Combustion Laboratory Unit
Combustion Laboratory Unit
Combustion Laboratory Unit
NOTE:
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this manual is accurate;
however no labiality is accepted for errors. Should an error be discovered please inform the
company in writing, giving full details. Any experimental results given are for guidance only and
are not guaranteed as exact answers that can be obtained for a given apparatus; due to the
complex variables applicable to most experiments.
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
Table of Contents
Page
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 1
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
1 INTRODUCTION:
The EES® Combustion Laboratory Unit is floor mounted designed for students to
study many aspects of combustion using a small scale unit which will be easily
understood and controlled, based on an industrial dual fuel burner. The unit comes with
the burner, combustion chamber, control panel and instruments, all at a convenient
working height. Students shall vary the fuel and air flow rate over a wide range and their
effect on flame characteristics, and combustion efficiency may be reduced. With a flue
gas analyzer, the composition of the fuel gas may then be determined and related to the
air to fuel ratio.
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
Floor standing combustion unit capable of burning light boiler fuel oil, L.P.G or main gas
of diesel fuel over a wide range of fuel flow rates and air-to-fuel ratios. Burner firing into
a water cooled combustion chamber with provision for flame observation and gas
sampling.
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
Cylindrical chamber 460 x 910mm long with water-cooled walls. Fitted with
observation ports, water-cooled sampling probe.
2.4 Control:
Manual control for air, oil, gas and cooling water
2.5 Instrumentation:
The unit is fitted with necessary sensors with digital indicator for measuring flow
rate of air, oil, gas and cooling water, temperature of cooling water and pressure
of gas.
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
3 SUMMARY OF THEORY:
3.1 The effects of air-fuel ratio on combustion, heat transfer and flue gas losses:
The effects of air/fuel ratio are important theoretically and practically in the
whole: field of fuel utilization, since this ratio controls the completeness or
otherwise of the combustion reaction, the flame temperature and the quantity of
working fluid flowing through a system. A clear yet simple demonstration of the
effects is of obvious benefit and many of the readings taken may be treated at
higher levels in a satisfying theoretical manner. The following procedure yields
useful results, the quoted fuel of kerosene being replaceable by others to the same
effect.
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
The analyses of fuels and flue gases are of particular importance industrially since
these are the basic parameters upon which the calculation of air requirements for
combustion and assessment of combustion efficiency are based. All too often,
such analyses are performed by the student completely out of context with no
chance of applying his results to an actual situation and thus assessing their true
value. Since the Combustion Laboratory Unit offers accurately controllable
combustion conditions which bear a strong resemblance to industrial practice,
these analyses can be made and utilized under realistic conditions. A suitable
experimental procedure using kerosene is as follows. The same procedure is
applying to all other fuels.
A sample of the kerosene to be burnt in the Unit is taken and analyzed for carbon
and hydrogen in the standard manner. A typical analysis is 86.0% carbon and
14.0% hydrogen and it is suggested that, if analysis cannot be performed, these
figures are used if none more reliable are available. From this, the student can
determine the stoichiometric quantity of air needed, which should be about 14.7:1
w/w, and the dry flue gas analysis which will show a carbon dioxide content,
depending upon fuel composition, of about 15.3%. The student should prepare a
range of flue gas analyses from stoichiometric air/fuel ratio up to, say, a ratio of
19:1 and down to a ratio of, say, 10:1. The excess air calculations for gas analysis
are quite standard but the latter, air deficiency calculations; require some
assumptions to be made. A convenient one in this case is to assume that, at each
air/fuel ratio, the hydrogen content of the kerosene burns preferentially; then the
carbon burns to carbon monoxide, then the carbon monoxide uses whatever
remains of the oxygen to convert as far as possible to carbon dioxide. This is a
gross simplification which happens to be reasonably accurate to about 5%
deficiency, and the study of what really happens in terms of combustion can be
extended for more advanced students.
The student now has his own fuel and flue gas analyses and is ready to apply them
to the Unit. The running conditions of experiment 1.2 are equally appropriate to
this experiment and, if sufficient time and personnel are available, both
experiments could run together. The Unit is operated at a constant fuel flow rate
and the air flow rate varied to cover the ratio range 10:1 to 19:1, allowing steady
conditions to be reached at each setting before taking readings of the flue gas
analysis.
From stoichiometric ratio upwards (excess air), there should be a very strong
similarity and preferably coincidence between the actual and theoretical flue gas
analyses. Under fuel-rich conditions, a considerable divergence of actual and
predicted analyses must be expected due to the simplicity of assumptions made in
the predictions. Figure4 shows the sort of results to be expected and the results
should indicate the accuracy or otherwise of the students analytical technique and
subsequent calculations. A more complete study may be pursued by advanced
students, in which exhaust solid emissions as well as gases are analyzed. This
requires quite sophisticated analytical techniques such as chromatography rather
than the more usual common equipment, but the real story of combustion,
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
It must be stressed that, for good results from this experiment, the Unit should be
previously thoroughly checked for air leakage at all sources, such as the sight
glasses and the ignition port. Any incidental air ingress will have an adverse effect
on the results but a "Before and after" demonstration of results is most worthwhile
to show how misleading many industrial gas analyses may be. This may be done
in a controlled fashion by allowing air in leakage through the ignition port or a
sight glass port, with extreme caution, and noting the resultant flue gas analysis.
