LESSON 3-Philosophy

UNIT 2: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
Lesson 3
Week 3
Objectives:
 Distinguish opinion from truth

 Analyze situations that show the difference between opinion and truth
Activity. Explain the statement: “Philosophy is like a midwife during labor.”
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Discussion
Philosophizing
Philosophizing means to think or express oneself in a philosophical manner. It considers
or discusses a matter from a philosophical standpoint. In existentialism truth is based on
exercising choices and personal freedom, in postmodernism it is accepted that truth is not
absolute and in logic, truth is based on reasoning and critical thinking.
Logic
Logic is derived from the Greek word logos, which means “spoken word,” “speech,” or
“reason.” It was introduced by Zeno, a Greek philosopher, through is use of the term logike,
which means “discourse of thinking” or “treaties on thought.” Logic is formally defined as a
science and art of correct thinking. Defined as a science of correct thinking logic consists of a
systematized knowledge of the principles that govern correct thinking. In this vein, logic is not
based on mere opinion or hypothesis, but on certain and demonstrated knowledge.
As an art of correct thinking, logic directs reason itself. Through logic, man’s reason is
guided so that it can proceed according to a system or order with ease and cautious avoidance of
error as it draws definitions and understands terms, propositions, syllogisms and fallacies among
others.
Looking out for fallacies
The term fallacy is derived from the Latin infinitive fallere, which means to deceive or to
appeal false or deceptive. Fallacy happens, as maintained by logicians, when the mistake in
reasoning is unintentional. To further understand fallacy here are some kinds of falalcies.
1. Equivocation – employs vague terms or those used in an equivocal manner, in the course
of the argument or syllogism.
2. Amphiboly – this kind of fallacy arises from a defect in grammatical construction.
3. Accent – arises due to a difference in interpretation brought about by misplaced emphasis
on a phrase, word or syllable in a proposition.
4. Division – arises when an argument takes what is true of the whole to be also true of its
parts, or when an argument takes the attributes of a collection of elements as the
attributes of the elements themselves.
5. Composition – arises when an argument proceeds to take the attributes of the parts to be
that same attributes of the whole itself.
6. Circular argument – arises when a proposition is argued as true because it is true.
7. Complex question – arises when the question raised presupposes an answer to another
question which is not raised.
8. Repeated assertion – arises when one believes that if one tells a big lie and this lie is told
often enough, people will come to believe that such lie is the truth.
9. Accident – general rules are applied to particular cases when particular cases have
circumstances which may not allow general rules to be applicable.
10. Converse accident – reverse of the fallacy of accident. Here, special or particular cases or
circumstances are applied to general rules. It is fallacious because what is true of one is
not necessarily true of all.
11. Tu quoque – the so-called “two wrongs make a right” fallacy arises when one answers a
charge of wrongdoing by a similar charge to his opponent.
12. False cause – arises when one assigns as the cause those facts that merely preceded or
accompanied the effect.
13. Non sequitur – fallacy of “it does not follow.” Arises in an argument where the
conclusion categorically or completely lacks connection to the proposition.
14. Argumentum ad hominem – committed when the real claims or issues of an argument are
ignored and the character, personality or belief of the opponent is emphasized.
15. Argumentum ad ignorantiam – also called as the fallacy of appeal to ignorance, arises
when an argument is taken as true just because it has not been proven as false, or when an
argument is taken as false because it has not been proven as true.
16. Argumentum ad verecundiam – arises when one has difficulty in confronting or
understanding complicated questions seeks refuge to ideas, concepts, principles or
judgments of a person who enjoys a reputation of an expert or an authority on the matter
at hand. Also known as the fallacy of appeal to awe, modesty, respect or authority.
17. Argumentum ad populum – also called as the fallacy of appeal to people. Arises when
one, instead of concentrating on or giving more emphasis to the relevant facts of the
argument, gives more emphasis to the emotions and opinions of the crowd or of the
multitude as basis of his conclusion.
18. Argumentum ad misericordiam – also called as appeal to pity. Such a fallacious argument
arises when an appeal to evidence is replaced by an appeal to pity, mercy or sympahaty.
19. Argumentum ad baculum – also known as appeal to might and appeal to force, arises
when one appeals to intimidation or the use of force in order to gain acceptance of his/her
propositions.
The truth being the object of philosophy entails that one must always achieve it through the
art and science of logic. In doing so one must be aware of how avoid mistakes in the process of
correct thinking. One must always be focused on the truth rather than the opinions.
Quiz. Give what is asked.

1. What was the Latin word from where the term fallacy was derived?
2. What is the meaning of logos?
3. What do we mean by logike?
4. What fallacy arise when there is an appeal to pity or sympathy?
5. What fallacy arises when the truth of the parts can also be said as the truth for the whole?
6. Why is logic an art and science of correct thinking? (5 pts.)
Reflection: What is the difference of truth and opinion? Give concrete examples, situations or
experiences.
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UNIT 2: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

 Distinguish opinion from truth

Activity. Explain the statement: “Philosophy is like a midwife during labor.”

Quiz. Give what is asked.

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