COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

Computer Architecture and Organization

CHAPTER ONE

4 th Year 1 st Sem.
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PREPARED BY INSTRUCTOR:- SIMAGN BEKELE
Prepared By: Mr. Simagn B. 11/13/2023
 Chapter 1
General Introduction of CompArch
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chapter I
 Outline of this chapter
• Why do we study Computer Architecture & Organization
• Architecture & Organization
• Structure & Function
• A brief History of Computers
• Designing for performance
• Microprocessor Speed
• Performance Balance
• Pentium & Power PC evolution
• Pentium
• Power PC

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Why study Computer Architecture
and Organization?

• Some major reasons we study computer architecture and

organization are.
• To select an architecture that can meet certain requirement.
• It also got application in different course e.g. Programming
language and Operating Systems

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 Architecture & Organization
• Architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible
to the programmer.
• those attributes that have a direct impact on the logical
execution of a program.
• Instruction set, number of bits used for data representation, I/O
mechanisms, addressing techniques.
• e.g. Is there a multiply instruction?
• Organization is how features are implemented
• Control signals, interfaces, memory technology.
• e.g. Is there a hardware multiply unit or it is done by
repeated addition?

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Architecture & Organization (…contd)

• the distinction between architecture and organization is an

important one.
• Many computer manufacturers offer a family of computer
models, all with the same architecture but with
differences in organization
• All Intel x86 family share the same basic architecture
• The IBM System/370 family share the same basic
architecture
• This gives code compatibility
• At least backwards
• Organization differs between different versions

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Structure & Function
• A computer is complex system
• Contain million of elementary electronic components. How
one can describe them?
• Through hierarchical nature of complex system
• The designer need to deal with a particular level of the
system at a time
• At each level the designer is concerned with structure and
function
• Structure is the way in which components relate to each
other
• Function is the operation of individual components as
part of the structure
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Function

• The computer system will be described from top down

• Both the structure and functioning of a computer are in
essence simple.
• Generally the computer functions are:
• Data processing
• Data storage
• Data movement
• Control

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Functional View

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Function of computer
• The computer must process data.
• It could be variety of form and range of processing
requirement
• It should also have to store data
• Even if it has to process the data on fly, it should keep the
data temporarily.
• It should also have to move data between itself and
outside world.
• When data are delivered to or received from device directly
connected to it, the process is called I/O operation and the
devices are called peripherals
• There should be control of these three functions.
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Operations (a) Data movement

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Operations (b) Storage

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Operation (c) Processing from/to storage

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Operation (d) Processing from storage to I/O

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Structure

• There are four main structural components

• Central Processing Unit (CPU): controls the operation of
computers and performs its data processing functions. It
often referred as processor
• Main Memory: stores data
• I/O: moves data between computer and external
environment
• System Interconnection: some mechanism that provides
for communication among CPU, main memory and I/O.

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 Structure - Top Level

Peripherals Computer

Central Main
Processing Memory
Unit

Computer
Systems
Interconnection

Input
Output
Communication lines 16
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 Structure - The CPU

CPU

Computer
Arithmetic
I/O
Registers and
System CPU Login Unit
Bus
Internal CPU
Memory
Interconnection

Control
Unit
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 Structure - The Control Unit

Control Unit

CPU
Sequencing
ALU Logic
Control
Internal
Unit
Bus
Control Unit
Registers Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory
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 Fig. The Computer: Top-Level Structure 19
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Computer Evolution and Performance
Evolution of computers:
 The First generation: Vacuum tubes
 The Second generation: Transistors
 The Third generation: Integrated Circuits
 Later generations
The major characteristics that distinguish the various generations
are the following:
Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.
Major secondary storage media used.
Computer languages used.
Type (or) characteristics of operating system used.
Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word of
data form memory). 20
chapter I
A) First Generation Computers (Vacuum tubes):
• The first commercially available computers (such as:
ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC-I & IBM 650) were
developed as a first-generation computers.
• First generation computers:
 used vacuum tubes as the principal electronic
components
memory access time was expressed in milli-seconds
used punched cards as primary medium to store data
files and input data to the computer
 instruction was written in machine languages
operating system was primitive
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ENIAC - background

• Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer

• Eckert and Mauchly
• University of Pennsylvania
• Trajectory tables for weapons
• Started 1943
• Finished 1946
• Too late for war effort
• Used until 1955

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ENIAC - details

• Decimal (not binary)

• 20 accumulators of 10 digits
• Programmed manually by switches
• 18,000 vacuum tubes
• 30 tons
• 1,500 square feet
• 140 kW power consumption
• 5,000 additions per second

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von Neumann/Turing

• Stored Program concept

• Main memory storing programs and data
• ALU operating on binary data
• Control unit interpreting instructions from memory and
executing
• Input and output equipment operated by control unit
• Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
• IAS
• Completed 1952
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Structure of von Neumann machine

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IAS - details

• 1000 x 40 bit words

• Binary number
• 2 x 20 bit instructions
• Set of registers (storage in CPU)
• Memory Buffer Register
• Memory Address Register
• Instruction Register
• Instruction Buffer Register
• Program Counter
• Accumulator
• Multiplier Quotient
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 Fig. IAS memory format
The memory of the IAS consists of 1000 storage locations, called words,
of 40 binary digits (bits) each. Both data and instructions are stored there.
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Structure of IAS – detail

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 Structure of IAS – detail
• Memory buffer register (MBR): Contains a word to be stored
in memory or is used to receive a word from memory.
• Memory address register (MAR): Specifies the address in
memory of the word to be written from or read into the MBR.
• Instruction register (IR): Contains the 8-hit op-code
instruction being executed.
• Instruction buffer register (lBR): Employed to hold
temporarily the right-hand instruction from a word in memory.
• Program Counter (PC): Contains the address of the next
instruction-pair to be fetched from memory.
• Accumulator (AC) and multiplier quotient (MQ): Employed
to hold temporarily operands and results of ALU operations.

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Commercial Computers
• 1947 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation
• UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)
• US Bureau of Census 1950 calculations
• Became part of Sperry-Rand Corporation
• Late 1950s - UNIVAC II
• Faster
• More memory
IBM
• Punched-card processing equipment
• 1953 - the 701
• IBM’s first stored program computer
• Scientific calculations
• 1955 - the 702
• Business applications
• Lead to 700/7000 series
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Transistor Based Computers
• Replaced vacuum tubes
• Smaller
• Cheaper
• Less heat dissipation
• Solid State device
• Made from Silicon (Sand)
• Invented 1947 at Bell Labs
• Second generation machines
• NCR & RCA produced small transistor machines
• IBM 7000
• DEC - 1957 31
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 Microelectronics

• Literally - “small electronics”

• A computer is made up of gates, memory cells and
interconnections
• These can be manufactured on a semiconductor
• e.g. silicon wafer

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Generations of Computer
• Vacuum tube - 1946-1957
• Transistor - 1958-1964
• Small scale integration - 1965 on
• Up to 100 devices on a chip
• Medium scale integration - to 1971
• 100-3,000 devices on a chip
• Large scale integration - 1971-1977
• 3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip
• Very large scale integration - 1978 -1991
• 100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip
• Ultra large scale integration – 1991 -
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• Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip
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Moore’s Law
• Increased density of components on chip
• Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel
• Number of transistors on a chip will double every year
• Since 1970’s development has slowed a little
• Number of transistors doubles every 18 months
• Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged
• Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths,
giving higher performance
• Smaller size gives increased flexibility
• Reduced power and cooling requirements
• Fewer interconnections increases reliability 35
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The consequences of Moore’s law are profound:
• The cost of a chip has remained virtually unchanged
during this period of rapid growth in density.
• Because logic and memory elements are placed closer
together on more densely packed chips, the electrical path
length is shortened, increasing operating speed.
• The computer becomes smaller, making it more
convenient to place in a variety of environments.
• There is a reduction in power and cooling requirements.
• The interconnections on the integrated circuit are much
more reliable than solder connections.

