Relevance – means that something is essential or significant to 2 Red herring

you. Likewise, a topic is relevant if it is related to the subject.

Finally, facts and details are relevant if they support an idea, A red herring is an attempt to shift focus from the debate at
theme, message, or argument. hand by introducing an irrelevant point.

Worthiness – the quality of being good enough; the quality of Example: Losing a tooth can be scary, but have you heard
deserving attention or respect. about the Tooth Fairy?

What is a Relevant Idea? 3 Straw man

A relevant idea is an idea that is timely, useful, and applicable A straw man argument is one that argues against a hyperbolic,
to a particular situation. It addresses a specific need or inaccurate version of the opposition rather than their actual
problem, provides a solution or a new perspective, and can argument.
create a positive impact or damage. An idea is relevant if Example: Erin thinks we need to stop using all plastics, right
based on facts, evidence, and practical consideration rather now, to save the planet from climate change.
then assumptions, speculations, or wishful thinking.
4 Equivocation
The Worth of Ideas
An equivocation is a statement crafted to mislead or confuse
An idea has worth if it is desirable, useful, or valuable to an readers or listeners by using multiple meanings or
individual. This definition tells us that “worth” and “relevance” interpretations of a word or simply through unclear phrasing.
are almost synonymous. An idea has worth if it has relevance.
Likewise, an idea has relevance if it has worth. So, you will find Example: While I have a clear plan for the campus budget that
an author’s message has worth if it is relevant to your daily life accounts for every dollar spent, my opponent simply wants to
or if you can apply it in real-life situations. throw money at special interest projects.

Judging the Worth of an Idea 5 Slippery slope

One criterion is critical to an idea’s worthiness – feasibility. With a slippery slope fallacy, the arguer claims a specific series
Often, an idea has worth if you can implement and execute it. of events will follow one starting point, typically with no
supporting evidence for this chain of events.
Feasibility – capable of being done or carried out; capable of
being used or dealt with successfully. Example: If we make an exception for Bijal’s service dog, then
other people will want to bring their dogs. Then everybody
Judging the relevance can help us recognize how applicable all will bring their dog, and before you know it, our restaurant
knowledge can be. Either during discussion or in written form, will be overrun with dogs, their slobber, their hair, and all the
relating our own ideas and experiences to the current topic is noise they make, and nobody will want to eat here anymore.
an excellent way to express relevance.
6 Hasty generalization
Fallacy – it is an idea which is believed to be true but it is really
false due to incorrect information or reasoning. A hasty generalization is a statement made after considering
just one or a few examples rather than relying on more
Fact – is an idea which is true and can be verified factually or extensive research to back up the claim. It’s important to keep
proven. in mind that what constitutes sufficient research depends on
Opinion – is an idea or statement which only comes from the issue at hand and the statement being made about it.
someone’s feelings and cannot be proven. Example: I felt nauseated both times I ate pizza from
Bias – is an idea that leads to poor judgement and poor Georgio’s, so I must be allergic to something in pizza.
decision-making towards a certain thing for it could be a 7 Appeal to authority
positive one in favor of a certain person and negative for the
other one. In an appeal to authority, the arguer claims an authority
figure’s expertise to support a claim despite this expertise
Types of Fallacy being irrelevant or overstated.
Ad hominem Example: If you want to be healthy, you need to stop drinking
An ad hominem fallacy is one that attempts to invalidate an coffee. I read it on a fitness blog.
opponent’s position based on a personal trait or fact about 8 False dilemma
the opponent rather than through logic.
A false dilemma, also known as a false dichotomy, claims there
Example: Katherine is a bad choice for mayor because she are only two options in a given situation. Often, these two
didn’t grow up in this town. options are extreme opposites of each other, failing to
acknowledge that other, more reasonable, options exist.
Example: If you don’t support my decision, you were never Example: “You don’t have enough experience to be the new
really my friend. leader.” “Neither do you!”
9 Bandwagon fallacy What is an argument?
With the bandwagon fallacy, the arguer claims that a certain An argument is a statement that tries to convince us that
action is the right thing to do because it’s popular. something is true. It is usually supported with evidences. It
Example: Of course it’s fine to wait until the last minute to consists of two main parts: premise and conclusion.
write your paper. Everybody does it!
Premise - an assertion that serves as evidence to support a
10 Appeal to ignorance conclusion.

An appeal to ignorance is a claim that something must be true Conclusion - a statement or claim that is supported by at least
because it hasn’t been proven false. It can also be a claim that one premise
something must be false because it hasn’t been proven true.
This is also known as the burden of proof fallacy. Premise Indicators Conclusion indicators
Since, for, because, as shown consequently, therefore,
Example: There must be fairies living in our attic because by, given that, owing to, for so,
nobody’s ever proven that there aren’t fairies living in our the reason that accordingly, hence, thus,
attic. that
11 Circular argument is why, clearly, it implies
that,
A circular argument is one that uses the same statement as it follows that
both the premise and the conclusion. No new information or
justification is introduced. Conclusion Premise
Schools must address …because it affects a
Example: Peppers are the easiest vegetable to grow because I
bullying… student’s overall well-being.
think peppers are the easiest vegetable to grow.
Your body can benefit from ...since they are full of
12 Sunk cost fallacy eating carrots… vitamins.
With the sunk cost fallacy, the arguer justifies their decision to
continue a specific course of action by the amount of time or
money they’ve already spent on it.
Example: I’m not enjoying this book, but I bought it, so I have
to finish reading it.
13 Appeal to pity
An appeal to pity attempts to sway a reader’s or listener’s
opinion by provoking them emotionally.
Example: I know I should have been on time for the interview,
but I woke up late and felt really bad about it, then the stress
of being late made it hard to concentrate on driving here.
14 Causal fallacy
A causal fallacy is one that implies a relationship between two
things where one can’t actually be proven.

Example: When ice cream sales are up, so are shark attacks.
Therefore, buying ice cream increases your risk of being bitten
by a shark.

15 Appeal to hypocrisy

An appeal to hypocrisy, also known as a tu quoque fallacy, is a

rebuttal that responds to one claim with reactive criticism
rather than with a response to the claim itself.