SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION

MOTORS
 Introduction
 The motors which work on single phase ac
supply are called single phase
induction motors.

 The power rating of these motors are very

small. Some of them are of fractional
horse power.
 Are used in applications like small toys,
small fans, hair driers etc.
Types of Single Phase
Motors
Single
Phase
Motors
Inducti Univers
on al Repulsio Synchronou
n Motors s Motors
Motor motors
Split Repulsion Reluctance
Phase Start motor
Type Induction-
run Motor
Capacitor Hysteresi
Type Repulsion s Motor
Induction
Shaded Motor
Pole Type
 Construction
 Single phase induction motors are has
 One rotating (rotor) and

 Other stationary (stator)

.
Stator

 Stator has laminated construction, made up of

stampings.
 The stampings are slotted on the periphery to
carry the winding called the stator winding or
main winding.
 This is excited by single phase ac supply.

 The stator winding is wound for certain definite

no of poles.
 The no of poles which stator windings are wound
decides the synchronous speed of the motor
 Construction
 The synchronous speed is denoted by Ns and
relation is given as
120 f
Ns = rpm
p

 IM never rotates at synchronous speed but

rotates at speed slightly less than the
synchronous speed .
 Construction
Rotor
 The rotor construction is of squirrel cage type .
 In this type rotor consist of uninsulated copper or
aluminum bars, placed in the slots.
 The bars are permanently shorted at both the ends with
the help of conducting rings called end rings.
 The entire structure look like a cage hence called
squirrel cage rotor.
 As bars are permanently shorted to each other the
resistance of the entire rotor is very small.
 The main feature of this rotor is that is
automatically adjust itself for same no of poles
as that of stator winding
 Single Phase Induction Motor
 As the name suggests, this type of motor has only
one stator winding (main winding) and operates
with a single-phase power supply.
 In all single-phase induction motors, the rotor is the
squirrel cage type.
 The single-phase induction motor is not self-starting.
 When the motor is connected to a single-phase power
supply, the main winding carries an alternating
current. This current produces a pulsating magnetic
field. Due to induction, the rotor is energized.
 As the main magnetic field is pulsating, the torque
necessary for the motor rotation is not generated. This
will cause the rotor to vibrate, but not to rotate. Hence,
the single phase induction motor is required to
Single Phase Induction
Motor
 The single-phase induction motor operation can
be described by two methods:
– Double revolving field theory; and
– Cross-field theory.
 Double field revolving theory
 A single-phase ac current supplies the main
winding that produces a pulsating magnetic field.

 Mathematically, the pulsating field could be

divided into two fields, which are rotating in
opposite directions.

 The interaction between the fields and the

current induced in the rotor bars generates
opposing torque.

 According to this theory any alternating quantity

can be resolved into two rotating components
which rotate in opposite direction and each
 Double field revolving theory

 Under conditions, with only

the main field energized
the motor will not start.
 However, if an external
torque moves the motor in
any direction, the motor will
begin to rotate.
 The pulsating filed is
divided a forward and
reverse rotating field
 Motor is started in the
direction of forward rotating
field this generates small
 Double field revolving theory

 The three-phase induction motor starting

torque inversely depends on the slip.
 This implies that a small positive slip
generates larger torque than a larger
negative slip.
 This torque difference drives the motor
continues to rotate in a forward direction
without any external torque.
 Each of the rotating fields induces a
voltage in the rotor, which drives current
and produces torque.
 Making Single Phase Motor Self
Starting
 To m a k e t h e m o t o r s e l f - s t a r t i n g , i t i s
temporarily converted into a two-phase motor
during starting period.
 For this purpose, the stator of a single-phase
motor is provided with an extra winding,
known as starting (or auxiliary) winding, in
addition to the main or running winding.
 The two windings are spaced 90º
electrically apart and are
connected in parallel across the
single-phase supply.
 It is so arranged that the phase-
difference between the currents in
the two stator windings is very
large (ideal value being 90º).
 Hence, the motor behaves like a
two- phase motor. These two
currents produce a revolving flux
 Starting torque
 The single-phase motor starting torque is
zero because of the pulsating single-
phase magnetic flux.
 The starting of the motor requires the
generation of a rotating magnetic flux
similar to the rotating flux in a three-
phase motor.
 Two perpendicular coils that have currents
90° out of- phase can generate the
necessary rotating magnetic fields which
start the motor.
 Therefore, single-phase motors are built
 The phase shift is achieved by connecting
– a resistance,
– an inductance, or
– a capacitance in series with the starting
winding.

