PITTSBURGH STUDENT ENVIRONMENTAL COALITION

SUMMER 2011

Sh ale G as 1 0 1
What is shale gas?
Shale gas is natural gas trapped Natural gas currently supplies about
within sedimentary rock formations 22 percent of the United States energy
around the world that formed millions of consumption, and that share is expected
years ago from the compression of mud to increase as oil becomes more expensive
and organic material under immense and our infrastructure transitions away
heat and pressure. Instead of existing in from relatively dirty coal energy.
interconnected pockets of gas, shale gas is A lth o u gh n atu ral g as em i ts les s
FAST FACTS 1 greenhouse gasses (GHGs) and air
essentially dissolved within vast shale
basins that extend for thousands of pollutants during combustion than other
HOW MUCH GAS?
square miles several thousand feet below fossil fuels, its complex extraction presents
1,744 tcf Nationally
the Earth’s surface. Until recently, shale many risk factors to public health and the
262 tcf in Marcellus Shale
gas has been too difficult and costly to environment.1
(Technically Recoverable Resources)
develop, but technological advances such This introduction to shale gas
as horizontal drilling and slickwater summarizes the extraction process,
Enough to last U.S. 90+ years at
hydraulic fracturing or “fracking” over describes some of the environmental and
current rate of 20 tcf per year.
the past decade have made shale gas public health risks involved, and suggests
extraction feasible and economic in plays some next steps for civic engagement on
1 tcf (trillion cubic feet) can
across the country (see map below) and the issues. It does not address issues of
generate 100 billion kWh of
around the world. The four most economics due to their complexity and
electricity.
developed shale plays in the United States rapid evolution. Also, please note that this
are the Barnett, Fayetteville, Haynesville, document is intended for an audience in
Wind energy generated 55 billion
and Marcellus shales. Each formation the Marcellus Shale region, but it
kWh in 2008.3
requires a slightly different development contains general information that is
process due to unique characteristics, and applicable to any shale play.
WATER CONSUMPTION these processes are subject to regulations
~80,000 gal per well to drill
that vary by state.
~3.8 Mil gal per well per frack
(Based on Marcellus Shale) U.S. Shale Gas Deposits2
Source: DOE Office of Fossil Energy
Electrical generation in the
Susquehanna River Basin uses
~150 Mill gal per day, while peak
Marcellus Shale activity in the
same area is ~8.4 Mill gal per day.

WHAT’S IN NATURAL
GAS?
70-90% Methane
[Used for Heating, Electricity, Industry]

0-20% Ethane, Propane, Butane

[Used in Industry]

0-5% Carbon Dioxide

0-2% Nitrogen, Hydrogen Sulfide
[Byproduct]
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Glossary of Terms 4

Compressor stations Where gas from the well is piped for pretreatment and compressed for shipment
through pipelines. Emissions from natural gas or diesel engines that power the
compressors, fugitive emissions from compression equipment, pipes and tanks are
possible, as is noise pollution.

Condensate tanks Brine and volatile organic compounds from gas drilling are piped to these
collection tanks, where they are stored until pickup. If the gas is "wet," it contains such
toxic compounds as benzene, toluene and xylene. Air in the tanks is often vented to the
atmosphere during the filling process, thereby contributing to air pollution.

Dry gas A purer form of natural gas found in the northeastern part of Pennsylvania.

Flaring The burning of gas, sometimes a hundred feet above a well head, that is done
toward the end of the well development process.

Flowback, drilling wastewater, All names for the solution -- estimated at 5 percent to 50 percent of the total water
produced or stimulated fluid mixture used -- that is returned to the surface following fracking. Along with the man-
made chemicals used in fracking, it contains dissolved contaminants picked up from the
shale, including chlorides, heavy metals, organics, uranium, and radon.

Fracking fluid This is the water, sand, and chemical mixture that is pumped a mile or more
underground under high pressure to crack the shale and prop open the fissures created.
Each well uses about 4 million gallons.

Slickwater Hydraulic fracturing or A high-pressure process that pumps water mixed with sand and chemicals into the
"fracking" shale formation to crack the rock, prop it apart and release the gas. “Slickwater” refers
to the chemical additives in the process that facilitate more thorough well development.

