefore, information and its management are important in maintaining
consumer confidence during an animal disease outbreak.

Review excercises
1. What is a disease? Define the different types of animal diseases.
2. How animal diseases are spread?
3. What are vaccine, vaccination and vaccination programs?
4. What is difference beween innate immunity and adaptive immunity?
5. Why is on-farm biosecurity important for control of the spread of diseases?
6. What are the basic principles of heard/flock health management?

66
7. Why are animal disease monitoring and surveillance important?
8. How should diseased animals be treated?
9. What are potential impacts of animal diseases on human health?
10. Discuss animal health economics.

67
 Chapter 7

SWINE PRODUCTION

Swine (also called pigs or hogs) are farmed in many countries all over the world, though the
main consuming countries are in Asia. Pork production currently leads all other meat outputs by
a considerable margin. Based on the volume of product marketed, pigs, either as part of mixed
farming operations or in specialized units, comprise the major livestock enterprise throughout
the world. In Vietnam, swine is the most important animal for livestock production. This chapter
outlines the main features of some common swine breeds, swine production cycle and swine
management systems.

7.1. Swine breeds

7.1.1. Local pig breeds of Vietnam

Vietnam owns a wide variety of local pig breeds across different regions of the country. The
Lang Hong, Mong Cai and I breeds are the products of a long deliberate breeding history,
whereas other breeds, e.g. the Meo, Co, or Soc, were not systematically bred. However, only the
Mong Cai has become common, being now the major local sow line in Vietnam. The Mong Cai
anf the I are desribed below to present local breed of pigs in Vietnam.
The Mong Cai
Origin: The Mong Cai originated from North East Vietnam in the Red River delta. Since the
1960s, the Mong Cai has spread throughout the northern delta areas. After 1975, Mong Cai pigs
were introduced to Central and South Vietnam. The Mong Cai has been frequently used to
improve local breeds with lower performances. Thus, the number of pure Mong Cai pigs has
gradually declined, while the number of Mong Cai crossbreds (with other local or exotic breeds)
increased.

68
Breed characteristics: It has a small to medium body size, and small, upright ears. Head and
body are black, with a white band running from one side of the abdomen over the shoulder to the
other side of the abdomen, making a black saddle over the middle of the swayed back. The Mong
Cai is characterised by high prolificacy. It is adapted to poor quality feed, and is in general
robust. Disease resistance has been reported but not scientifically confirmed.
The I (Lợn Ỉ)
Origin: The I pig originated from Nam Dinh province in the Red River Delta. The I pig was one
of the popular breeds kept in the northern provinces of Vietnam before 1970s. The breed was
distributed in most of northern delta provinces such as Thanh Hoa, Nam Dinh, Ha tay, Hung
Yen, etc. At that time, they contributed of about 70% the pig population in these provinces.
Nowadays, to replace this breed, farmers prefer to raise the Mong Cai pig or crossbred F1 (Mong
cai x Large White or Landrace… ) due to their high performances.

Breed characteristics: It is a very small, black pig with potbelly and swayed back. Two sub-
species can be distinguished, namely the I-mo (or pure I pig) and the I-pha. The I-pha is a cross
of I-mo with various (unknown) local breeds, but is nowadays considered a distinct breed. It has
longer legs, trunk and snout than the I-mo. The snout tapers. The pot belly is less pronounced
and the face is only slightly wrinkled. The ears are bigger and stand horizontally. I-pha sows
have 10 to 12 teats. It is a black pig and has a small body (0.45, 4.5, 15 and 35-40 kg at birth, 2,
6 and 8-10 months, respectively). The females are smaller than the males. Adult live weight and
wither height of males and females are 50, 48 kg and 36, 35 cm, respectively. The I pig is
characterized by early maturity, high fecundity and adaptation to a frequently flooded, muddy
environment and poor, roughage-based diet. I pigs are said to be resistant to parasites. In general,
they are considered very robust. The I pig has a high fat and low lean meat proportion.

69
7.1.2. Exotic swine breeds
The Landrace
Origin: The Landrace swine was developed in Denmark. The development of the breed began in
about 1895. It resulted from crossing the Large White pig from England with the native swine.

Breed characteristics: The Danish Landrace is a medium to large breed that has a distinct
physical appearance. They are white in color, have a rather fine hair coat, long snouts and heavy
drooping ears. They have long bodies, deep smooth sides, and a noticeable lack of excess fat and
wrinkles. The Landrace is a long and lean breed known for its very high fertility and excellent
motherhood. Landrace pigs are ideally suited for bacon and ham production. Their ham meat is
well structured, and their long backs means that more bacon can be produced per pig. Landraces
are known for their rapid growth when young, typically reaching a heavier weight at weaning
than other breeds. The Landrace is commonly used as a maternal breed in commercial
crossbreeding.
The Yorkshire
Origin: The Yorshire swine was produced in the 18th century in Yorkshire, England, by crossing
the large indigenous white pig of North England with the smaller, fatter, white Chinese pig.
There are three types of pigs referred to as the Yorkshire: the Large White, the Middle White,
and the Small White. Only the Large White type gains prominence in growth, sow productivity
and back fat information. The Yorkshire is probably the most widely distributed breed of pig in
the world.

70
Breed characteristics: Yorkshire breed is solid white color with erect ears, pink skins, large size.
The boar is used considerably as a sire of crossbred litters out of coloured dams. The breed
excels in litter size, milk production and fertility. The Yorkshire is commonly used as a maternal
breed in commercial crossbreeding.
The Duroc
Origin: The breed originated in America, one of several red pig strains, which was developed
around 1800 in New England. The modern Duroc originated from crosses of the Jersey Red and
New York's older Duroc.

Breed characteristics: Durocs have considerable variation in color. An acceptable color may
range from a very light golden, almost yellow color, to a very dark red that approaches
mahogany. The red is a very practical color that suits pork producers, and since it is a solid color,
there is no concern about fancy points of proper markings. Durocs have a medium length and
slight dish of the face. The ears should be drooping and should not be held erect. Durocs have
poorer maternal characteristics compared to other breeds. Duroc sows produce smaller litters,
and some bloodlines have significant weaknesses in their hips and shoulders. On average, the
breed tends to be more aggressive compared to other breeds. For these reasons, they are rarely
produced for commercial food production as purebreds. The Duroc is commonly used as a sire
breed in commercial crossbreeding.
The Pietrain
Origin: The breed origined in Pietrain village in Belgium

71
Breed characteristics: The breed is of medium size and is white with black spots. Around the
black spots, there are characteristic rings of light pigmentation that carries white hair. This,
coupled with the fact that the black hair is not as deeply pigmented as on black breeds, or the
black spots on some spotted breeds, leaves them with less than the most attractive coats. The
breed is commonly referred to as being of piebald markings. The ears are carried erect. Their
legs are shorter than most breeds, stockier in build, and quite broad along the back. The hams are
extremely bulging and muscular. They carry an extremely high proportion of lean to fat. The
breed has developed a reputation for improving the quality of market swine when the boars are
used on sows of other breeds, especially the Belgian Landrace. While the sows of the breed are
prolific, they lack some in mothering characteristics and in milk production. Therefore, the
Pietrain is commonly used as a sire breed in commercial crossbreeding.

7.2. Swine production cycle and pork chain

7.2.1. Swine production cycle

Swine can breed at all times of the year so pork production is a continuous cycle. Swine
production cycle can be separated into a number of phases as in Figure 7.8.

Figure 10.8. A typical swine production cycle

72
Piglet production
Piglets are produced in a sow herd. This is characterized by a herd of sows in a continuous
process of reproduction. The sows are raised and bred to give birth to a large number of piglets
per litter and at the same time to nurse them well. Piglets are the commercial product, which
after weaning are sold to rearing-fattening farms. Piglets weigh about three pounds at birth and
are weaned from the sow at anywhere from five days to four weeks, with most modern
operations weaning pigs at two to three weeks.
The aim of piglet producing is to have as many piglets per sow per year with as little costs as
possible. Approximately sows give birth 2,3 times a year. One farrow has 10-15 piglets, of which
a few often die at birth or soon after. Between birth and weaning, the mortality can rise up to 13
%. About 11 piglets are weaned from each farrow, and 21 piglets/sow/year.
The key steps in piglet production can be summarised as follows:
1) Purchase of the gilt. The farmer or sow farm buy breeding gilts, or female piglets for
breeding purpose.
2) Growth of gilts. The gilts will grow rapidly and become sexually mature in
approximately 4-6 months.
3) Insemination/mating. At approximately 6-8 months of age the gilt is inseminated with a
boar (adult male pig) semen or mated with aboar.
4) Pregnancy. If the gilt may get pregnant after insemination/mating, the gestation will last
for approximately 112-116 days.
5) Birth of piglets. On an average between 10-15 piglets are born per litter; these will be
delivered in a matter of hours.
6) Suckling piglets. The sow will nurse her litter for a period of 1-2 months.
7) Weaning and sale. Once the piglets have been separated from their mother they can be
sold for fattening. Usually 8 piglets of a 10 piglet litter will be sold to rearing farmers/farms.
8) 2nd insemination and next cycle. A few days after weaning sows can be
inseminated/mated again, thus continuing the cycle. The sow can give birth to a full litter of
piglets approximately every 6 months for 5 years or more, producing an average of 100 piglets.
Pig Rearing
After weaning, pigs are normally placed in a "nursery" where they are kept in a temperature-
controlled environment, usually on slotted floors. The floors in a nursery are usually constructed
from plastic or plastic covered steel instead of concrete to provide additional comfort for the