 Most frequently used is a capacitor to generate

the starting torque.
 Split-Phase AC Induction Motor

 The split-phase motor is also known as an

induction start/induction run motor.
 It has two windings: a start and a main winding.
 The start winding is made with smaller gauge
wire and fewer turns, relative to the main winding
to create more resistance, thus putting the start
winding’s field at a different angle than that of the
main winding which causes the motor to start
rotating.
 The main winding, which is of a heavier wire,
keeps the motor running the rest of the time.
Split-Phase AC Induction Motor
 Split-Phase AC Induction Motor

 The starting torque is 1.5 to 2 times of the full

load torque with a starting current of 6 to 8 times
the full load current.

 Since the starting winding is made up of fine

wires, the current density is high and the winding
heats up quickly. If the starting period exceeds 5
sec. , the winding may burn out unless the motor
is protected by built-in thermal relay.
 These are constant speed motors, speed
variation is 2-5% from no load to full load.
 Applications for split-phase motors include small
grinders, small fans and blowers and other low
 Capacitor Start AC Induction
Motor
 This is a modified split-phase motor with a
capacitor in series with the start winding to
provide a start “boost.”
 Like the split-phase motor, the capacitor start
motor also has a centrifugal switch which
disconnects the start winding and the
capacitor when the motor reaches about 75%
of the rated speed.
 Since the capacitor is in series with the start
circuit, it creates more starting torque, typically
200% to 400% of the rated torque.
Capacitor Start AC Induction Motor
 Capacitor Start AC
IM

 And the starting current, is much lower than the

split-phase due to the larger wire in the start
circuit.

 They are used in a wide range of belt-drive

applications like small conveyors, large
blowers and pumps, as well as many direct-
drive or geared applications.
 Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor
Run) AC IM

A permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor has a run

type capacitor permanently connected in series
with the start winding.
 The run capacitor must be designed for continuous use,

it cannot provide the starting boost of a starting

capacitor.
Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor
Run) AC IM
 The typical starting torque of the PSC
motor is low, from 30% to 150% of the
rated torque.
 PSC motors have low starting current,
u s u al l y le s s t h a n 2 0 0 % o f t h e r a t e d
current, making them excellent for
applications with high on/off cycle
rates
Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor
Run) AC IM
The PSC motors have several advantages:

 The motor design can easily be altered for

use with speed controllers.
 They can also be designed for optimum
efficiency and High-Power Factor (PF) at
the rated load.
 They’re considered to be the most
reliable of the single-phase motors, mainly
because no centrifugal starting switch is
required.
 Applications of permanent split
capacitor (PSC)

 Permanent split-capacitor motors have a wide

variety of applications depending on the design.

 These include fans, blowers with low starting

torque, washing machines, oil burners, small
machine tools etc.

 Power rating of these motors lies between

60W and 250W
Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC
Induction Motor

 This motor has a start type capacitor in

s e r i e s w i t h t h e a u x i l i a r y w i n d i n g l i ke t h e
capacitor start motor for high starting torque.
 Like a PSC motor, it also has a run type capacitor
that is in series with the auxiliary winding after
the start capacitor is switched out of the circuit.
This allows high overload torque.
 This type of motor can be designed for lower full-
load currents and higher efficiency.
 This motor is costly due to start and run
capacitors and centrifugal switch.
Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC Induction
Motor
Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC
Induction Motor
 It is able to handle applications demanding for
any other kind of single-phase motor.
 These include woodworking machinery, air
compressors, high-pressure water pumps,
vacuum pumps and other high torque
applications requiring 1 to 10 hp.
 Shaded-Pole AC Induction
Motor

 Shaded-pole motors have only one main winding

and no start winding.
 Starting is by means of a design that rings a
continuous copper loop around a small portion of
each of the motor poles.

 This “shades” that portion of the pole, causing the

magnetic field in the shaded area to lag behind the
field in the unshaded area.

 The reaction of the two fields gets the shaft rotating.