Mineral estate The ownership of minerals underground. It can include the natural gas in the
Marcellus Shale formation. Such an estate can be "severed" or “split” from the surface
estate and is the dominant estate. That means mineral estate owners have the right to
develop or extract their holdings and must be given reasonable access to them.

Off-gassing The gases that escape through vents and valves from condensate tanks. The
escaping gases contain volatile organic compounds, and other carcinogenic gases.

Play This refers either to the area or region encompassing a gas-containing formation,
as in the "Marcellus Shale gas play," or the activities associated with development of
the area.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) The dry weight of dissolved material, organic and inorganic, contained in water
and usually expressed in parts per million. Produced water typically contains high levels
of TDS from the shale formation and additives in the fracturing fluid. (e.g. by
prominence - sodium, chloride, bromide, strontium, barium, arsenic, and uranium)7

Well Pad All well operations need a level, flat area to conduct drilling. Most Marcellus Shale
pads are for multiple wells and are typically about 4 acres in size.

Wet gas Natural gas found commingled with hydrocarbons that contain condensable or
liquid compounds, like propane and butane, that are heavier than ethane and must be
removed before transportation using condensate tanks. Companies can earn additional
revenues by separating and selling the compounds extracted from wet gas. Shale gas in
Western PA is mostly wet gas.
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Shale Gas Extraction5

Source: ProPublica

The Development Process

Shale gas extraction is a long and involved process that can Step 3 - Road and Pad Construction [Days to Weeks]
Once permits are received, land is cleared and roads are
last for several years per well. The following steps and their
constructed to access the wellsite. Pits may also be excavated to
descriptions are from Modern Shale Gas Development in the United
contain pre and post drilling fluids. Most horizontal well pads with
States: A Primer1 with additional information from other sources as
roads and utilities are about 7.4 acres.
cited.

Step 4 - Drilling and Completion [Weeks to Months]

Step 1 - Mineral Leasing [Weeks to Years] A drilling rig drills a vertical well about 6,000 feet deep
Companies negotiate a private contract or lease that allows
(about as deep as 17 statues of liberty stacked on top of one
mineral development and compensates the mineral owners. Lease
another) and multiple layers of steel pipe (called casing) are put
terms vary and can contain stipulations or mitigation measures
into the hole and cemented in place to protect fresh water
relevant to protect various resources. A “split estate” can occur
formations. Contamination of the fresh water aquifer can occur if
when the surface rights and mineral rights of a given area are
the casing is improperly installed or if it degrades over the life of
owned by different persons or entities. This can cause conflicts
the well.
because the mineral owner is entitled to build the surface
When the well bore is in proximity of gas-bearing shale it
infrastructure necessary to access their holdings (e.g. - well pad,
gradually turns horizontally starting at the “kickoff point”. The
roads, pipelines) without the surface owner’s consent.
lateral length of the well within the gas shale may be anywhere
from 1,000 to 5,000 feet. This step consumes between 60
Step 2 - Permits [Weeks to Months]
The operator must obtain a permit authorizing the drilling of thousand and 1 million gallons of water (about 80,000 gallons in
a new well. Surveys, drilling plans, and other technical the Marcellus Shale).
information are frequently required for a permit application. The
approved permit may require site specific environmental Step 5 - Hydraulic Fracturing (“Fracking”) [Hours to Days]
The horizontal well is initially fractured with a perforating
protection measures. Other permits such as water withdrawal or
gun lowered into the well that uses a controlled explosion to create
waste water management permits may also be required.
fissures in the rock. Then, a specially designed fracturing fluid that
varies in composition depending on a region’s geology is pumped
under high pressure into the shale formation. The fluid consists
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2011

Volumetric Composition of a Fracture Fluid6

Source: EQT based on actual data from Marcellus Shale well 590516 in Jefferson County, PA