73
small pigs. Pigs are normally given around three square feet of space each and provided with
ready access to water and feed. Nursery pens are sometimes elevated, with their slotted floor
above the room floor level 8 to 12 inches. This is done to minimize the possibility of cold floor
drafts chilling the young pigs. Pigs are normally removed from the nursery at about 6 to 10
weeks of age and placed in a "grow-finishing" building/farm. Nursery rooms are almost always
heated with furnaces and ventilated with mechanical fans, controlled by a thermostat, in order to
keep the pigs warm and dry throughout the year.
Growing and finishing
This phase is when pigs are fed as much as they wish to eat until they reach market weight.
Marketing normally occurs at five to six months of age, depending on genetics and any disease
problems encountered. Some gilts are returned from the grow-finish phase to the sow herd for
breeding purposes, to replace older sows that are culled.
Pigs in a grow-finish operation are larger and produce a great deal of body heat. Ventilation to
keep the animals cool is usually more of a concern than providing heat in winter. In winter, they
are protected from winter winds in a moderately well insulated building. Enough ventilation
must be provided to remove moisture and to provide fresh air for the animals. In summer, large
sidewall vents are opened or large ventilation fans are operated to keep the animals comfortable.
This is referred to, respectively, as naturally ventilated (air change due to the wind) or
mechanically ventilated (where air is drawn into the buildings through vents due to a negative
pressure created with wall fans that exhaust inside air.

7.2.2. Pork chain

The pork commodity chain is the full range of activities that gets the product from the pen to the
consumer's plate (Figure 7.9). The pork chain includes producers and their suppliers such as
stockfeed companies, abattoirs and meat processors, transporters, packers, wholesalers,
marketers, retailers, and export/import distributors.

Figure 10.9. A typical pork chain

The different phases of pig production have already been introduced in section 7.2.1. Following
is a brief introduction to the last part of the pork chain including the processing phase and
marketting of pigs as well as pig meat products.

74
Processing
Processing outfits are capapble of buying many animals at a time, process them into different
products and distribute these products to consumers.
Slaughtering:
Processing starts with the slaughtering process. The standard slaughtering procedure involves:
1) Stunning: Mechanical with a captive bolt pistol or electric which involves electric
current for one second through the brain of the animal.
2) Bleeding: The stunned animal is hanged on its hind leg on a hoist. The neck is cut in
such a way as to severe all veins. Blood can then be collected in a clean vessel.
0
3) Scalding: Immerse in hot water at 65-75 C. Once the air is loosed, it is cramped with a
knife. Excess hair is singed off with a flame.
4) Evisceration: To remove the gut, a long cut is made below the belly of the animal. The
entire length of the gut should be removed intact to avoid contaminating the rest of the carcass.
The gut is eviscerated away from the carcass.
Meat Hygiene:
It is important that slaughtering facilities maintain high sanitary conditions because the products
of slaughtered animals provide and ideal breeding ground for bacteria. The carcass should be
chilled immediately after slaughter. Refrigeration trucks in good working conditions should be
used in transporting meat over long distances. It is necessary to provide for meat inspection in
slaughter houses in order to ensure that only healthy meat is approved for sale to the public. Meat
slaughtered on the farm should also be wholesome and measure taken that no disease is
circulated from the dead to the living.
Carcass evaluation and meat quality:
The commercial pork industry has standards for carcass which may vary from country to
country. However, the basic criteria involve the following considerations:
1) Conformation: this is the shape of the carcass. It is desirable to have carcass that is well
developed in the more valuable meat area such as the ham and the loin.
2) Lean content – the amount of lean meat is a very important quality factor.
3) Fattinees – to much fat in pork is generally not valued. Fat thickness can be measured in
selecting animals for breeding.
4) Colour and texture – very pale watery meat is undesirable. This can occur and is
associated with a condition known as pale soft exudate (PSE) which can result from a genetic
cause or poor pre slaughter handling.

75
 5) Flavour and odour – off flavour and odours can arise from feeding high fishmeal diets or
rancid fats. Boar taint can also occur in the meat of entire males.

Pig meat products

In most tropical countries, all the parts are valuable meat, including the head and trotters.
However, the more meaty portions usually fetch higher prices. The meat can be further processed
into the following:
Cured meat – e.g the bacons and hams which are cure in brine. Further flavouring is
enhanced by smoking. These processes increase the shelf life of the product and therefore should
be promoted in the tropics where refrigeration facilities are often non existence in the rural areas.
Sausages and pies – these are derived mainly from trimming and offal that are left
after cutting up whole parts.
Marketing
The ability to market pigs at the right time is a major determining factor to the success of
commercial pig production. Small holder farm have not problems as per marketing, but the
commercial farmer have to put marketing a major issue determining their success. Pig can be
marketed using the following market outlets:
a. Private sales: these involve selling of one or more pigs to the local consumer, other pig
producers, butchers or middlemen. The pigs are sold live and prices are normally subjected to
bargaining. This method is most common among rural small scale producers. It has the
advantage of being the simplest. To ensure adequate prices for pig farmers, marketing
cooperatives are recommended.
b. Public sales: in these methods, pigs are taken to a central place, where they are sold by
auction on live basis to the highest bidder.
c. Direct sales to butcher: the pigs are sold to the butcher directly by producer without
middle men. The method is more applicable to the large scale producers. Fluctuations in prices
can be serious problem in this system of pig marketing.
d. Contract sales: Under this system, contract is entered into with an abattoir to supply a
certain number of pigs over a period of time at a set price. This condition allows the producer to
plan this production strategy over a fairly long period of time. Fluctuation in input prices
however, can be a problem in this system.

7.3. Swine production systems

Swine can be raised in many different production systems (also called farm or operation), i.e.,
differences in the size, type, facility, management techniques, etc. They can be farmed as free

76
range, being allowed to wander around a village, kept in fields, or tethered in a simple house. In
a traditional swine production system, sows farrowed periodically, piglets were retained after
weaning around eight weeks of age, grew slowly, and were consumed eventually or sold by their
original owners. Nowadays, swine prodiction has been moving away from such traditional
farming systems and swine may constitute the only type of livestock present on a farm with the
system often further specialized by operators concentrating on specific stages of the production
sequence. There are sevral common types of swine production systems/enterprises which are
farrow-to-finish, farrow-to-feeder, feeder-to-finish, weanling-to-feeder, and farrow-to-weanling
systems.

7.4.1. Farrow-to-finish systems

A farrow-to-finish system involves breeding and farrowing sows, and feeding the offspring until
they reach a market weight. The entire production period takes 10 to 11 months, with four
months for breeding and gestation, plus six or seven months to raise the litter to market weight.
Of the three systems, farrow-to-finish has the greatest long-run market potential and flexibility.
Farrow-to-finish operations demand the most capital and labor, and require a long-term
commitment to the swine business.
All stages of the life cycle are represented in a farrow-to-finish system, consequently,
reproduction is an important factor in the overall productivity of the operation. Simultaneous
management and care of different ages and life cycle phases (farrowing, nursery, growing and
finishing) are required. This is accomplished in several different manners which are outlined
below:
- Continuous flow production scheme: Pigs are moving through each of the phases of this
operation at any given time. As pigs reach the desired age or body weight to progress to the next
phase of production, they are removed from a building and replaced by younger and lighter
weight pigs. There is mixing of pigs of differing ages in each of the facilities.
- All-in/All-out (AI/AO) production scheme: Pigs are grouped by age and/or body weight
and remain in the same group as they move through the different production phases. When pigs
move from one facility to another, the facility is completely emptied of animals and cleaned and
sanitized before another group is moved into the facility.
- Three site/Segregated Early Weaning (SEW) production scheme: Pigs are weaned from
the sow and moved as a group to a nursery located some distance from the farrowing facilities.
At completion of the nursery phase of production, they are again moved as a group to a third site
where the growing and finishing facilities are located. As with AI/AO production, all facilities
are cleaned and disinfected between batches of pigs and traffic between each of the facilities is
minimized.

77
7.4.2. Farrow-to-feeder systems
A farrow-to-feeder system involves breeding and farrowing sows and selling the piglets to
feeder-to-finish operations. Threfore, it includes the management of the breeding herd, gestating
sows, and piglets until they reach the growing (feeder) stage. It decreases the need for facilities,
operating capital, and the amount of feed and manure handled. Also, it provides a good
foundation for increasing the number of sows or expanding into a farrow-to-finish operation. The
biggest drawback of this system is that producers, especially those with small herds, are at the
mercy of a volatile feeder pig market. This may require farrowing sows in groups to increase the
number of pigs available during periods of high demand.
Advantages of this system include:
i. Requires relatively small capital inputs.
ii. Possible to generate a relatively consistent income.
iii. Requires less feed and involves less manure handling.
Disadvantages include:
i. Relatively higher levels of diseases and management problems such as the conception
rate, embryonic survival, pre and post weaning survival rates, etc.
ii. Requires greater management skills and labor to handle potential problems.
iii. Variations in the price of feeder pigs, i.e. year to year, season to season, producer to
producer, and sale to sale.