Shaded-Pole AC Induction Motor
 Advantages

 Because the shaded-pole motor lacks a start

w i n d i n g , s ta rti n g s w i tc h o r c a p a c i t o r , i t i s
electrically simple and inexpensive.

 Also, the speed can be controlled merely by

varying voltage, or through a multi-tap winding.
Mechanically, the shaded-pole motor
construction allows high-volume production.

 In fact, these are usually considered as

“disposable” motors, meaning they are much
cheaper to replace than to repair.
 Disadvantages

 It’s low starting torque is typically 25% to

75% of the rated torque.
 It is a high slip motor with a running speed
7% to 10% below the synchronous speed.
 Generally, efficiency of this motor type is
very low (below 20%).
 Applications

 The low initial cost suits the shaded-pole motors to

low horsepower or light duty applications.

 Its Largest use is in multi-speed fans for household

use.

 But the low torque, low efficiency and less

sturdy mechanical features make shaded-pole
motors impractical for most industrial or commercial
use, where higher cycle rates or continuous duty are
the norm.
Equivalent Circuit of a
Single Phase Induction
Motor
Universal motor

 The motors which can be used with a

single phase AC source as well as a DC
source of supply and voltages are called
as Universal Motor. It is also known as
Single Phase Series Motor.
 A universal motor is a commutation
type motor.
Construction of the
universal motor
 The construction of the universal motor is
same as that of the series motor.
 In order to minimize the problem of
commutation, high resistance brushes with
increased brush area are used.
 To reduce Eddy current losses the stator core
and yoke are laminated.
 The Universal motor is simple and less costly.
 It is used usually for rating not greater than
7 5 0 W .
Characteristic of Universal
motor
 The characteristic of Universal motor is
similar to that of the DC series motor.
 When operating from an AC supply, the
series motor develops less torque.
 By interchanging connections of the fields
with respect to the armature, the direction
of rotation can be altered.
 Universal motor
 The direction of the
d e v e l o p e d t o rq u e w i l l
remain positive, and
direction of the rotation
will be as it was before.

 The nature of the torque

will be pulsating, and the
frequency will be twice
that of line frequency as
shown in the waveform.
Universal motor
Thus, a Universal motor can work on both AC and
DC. However, a series motor which is mainly
designed for DC operation if works on single
phase AC supply suffers from the following
drawbacks.
 The efficiency becomes low because of hysteresis

and eddy current losses.

 The power factor is low due to the large

reactance of the field and the armature windings.

 The sparking at the brushes is in excess.
Universal motor
In order to overcome the following drawbacks,
certain modifications are made in a DC series
motor so that it can work even on the AC current.
They are as follows:-
 The field core is made up of the material having a
low hysteresis loss. It is laminated to reduce the
eddy current loss.
 The area of the field poles is increased to reduce
the flux density. As a result, the iron loss and the
reactive voltage drop are reduced.
 To g e t t h e re q u i re d t o rq u e t h e n u m b e r o f
conductors in the armature is increased.
Universal motor
 A compensating winding is used for reducing
the effect of the armature reaction and
improving the commutation process.
 The winding is placed in the stator slots as
shown in the figure below.
 Universal motor
 The series motor with the compensated
winding is shown in the figure below.

The winding is put in the

stator slot. The axis of
compensating winding is
90 degrees with the main
field axis.

The compensating winding

is connected in series with
both the armature and the
field, hence, it is called
Conductively compensated.
 Advantages &Disadvantage

Advantages
 High starting torque
 Very compact design if high running speeds are
used.

Disadvantage
 Requires maintenance
 and short life problems caused by the
commutator.

As a result, such motors are usually used in AC

devices such as food mixers and power tools
which are used only intermittently, and often
Reluctance motor

The three phase synchronous motors are

usually large machines of the order of
several hundred kilowatts or megawatts.
 Single phase synchronous motor are
constant speed machines of small ratings.
 Two widely used synchronous motors are

 Reluctance motor
 Hysteresis motors
These motors are simple in construction.
They do not require dc field excitation nor do
they use permanent magnet.
Reluctance motor Construction

 It is a single phase synchronous motor

which does not require dc excitation to the
rotor.
It consists of
 A Stator :