The exercise may be extended by calculation to show the manner of assessment of
air in leakage rate.
Kerosene is burnt at a range of air/fuel ratios from about 10:1 to about 19:1. At
each ratio, steady conditions are allowed to develop although for visual
observation of flame condition this is not as critical as when making quantitative
measurements. The noise level, flame type and steadiness, with any other
characteristic are noted. The kerosene fuel is replaced by gas oil and similar
observations made over a similar range of air/fuel ratios. The type of observation
is indicated in Tables 1 and 2. Conclusions should be drawn about the effect of
differences of characteristics upon performance in the Unit, perhaps checking the
conclusions with a few relevant heat transfer measurements.
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
The comparison cannot be as direct as the liquid fuels, since the gases have very
different calorific values, densities, air requirements, inflammability limits, etc.,
but a useful comparison can be mane and valid conclusions drawn.
The gas properties vary according to source and purity, and it is suggested that
accurate data be obtained from the gas supplier for experimental purposes. The
properties of bottled gas may vary slightly as the gas is used, the lighter
constituents being given off first and progressively heavier materials later. For
extremely accurate experiments this situation may be avoided by using liquid
withdrawal bottles, the liquefied gas being fed to a vaporizer before use. This is a
standard technique and the bottled gas supplier will be able to furnish details. The
care to be taken when working with gaseous fuels cannot be stressed too highly.
Since Towns gas and Propane have such widely differing properties (e.g. calorific
value), the investigation of their combustion characteristics has to be carried out
at different flow and heat release rates to make full use of the Unit. Therefore a
good basis to choose the flow rates for observation is that of best observing
conditions.
The Unit is ignited following standard procedure and steady conditions are
achieved on Towns gas. The suggested settings for starting are a gas flow of about
8 kg/h (17 Ib/h) and stoichiometric air rate. Where the gas flow meter is calibrated
for something other than Towns gas, the conversion makes an informative
calculation. As a guide, if the rotameter is calibrated for propane, a setting of 14
kg/h (30 Ib/h) is equivalent to about 8 kg/h (17 Ib/h) Towns gas. A water flow of
680 kg/h (1500 Ib/h) at this setting gives a temperature rise of about 30 ºC,
although within limits this figure is not critical. The air flow rate can now be
varied over a wide range of air/fuel ratios, making observations as with the liquid
fuels experiment.
The fuel is now changed over to propane, for which a flow rate of 7kg/h (15 Ib/h)
is useful, although it may be found necessary to vary this somewhat during the
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
As well as drawing up a table in the form of Tables 4 and 5, note should be made
of flame stability at the extremes of the air/fuel ratio range and this ratio
compared with the theoretical inflammability limit. Some conclusion may be
drawn about the quality of air and fuel mixing by the combustor, with resultant
emphasis on the accuracy and relative merits of visual observations and
quantitative measurements for combustion efficiency and on instability and safety
aspects. The results here may be complemented by noting water jacket and flue
temperatures and flue gas analyses.
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
The Unit is ignited according to the Instruction Manual and allowed to achieve
steady state conditions with the chosen fuel at or near stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
It is suggested that a little excess air be used for the first balance, since this
simplifies the flue loss calculation. This, of course, may be subsequently altered
to simulate various plant conditions. The water flow rate is adjusted to give a high
outlet temperature, of the order of 80 ºC. Care must be taken here, with constant
observation.
INGOING OUTGOING
MJ/h MJ/h
Heat input from propane 351 Heat to cooling water 213
Heat in air 3 Heat to exhaust gases 128
____ ___
354 346
Unaccounted 8
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
After ignition in the recommended fashion, a kerosene flow rate of 9 kg/h (20
Ib/h) was set, with air at 134 kg/h (295 Ib/h) and cooling water at 680 kg/h (1500
Ib/h). When steady conditions had developed, the water outlet temperatures were
recorded, as were the surface temperatures of the stainless steel annular jacket. An
asbestos woven cloth was then carefully fitted over the annular section and
fastened fairly tightly. For the same flow rates at steady conditions, the water
outlet temperatures were again recorded, along with the temperatures of the
outside of the cloth covering and, where possible, the temperatures of the steel
skin under the cloth. Following this, the cloth was replaced by a loose fibrous
cover about 25mm thick and similar temperature measurements made.
It was found that the final water temperatures varied surprisingly little, in the
order of 2°C only. The outermost surface temperatures varied from 75°C above
inlet for the bare surface, to 45°C for the asbestos cloth, to 30°C above inlet for
the fibrous mat.