7.4.3. Feeder-to-finish systems

Most feeder-to-finish systems buy feeder pigs and feed them to market weight. This system
allows for minimum overhead, low labor requirements, and no long-term commitment. The
feeder-to-finish operation offers an opportunity for a grain farmer to use homegrown feeds to
fatten pigs without having to manage breeding stock. The operation also may capitalize on the
fertilizer value of the manure. Important points of concern are the source, health, and quality
when buying feeder pigs. Reducing the number of farms from which pigs are purchased will help
reduce herd health problems.
Advantages of this system include:
i. Capital turnover is relatively fast.
ii. Requires less labor and management skills.
iii. Can market grains through pigs, and swine wastes can be used as a fertilizer.
iv. Has a flexibility to shut down with modest penalties.

78
Disadvantages include:
i. Significant expenses for buying feeder pigs.
ii. May face lack of genetic uniformity and also unknown health status, thus variations in
growth performance and carcass merit, and may increase medication costs & mortality rate.
iii. The market price is highly variable for both the raw material (feeder pigs) and the end
product (market pigs).

Review excercises
1. Describe characteristics of a local swine breed.
2. Describe characteristics of an exotic maternal swine breed.
3. Describe characteristics of an exotic sire swine breed.
4. Describe some formulae of swine crossbreeding.
5. Where are piglets produced and what are the key steps in piglet production?
6. How are pigs reared after weaning?
7. Describe the last phase of pig production.
8. Name three typical swine production systems and their characteristics?
9. What is a pork commodity chain?
10. How are pigs marketed?

79
 Chapter 8
POULTRY PRODUCTION
Poultry is the class of domesticated fowl (birds) farmed for their meat, eggs or feathers. Chicken
is by far the most popular poultry species utilised for both meat and egg production. Therefore,
in the context of this chapter only commercial chicken production is introduced with different
types of breeds, the production cycle in different chicken farming systems, and the principles of
poultry husbandry.

8.1. Types of chicken breeds

Geneticists design special breeding programs to select birds with the best characteristics for egg
or meat production. This selection process allows the industry to select strains of birds which are
produced very efficiently in intensive housing systems. There are two main types of commercial
chicken breeds: layers and meat chickens.

8.1.1. Egg laying chickens

The chicken layer industry produces eggs for
humans to eat, called table eggs. There are special
varieties of chicken, called laying strains, some of
which can lay over 300 eggs per hen per year.
Strains of chickens bred to lay eggs are called layers.
Depending on the strain of bird used, egg colour can
range from tinted (cream) to brown.

8.1.2. Meat chickens

The chicken meat industry produces meat and uses a
different type or breed of chicken than that used for
egg production. Modern varieties of chicken are bred
specifically for meat production, with an emphasis
placed on the ratio of feed to meat produced by the
animal. Some meat type breeds can produce 1 kg of
liveweight from less that 2 kg of feed. Chickens
raised specifically for meat are called broilers.
Broilers are typically butchered at a young age.
Modern Cornish Cross hybrids, for example, are

80
butchered as early as 8 weeks for fryers and 12 weeks for roasting birds.

8.2 Production cycle of chicken farming systems

8.2.1. Breeder farm cycle

The breeder farm is the farm that produces fertile eggs to be hatched in a hatchery according to
the following sequence.
Brooding
Male and female chicks are usually reared separately until about 4-5 weeks of age. They are then
reared so that they can work out who is boss (adjust the peck order). They are then less likely to
fight with one another later on.
Growing
The growing period for layer breeders is from 5 to 20 weeks of age. The growth period is about
four weeks less than for meat breeders. During the growing period, feed is restricted to prevent
feed wastage and, for layer breeders, to improve egg production. It is even more important for
meat breeders because they become too fat to breed efficiently if on full feed. Restricted feeding
begins at about six weeks of age and continues until birds have commenced laying. When birds
are at 5-10% egg production, a breeder ration is supplied. Birds then have been gown on
restricted feed are often call control fed.
Housing
Chickens reared for breeding purpose are usually raised on litter floors similar to those used for
meat chickens. They are transferred to specially designed breeder sheds, also with litter floors,
when about 18-22 weeks. The sheds are usually divided into small sections, suitable for about
200 hens to minimize fighting. Nests are placed in the shed, usually in the center, so that the hens
are attracted to the dark areas of the nest to lay their eggs.
Mating
Cockerels will mate with a number of hens and about 10% of cockerels to a group of hens is
enough to achieve excellent fertility rates. A surplus of cockerels (15%) is placed at first and
they are culled down to 11% at maturity to allow a lost of 1% over their lives. Cockerels can be
fed a cheaper diet than hens and it s a common practice to have additional cockerel feeders in a
shed placed at a greater height than those containing hen feed.
Egg collection
Fertile eggs are collected as soon after laying as possible for reasons of hygiene (if left in nests
they are more likely to have manure spread on them or be damaged). Regular collection also
protects the eggs from the heat of the day. Although it is best not to clean eggs at all, eggs can be

81
cleaned when collected by wiping with a dry cloth or steel wool. Wet cleaning is undesirable as
it removed the protective cuticle from the shell. Fumigation by formaldehyde gas is carried out
as soon as possible after collection, usually at the farm or sometimes at the hatchery.
Incubation and hatching
Eggs are set in trays marked with the shed of origin so that any problems can be traced back to
the source. Hatching performance is also closely monitored and the end product is a healthy
chick which goes on to become a commercial layer or meat chicken.
The hatchery is a special building with controlled
ventilation. It contains machines for holding and
incubating large numbers of eggs. The hatchery is
designed with hygiene in mind and is laid out so
that there is little chance of any contaminating
organisms traveling back from hatched chicks to
eggs brought in later.
There are two stages of incubation:
The first stage lasts for 18 days and is
called setting. The eggs are placed on special trays
which can be tilted through 90 degrees, from side to
side. The temperature and humidity of the air in the
setter is controlled so that conditions inside each
egg are suitable for the growth and development of
the chick.
th
On the 18 day, eggs are transferred to a
different tray, which cannot be tilted, and placed in another machine called a hatcher. Eggs are
transferred to hatchers so that hatching chicks do not contaminate other batches of eggs being
st
incubated. The hatchers can then be thoroughly cleaned after every hatch. By the end of the 21
day all chicks have hatched and are ready to be removed from the machine. They are taken to a
special room and removed from the hatcher tray. They are then placed in chick boxes (usually
100 to a box) ready for delivery to a farm.
Chick sexing
Sexing allows separation of male and females chicks. This can be done by:
Visual examination, (called vent sexing) either by checking the structures in the chick‘s
vent with the naked eye or by inspecting the internal sexual organs with a special lamp.

82
 Most breeds can now be sexed by checking the feather colour or the degree of growth of
wing feathers. Genetic selection has been carried out to ensure that these differences between
sexes are distinctive.
Layer strain chicks are always sexed, as the females are kept while the males are killed. Breeders
are usually sexed, as only one sex of each breeder strain is kept. Meat chickens are normally left
unsexed, as both sexes are usually reared together.
Chick keeping and marketing
The baby chick must be kept warm as it does not have the ability to maintain its body
temperature. The chicks are transported in chick boxes which are designed to conserve heat
while allowing air movement. The room where chicks are held in the hatchery and the truck
which delivers them to the farm must also be designed to keep the chicks both warm and
ventilated. There is enough food and water in the yolk to keep the chick alive for about three
days, but best results are obtained if they can eat and drink as soon as possible. When placed on
the farm, they must be kept warm and have feed and water available at all times.

8.2.2. Layer farm cycle

The layer farm cycle starts when female chicks are raised into pullets for commercial egg
production and a standard procedure is followed. Several rearing systems are common. Some
farms raise layer chicks on a litter floor in a shed similar to a meat chicken shed. Other pullets
are either finished off or reared entirely in wire-floored cages.
Brooding (day-old to 6 weeks)
When a hen sits still for a prolonged period without eating or drinking normally, she is said to be
broody. This is a normal process during which the hen stops producing eggs in order to incubate
a nest full of eggs. When the eggs hatch the hen then cares for the chicks by keeping them warm
and finding feed and water for them. Modern strains of chicken have been selected not to go
broody so that more eggs are laid.
When rearing chicks commercially we aim to do the same thing as the hen. The stage of life
when chicks need some additional heat is called the brooding stage. It lasts up to six weeks,
depending on the temperature of the environment until the chicks can control their body
temperature themselves. From day-old they usually receive chick starter feed which aims to
ensure they have plenty of protein (19%) and energy for body growth.
Growing (6 to 20 weeks)
Once chicks can control their body temperature they still need to be protected from the extremes
of climate. At this stage they receive pullet grower feed which is less expensive and contains
only 15% to 17% protein and 7% less energy than the starter feed.