 Carrying a single phase winding along with an

auxiliary winding to produce a synchronous-
revolving magnetic field.
 A squirrel-cage rotor:
 Has unsymmetrical magnetic construction . This
is achieved by symmetrically removing some of
the teeth from squirrel cage rotor to produce
salient poles on the rotor.
 In the figure the teeth have been
removed in four locations to
produce a 4 pole structure.
 The two end rings are short
circuited.
 When the stator is connected to a
single phase supply, the motor
starts as a single phase induction
motor.
 A centrifugal switch disconnects
the auxiliary winding as soon as the
speed of the motor reaches about
75% of the synchronous speed.
Reluctance Torque

 Reluctance torque or
alignment torque is
experienced by a
ferromagnetic object
placed in an external
magnetic field, which
causes the object to
line up with the
external magnetic
field.
 An external magnetic
field induces an
internal magnetic
field in the object and
Working Operation of Reluctance
Motor
 When 1-phase stator having auxiliary winding is
energized, a synchronous- revolving field is
produced. The motor starts as a standard
–cage IM and will accelerate to near its
synchronous speed.
 As the rotor approaches synchronous speed, the
rotating stator flux will exert reluctance
torque on the rotor poles tending to align
the salient-pole axis with the axis of
rotating field.
 The rotor assumes the position where its salient
poles lock with the poles of the revolving field.
 Consequently, the motor will continue to run at
Torque Speed
Characteristic
 The starting torque depends upon the rotor
position. The value of the starting torque varies
between 300 to 400 % of its full load torque.
 The motor operates at a constant speed up to a
little over than 200% of its full load torque.
 If the loading of the motor is increased above
the value of the pull out torque, the motor
loose synchronism but continues to run as a
single phase induction motor up to over 500%
of its rated torque.
 At the starting the motor is subjected to
Cogging. This can be reduced by skewing the
rotor bars and by having the rotor slots not
ex a c t m u l t i p l e s o f t h e n u m b e r o f p o l e s .
Applications of a
Reluctance Motor

 Simple construction as there is no slip

rings, no brushes and no DC field
windings).
 Low cost
 Maintenance is easy.
 It is used for many constant speed
applications such as electric clock
timer, signaling devices, recording
instruments etc.
Hysteresis Motor

 A Hysteresis Motor is a synchronous

motor with a uniform air gap and without
DC excitation.
 It operates both in single and three
phase supply.
 The Torque in a Hysteresis Motor is
produced due to hysteresis and
eddy current induced in the rotor by
the action of the rotating flux of the
stator windings.
Construction of Stator of
Hysteresis Motor
 The stator of the hysteresis motor produces a
rotating magnetic field and is almost similar to
the stator of the induction motor.
 Thus, the stator of the motor is connected either
to single supply or to the three phase supply.
 The three phase motor produces more uniform
rotating field as compared to that of the single
phase supply.
 The stator winding of the single-phase
hysteresis motor is made of permanent split
capacitor type or shaded pole type.
 The capacitor is used with an auxiliary
winding in order to produce a uniform field.
 Construction of Rotor of
Hysteresis Motor
 The rotor of the hysteresis motor consists of the
core of aluminium or some other non-magnetic
material which carries a layer of special magnetic
material.
 The figure below shows the rotor of the
h The
y outer
s t layer
e r has
e as i s m o t o r .
number of thin rings
forming a laminated rotor.
 The rotor of the motor is a
smooth cylinder, and it does
not carry any windings.
 The ring is made of
hard chrome or cobalt
steel having a large
 Operation of a Hysteresis
Motor

 When supply is given applied to the stator, a rotating

magnetic field is produced.
 This magnetic field magnetizes the rotor ring and
induces pole within it. Due to the hysteresis loss in
the rotor, the induced rotor flux lags behind the
rotating stator flux.
 The angle δ between the stator
magnetic field B S and the rotor
magnetic field B R is responsible
for the production of the torque.
 The angle δ depends on the
shape of the hysteresis loop and
not on the frequency.
 The ideal material would have a rectangular
hysteresis loop.
 The stator magnetic field produces Eddy currents
in the rotor.
 As a result, they produce their own magnetic field.
 The electromagnet torque is developed by the
motor is uniform because of the hysteresis loss
remains constant at all rotor speed until the
breakdown torque.
 At the synchronous speed, the eddy current
torque is zero and only torque due to hysteresis
loss is present.
 Applications are record players, tape recorders,
ALTERNATOR
 Elementary Concepts of Rotating Machines

 Voltages can be induced by time-varying magnetic

fields.

