• Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate

• Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution of Temperature and Rainfall in

Ethiopia
• Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes, Consequences and Response
Mechanisms
▪ What is Weather and Climate?

▪What are major controlling factors of

weather and climate?

▪How can we relate the topographic setup

of Ethiopia with its climatic conditions.
❖ Weather:
o is the instantaneous state of the atmosphere (temperature,
atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed and direction, cloudiness
and precipitation)

o It is expressed by a combination of several elements.

o It takes place in the troposphere.

❖ Climate
• is the state of the atmosphere over long periods of time

• It is the composite of daily weather conditions recorded for long

periods of time.

• The long-term state of the atmosphere is a function of a variety of

interacting element
1. Elements and Controls of Weather and Climate
• The climate of any particular location on earth is determined by a
combination of many interacting factors.
A. Latitude
• Latitude is the distance of a location from the equator.

• It determines the amount of insolation ➔the amount of solar

radiation received on a given surface in a given time period

• Moving from the equator towards the poles➔ insolation decreased

➔ temperature become colder.
▪ Latitudinal location of Ethiopia and the Horn resulted in;
✓ high average temperatures,
✓ high daily and small annual ranges of temperature,
✓ no significant variation in length of day and night
B. Inclination of the Earth's Axis

• The earth’s rotation axis makes an angle of about 66 ½° with the

plane of its orbit around the sun, or about 23 ½° from the
perpendicular to the ecliptic plane.

• This inclination determines the location of the Tropics of Cancer,

Capricorn and the Arctic and Antarctic Circles.

• The inclination ➔ produces a change in the directness of the sun's

rays; ➔ length of day and seasons.
• Revolution of the earth along its orbit, the inclination of its axis from
the plane of that orbit, causes seasonal changes in the daylight and
darkness periods.
• Equinox
• An equinox is a time when the sun strikes the plane of the
Earth's equator

• appears twice a year

• the length of day and night are equal.

There are two Equinox

i. The Vernal (spring) equinox(March 20-21)

ii. The Autumn equinox (September 22-23)

Position of Sun and Seasonal Occurrence
i. The Vernal (spring) equinox:

• It experiences in Northern Hemisphere when

the sun is exactly above the equator.

• March 21 marks the offset of the this

equinox.

• It marks the beginning of spring season.

• Sun ray make an angle of 900 with

equator.
ii. The Autumn equinox:
▪ It appears to happen when the visible sun
moves south across the equator on 23rd
of September.
▪ It gives approximately equal length
between day and night.
▪ It marks the beginning of Autumn
season
▪ Sun ray make an angle of 900 with
equator.
Solstice
• an event when the overhead sun appears to cross northern or
southern points relative to the equator

• resulting in unequal length of days and nights in the hemispheres.

• There are two Solstice

i. Summer Solstice (Jun 20-22) – tropic of cancer

ii. Winter solstice (December 22-23)- tropic of Capricorn

i. Summer Solstice
• On June 21st, the northern hemisphere
has maximum tilt towards the sun
• experiencing longest daylight of the
year in NH.
▪ It is the astronomical 1st day of
summer in the N H.
▪ The sun is at its highest position in the
noonday sky, directly above 23 ½ in the
Tropic of Cancer
▪ Sun ray make an angle of 900 with
tropic of cancer
ii. The winter solstice:
• December 22nd of is the day when the
maximum southward inclination is attained
in the S. H.
• In this event the sun travels shortest
length causing longest night and
shortest daylight in NH.
• It occurs when the sun is directly over the
Tropic of Capricorn (23 ½ ° south of the
equator).
• Sun ray make an angle of 900 with
tropic of Capricorn.
C. Altitude
▪ is the height of location above/ below the sea level.
▪ Under normal conditions there is a general decrease in temperature
with increasing elevation.
▪ Lapse rate - the average rate of temperature changes with altitudinal
change.
▪ The lapse rate is limited to the lower layer of the atmosphere
named as troposphere.
▪ The normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per kilometer rise in altitude.
 Types of lapse rate

❑ There are three types of lapse rates

i. Dry Adiabatic laps rate

ii. Wet Adiabatic laps rate

iii. Environmental /Atmospheric lapse rate

❑ Adiabatic temperature change (with out loss/ gain of heat)
• is change of air temperature as a result expansion and contraction air
molecules when the air mass rises and subsides

• The temperature changes occurring in the rising or subsiding air mass are
not the result of additions of heat to, or withdrawals of heat from
outside sources, but rather are the consequence of internal processes of
expansion and contraction.