83
Beak trimming and some vaccinations are done during the grower stage to prepare the birds for
their adult life as laying hens. Any sever check to growth at this time can affect their ability to
lay well. Remember also that excessive feeding at this time can be harmful, again leading to poor
production.
Restriction to feed supply to birds during growing stops them from growing at a fast rate and
results in both feed savings and increased egg production when the birds mature. Careful weekly
weighing of the birds is essential to restrict body weight and work out how even the flock is.
Breeding companies recommend what weight birds should be at each age.
Pullets are usually moved into their laying quarters, at 16-18 weeks of age, before they reach
sexual maturity. This ensures that they are settled in before egg production begins. Handling
birds at any time must be done with care to avoid injury. As pullets mature into laying hens they
are fed a layer ration designed to enable them to perform best.
Adult layer (20 to/up to 78 weeks)
Adult hens are the real workers of the industry. For best performance they need to be fed
o
carefully and kept in a house at 21-28 C. This means that hen houses are designed to keep as
near as possible to this temperature year round. The hens are checked regularly to monitor their
health and medicines may be administered as needed. Tinted egg strains usually require less feed
(105g feed/hen/day) than brown egg strains (120g feed/hen/day).
The quality of feed provided to hens may be varied for the level of production. Hens can need
more nutrients just before and during their peak production than at other times. This is called
phase feeding. It can be economical to adjust rations for such high demand periods.
Egg collecting and grading
Mechanical collection of eggs is common in modern layer farms. It takes about 26 hours for each
egg to develop and so each hen lays eggs a little later each day. This is not an exact thing and
most eggs are laid in the morning. Eggs should be collected regularly and transferred from the
hen house to an egg room where they are graded or checked for weight and for damaged shells.
A sample of eggs is often broken open to check internal quality. Eggs are packed into cartons for
sale. Prices vary with egg size, so eggs must be separated on the basis of egg weight. This is
done automatically by a machine called an egg grader.

8.2.3. Meat chicken farm cycle

The meat chicken farm cycle is as follows. The same general principles of caring for layer
chickens also apply on a meat chicken farm but there are a few differences. Meat chickens are
always fed pelleted feed, which is more efficient as less wastage occurs than when mash is used.
Pelleting also improves the digestibility of the feed. The pellets may be broken down into
smaller sizes, called crumbles, for very small chicks.

84
Hatchery to farm
Chicks are transported from the hatchery to broiler farms, usually in ventilated chick boxes in
specially designed, air-conditioned trucks. Although the remains of yolk sac taken into its
abdomen at hatching contains nutrients and moisture to sustain the chick for up to 72 hours, it is
important that chicks receive warmth, feed and water within a reasonable time of hatching.
Brooding or starting
On arrival at the broiler farm, day-old chicks are placed onto the floor of the shed, where they are
initially confined to an area of between a half to one third of the total shed area (the ‗brooding
area‘) and given supplementary heating from gas heaters or heat lamps for about three weeks.
This is called brooding and the heaters are referred to as brooders. Extra feed pans and water
dispensers are provided in the brooding area, and the bedding may be partly covered with paper
to stop dropped feed from getting into the bedding and spoiling. Both male and female chicks are
reared as meat chickens. While the flocks are usually of mixed sex, some operations may grow
male and female chickens separately, depending on market requirements. For example, one
company grows out only male chickens in one area, allowing its operations and processing plant
in that area to be geared up specifically for larger birds, while sending female chicks to another
area.
o
The air temperature under the brooder should be about 35 C at first and should be reduced by 1-
o o
2 C per day until it reaches 23 C at about three weeks of age. The number of chickens in a meat
chicken shed is usually high. Sophisticated brooding systems have been developed which include
gas-fired radiant heat sources, through gas-fired hot air blasters, and fully controlled environment
sheds with special heated air being passed through ducts to the chickens. High protein (22%)
starter rations are fed to young meat chickens to ensure they grow as much as possible early in
life. This may be continued for 18-24 days. A medicine, called a coccidiostat, is added to the
feed of meat chickens to prevent the intestinal disease coccidiosis.
Growing or finishing
At this stage, growth is still very important, but since feed is expensive careful costing is carried
out to keep expenses to a minimum. Thus a lower level of protein (19%) is fed from about three
weeks of age to slaughter, which is commonly at 42 days of age. When heavy weight birds are
required for filleting, they are slaughtered at up to 56 days of age. A coccidiostat, sometimes a
different one from that used in starter feed, is added to finisher feed. Some meat chickens go
through a separate rearing stage, with a special rearing ration being fed to them before they are
placed on a finisher feed, but most go straight from starter to finisher feed.
Catching
Getting finished meat chickens from the farm to the factory is a delicate business. Most catching
is done at night as birds are quieter then, and this also gets them to the processor early in the

85
morning with less delay before slaughter. Delay means stress and weight loss. Mechanical
devices for harvesting meat chickens have been invented. Birds are then placed into plastic crates
or aluminium modules designed for good ventilation and safety from bruising during transport.
These crates or modules are handled by specialist forklift equipment and loaded onto trucks for
transport to the processing plant. Harvesting may be done up to four times, depending on need
for light or heavy birds. Thinning out sheds allows more space for the remaining birds and
reduces the natural temperatures in the shed. The first harvest might occur as early as 30-35 days
and the last at 55-60 days.
Shed cleanout
When all the birds have been removed from the shed (after about 60 days), it is cleaned and
prepared for the next batch of day old chickens. The next batch generally arrives in five days to
two weeks, giving time to clean the shed and prepare for the next batch. The break also reduces
the risk of common ailments being passed between batches as many pathogens die off. Many
farms undertake a full cleanout after every batch. This includes removing bedding, brushing
floors, scrubbing feed pans, cleaning out water lines, scrubbing fan blades and other equipment,
and checking rodent stations. High pressure hoses clean the whole shed thoroughly. The floor
bases are usually rammed earth and because low water volumes are used, there is little water
runoff.
The shed is disinfected, using low volumes of disinfectant which is sprayed throughout. An
insecticidal treatment may be applied in areas where shed insects such as beetles are a problem
and may threaten the next batch. Disinfectants and insecticidal treatments must be safe and fit for
use in broiler sheds. Veterinarians may test sheds after a full cleanout to confirm sheds have been
adequately cleaned and potential disease agents removed. On other farms, a partial clean up of
the shed is done, including removing old litter and/or topping up fresh litter and cleaning and
sanitising equipment. A full cleanout is done after every second or third batch of chickens.

8.3. The principles of poultry husbandry

There are a number of ―requirements‖ by which animals should be managed so that the best
performance is achieved in a way acceptable to those responsible for the care of the animals and
to the community generally. These requirements are the keys to good management and may be
used to test the management of a poultry enterprise in relation to the standard of its management.
These requirements may be called principles. The importance of each principle changes with the
situation and thus the emphasis placed on each may alter from place to place and from time to
time. This means that, while the principles do not change, the degree of emphasis and method of
application may change. Every facet of the poultry operation should be tested against the
following relevant principles.

86
8.3.1. Use of good quality and right class of stock
If the enterprise is to be successful it is necessary to use stock known to be of good quality and of
the appropriate genotype for the commodity to be produced in the management situation to be
used. The obvious first decision is to choose meat type for meat production and an egg type for
egg production. However, having made that decision, it is then necessary to analyse the
management situation and market to select a genotype suited to that management situation and/or
produces a commodity suitable for that market. A good example is that of brown eggshells. If the
market requires eggs to have brown shells, the genotype selected must be a brown shell layer.
Another example would be to choose a genotype best suited for use in a tropical environment.
The manager must know in detail the requirements of the situation and then select a genotype
best suited to that situation.

8.3.2. Provision of good housing

There are three requirements that the poultry house must satisfy. The following are of major
importance in achieving a high standard of production efficiency:
Confining the birds
Confining the birds will provide a number of advantages:
Provides a degree of protection from predators
Reduces the labour costs in the management of the birds
Increases the number of birds that can be maintained by the same labour force
Reduces the costs of production
Better organises the stocking program
Better organises management to suit the type and age of the birds housed
Importantly, the confinement of the birds at higher stocking densities has a number of
disadvantages also including:
Increases the risk of infectious disease passing from one bird to another
Increases the probability that undesirable behavioural changes may occur
Increases the probability of a significant drop in performance
Birds housed at very high densities often attract adverse comment from the ―welfare‖
lobby
Protection from a harsh environment
A harsh environment is one outside of the comfort range of the birds. In this context high and
low temperature, high humidity in some circumstances, excessively strong wind, inadequate
ventilation and/or air movement and high levels of harmful air pollutants such as ammonia are
examples of a harsh environment. Much effort is made in designing and building poultry houses
that will permit the regulation of the environment to a significant degree.