primarily of water along with a proppant (usually sand) and about volume, which is less than most other basins. Unrecovered fluids,
two percent or less of chemical additives (see figure above). This if any, will remain contained within the target formations.
process deepens and expands the initial fractures and then props
them open with the sand, which allows the natural gas to flow into Step 6 - Production and Transportation [Years]
the well. Because adequate pressure is difficult to maintain for the After the hydraulic fracturing process is complete and the
entire length of the well, hydraulic fracture treatments of plugs are removed, the gas is brought up the well, treated to a
horizontal shale gas wells are usually performed by isolating useable condition through industrial processing, and sent to
smaller portions of the lateral into two or more sequential stages market through underground pipelines. Gas may need to be
using well plugs. The fracking process is repeated for about 17 vented or flared during completion, if a well needs to be tested, or
sub-stages within each stage, and each sub-stage uses a different if the pipeline is not ready. This causes polluting emissions unless
water/additive volume and ratio. This step consumes between the gas is captured or combusted in a closed and carefully
two and six million gallons of water, but advancements in controlled stack. The lifetime of a well depends on several
produced water recycling could reduce the volume of fresh water complex factors including formation geology and economic
needed. A typical fracking operation in the Marcellus Shale climate. New studies are trying to predict the potential life of the
consumes about 3.8 million gallons water and 11.5 thousand Marcellus gas wells in Pennsylvania, but it is estimated that some
gallons of chemical additives assuming concentrations similar to wells can be active for 20 to 30 years based on the production of
those in the figure above. This water can be trucked in or piped the Barnett Shale.8
directly from surface water bodies, groundwater, municipal The U.S. natural gas transportation system is a very complex
potable water supplies, or reused water from previous fracks.2 network of interstate, intrastate, and gathering pipelines. Gas is
After a hydraulic fracture treatment, when the pumping collected at the wellhead, separated in condensate tanks if wet,
pressure has been relieved from the well, the water‐based pressurized in compressor stations, and sent to be treated or
fracturing fluid, mixed with any natural formation water present, “polished” before entering the main distribution network or
begins to flow back through the well casing to the wellhead where storage. There are multiple opportunities for emissions of
it is collected in tanks or open-air containment ponds before methane throughout the collection and transportation process.9,10
recycling or treatment. Along with chemicals in the injected
fracturing fluid, this produced water may contain dissolved Step 7 - Workovers [Days to Weeks]
constituents from the formation itself called Total Dissolved Solids Gas production usually declines over the years. Operators
(TDS). The dissolved constituents are naturally occurring may perform a workover which is an operation to clean, repair,
compounds and may vary from one shale play to the next or even and maintain the well for the purposes of increasing or restoring
by area within a shale play. Initial produced water can vary from production. This may include more hydraulic fracturing to re-
fresh (<5,000 ppm Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)) to varying stimulate the well. Multiple workovers may be performed over the
degrees of saline (5,000 ppm to 100,000 ppm TDS or higher). life of a well.
The TDS content of produced water increases as it remains
underground, and some recovered fluid can be ten times saltier Step 8 - Plugging and Abandonment/Reclamation [Years]
than sea water.7 The majority of flowback is recovered in a matter Once a well reaches its economic limit, it is plugged and
of several hours to a couple of weeks, but will continue to be abandoned according to State standards. The disturbed areas,
collected for the lifetime of the well. The volume of produced including well pads and access roads, should be reclaimed back to
water varies widely by shale, and Marcellus wells generally return the native vegetation and contours or to conditions requested by
between 5 percent and 20 percent of the original fracture fluid the surface owner, but this could take many years.
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2011