• Adiabatic or adiabatically: no entry and withdrawal of heat from

outside sources rather all temperature changes are internal.

• So, Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of change in temperature of a rising

or a falling air.
i. Dry adiabatic laps rate
• is the rate of change in temperature with altitude for a parcel of dry or
unsaturated air (air with less moisture) rising/falling under adiabatic
conditions

• Vertical displacements of air are the major cause of adiabatic

temperature changes.

• When air rises➔ it expands because there is less weight of air upon it
➔volume increase

• If the air in the parcel is unsaturated (the relative humidity is less than
100 percent), the rate of adiabatic cooling or warming remains
constant.
▪ That means, if the upward movement of air does not produce

condensation, the temperature of the mass to fall at the constant dry

adiabatic lapse rate.

▪ The rate of heating or cooling is about 10°C for every 1000 m of

change in elevation.

▪ This rate applies only to unsaturated air

Dry Adiabatic Laps Rate
ii. Wet Adiabatic laps rate
• is the rate of change in temperature with altitude for a parcel of wet or
saturated air rising/falling under adiabatic conditions.

• the rate at which rising or sinking saturated air changes its temperature
in less than the dry adiabatic rate.

• The rate of heating or cooling is about 5°C for every 1000 m of

change in elevation.
• The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies considerably because the amount of
water vapor in the air is highly variable.

• It is mainly associated with unstable conditions because it has more

moisture.
Wet Adiabatic Laps Rate
iii. Environmental/Atmospheric /Normal laps rate
▪ It is change of temperature with altitude in calm air.
▪ The fact that air temperature is normally highest at low elevations next
to the earth and decreases with altitude b/c
▪ the earth surface is source of heat for the atmosphere and it is
closer to the earth makes atmospheric air at lower altitude is high
in density.
▪ Change in temperature up/downward movement from the earth's
surface normally prevails throughout the lower atmosphere called
troposphere.
▪ The rate of heating or cooling is about 6.5°C /1000 m of change in
elevation
Normal/ Environmental Laps Rate
 Spatiotemporal Patterns and
Distribution of Temperature and
Rainfall in Ethiopia
A. Spatiotemporal Distribution of Temperature

❑ Spatial distribution of temperature in Ethiopia

▪ is primarily determined by altitude and Latitude
▪ Latitude: Even though Ethiopia is located closer to equator ( a zone of
maximum insolation) it is a highland country - tropical temperature
confined to the lower altitude area (Periphery) and modified to the center
(Highland) therefore, it doesn’t have full spatial coverage.
▪ Altitude is an important element in determining temperature of Ethiopia
and the Horn.
▪ Latitude, humidity and winds, with varying magnitude have also
significant impacts on temperature conditions in Ethiopia.
• Therefore, temperature decreases towards the interior highlands.
• In Ethiopia : Bale Mountains - lowest mean annual temperatures are recorded
Afar Depression - the highest mean maximum temperature is recorded
❑ Temporal distribution of Ethiopian temperature

❖ In terms of latitude and cloud cover:

✓In Ethiopia the temperatures characterize by more extreme

✓maximum difference in the daily range as a result of high temperature

during the daytime in some places, and is considerably reduced at night

✓the annual range is low- in the tropics but some parts experience
temperate climate, the reverse is true
✓Places in the tropics also experience air free from frost and small change
in solar intensity b/c changes in solar angles is minimal
❑ In terms of altitude,
• the daily maximum temperature of lowland varies > 37oC and it
ranges b/n about 10o C-15oC in the highlands of Ethiopia.

• However, in both highland and lowland, have less variation in the

monthly averages, and small annual range of temperature.

❑ Seasonal temperature variations.