87
It is the responsibility of management responsible for the day-to-day management of the birds, to
ensure that the environment control systems are operated as efficiently as possible. This will
require a good knowledge of the different factors that constitute the environment and how they
interact with each other to produce the actual conditions in the house and, more importantly,
what can be done to improve the house environment.
Satisfying welfare needs of the birds
A good poultry house has to satisfy the welfare needs of the birds. These needs vary with the
class, age and housing system. Failure to satisfy these needs will, in many cases, result in lower
performance from the birds. These needs include:
provision of adequate floor space with enough headroom
provision of good quality food with adequate feeding space
provision of good quality water with adequate drinking
space provision of opportunity to associate with flock mates
elimination of anything that may cause injury
elimination of all sources of unnecessary harassment

8.3.3. Maintanance of good health

The presence of disease in the poultry flock is reflected in inferior performance and it is a must
that the flock is in good health if their performance is to approach their potential. There are three
elements of good health management of a poultry flock. These are:
Prevention of disease
The prevention of disease is a much more economical way of health management than waiting
for the flock to become diseased before taking appropriate action. There are a number of factors
that are significant in disease prevention. These are:
1. Application of a stringent quarantine program:
o isolation of the farm/sheds from all other poultry.
o control of vehicles and visitors.
o introduction of day old chickens only onto the farm.
o prevention of access to the sheds by all wild birds and all other animals vermin
o provision of shower facilities and clean clothing for staff and visitors.
o control of the movement of staff and equipment around the farm.
2. Use of good hygiene practices:
o provision of wash facilities for staff, essential visitors and vehicles prior to entry.
o use of disinfectant foot baths at the entry to each shed.
o thorough cleaning and disinfection of all sheds between flocks.

88
 3. Maintaining the flock in a good state of well being by good stockmanship, nutrition
and housing.
4. Use of a suitable vaccination program.
5. Use of a preventive medication program.
6. Use of monitoring procedures to keep a check on the disease organism status of the
farm, to check on the effectiveness of cleaning and sanitation procedures and to test
the immunity levels to certain diseases in the stock to check the effectiveness of the
vaccination program.
Early recognition of disease
One of the first skills that should be learned by the poultry flock manager is to be able to tell
when all is not well with the stock. Frequent inspections looking for signs of sickness are
required. It is accepted that all birds should be inspected every day as a first task on the farm for
signs of ill health, injury and harassment. At the same time feeders, drinkers and other
equipment can be checked for serviceability. If a problem has developed since the last
inspection, appropriate action can be taken in a timely manner.
Eearly treatment of disease
If a disease should infect a flock, early treatment may mean the difference between a mild
outbreak and a more serious one. It is important that the correct treatment be used as soon as
possible. This can only be achieved when the correct diagnosis has been made at an early stage.
While there are times when appropriate treatment can be recommended as a result of a field
diagnosis i.e. a farm autopsy, it is best if all such diagnoses be supported by a laboratory
examination to confirm the field diagnosis and to ensure that other conditions are not being
masked by that originally diagnosed. When treating stock it is important that the treatment be
administered correctly and at the recommended concentration or dose rate. Always read the
instructions carefully and follow them.

8.3.4 Nutrition for economic performance

Diets may be formulated for each class of stock under various conditions of management,
environment and production level. The diet specification to be used to obtain economic
performance in any given situation will depend on factors such as:
The cost of the mixed diet
The commodity prices i.e. the income
The availability, price and quality of the different ingredients

89
Maximising production is not necessarily the most profitable strategy to use because the
additional cost required providing the diet that will give maximum production might be greater
than the value of the increase in production gained. A lower quality diet, while resulting in lower
production may bring in greatest profit because of the significantly lower feed costs. Also the
food given to a flock must be appropriate for that class of stock - good quality food for one class
of bird will quite likely be unsuitable for another.
The following are key aspects in relation to the provision of a quality diet:
The ingredients from which the diet is made must be of good quality.
The weighing or measuring of all ingredients must be accurate.
All of the specified ingredients must be included. If one e.g. a grain is unavailable, the
diet should be re-formulated. One ingredient is not usually a substitute for another without re-
formulation.
The micro-ingredients such as the amino acids, vitamins and other similar materials
should not be too old and should be stored in cool storage - many such ingredients lose their
potency over time, and particularly so in high temperatures.
Do not use mouldy ingredients - these should be discarded. Mould in poultry food may
contain toxins that may affect the birds.
Do not use food that is too old or has become mouldy. Storage facilities such as silos
should be cleaned frequently to prevent the accumulation of mouldy material.

8.3.5. Good stockpersonship

―Stockpersonship‖ may be defined as: the harmonious interaction between the stock and the
person responsible for their daily care. The basis of good stockpersonship is having a positive
attitude and knowledge of the needs and behaviour of the stock under different circumstances, of
management techniques and a willingness to spend time with the stock to be able to react to any
adverse situations as they develop to keep stress to a minimum. Having the right attitude is also a
very important element. The stockperson who spends as much time as possible with the stock
from day old onwards - moving among them, handling them and talking to them will grow a
much quieter bird that reacts less to harassment, is more resistant to disease and performs better.

8.3.6. Maximum use of management techiniqes

There are available for use by stockpersons a number of different management techniques that,
while not essential for the welfare of the stock, do result in better performance. Examples of
these are the regulation of day length, the management of live weight for age and of flock
uniformity. The good manager will utilise these techniques when ever possible to maximise
production efficiency and hence profitability.

90
8.3.7. Use of records
There are two types of records that need be kept on a poultry enterprise:
Those required for financial management - for business and taxation reasons
Those required for the efficient physical management of the enterprise
For records to be of use in the management of the enterprise, they must be complete, current and
accurate, be analysed and then used in the decision making process. Failure to use them means
that all of the effort to gather the information will have been wasted and performance not
monitored. As a result many problems that could have been fixed before they cause irreparable
harm may not be identified until too late.

8.3.8. Good marketing practice

There are three important elements to good marketing practice:
Produce the commodity required by the consumer - this usually means continuous
market research must be carried out to relate production to demand.
Be competitive - higher price is usually associated with good quality and/or specialised
product. Therefore, it is necessary to relate price to quality and market demand and to operate in
a competitive manner with the opposition.
Reliability - produce a commodity for the market and ensure that supply, price and
quality are reliable.

Review excercises
1. Describe the types of chicken breeds.
2. Describe the breeder farm sequence.
3. Describe the process of egg incubation and hatching.
4. Describe the layer farm sequence.
5. Describe the meat chicken farm sequence.
6. List the principles of poultry husbandry.
7. Why do poultry producers have to use good quality and right class of stock.
8. What are the approaches to maintain the poultry flock in good health?
9. What are the requirements of good housing for poultry?
10. Elaborate on nutrition for economic performance in poultry feeding.

91
 Chapter 9

BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION

Beef cattle production is a strong animal industry throughout the world. Beef cattle can serve a
unique role in providing high quality protein for human consumption from byproducts and
forage sources that humans and non-ruminant animals do not consume. This chapter introduces
several common beef cattle breeds, the beef commodity chain, and beef cattle farming systems.

9.1. Beef cattle breeds

Over 800 breeds of cattle are recognized worldwide, some of which were bred by humans for
specialized uses. The following breeds are some of those primarily used for their flesh, in the
production of beef.

9.1.1. Temperate beef cattle breeds

The Hereford
Hereford cattle, originally from Hereford shire,
England, are a widely used breed in temperate areas for
beef production. The Hereford is a well-muscled, hardy
breed, and for its foraging abilities under difficult range
conditions. Its attractive, predominantly white face,
underline and other white markings on a red body
became a trademark ("white face" or "baldy") among
cattle producers. A polled strain was developed in
Canada and the US from mutants.
The Limousin Hereford
Limousins, native to the south central part of France, are a
genetic source of larger weaning weights and muscle
mass while maintaining relatively low birth weights.
Limousins are known for their muscular build, feed
efficiency, ease of management and comparable calving
ease to other breeds. Limousin cattle produce the leaner
cuts of beef that have become a staple of the modern
market. Limousin cattle have a golden-brown coloration.
Other coloration, such as black, has been developed Lymousin

92
through cross-breeding with other breeds of cattle. In addition to altering natural coloration other
traits, such as polled (a genetic lack of horns), have been introduced through cross breeding. A
yellow-brown horned breed about the size of the Hereford, the Limousin is valued for its
excellent ratio of lean to fat and bone, a characteristic persisting in crosses.
The Charolais
Charolais cattle originated in Charolais, around
Charolles, in France. They are raised for their meat and
are known for their composite qualities when crossed with
other breeds, most notably Angus and Hereford cattle. The
breed tends to be large and well-muscled, with bulls
weighing up to 2,500 pounds (1,100 kilograms) and cows
up to 2,000 pounds. The coat is almost pure white.
Despite their relatively northerly origin, Charolais tolerate
heat well, and show good weight gains on even mediocre
Charolais
pasturage.
The Belgian Blue
Belgian Blue cattle originated in central and upper Belgium
in the 1960‘s with the development of the extreme double
muscling characteristics as a result of skilful selection. The
Belgian Blue cattle are also known as Belgian Blue-White,
Belgian White and Blue Pied, Belgian White Blue, Blue, or
Blanc Blue Belge (BBB). Their colour can range from
white, blue roan, black or a combination of them, the
colour red is present in some genotypes. The breed is
known for its quiet temperament.
The Belgian Blue is a large sized animal with rounded outline and prominent muscles. The
shoulder, back, loin and rump are heavily muscled. The back is straight, rump is sloping, tail set
is prominent and skin is fine. It has fine but strong legs and walks easily. The weight of an adult
bull ranges from 1100 and 1250kg for a height at the withers of 1.45m to 1.50m. It is by no
means rare to see animals of more than 1300kg. Cows can reach a weight of 850 to 900kg and
can exceed 1.40m.