Water Contamination Air Pollution

Natural gas extraction deteriorates air quality because of gas
Wastewater Management and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions at almost every
Although treatment technology is improving, produced water stage including during drilling, completion, venting, flaring,
poses several management problems because very few commercial condensation, compression, throughout the transportation
industrial wastewater treatment facilities and no municipal network, and from increased vehicular traffic. Accidental well
treatment plants can completely remove TDS. Some drilling blowouts also cause a substantial amount of air pollution until
companies effectively seal their produced water in injection wells they are capped. Although methane itself is not harmful to public
where it cannot escape to damage surface water, but very few of health unless it displaces enough oxygen to cause asphyxiation,
these wells exist in the Marcellus Shale play. Therefore, produced the VOCs present in shale gas and frack fluid can be highly toxic
water is often times incompletely treated, diluted, and discharged to humans, livestock, and wildlife. Furthermore, a study recently
into rivers and streams under special discharge permits that released by Cornell University professors on the global warming
dictate the acceptable concentration of TDS per volume of water potential of shale gas concludes that, “The [greenhouse gas]
depending on state regulations. The introduction of TDS and footprint for shale gas is greater than that for conventional gas or
untreated chemicals into fresh water supplies poses a risk to public oil when viewed on any time horizon, but particularly so over 20
health and natural ecosystems despite increasingly strict years. Compared to coal, the footprint of shale gas is at least 20%
regulations. Some of these pollutants can damage the brain, eyes, greater and perhaps more than twice as great on the 20-year
skin, and nervous system on direct contact. Known carcinogens horizon and is comparable when compared over 100 years.” This
such as benzene and byproducts caused by the reaction between is in part because methane is a far more potent GHG than carbon
bromide and chlorine during water treatment are of particular dioxide, but also because there are significant emissions of carbon
concern, and they have been detected at unsafe levels in dioxide during the extraction and transportation of shale gas.14
Pennsylvania downstream from at least one water treatment
facility processing produced water.11 Many public drinking water Ecological Impact of Land Use
facilities have begun using different processes to reduce these Although technological advances such as horizontal drilling
reactions, but the newer methods can cause lead to leach from continue to reduce the land disturbance of shale gas extraction, its
older pipes and fittings.7 potential effect on natural habitats and ecosystems is still unclear
Accidental spills, unregulated dumping (may be cheaper than and requires close attention and regulation. Complete
proper disposal regardless of fines), and other regulatory development of a 640-acre section of land could require 16
violations regarding produced water can also contribute to water vertical wells on separate pads spaced 40 acres apart or 4
contamination. In Pennsylvania, the DEP has cited the industry horizontal wells on the same multi-well pad. The more common
with over 1,600 violations over the past 2.5 years, and many of 4‐well horizontal pad with roads and utilities would disturb an
these were for improperly constructed wastewater impoundments, estimated total of 7.4 acres, while 16 vertical wells would disturb
chemical spills, and surface contamination.7 approximately 77 acres. Some of this land can be remediated, but
full restoration is unlikely after 20+ years of activity. Surface
Inadequate Well Casing infrastructure that disregards effects on the surrounding
Gas or frack fluid migration from deep shale to the fresh environment could cause forest fragmentation and irreparable
water aquifer during or after fracking is unlikely due to depth and damages to the delicate ecosystems that all life forms rely on. This
the seal created by intervening rock formations. However, water is true for almost all energy production including coal, oil, wind,
contamination due to inadequate well casing is more plausible. If and solar generation. Shale gas extraction is not exempt from this,
the thick steel and cement casing between the bore hole and the but it has less effect than most resources since the bulk of activity
water aquifer is improperly installed, is damaged during drilling, during shale gas extraction and transportation occurs deep
or degrades over time, then fluid and/or gas can escape from the underground.1,10,12
well and enter the aquifer. This is very dangerous because these
contaminants can appear in well water and increase the risk of
Well Pad and Drilling Rig1
Source: www.wvsoro.org
gas explosions, cancer, or other health problems including
livestock poisoning. Based on groundwater analyses of 60 private
water wells in the Marcellus Shale region, methane concentrations
were found to be 17 times higher on average in areas with active
drilling and extraction than in non-active areas, with some wells
having concentrations of methane above the “immediate action”
hazard level. It should be noted that biogenic gas (caused by living
organisms and organic decay) can also migrate into water wells
naturally or due to agitation from a nearby drilling operation.
1,7,12,13
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What do we need? TAKE ACTION!

