UNIT-5 ANALOG IC AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Series regulator using op-amp

The op-amp is used as a comparator. It compares the part of the output voltage obtained from
potential divider circuit as a feedback with the reference voltage generated by the zener diode
Vz.
The output of the op-amp drives the series pass transistor Q.If there is any change in output
voltage the control signal from op-amp control the conduction of the transistor Q. Thus the
output voltage is maintained at a constant level.

From virtual ground concept

V^-=V^+
V^-=V^+=[Vo/(R1+R2 )] R2
The voltage at non-inverting terminal V+ is nothing but the zener voltage Vz as shown in figure
above.
V^+=Vz
The output voltage can be expressed as
∴Vo=[(R1+R2)/R2 ] V^+
∴Vo=[(R1+R2)/R2 ] Vz
∴Vo=[1+R1/R2 ] Vz

Three terminal adjustable Voltage regulator ICs

The LM 317 is an example of a three terminal positive voltage regulator with adjustable output
voltage. The standard configuration of this regulator is shown below.

The capacitors are used for decoupling and don't affect the dc operations. There is one input, one
output and one adjustable terminal. The external fixed resistor R1 and variable resistor R2
provide the output voltage adjustment.
The output voltage can be varied from 1.2V to 37V depending upon the resistor values. The LM
317 can provide up to 1.5A current to a load.
The LM 317 is operated as a floating regulator because the adjustment terminal is not connected
to ground; but floats to whatever voltage is across R2. This allows output to be much higher than
that of a fixed voltage regulator.

Three Terminal Fixed Voltage regulator ICs

There are basically two types of Three Terminal Fixed Voltage regulator ICs are available. One
is positive output voltage and other has negative output voltage; but the output voltage is fixed.

There are two IC series.

1. 78XX series:
This is a positive regulator. The first two digits i.e.78 indicates that the output voltage is positive.
The second two digits 'XX' indicates output voltage of the regulator. The available ICs of this
series are 7805(+5V), 7812 (+12V), 7815(+15V) etc. The output voltages are shown in brackets.
2. 79XX series:
This is a negative voltage regulator. The first two digits i.e.79 indicates that the output voltage is
negative. The second two digits 'XX' indicates output voltage of the regulator. The available ICs
of this series are 7905(-5V), 7912 (-12V), 7915(-15V) etc. The output voltages are shown in
brackets.
These ICs are provided with adequate heat sinking and can deliver output currents more than 1A.
These ICs require less external components. These are provided with internal thermal shut down,
overload and short circuit protection.
These two series are available in two versions, like low power and high power. The low power
versions are available in plastic and metal packages like transistors.
The high power versions are packaged in TO-3 type metal can or in T-220 type modulated
plastic packages like power transistors. The typical value of output resistance is 8mΩ.

Advantages of IC regulators:
1. It is very easy to use.
2. It greatly simplifies the power supply design.
3. IC regulators are small in size thus overall size of the power supply can be reduced.
4. Cost is very less.
5. IC regulators are versatile.
6. IC regulators are provided with features like built in protection, programmable output,
current/voltage boosting, internal short circuit, current limiting etc.

Current Booster

If the output current requirement is as high as 10A, then it is convenient to boost a regulator
output current with the help of external circuit.The current boosting can be achieved by using
external transistor connected in parallel with regulator IC. Thus the output current of 78XX
regulator which is 1A can be boosted.

The 723 voltage regulator is commonly used for series voltage regulator applications. It can be
used as both positive and negative voltage regulator. It has an ability to provide up to 150 mA of
current to the load, but this can be increased more than 10A by using power transistors. It also
comes with comparatively low standby current drain, and provision is made for either linear
or fold-back current limiting. LM723 IC can also be used as a temperature controller, current
regulator or shunt regulator and it is available in both Dual-In-Line and Metal Can
packages. The input voltage ranges from 9.5 to 40V and it can regulate voltage from 2V to 37V.

Features of 723 Voltage Regulator

• 150 mA output current without external pass transistor

• Output currents in excess of 10A possible by adding external transistors
• Input voltage 40V max
• Output voltage adjustable from 2V to 37V
• Can be used as either a linear or a switching regulator

Internal Block Diagram

Foldback Current Limiting:

The disadvantage of constant current limit is relatively large power dissipation in the series pass
transistor when the load terminals are shorted. Thus a large power rating transistor is required.
The Foldback Current Limiting technique allows us to provide the necessary load current at rated
voltage but reducing the short circuit current.

All the voltages are measured with respect to a common point.

Let the voltage at point A be VA and the current flowing through R4 is almost IL.
Switch mode power supply terminology

Switch mode power supply, SMPS, technology may be referred to by a number of similar terms.
While they all look at the same basic technology, they refer to different elements of the overall
technology:

• Switch mode power supply, SMPS: The term switch mode power supply is generally
used to indicate an item that can be connected to the mains, or other external supply and
used to generate the source power. In other words it is a complete power supply.
• Switch mode regulator: This typically refers just to the electronic circuit that provides
the regulation. A switch mode regulator will be part of the overall switch mode power
supply.
• Switch mode regulator controller: Many switch mode regulator integrated circuits do
not contain he series switching element. This will be true if the current or voltage levels
are high, because an external series switching element would be able to better handle the
higher current and voltage levels, as well as the resultant power dissipation.