9.1.2. Tropical beef cattle breeds

The Brahman
Brahman cattle were developed in the United States in the early 1900s from four different Indian
cattle breeds and some British-bred cattle. The Brahman has a distinct large hump over the top of

93
the shoulder and neck, and a loose flap of skin (dewlap)
hanging from the neck. Their ears are large and floppy. Bulls
weigh 1,600 to 2,200 pounds (800 to 1,100 kg) and cows
weigh 1,000 to 1,400 pounds (500 to 700 kg). At birth,
calves weigh 60 to 65 pounds (30 to 33 kg). Brahmans have
a greater ability to withstand heat than European cattle. They
have more sweat glands, and also an oily skin, thought to
help repel pest insects along with a smooth coat. They are
also more resistant to parasites and disease.
The Droughtmaster
The Droughtmaster is a tropical breed of beef
cattle developed in North Queensland by several
cattlemen from crossing Brahman and British
breed cattle, principally the Beef Shorthorn
during the early 1900‘s. The breed was
conceived in response to the need in the
Australian Tropics for a breed of cattle which
had good tick resistance and would be able to
utilise the environment and the pastures in the
most efficient manner to give higher weight gains and fertility. Droughtmasters are medium to
large with good walking and foraging abilities coupled with lower nutritional requirements to
give them the ability to retain condition and keep breeding, irrespective of the prevailing
conditions. Their short coat is generally red in colour, although variations from golden honey to
dark red can occur. The red pigmentation in Droughtmasters helps protect the cattle from cancer
eye, sunburnt udders and photosensitization. The cattle may be polled or horned, but the vast
majority are polled and exhibit only a moderate hump. They have medium to large ears and an
extended dewlap.
The Yellow
Yellow cattle are a breed of Zebu cattle found in Southern
China, Vietnam, Taiwan, etc. Yellow cattle are small, sturdy
animals with good heat tolerance and parasite resistance. They
have been used primarily for draft animals, but are now being
selected for meat production as well. In Vietnam, they are
being selected also for milk production, being crossbred with
Red Sindhi (Lai Sind) for this purpose.

94
9.2. Beef cattle production cycle and beef chain
The beef commodity chain encompasses all segments from conception of the animal to the
delivery of food to the consumer's table.

9.2.1. Beef cattle production cycle

The typical beef cattle production cycle can be described as in Figure 7.8. The typical beef cattle
production cycle can be devided into three different phases: cow-calf, backgrounding and
finishing.

Figure 7.8. The typical beef cattle production cycle

Cow-calf phase
Calves are born from cows and remain with their mothers for the first several months of life on
farms or ranches. As calves reach 6-10 months of age, they are weaned from their mothers. After
weaning, bull calves are typically castrated. Weaned male calves (steers) may graze until about

95
one year old (yearlings) and then be sold to a cattle feeder or a stocker/backgrounder who will
prepare the animal for the finishing/feedlot. Genetically superior bull calves are separated out for
use in breeding programs. Heifers that will be kept in the herd reach sexual maturity by 15-
months of age and are bred to deliver their first calf when they are 24-months of age. The
gestation period for beef cattle is 9 months. Following the first calf, the female, now a cow, is
rebred after a two to three month period and another calf delivered 9 months later.
Stocker/backgrounding phase
Once beef young stock have been weaned, rearing is carried out within a system that best suits
the breed/genetic make-up of the animals. From this age, the calves are usually fed on grassland.
Finishing phase
One of the most important stages in beef production is gaining the desired ‗finish‘ to the animal -
i.e. the condition of the animal as it is presented at slaughter. The correct finish will enable the
animal to provide a beef carcase that meets the market specifications in terms of weight,
conformation, fat class etc. The diet in the latter stages of the production period (typically the last
few months) has a profound effect on the eventual finish of an animal.

9.2.2. Beef chain

The beef chain involves the above beef cattle production phases and the following proccessing
and marketing phases.
Packer phase (slaughtering and processing)
Once cattle are considered ―finished‖ they are transported to packing plants to be slaughtered and
processed. Precautions during transportation minimize stress and injury to the animals. Cattle are
carefully loaded and unloaded into trailers that are
specially designed to avoid injury and strain. When
cattle arrive at packing plants, they are moved inside in a
quiet and orderly manner. There is little excess
movement or unnecessary noise so cattle are not
unduly stressed. Packing plant technicians then use a
mechanical stunning device to quickly and effectively
render animals unconscious before slaughtering.
When beef leaves the packing plant, it is in the form of large sections, either primals, like the
chuck, round rib and loin, or subprimals which are smaller cuts of meat such as the bottom
round, top round, eye round and round tip. Some plants sell subprimals to meat processing
facilities where workers skillfully break them down into individual steaks and roasts that are sent
to supermarkets and restaurants.

96
Retailer phase (supermarkets and restaurants)
Retailers and foodservice operators sell beef products in supermarkets and restaurants, where
steps are taken to ensure the final safety and quality of the products.
Consumers
Ultimately, consumers dictate the actions of the beef production chain, from pasture to plate, by
determining what kinds of beef they will buy and at what price.
Beef producers read demand signals from the meat case and customers throughout the
production chain. For instance, beef cattle are now much leaner than just a decade ago as a result
of the consumer demand for products with less fat.

9.3. Beef production systems

Beef production systems are classified according to the age at which animals emanating from a
production unit are sold. The production unit could be a farm or one of the enterprises in a larger
undertaking. A full description of a system includes the age, mass and carcass class at which
animals are marketed, as well as the breeding, management and feeding practices followed.
There are many beef productions systems that are adopted by meat cattle farmers. While in the
developed countries production of quality beef is usually achieved through the feeding of high-
energy rations to young animals (6 to 30 months old), the bulk of the beef produced in the
developing countries still comes from rather extensive systems. The main systems of production
can be identified as follows.

9.3.1. Extensive systems

The breeding, raising, growing and finishing activities are operated by the same people on
virtually the same grazings in extensive systems of beef production. The animals stay in good
condition for only 3–4 months of the year following the end of the rainy season. On some
extensive grazing-based farms, animals are mainly kept in fields and may be housed for part of
the year. In extensive systems the production costs, except those for watering the animals, are
practically very low.

9.3.2. Mixed farming systems

In the past this was the traditional system of beef production in many parts of the world. Small
farmers kept young males and some culled heifers for feeding and finishing, and fed them on
home-grown fodder. Fattening and finishing of work oxen was also an important source of beef.
Under the mixed farming systems practised today, the feeder cattle are usually, but not always,
produced on specialized breeding and raising farms located on poorer land or land unsuited to
intensive farming.

97
9.3.3. Intensive specialised systems
Intensive systems of commercial beef cattle production may be divided into four general
categories: (1) the cow-calf operations which produce weaned feeder calves for further grazing
and/or feeding, (2) the backgrounding or stocker operations in which body weight is added to
recently weaned calves, resulting in finishing-ready yearlings and (3) the finishing operations in
which cattle are fattened for slaughter, and (4) various combinations of them.
The cow-calf system
The cow-calf operation involves maintaining a breeding herd to produce the heaviest weight of
weaned calves possible. Breeding-herd size varies considerably, from a few cows on small
mixed farms to several hundred in large range herds. The average cow will stay productive in a
breeding herd for 7 to 9 years if no disease or physical problems develop. The female side of the
breeding herd usually consists of cows and heifers of a single breed, or the female crosses of
breeds that are likely to produce hybrid vigour in the various maternal characteristics such as
milking and mothering ability. Performance-tested, purebred bulls from breeds noted for their
post-weaning growth and carcass characteristics make up the male side of the herd.
The cow-calf operation involves breeding of cows with bulls or artificial insemination,
conception, gestation, birth of the calf and lactation periods until weaning of the calf from the
cow. Normally, when the calves reach 6-10 months of age, they are weaned from their mothers.
The stocker system
The stocker operation is normally attached to the cow-calf or the finishing enterprises, being
essentially a period of growth between weaning and the finishing phase for slaughter (6-12
months). It is roughage- and pasture-based, aimed at getting as much efficient youthful growth of
skeleton and muscle as possible. As a single enterprise, it is highly speculative and is usually a
"grasser" operation for individuals with ample pasture but no winter feed. These farmers buy
wintered steer and heifer calves in spring, and then resell them in late summer or fall to feedlot
operators.
The finishing system
These are where animals are fed a diet to get them ready for slaughter. While some cow-calf
operators may carry out this enterprise after a stocker phase for their own calves, most finishing
is now done in specially designed units, holding several hundred or thousands of animals. Some
farmers traditionally used the feedlot to enhance the value of their home-grown crops and to
provide a winter occupation. A feedlot or feedyard is a type of Confined Animal Feeding
Operation (CAFO) (also known as "factory farming") which is used for finishing livestock,
notably beef cattle, prior to slaughter. They may contain thousands of animals in an array of
pens.