A sustainable energy portfolio that Passage of the FRAC Act
doesn’t infringe on access to breathable The Fracturing Responsibility and You are affected by shale gas
air, drinkable water, and livable land! Awareness of Chemicals Act (FRAC Act), extraction whether you live near
Natural gas could temporarily introduced by Senator Bob Casey from
compliment energy conservation as the
a developing play or not, so
PA, would require the disclosure of
United States transitions to a renewable chemicals used by the gas industry in
become educated and take
energy portfolio, but only if it is hydraulic fracturing and repeal the action!
responsibly developed under strict exemption for the process in the Safe
regulation while using sound science as a Drinking Water Act. WHAT YOU CAN DO
guide.
Natural Gas as a Transition Fuel
More Information and Studies Natural gas is not a sustainable 1. Use this packet and the cited
There is a constant need for more energy resource, but it could help us resources to educate
information on the risks associated with achieve a cleaner energy future if yourself, your family, and your
shale gas extraction because development responsibly leveraged as a transition friends. Don’t forget to stay
is progressing and evolving rapidly. This technology. This is not yet viable due to
information needs to come from trusted the associated risks and lack of industry
updated with current events
peer-reviewed scientific publications accountability, but the technology exists and developments!
without direct influence from industry, to make it so in the future. Along with
and all interested parties need to agree to minimizing risk, the industry should be 2. Research to find out if you
respect the results. Furthermore, results investing a significant portion of their
need to be effectively communicated to
live near an active shale gas
profits from fossil fuels into research and
the public before they lease land so that development of renewable energy
play, how your state regulates
they understand the associated risks. technologies and the infrastructure to it, and how it might be
support them. Furthermore, there needs affecting you.
Strict and Effective Regulation
to be an open dialogue including the
The people must continually push
p u b l i c , i n d u s t r y, s c i e n t i s t s, a n d
g ov e r n m e n t t o i m p o s e s t r o n g e r 3. Join or start an organization
government to cooperatively design truly
regulations on the gas industry that are to build a strong base of
sustainable energy systems that will work
based on sound science that evolves with constituents that can lobby
for all parties.
changing risk factors. For example:
legislators for stronger
State-specific Moratoriums
• Mandate industry-funded water testing State-specific moratoriums should
regulations and demand that
by credible third-party companies be imposed until more conclusive studies the industry be kept in
before and after drilling are completed, effective and consistent check.
• Improve well casing standards regulations based on those studies are in
• Improve drinking water standards on place, and we have a tangible plan for
municipal water handling
4. Write letters to newspapers
responsibly leveraging natural gas as a
• Mandate risk disclosure and make transition fuel to more sustainable and legislators, call your
educational programs available to renewable energy resources. Each state representative about
landowners before leasing will require slightly different studies and important legislative
• Require higher bonds on wells to cover regulations because the drilling process decisions, collect petition
accidental damages incurred by varies with different shale deposits.
landowners and municipalities
signatures, and be creative!
• Set stricter standards for accident Energy Conservation
response We in the developed world must
• Impose significant fines and penalties re d u c e o u r e n e rg y c o n s u m p t i o n
for violations significantly if we want to realize a truly
sustainable future, especially if shale gas
Re g u l at i o n s h o u l d b e t h e is proven to be nonviable as a transition
government’s only involvement with the fuel. Please save gas, oil, and electricity
industry because government exists to whenever possible, and help your friends
protect the people and not corporate do the same!
interest.
 INVESTOR NEWSLETTER
PITTSBURGH STUDENT ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUE N°3
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SUMMER
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2011

Resources

Organizations

Clean Water Action [http://www.cleanwateraction.org/pa]

Energy Action Coalition [http://www.energyactioncoalition.org]
Group Against Smog and Pollution (GASP) [http://gasp-pgh.org/]
Keystone Environmental Youth Coalition (KEY) [http://keycoalition.wordpress.com/]
Marcellus Protest [http://www.marcellusprotest.org]
PennEnvironment [http://www.pennenvironment.org/clean-water/keep-our-water-safe]
Pittsburgh Student Environmental Coalition (PSEC) [http://PittsburghSEC.wordpress.com]
Shadbush Collective [http://www.shadbushcollective.org]

Publications and Tools

FracTracker [http://www.fractracker.org]
PG Pipeline [http://shale.sites.post-gazette.com/]
ProPublica [http://www.propublica.org/series/buried-secrets-gas-drillings-environmental-threat]
USDOE Energy Information Administration [http://www.eia.doe.gov/naturalgas/]
PA DEP Oil & Gas Reporting [https://www.paoilandgasreporting.state.pa.us/publicreports/Modules/Welcome/Welcome.aspx]

Information For Further Research

Gasland The Movie [http://www.gaslandthemovie.com/]

Greenhouse-Gas Footprint of Natural Gas from Shale Formations [http://thehill.com/images/stories/blogs/energy/howarth.pdf]
MIT Study on the Future of Gas [http://web.mit.edu/mitei/research/studies/naturalgas.html]
Nine Challenges of Alternative Energy [http://www.postcarbon.org/report/127153-energy-nine-challenges-of-alternative-energy]
Duke Study on Water Contamination [http://www.nicholas.duke.edu/cgc/HydraulicFracturingWhitepaper2011.pdf]
U.S. Shale Gas Primer [http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/epreports/shale_gas_primer_2009.pdf]
Water Management in Marcellus Shale [http://www.evs.anl.gov/pub/doc/Water%20Mgmt%20in%20Marcellus-final-jul10.pdf]

Industry Information

Chesapeake Energy [http://www.chk.com/Pages/default.aspx]

EQT [http://www.eqt.com/]
Range Resources [http://www.rangeresources.com/]

PLEASE CONTACT PSEC AT [email protected] WITH ANY COMMENTS, QUESTIONS, OR SUGGESTIONS.