▪ In Ethiopia high temperature recorded b/n March to June and low
temperatures recorded from November to February.
Spatiotemporal Distribution of Rainfall
• The rainfall distribution of Ethiopia is influenced by the position of
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
▪ It is a low-pressure zone.
▪ It is formed as result of the convergence of Northeast Trade
winds and the Equatorial Westerlies
▪ Following the position of the overhead sun, the ITCZ shifts north and
south of the equator.
▪ Thus, the inter-annual oscillation of the surface position of the ITCZ
causes a variation in the Wind flow patterns over Ethiopia and the Horn
ITCZ
Seasonal or Temporal Variabilities

▪ The seasonal and annual rainfall variations are results of the macro-scale
pressure systems which are related to the changes in the pressure systems
i. Summer (June, July, August)
✓Mid-June- mid-September ➔ majority of Ethiopian, except lowlands in Afar and
Southeast,

✓ as the sun overheads north of the equator.

✓High pressure cells develop (Atlantic and Indian Oceans around the tropic of
Capricorn)
✓although the Atlantic contributes a lot, the Indian Ocean is also source of rainfall.
✓Ethiopia and the Horn come under the influence of the Equatorial Westerlies
(Guinea monsoon) and Easterlies.
ii. Autumn (September, October and November)
✓Autumn is the season of the year between summer and winter.
✓The exact position of the ITCZ changes over the course of the
year, oscillating across the equator.
✓In autumn the ITCZ shifts towards the equator weakening the
equatorial westerlies.
✓the south easterlies from Indian Ocean showers the lowlands in
southeastern part of Ethiopia.
iii. Winter (December, January and February)
✓the overhead sun is far south of equator.
✓Northeasterly winds originating from the landmass of Asia
dominantly prevail Ethiopian landmass.
✓However, it has no significant coverage compared to other
seasons.
✓The northeasterly winds crossing the Red Sea carry very little
moisture and supplies rain only to the Afar lowlands and the
Red Sea coastal areas.
iv. Spring (March, April and May), Belg
✓ the noonday sun is shining directly on the equator while shifting
north from south.
✓ the effect of the northeast trade wind is very much reduced.
✓ The shift of the ITCZ, results in longer days and more direct solar
radiation providing warmer weather for the northern world.
✓ Conversely, the south easterlies from the Indian Ocean provide rain to the
highlands of Somalia, and to the central and southeastern lowlands
and highlands of Ethiopia.
 Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia
Both in space and time, four rainfall regions
1. Summer rainfall region
✓Consist almost all parts of the country, except the southeastern and
northeastern lowlands.
✓ They receives summer rain and some places spring (Belg) rain.
✓ The region is divided in to two:
❖Wet summer ( areas with RF > 1000mm)- high altitudes and the
windward side.
❖Dry summer (areas receive 800 – 1000mm)-western lowland and RV
regions
2. All year-round rainfall region
✓is the southwestern part
✓It receive average rainfall ranges from 1,400 to over 2,200
mm/year
✓B/se of convectional RF and Summer RF(equatorial Westerlies
called the Guinea Monsoons) since it locate at wind ward side
✓The RF duration and amount of rainfall decreases from southwest
to north and eastwards
✓In summer ➔gain highest rainfall
✓In winter months receive the reduced amount.
3. Autumn and Spring rainfall regions
▪ South eastern lowlands(when both the north easterlies and equatorial
westerlies are weak)
▪ b/c of the influence of southeasterly winds (Indian Ocean).
▪ In the autumn about 60% of the rain and in spring about 40%.
▪ The average rainfall varies from < 500 to 1,000 mm.

4. Winter rainfall region

▪ it developed b/c of northeasterly winds
▪ received by the Red sea escarpments and some parts of the Afar
region
 Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia

▪ Based on altitude and climatic conditions diversification

▪ Ethiopia has Five agro-climatic zones namely

1. Bereha,
2. Kolla,
3. Woina Dega,
4. Dega and
5. Wurch.
1. Wurch Zone (> 3200 m a.s.l)
▪ The altitude is higher than 3,200 m a.s.l and
▪ mean annual temperature of less than 10° C.
▪ Mountains include mountain systems of Ras Dashen, Guna,
Megezez in North Shoa, Batu, Choke, Abune Yoseph etc.
2. Dega Zone (2300- 3200 m a.s.l)
▪ have relatively higher temperature and lower altitude compared to
the wurch Zones.
▪ In Ethiopia, it is long inhabited and has dense human settlement
due to reliable rainfall for agriculture and absence of vector-
borne diseases such as malaria.
3. Weyna Dega Zone (1500-2,300 m a.s.l)
▪ This zone has warmer temperature and moderate rainfall.
▪ It lies between 1500-2,300 m a.s.l.
▪ It is the second largest zone covering >26% of the
landmass of Ethiopia.
▪ The temperature and rainfall is highly suitable for majority
of crops grown in Ethiopia.
▪ This zone includes most of the agricultural land.
▪ It has also two growing seasons.
4. Kolla Zone (500-1500 m a.s.l)
✓ the geographic peripheries in south, southeast, west and

northeastern part.

✓ Is the hot lowlands with an altitudinal range of 500 to 1500 m a.s.l

✓ Mean annual rainfall is erratic, it can be as high as 1500 mm in

the wet western lowlands

✓ is highly variable from year to year.

5. Bereha Zone (<500m a.s.l)
▪ It is the hot arid climate of the desert lowlands.
▪ Is confined with altitude of lower than 500 m a.s.l lowland areas.
▪ Around Danakil depression, the elevation goes below the sea level.
▪ Its average annual rainfall is <200 mm, and less humidity, and
little cloud cover.
▪ Evapotranspiration is always in excess of rainfall.
▪ Djibouti, majority of Somalia, and coastal areas of Eritrea are
categorized under Kolla and Bereha zones.
Figure 5.2. Traditional Agro Ecological Zones of Ethiopia.
Climate Change and Global Warming:

Causes, Consequences and

Response Mechanisms
What is Climate change?
▪ Is a change in the state of the climate that can be identified
(using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the
variability of its properties and that persists for an extended
period (decades or more).
▪ Is any change in climate over time, due to either natural
variability or human activities.
Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia

▪ Ethiopian climate experiences extremes (drought, flood etc).

▪ Ethiopia ranked 5th out of 184 countries in terms of its risk of drought.
▪ In the country, 12 extreme drought events were recorded between 1900 and
2010. where 7 of them occurred since 1980
▪ The severe drought of 2015-2016 was exacerbated by the strongest El Nino
that caused successive harvest failures and widespread livestock deaths in
some regions.
Trends in Temperature Variability
▪ The Mean annual temperature has shown 0.2°C to 0.28°C rise per decade
over the last 40-50 years
▪ A rise in average temperature of about 1.3°C has been observed between
1960 and 2006. This rise has spatial and temporal variation.
▪ Higher rise in temperature was noted in drier areas in northeast and
southeast part of the country.
▪ Notably the variability is higher in July-September.
▪ The number of ”hot days‟ and “hot nights‟ has also shown increment.
▪ As a result the minimum temperature has increased with 0.37°C to 0.4°C
per decade.
Figure 5.4: Global mean temperature anomaly. Orange (land) and blue (sea) Source: Meteorology Today, 2019
 Trends in Rainfall Variability
• It remained fairly stable over the last 50 years when averaged over the
country.

• These averages do not reflect local conditions (extremely divergent)