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Growth in CPU Transistor Count

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IBM 360 series
• 1964
• Replaced (& not compatible with) 7000 series
• First planned “family” of computers
The characteristics of a family are as follows:
• Similar or identical instruction sets
• Similar or identical O/S
• Increasing speed
• Increasing number of I/O ports (i.e. more terminals)
• Increased memory size
• Increased cost
• Multiplexed switch structure
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 DEC PDP-8
• 1964
• First minicomputer (after miniskirt!)
• Did not need air conditioned room
• Small enough to sit on a lab bench
• $16,000
• $100k+ for IBM 360
• Embedded applications & OEM
• BUS STRUCTURE

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 Later Generations

Semiconductor Memory
• 1970
• Fairchild- the first relatively capacious semiconductor
• Size of a single core
• i.e. 1 bit of magnetic core storage
• Holds 256 bits memory
• Non-destructive read
• Much faster than core
• Capacity approximately doubles each year

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Intel

• 1971 - 4004
• First microprocessor
• All CPU components on a single chip
• 4 bit
• Followed in 1972 by 8008
• 8 bit
• Both designed for specific applications
• 1974 - 8080
• Intel’s first general purpose microprocessor
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Performance Balance
• Processor speed increased
• Memory capacity increased
• Memory speed lags behind processor speed
Logic and Memory Performance Gap

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 There are a number of ways that a system architect can attack
this problem, all of which are reflected in contemporary
computer designs. Consider the following examples:

• Increase number of bits retrieved at one time by

• Making DRAM “wider” rather than “deeper” wide bus path
• Change DRAM interface to make more efficient
• Cache/buffer on the DRAM chip
• Reduce frequency of memory access
• More complex cache and cache on chip
• Increase interconnection bandwidth
• High speed buses
• Hierarchy of buses 43
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I/O Devices

• Peripherals with intensive I/O demands

• Large data throughput demands
• Processors can handle this
• Problem moving data
• Solutions:
• Caching
• Buffering
• Higher-speed interconnection buses
• More elaborate bus structures
• Multiple-processor configurations 44
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 Improvements in Chip Organization and
Architecture

• Increase hardware speed of processor

• Fundamentally due to shrinking logic gate size
• More gates, packed more tightly, increasing clock rate
• Propagation time for signals reduced
• Increase size and speed of caches
• Dedicating part of processor chip
• Cache access times drop significantly
• Change processor organization and architecture
• Increase effective speed of execution
• Parallelism

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 Problems with Clock Speed and
Login Density

• Power
• Power density increases with density of logic and clock speed
• Dissipating heat
• RC delay
• Speed at which electrons flow limited by resistance and capacitance of metal
wires connecting them
• Delay increases as RC product increases
• Wire interconnects thinner, increasing resistance
• Wires closer together, increasing capacitance
• Memory latency
• Memory speeds lag processor speeds
• Solution:
• More emphasis on organizational and architectural approaches

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 Intel Microprocessor Performance

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Designing for Performance

today's microprocessor-based systems include

• image processing
• Speech recognition
• Video conferencing
• Multimedia authoring
• Voice and video annotation of files
• Simulation modeling

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 x86 Evolution (1)
• 8080
• first general purpose microprocessor
• 8 bit data path
• Used in first personal computer – Altair
• 8086 – 5MHz – 29,000 transistors
• much more powerful
• 16 bit
• instruction cache, prefetch few instructions
• 8088 (8 bit external bus) used in first IBM PC
• 80286
• 16 Mbyte memory addressable
• up from 1Mb
• 80386
• 32 bit
• Support for multitasking
• 80486
• sophisticated powerful cache and instruction pipelining
• built in maths co-processor
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 x86 Evolution (2)
• Pentium
• Superscalar
• Multiple instructions executed in parallel
• Pentium Pro
• Increased superscalar organization
• Aggressive register renaming
• branch prediction
• data flow analysis
• speculative execution
• Pentium II
• MMX technology
• graphics, video & audio processing
• Pentium III
• Additional floating point instructions for 3D graphics
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 x86 Evolution (3)
• Pentium 4
• Note Arabic rather than Roman numerals
• Further floating point and multimedia enhancements
• Core
• First x86 with dual core
• Core 2
• 64 bit architecture
• Core 2 Quad – 3GHz – 820 million transistors
• Four processors on single chip

• x86 architecture dominant outside embedded systems

• Organization and technology changed dramatically
• Instruction set architecture evolved with backwards compatibility
• ~1 instruction per month added
• 500 instructions available
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