The problems and parameters which can be investigated here are, for example, (a)
to determine the thermal conductivity of the insulators - this is easy for the tight-
fitting cloth, but not for the loose-fitting fibrous mat because of accurate
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
An experiment suitable for more advanced students is the study of flame radiation
characteristics in an environment akin to an industrial setting. The essence of such
an experiment is to measure the heat transfer to the water-cooled walls of the Unit
with a non-luminous flame in the combustion chamber and then with a luminous
flame. The variation can be achieved either by using a gaseous fuel for the former
and a liquid fuel for the latter, or by varying the combustion conditions for one
fuel to give first a non- luminous and then a luminous flame. In an experiment
under change-of-fuel conditions, a non-luminous gas flame gave cooling water
temperatures some 5 to 12°C lower than equivalent heat release rates with a
luminous fuel flame. Whichever method is adopted for achieving the desired
variations, there are inevitably changes of mass flow rate and of flame
temperatures even for similar heat release rates. The complications which such
changes bring are the reasons for stating that the experiment is appropriate to
advanced students with the necessary theoretical knowledge to attempt the
sorting-out of the various contributing factors.
A figure for the emissivity of the luminous flame may be deduced and, since the
Unit has sight glasses opposite one another, the values could be checked by
Schmidt-method measurements.
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
Note:
1. The gas analyzer is purged when the O2 reading is approximately 20.9% and
the CO reading is 0ppm.
2. Only switch off the gas analyzer when the unit is purged.
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES:
5.1 Experiment 1:
Objective:
Procedure:
Note:
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
5.2 Experiment 2:
Objective:
Procedure:
Note:
1. Press the reset button if the red light is on (on the burner).
2. The equipment cannot be started if there is no water supply and T2 (water out
temperature) is more than 70°C
3. Increase the air flow by increasing the opening of BD and DA if there is
visible smoke coming out from the exhaust
4. Always check for gas leak
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
5.3 Observations:
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
6 EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE:
1. Always isolate the equipment from the electrical supply when carrying out
maintenance on the equipment
2. Always disconnect the fuel from the equipment.
3. Ensure that safety notices are placed on the equipment supply advising personnel that
the equipment is being worked on, inspected and should not be operated.
4. Check the operation of any protective devices, such as an ELCB so that it operates in
accordance with its specifications thus ensuring the safety of all operational personnel
working on the equipment. Any malfunction of the device must be corrected by a
qualified electrician before returning the equipment back to a service condition.
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
APPENDIX A
Experiment Data Sheet
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
APPENDIX B
Typical Experimental Results
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
SAMPLE RESULTS
EXPERIMENT 1:
DIESEL = 168 ml/min
A=1
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
A=3 A=5
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
EXPERIMENT 2:
LPG = 38 L/min
A=1
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
A=3 A=5
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
Where,
A = number indicated at the damper
∆p = pressure drop across damper, Pa
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
APPENDIX B
Sample Calculations
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
When A = 1,
After calibration, diesel flowrate = 182.5 ml/min
Diesel flow rate, (G) = 182.5 ml/min convert to m3/s times diesel density
= 3.04E-6 m3/s x 827 kg/m3
= 0.002515 kg/s
Hcombustion = G x LHV
Hwater = 47.6 kW
Qa = 4.1√98.5
=40.69 dm3/s ~~ 0.04069 m3/s
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
Mair = ma / 28.84
= 0.048423 / 28.84
= 0.001679 kg.mol/s
µd = 226 kg / mol
G
Diesel flow rate, MD = –––––> MD = 1.11E-5 kgmol/s
226
MT = Mair + MD
CALCULATIONS:
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
Oxygen outlet rate: Moxout = Moxin – Mox; Moxout 7.99 x 10-5 kg mol / s
∆T = Tf - T0 = 734.9
Hflue = 43.52 kW
= 15.15%
Efficiency = 84.9%
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
When A = 1
Heat combustion at 25°C and constant pressure for propane and butane is:-
LPG gas molecular weight @ 25°C => MW (LPG) = 0.3(44) + 0.7(58) = 53.8kg/kg mol
Tact P0
correction factor, K = G x
To Pact
= 9.73E-4 m3/s
Mf = Qf x ρLPG
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
k P
Qa
1000
Qa = 0.03837 m3/s
13
MOxB = MB MOxB = 1.75 x 10-4kg mol /s
2
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
Hp = ∆HP.Mp Hp = -31.20 kW
HB = ∆HB.MB HB = -71.74 kW
CpN2 = 30.85
CpO2 = 32.62
CpCO2 = 48.27
CpH2O = 37.53
Hflue = [(CpN2. MNout) + (CpO2. MOXout) + (CpCO2. Mcdp) + (CpCO2. McdB) + (CpH2O. Mwp)
+ (CpH2O. MwB)]∆T
= 30.41 kW
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Combustion Laboratory Unit
Efficiency = 64%
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