• Rainfall variability is increasing in many parts of the country

• Total average rainfall shown decline in some regions (between 1975 and
2010 S, SW & SE regions show decline of RF by 15-20%)
▪ Changes in temperature and rainfall increase the frequency and severity
of extreme events.
▪ Major floods - loss of life and property
▪ Warming - droughts, and desertification
 Reading Assignment
What are the major causes and
Consequences of climate
change?
Causes and Consequences of Climate Change
▪ Causes of climate change generally categorized as:
1. Anthropogenic/manmade causes
2. Natural causes
▪ Consequences of climate change can be an impact on
1. Human health
2. Water resources
3. Agriculture
4. Ecosystem
A. Natural Causes
❑ Climate change has many natural causes such as
❖ variations in the energy budget,
❖ the position of Earth relative to Sun:
✓ the earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5° to the perpendicular plane of its
orbital path.
✓ Changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to small but climatically
important changes in the strength of the seasons.
✓ More tilt means warmer summers and colder winters
❖ the position of continents relative to the equator, and
❖ even whether the continents are together or apart.
❑ Energy Budget: Although the Sun’s energy output appears constant, small
changes over an extended period of time can lead to climate changes.
▪ Since the Sun was born, 4.5 billion years ago, the star has been very
gradually increasing its amount of radiation so that it is now 20% to
30% more intense than it was once.
❑ Volcanic eruptions: volcanic eruption releases large volumes of Sulphur
dioxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor, dust, and ash into the atmosphere.
▪ The release of large volume of gases and ash can increase planetary
reflectivity causing atmospheric cooling.
▪ The decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, ruminant digestion and
manure management, synthetic compounds manufacturing, clearing of land for
agriculture, industrial activities, and other human activities have increased
concentrations of greenhouse gases.
▪ The major gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include Water vapor,
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane, Nitrous oxide, Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs).Although methane is less abundant in atmosphere, it is by far more active
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
Consequences of Climate Change
▪ In many parts of the world, climate change has already caused loss of life,
damaging property and affecting livelihoods.
▪ The impact of climate change is higher in low income countries, since they
have limited capacity to cope with the changes.
▪ Some of the consequences of the changing climate include:
❑ Impacts on human health: The change can cause increased heat related
mortality and morbidity, greater frequency of infectious disease epidemics
following floods and storms, and substantial health effects following
population displacement to escape extreme weather events. Climate change
also raises the incidence malaria.
❑ Impact on water resources: Climate change is leading to melting of snow and glaciers
that increases rise in sea level, increase drought and floods, distorts wind flow pattern,
decreases water table.
▪ More frequent and longer droughts reduce the amount of run-off into rivers,
streams and lakes.
❑ Impact on Agriculture: changes in temperature and rainfall patterns as well as
significantly affect agricultural production. Climate change increases physiological stress
and fodder quality and availability.
❑ Impact on Ecosystem: climate change affects the success of species, population, and
community adaptation.
▪ The rate of climatic warming may exceed the rate of shifts in certain range
species, these species could be seriously affected or even disappear because they
are unable to resist.
Climate Response Mechanisms
The three major climate change response mechanisms are:

1. Mitigation

2. Adaptation

3. Resilience
1. Mitigation Measures and its Strategies
✓are those actions that are taken to reduce and control greenhouse gas
emissions

✓it implies reducing the flow of heat trapping greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere, either by reducing sources of these gases or
enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and store these gases(such as
the oceans, forests and soil).

✓The goal is to avoid significant human interference with the climate

system.
❑Some mitigation measures:
✓Practice Energy efficiency
✓Increase the use of renewable energy such as solar
✓Efficient means of transport implementation: (electric public
transport, bicycle, shared cars etc.)
2. Adaptation and its Strategies
✓It means adapting to life in a changing climate.
✓It involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate.
✓The goal is to reduce our vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate
change ( extreme weather events or food insecurity).
✓It also encompasses making the most of any potential beneficial
opportunities associated with climate change (for example, longer
growing seasons or increased yields in some regions).
Some of the major adaptation strategies include:
▪ building flood defenses,
▪ plan for heatwaves and higher temperatures,
▪ installing water-permeable pavements to better deal with floods and
storm water
▪ improve water storage and use are some of measures taken by cities
and towns.
▪ landscape restoration and reforestation,
▪ flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for natural catastrophes
▪ preventive and precautionary measures (evacuation plans, health issues,
etc.)
3. Resilience measure and Strategies
▪ Resilience — a system can cope with without changing its internal structure
and losing its functioning capacity

▪ Is the capacity for a socio-ecological system to:

1. absorb stresses and maintain function

2. adapt, reorganize, and evolve into more desirable sustainable system

▪ It is the ability to prepare for, recover from, and adapt to the impacts of
climate change

▪ Climate resilience focuses on actions taken to maintain existing systems

and structures
▪ Since climate resilience involves to the act of absorbing shocks as well as
self-renewing, differentiated it from the concept of climate adaptation

▪ It uses the shock as an opportunity for innovation and evolution of new

pathways that improve the system's ability to adapt to macroscopic changes