98
Stocker calves are placed in a confinement feedlot for approximately 90 to 120 days. Feedlot
diets are usually very dense in energy, to encourage the deposition of fat, or marbling, in the
animal's muscles; Some consider this fat desirable as it leads to 'juiciness' in the resulting meat.
The animal may gain an additional 400 pounds (180 kg) during its 3-4 months in the feedlot.
Typical slaughter ages of beef cattle depeding on diet type, breed and sex:

Diet Type Breed Type / Sex Age at

Slaughter

Intensive cereal beef Continental & Dairy breeds / bulls 12 months

Intensive grass silage beef Dairy cross & Beef breeds / bulls & steers 16 months
Mixed grass/concentrate fed beef Dairy cross / Steers & Heifer 18-20 months
Mixed grass/concentrate fed beef Dairy cross & beef / Steer 22-26 months
Forage based suckler beef Beef breeds / Steers and Heifers 18-20 months

Combined systems
There are various combinations of the above three phases of intensive beef cattle production in
one farming system. In such a combined system, in addition to the breeding herd to produce
calves, the calves may be used in one of the following ways:
- After weaning, bull calves are typically castrated (steers), let graze until about one year
old (yearlings) and then sold to a cattle feeder or a stocker/backgrounder who will prepare the
animal for the finishing/feedlot.
- Suckled bull calves are given creep feeding (supplying supplemental feed, usually
concentrates). After weaning, they are kept with good feeding until 12-15 months of age and
then sold to a finishing/feedlot operation.
- After weaning, bull calves are typically castrated (steers), let graze or pen fed and then
fattened before slaughter at 18-24 months of age. On some farms, depending on the availability
of feed, weaned calves may be placed directly into a confinement feedlot for growing and
finishing, skipping the grassland phase.

9.3.4. Beef cattle production systems in Vietnam

In Vietnam beef cattle production involves a number of different farming systems as follows:
Extensive calf-cow grazing systems, under which grazing in the open is practiced in the
daytime and penning is used at night. The farmers operating these systems generally do not feed
their cattle mixed animal feed, whether made by the farmer or purchased from a commercial
supplier. The primary motivation of these farmers is generally wealth creation for their family,
i.e. they have an asset, e.g. old cattle or a calf, that can be sold when they need money;

99
 Intensive calf-cow systems, under which the cattle are in pens most of the time but may
spend a few hours each day free or tethered grazing. These farmers feed cultivated grass and also
some locally made concentrate to their cattle. The primary motivation of these farmers is the
commercial sale of fattened cattle, weaned calves or yearlings; and,
Cattle fattening systems, under which cattle are usually kept in pens all the time. These
farmers are commercially motivated, and much better funded than other cattle farmers. They buy
old and young cattle from both the intensive and extensive cattle farmers for fattening up. The
smallholder farmers involved in this activity usually feed their cattle with cultivated grass.
Larger operations tend to use cultivated grass and some concentrates.

Review excercises
1. Describe the major features of a temperate beef cattle breed.
2. Describe the major features of a tropical beef cattle breed.
3. Describe the major features of the Yellow cattle.
4. Draw and explain a typical beef cattle production cycle.
5. What ware the three phases in a typical beef cattle production cycle?
6. Describe a typical beef commodity chain.
7. What are the main chracteristics of a cow-calf operation?
8. What are the main chracteristics of a finishing operation in beef cattle production?
9. What are the main chracteristics of a combined beef cattle operation?
10. Describe beef cattle farming systems in Vietnam.

100
 Chapter 10

DAIRY CATTLE PRODUCTION

Dairy farming has been part of agriculture for thousands of years, but historically, it was usually
done on a small scale on mixed farms with the same stock often being used for both meat and
milk production. Today, dairy cows are specialized and most have been bred to produce large
volumes of milk, with little or no regard for their production of meat. In Vietnam dairy
production had increased very fast recently.This chapter is a brief introduction the most
commom dairy cattle brees, the milk production cycle, dairy production systems and the milk
commodity chain as a whole.

10.1. Dairy cattle breeds

Dairy cattle are cattle raised for their ability to produce large quantities of milk. Following are
some major breeds of dairy cattle.

10.1.1. Temperate dairy cattle breeds

The Holstein Friesian (HF)
The Holstein Friesian breed originated in Holland. The breed is
very famous all over the world and characterized by its colour
(shiny black and white), large size and exceptional milk
production. Mature bulls weigh up to 1200 kg; mature cows up
to 750 kg. A mature cow annually produces an average of 8000
kg of 3.7% butter fat, 3.2% protein milk.
The Jersey
The Jersey breed originated on the Island of Jersey, a small
British island in the English Channel off the coast of France. The
Jersey is one of the oldest dairy breeds. Jerseys are a fawn
colour, except along the spine, around the muzzle and on the
inside of the legs, where they are a paler shade. Bulls are darker
than cows and some strains produce offspring with white
markings. They are excellent grazers and perform well in
intensive grazing programs. They are more tolerant of heat than

101
the larger breeds. With an average weight of 900 pounds, the Jersey produces more pounds of
milk per pound of body weight than any other breed. Most Jerseys produce far in excess of 13
times their bodyweight in milk each lactation.
The Brown Swiss
The Brown Swiss breed originated in Europe, particularly
Switzerland, and were brought to Canada in 1888. These cattle
mate well with beef breeds. Bulls weigh up to 1135 kg; cows,
700 kg. Mature cows will annually produce about 6600 kg of
4.1% butterfat, 3.5% protein milk.

10.1.2. Tropical dairy cattle breeds

The Sahiwal
The Sahiwal breed originated in the dry Punjab region which
lies along the Indian-Pakistani border. Due to their heat
tolerance and high milk production they have been exported
to other Asian countries as well as Africa and the Caribbean.
Their colour can range from reddish brown through to the
more predominant red, with varying amounts of white on the
neck, and the underline. In males the colour darkens towards
the extremities, such as the head, legs and tail.
It is tick-resistant, heat-tolerant and noted for its high resistance to parasites, both internal and
external. Cows average 2270kg of milk during a lactation while suckling a calf and much higher
milk yields have been recorded. They are generally docile and lethargic, making them more
useful for slow work.
The Sahiwal is the heaviest milker of all Zebu breeds and display a well developed udder.
Sahiwals demonstrate the ability to sire small, fast-growing calves and are noted for their
hardiness under unfavorable climatic conditions.

10.2. Dairy cattle production cycle and milk chain

10.2.1. Dairy cattle production cycle

The production of milk requires that the cow be in lactation, which is a result of the cow having
given birth to a calf. The cycle of insemination, pregnancy, parturition, and lactation, followed
by a "dry" period before insemination can recur, requires a period of 12 to 16 months for each
cow (Figure 10.6).

102
 Figure 10.6. A typical dairy cattle production cycle

Life for a cow starts as a calf or baby cow. With a lot of intensive care the female calf is reared
till it is able to cope on its own. This usually takes about 3 months. At this time the calf is
weaned or removed from milk and allowed to graze with the older animals.
As the young female calf grows she is called a Heifer or an unmated female cow. From weaning,
the heifer will take about 15 months to grow to a size at which she can be mated. Cows have a
gestation period of 280 days. Therefore the pregnant heifer will normally have her first calf at an
age of 27 months old. Female calves (heifers) with dairy breeding may be kept as replacement
cows for the dairy herd. If a replacement cow turns out to be a substandard producer of milk, she
then goes to market.
Before the calf is born the cow‘s body begins to prepare for its birth by producing milk in the
udder. Soon after the calf is born it instinctively feels for the mother‘s udder and suckles causing

103
the release of milk from the udder. The first release milk or fresh milk is called colostrums and is
different to the normal milk. Colostrums is a special milk containing lots of vitamins, minerals,
protein and energy, which provide the calf with life-boost and a protection against disease.
Once the colostrum milk has been fed to the new born
calf, normal milk will begin to be formed in the udder.
The cow will than be milked and the milk collected
and stored prior to being sent to the factory for
processing. Once a calf is born the cow will continue
to give milk for about 300 days, which is termed the
lactation period. On average a cow may produce 5000
litres per lactation period, which is an average of 17
litres per day. However, the amount of milk produced
is not the same on every day, with more being
produced at the start of lactation and less towards the end of lactation period.
About 60 days after calving the cow will be mated again so that she will have a calf to initiate
milk production in 9 months from mating or next lactation. This will mean she should be back
milking 360 days or a year after she first had a calf.
When the cow is about 300 days in milk she may only be producing 5 – 10 litres per cow, at this
point the cow is dried off and given a rest from milking for about 2 months before calving again
and the cycle continues.
Dairy cows may continue to be economically productive for many lactations. Ten or more
lactations are possible. However, the chances of problems arising which may lead to a cow being
culled are high.

10.2.2. Milk commodity chain

The milk commodity chain (from feed to food) can be divided into 7 steps as follows:
Step 1 – Feeding cows
Typically cows spend about 8 hours eating, 8 hours sleeping and 8 hours ruminating or chewing
their cud. Cows are usually provided with a fresh paddock of grass in the morning after milking
and another fresh paddock of grass in the evening after milking. They may also be fed some
concentrate feed in the dairy while being milked.
Many dairy farms also grow their own forage. This is fed directly to the cows, or is stored as
silage or hay (conserved forage) for use during the winter season when there is not enough grass
available. Additional dietary supplements containing protein, minerals and vitamins are added to
the feed to increase quality milk production.