Switch mode power supply basics

The basic concept behind a switch mode power supply or SMPS is the fact that the regulation is
undertaken by using a switching regulator. This uses a series switching element that turns the
current supply to a smoothing capacitor on an off.

FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF IC 555 TIMER

The basic 555 timer gets its name from the fact that there are three internally connected 5kΩ
resistors which it uses to generate the two comparators reference voltages. The 555 timer IC is a
very cheap, popular and useful precision timing device which can act as either a simple timer to
generate single pulses or long time delays, or as a relaxation oscillator producing a string of
stabilised waveforms of varying duty cycles from 50 to 100%.

The 555 timer chip is extremely robust and stable 8-pin device that can be operated either as a
very accurate Monostable, Bistable or Astable Multivibrator to produce a variety of applications
such as one-shot or delay timers, pulse generation, LED and lamp flashers, alarms and tone
generation, logic clocks, frequency division, power supplies and converters etc, in fact any
circuit that requires some form of time control as the list is endless.

The single 555 Timer chip in its basic form is a Bipolar 8-pin mini Dual-in-line Package (DIP)
device consisting of some 25 transistors, 2 diodes and about 16 resistors arranged to form two
comparators, a flip-flop and a high current output stage as shown below. As well as the 555
Timer there is also available the NE556 Timer Oscillator which combines TWO individual 555’s
within a single 14-pin DIP package and low power CMOS versions of the single 555 timer such
as the 7555 and LMC555 which use MOSFET transistors instead.
A simplified “block diagram” representing the internal circuitry of the 555 timer is given below
with a brief explanation of each of its connecting pins to help provide a clearer understanding of
how it works.

The Monostable 555 Timer

The operation and output of the 555 timer monostable is exactly the same as that for the
transistorised one we look at previously in the Monostable Multivibrators tutorial. The difference
this time is that the two transistors have been replaced by the 555 timer device.

ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

The Astable Multivibrator is another type of cross-coupled transistor switching circuit that has
NO stable output states as it changes from one state to the other all the time. The astable circuit
consists of two switching transistors, a cross-coupled feedback network, and two time delay
capacitors which allows oscillation between the two states with no external triggering to produce
the change in state.

In electronic circuits, astable multivibrators are also known as Free-running Multivibrator as

they do not require any additional inputs or external assistance to oscillate. Astable oscillators
produce a continuous square wave from its output or outputs, (two outputs no inputs) which can
then be used to flash lights or produce a sound in a loudspeaker.

The basic transistor circuit for an Astable Multivibrator produces a square wave output from a
pair of grounded emitter cross-coupled transistors. Both transistors either NPN or PNP, in the
multivibrator are biased for linear operation and are operated as Common Emitter Amplifiers
with 100% positive feedback.

Schmitt Trigger

The high and low transitions on the inputs of most of the CMOS devices should be fast edges. If
the edges are not fast enough, they tend to provide more current and this might damage the
device. Analog signals are generally not perfect and might not have clean edges all the times.
Schmitt Trigger is a special type of comparator that is used to avoid such signals.

A comparator is a device that compares two voltages and the outcome is the indication of
whether one voltage is higher than the other or not. Schmitt trigger, also called as Regenerative
Comparator, compares the input voltage to two reference voltages and produces an equivalent
output. The output of a Schmitt trigger is always a square or rectangular wave irrespective of the
shape of the input. It is often used when we need to do the following:

• Convert sine wave to square wave

• To clean up the noisy signals
• To convert slow edges (like in a triangular wave) into fast edges (like a square wave)

Schmitt can be constructed from a 555 timer. Some of the other function of the 555 timer, apart
from the timer operation, is to use the two internal comparators as independent units to form a
Schmitt Trigger. The general operation of the Schmitt trigger built from a 555 timer is inverting
but the discussion will be for non-inverting.

Circuit of 555 timer as Schmitt Trigger

The following circuit shows the structure of a 555 timer used as a Schmitt trigger.

Pins 4 and 8 are connected to the supply (VCC). The pins 2 and 6 are tied together and the input
is given to this common point through a capacitor C. this common point is supplied with an
external bias voltage of VCC / 2 with the help of the voltage divider circuit formed by the
resistors R1 and R2.

The important characteristic of the Schmitt trigger is Hysteresis. The output of the Schmitt
trigger is high if the input voltage is greater than the upper threshold value and the output of the
Schmitt trigger is low if the input voltage is lower than the lower threshold value.

The output retains its value when the input is between the two threshold values. The usage of two
threshold values is called Hysteresis and the Schmitt trigger acts as a memory element (a bistable
multivibrator or a flip-flop).

The threshold values in this case are 2/3 VCC and 1/3 VCC i.e. the upper comparator trips at 2/3
VCC and the lower comparator trips at 1/3 VCC. The input voltage is compared to these
threshold values by the individual comparators and the flip-flop is SET or RESET accordingly.
Based on this the output becomes high or low.

When a sine wave of amplitude greater than VCC / 6 is applied at the input, the flip-flop is set
and reset alternately for the positive cycle and the negative cycle.