THE UPDATED DIGITAL VERSION OF THIS DOCUMENT MAY BE FOUND ONLINE AT

WWW.PITTSBURGHSEC.ORG UNDER “RESOURCES”.
 INVESTOR NEWSLETTER
PITTSBURGH STUDENT ENVIRONMENTAL
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2011

Works Cited

[1] U.S. Department of Energy, and National Energy Technology Laboratory. Modern Shale Gas Development in the United States:
A Primer. Rep. Apr. 2009. Web. 14 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/epreports/shale_gas_primer_2009.pdf>.

[2] Veil, John A. Water Management Technologies Used by Marcellus Shale Gas Producers. Rep. July 2010. Web. 14 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.evs.anl.gov/pub/doc/Water%20Mgmt%20in%20Marcellus-final-jul10.pdf>.

[3]U.S. Energy Information Administration. Electricity Net Generation From Renewable Energy by Energy Use Sector and Energy
Source, 2004 - 2008. Aug. 2010. Raw data. <http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/trends/table1_11.pdf>

[4] Hopey, Don. "Glossary of Terms." Marcellus Shale from The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 26 Feb. 2011. Web. 14 Apr. 2011.
<http://shale.sites.post-gazette.com/index.php/background/glossary-of-terms>.

[5] "Hydraulic Fracturing." ProPublica. 2011. Web. 14 Apr. 2011.

<http://www.propublica.org/special/hydraulic-fracturing-national>.

[6] EQT Corporation. Feb. 2011. Web. 14 Apr. 2011. <http://www.eqt.com/docs/pdf/FluidCompositions/Well590516.pdf>.

[7] Stolz, John. "The Environmental Impacts of Shale Gas Extraction." FracTracker. 6 Mar. 2011. Web. 14 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.fractracker.org/2011/03/environmental-impacts-of-shale-gas.html>.

[8] Bartlow, A. 2011. How long are wells in operation? Institute for Energy and Environmental Research of Northeastern
Pennsylvania Clearinghouse website. http:energy.wilkes.edu/162.asp. Posted 14 January 2011.

[9] "The Transportation of Natural Gas." NaturalGas.org. Web. 14 Apr. 2011.

<http://www.naturalgas.org/naturalgas/transport.asp>.

[10] Stolz, John. "Should Pittsburgh Permit Marcellus Shale Drilling." Marcella L. Finegold Memorial Public Debate. University of
Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh. 6 Apr. 2011. Speech.

[11] Before the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works and Its Subcommittee on Water and Wildlife, Joint Hearing
“Natural Gas Drilling, Public Health and Environmental Impacts”, April 12, 2011 (2011) (testimony of Conrad Daniel Volz,
DrPH, MPH Graduate Faculty; Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh Director & Principal Investigator,
Center for Healthy Environments and Communities (CHEC); Director, Environmental Health Risk Assessment Certificate
Program; Assistant Professor of Law (Secondary Appointment)).
<http://www.chec.pitt.edu/documents/Testimonies/Volz2011senatetestimony.pdf>

[12] Dale, Alexander T, University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering Igert Fellow. Personal interview. 6 Apr. 2011.

[13] Jackson RB, B Rainey Pearson, SG Osborn, NR Warner, A Vengosh

2011 Research and policy recommendations for hydraulic fracturing and
shale‐gas extraction. Center on Global Change, Duke University, Durham, NC.
<http://www.nicholas.duke.edu/cgc/HydraulicFracturingWhitepaper2011.pdf>

[14] Howarth, Robert W., Renee Santoro, and Anthony Ingraffea. "Methane and the Greenhouse-gas Footprint of Natural Gas from
Shale Formations." Letter. 12 Nov. 2010.Springerlink. Web. 14 Apr. 2011.
<http://www.springerlink.com/content/e384226wr4160653/fulltext.pdf>.