104
Step 2 - Harvesting milk
Cows are normally milked 2 times per day, however some high producing herds are milked 3
times per day. Normally cows are milked at about 6 am in the morning and again at about 5 pm
in the evening. Milking time takes about 5 minutes per cow but depends on the type of milking
and the amount of milk the cow is producing.
Milking may be made by hand or by machine.
Hand milking
Until the late 1800s, the milking of the cow was done by hand. When it became necessary to
milk larger numbers of cows, the cows would be brought to a shed or barn that was set up with
bails (stalls). Milking took place with the cattle tied by the neck with ropes or held in place by
stanchions. One person could milk more cows this way, as many as 20 for a skilled worker.
Feeding could occur simultaneously with milking in the barn, although most dairy cattle were
pastured during the day between milkings.
Machine milking
Most dairies have enough machines to milk 20 to 40 cows or more at one time, reducing the
amount of time the cows wait to be milked. Milking machines mimic the action of a young calf
by creating a pulsating vacuum around the teat, which causes the milk to be released from the
udder.
Innovation in milking focused on mechanising the milking parlour to maximise throughput of
cows per operator, which streamlined the milking process to permit cows to be milked as if on an
assembly line, and to reduce physical stresses on the farmer by putting the cows on a platform
slightly above the person milking the cows to eliminate having to constantly bend over.
The milking parlor allowed a concentration of money into a small area, so that more technical
monitoring and measuring equipment could be devoted to each milking station in the parlor.
Rather than simply milking into a common pipeline for example, the parlor can be equipped with
fixed measurement systems that monitor milk volume and record milking statistics for each
animal. Tags on the animals allow the parlor system to automatically identify each animal as it
enters the parlor.
Step 3 - Storing milk
Milk storage vats or silos are refrigerated and come in various shapes and sizes. Milk is stored on
farm at 4 degrees Celsius and less for no longer than 48 hours. Vats and silos are agitated to
make sure that the entire volume remains cold and milk fat does not separate from the milk.
After milk has been collected, storage vats and stainless steel pipes are thoroughly cleaned
before the farmer milks again.

105
Step 4 - Transporting milk
Milk is collected from the farm every 24 or 48 hours. The tankers that are used have a special
stainless steel body which are heavily insulated to keep the milk cold during transportation to the
processing factory. Milk tanker drivers are accredited milk graders, which allows them to
evaluate the milk prior to collection. Tanker drivers grade and if necessary reject milk based on
temperature, sight and smell. A representative sample is collected from each farm pickup prior to
being pumped onto the tanker. After collection, milk is transported to factory sites and stored in
refrigerated silos before being processing.
Step 5 - Laboratory testing
Samples of milk are taken from farm vats prior to collection and from the bulk milk tanker on
arrival at the factory. Samples from the bulk milk tanker are tested for antibiotic and temperature
before the milk enters the factory processing area. Farm milk samples are tested for
milkfat/protein/bulk milk cell count and bacteria count. If milk is unsuitable for our quality
products the milk will be rejected. Most farmers are paid on quality and composition of their
milk and it is extremely important that these samples are collected and stored correctly.
Step 6 - Processing milk
Whole milk, once approved for use, is pumped into storage silos where it undergoes
pasteurization, homogenization and further processing.
Pasteurization:
Involves heating every particle of milk to a specific temperature for a specified period of time
and cooling it again without allowing recontamination. Pasteurization is performed for two
reasons;
Ensure all milk products are safe for human consumption by destroying all bacteria that
may be harmful to health (pathogens).
Improve the keeping quality of milk by killing or inactivating some undesirable enzymes
and spoilage bacteria.
Homogenisation:
Involves pushing the raw milk through an atomizer to form tiny particles so that the fat is
dispersed evenly throughout the milk, stopping the fat from floating to the top of the container.
Further processing:
Includes, reducing the fat content by micro-filtration, increasing the storage life by ultra high
temperature (UHT) treatment and mixing or culturing milk for flavored and yoghurt products.
Step 7 - Selling milk

106
Then milk is sent off to stores for sale to the general public.

8.3. Dairy farming systems

8.3.1. General chracteristics of dairy farming systems

Dairy farming is a class of agricultural, or an animal husbandry, enterprise, for long-term
production of milk, usually from dairy cows but also from goats, sheep and camels, which may
be either processed on-site or transported to a dairy factory for processing and eventual retail
sale.
Dairy operations include both the production of milk and the production of calves. Most dairy
farms sell the male calves born by their cows, usually for veal production, or breeding depending
on quality of the bull calf, rather than raising non-milk-producing stock.
Many dairy farms also grow their own feed, typically including corn, and hay. This is fed
directly to the cows, or is stored as silage for use during the winter season or for making total
mixed ration (TMR) for the whole year round.
Dairy production systems in developing countries may be identified by a combination of
characteristics. These include buffalo or cows; small versus medium versus large units; mixed
farming versus specialised dairy units; urban or rural-based production; public versus private
sector participation in production, processing, procurement and distribution; breed improvement
versus feed improvement; upgrading existing breeds or developing synthetic breeds; dual
purpose or single purpose breeds; and decisions to focus development efforts on high-potential
areas for dairying versus a diffusion strategy to reach the maximum number of current or
potential producers.
Reproduction is important in the life cycle considerations of a dairy, because the cow must
"calve" or produce an offspring to "freshen" or to begin lactation and produce milk. Cows are
simultaneously in various life cycle stages in the same "typical" dairy.

8.3.2. Types of dairy farming systems

There are a number of different types of dairy farming system in the world as well as in Vietnam
with each one selected to suit the local conditions, the breed of cow and the size of the herd.
Dairy farming systems range from large-scale, intensive, vertically integrated commercial
systems to smallholder `subsistence-plus' income systems.
Grass-based systems
This is typical of what the general public might consider to be a ―traditional way of farming‖.
Most dairy herds graze during the spring and summer months, and be housed for up to six
months of the year, usually from late autumn through to the end of winter, when the weather is

107
cold and grass stops growing. This practice can vary depending on weather conditions,
availability of feed and stage of lactation. In extreme weather conditions farmers may decide to
house their herds to allow for better care and attention, especially when grass growth is minimal,
feed availability is low and the impact of heat stress is high.
Housed systems
In the world, most milk is produced by cows raised in intensive production systems. These
include tie stall barns, free stall barns, and open lots. Dairy herds may spend the majority of their
time indoors in modern, well ventilated and light cattle sheds. This is referred to as ‗continuous‘,
or ‗year round‘ housing. In some cases, these cows may spend up to three months outdoors
during their dry period (the three months before a cow gives birth to a calf), and may have access
to pasture for exercise and to socialise.
Within these systems each cow is required to have space to move around, a bed to lie in and
sufficient space to feed. It is common in housed units for farmers to also provide loafing areas,
cow grooming brushes, fans and water sprinklers to ensure maximum cow comfort.
Cows that are predominantly housed indoors are fed a diet of freshly cut pasture or silage and
mixed ration feed to ensure that all their nutritional requirements are met. The more intensively
managed systems feed cows rations that are relatively high in concentrates and stored forages.
In recent years there has been a gradual increase in the number of farmers adopting year round
housing systems. This is due to a number of factors, which include the reported health and
welfare benefits of being able to provide a consistent feed ration to cows (particularly those with
higher milk yields), the increased uptake of robotic milking systems, and, in some cases, an
increase in herd size.
Mixed systems
Some producers use a combination of the two above systems, which is appealing in that it
reduces costs, but still allows the feeding of concentrate to improve milk production levels.
Extensively grazed systems
An extensively grazed, or ‗New Zealand‘ style system, is one where the cows spend the majority
of the year outdoors and are likely be out wintered in all weather conditions. This style of
farming is commonplace in the southern hemisphere but not widespread in the North due to the
cold winter weather conditions. It is generally suited to areas where there is adequate rainfall and
soil temperature to ensure prolonged grass growth and for lower yielding cows. During the
winter months, when grass stops growing, cows will be fed a supplementary diet of forage on
feed pads (areas of hard standing). In the countries that practice this system herds tend to be
block spring calved, and milk production is low during the winter period. These pasture-based

108
systems often strive to optimize rather than maximize milk production while paying careful
attention to controlling input costs.
Smallholder systems
Smallholder dairy production is common in many parts of the developing world, providing an
important source of nutrition and income to millions of households. Smallholder dairying is
invariably part of a larger and more complex farming system that typically includes farm-
produced inputs such as feeds, various off-farm inputs, family inputs of labour and management
and outputs of various types. Smallholder dairy production takes many forms and is often
combined with cottage industry (small household) processing activities. Smallholder dairy
production is mostly carried out by the family, with some very limited hired labor. Examples of
smallholder dairy production are the mixed farms in Central America with 25 cattle; small mixed
farms in the highlands of Ethiopia with one or two cows; rice farms in the Punjab of India with
10 buffaloes.

Review excercises
1. Describe the main features of a dairy cattle breed.
2. Draw and briefly explain the typical dairy cattle production cycle.
3. Elaborate on the life cycle of a dairy cow.
4. Draw a lactation curve and elaborate on it.
5. Describe the milk commodity chain.
6. Elaborate on the types of feed the dairy cow is normally fed.
7. Elaborate on how a cow is milked.
8. Elaborate on how milk is stored and transported.
9. Explain why and when milk is tested.
10. Describe how milk is processed and marketed.

109