 In rotating machines, voltages are generated in

w i n d i n g s o r g ro u p s o f c o i l s b y ro t a t i n g t h e s e
windings mechanically through a magnetic field, by
mechanically rotating a magnetic field past the
winding, or by designing the magnetic circuit so that
the reluctance varies with rotation of the rotor.
 The flux linking a specific coil is changed cyclically,
and a time-varying voltage is generated.
Elementary Concepts of Rotating Machines

 Electromagnetic energy conversion occurs when

changes in the flux linkage result from
mechanical motion.
 A set of such coils connected together is typically
referred to as an armature winding, a winding or
a set of windings carrying ac currents.
 In ac machines such as synchronous or induction
machines, the armature winding is typically on the stator.
(the stator winding)
 In dc machines, the armature winding is found on the
rotor. (the rotor winding)
 Elementary Concepts of Rotating Machines

 Synchronous and dc machines typically include a

second winding (or set of windings), referred to as the
field winding, which carries dc current and which are
used to produce the main operating flux in the machine.
 In dc machines, the field winding is found on the stator.
 In synchronous machines, the field winding is found on
the rotor.
 In most rotating machines, the stator and rotor are
made of electrical steel, and the windings are installed
in slots on these structures.The stator and rotor
structures are typically built from thin laminations of
electrical steel, insulated from each other, to reduce
eddy-current losses.
 Synchronous Generators

 Are the primary source of all electrical

energy
 Commonly used to convert the
mechanical power output of steam
turbines, gas turbines, reciprocating
engines, hydro turbines into electrical
power for the grid
 Can be extremely large — power ratings
up to 1500MW
 Are known as synchronous machines
because they operate at synchronous
 Stationary Field Synchronous
Generator
 Poles on the stator (field winding) are
supplied with DC to create a stationary
magnetic field.
 Armature winding on rotor consists of a
3-phase winding whose terminals
connect to 3 slip-rings on the shaft.
 Brushes connect the armature to the
external 3-phase load
 This arrangement works for low power
machines (<5kVA). For higher powers (&
voltages), issues with brushes and
Revolving Field Synchronous
Generator
 Most common — also known as
alternator
 Stationary armature with 3-phase
winding on stator
 3-phases directly connected to load
 Rotating magnetic field created by DC
field winding on rotor, powered by slip-
rings & brushes
Number of Poles

 The number of poles on a synchronous

generator depends upon the speed of
rotation and desired frequency
f = pn /120
 Where f = frequency of the induced
voltage (Hz)
 p = number of poles on the rotor n =
speed of the rotor (rpm)
Producing the DC field

 For both stationary and revolving fields,

DC supply is normally produced by DC
generator mounted on same shaft as
rotor.
 Permanent magnets can also produce DC
field
— used increasingly in smaller
machines as magnets get cheaper.
 Difference between A.C. &
D.C. Generator
 In D.C. Generator

Armature--
Rotating

Field --
Stationary
 Difference between A.C. &
D.C. Generator
 In A.C. Generator

Armature--
Stationary

Field -- Rotating
Main Parts

 Stator – Armature  Rotor – Field

Stator
Construction

 The winding consists of copper bars

insulated with mica and epoxy resin.

 The conductors are secured by steel

wedges.

 The iron core is supported by a steel

housing
Stator
 From an electrical standpoint, the stator
of a synchronous generator is identical
to that of a 3-phase induction motor
(cylindrical laminated core containing
slots carrying a 3-phase winding).
 The nominal line voltage of a
synchronous generator depends upon its
kVA rating — the greater the power, the
higher the voltage
Coil / Armature
 Stator
 Stationary armature
 Coils is placed in slots of stator
core.
 Stator is made of laminates.
 Whole stator is fixed in the
frame.
 Rotor
 Field winding
 External D.C.supply
of 120-600 volt
 Supply by Brush &
Slip ring
 N pole & S pole
developed
alternatively
Synchronous Generator: Rotor
Salient-pole rotors
— Used for low speed applications
(<300rpm) which require large number of
poles to achieve required frequencies
Cylindrical rotor
— Used for high-speed applications
— Minimum number of poles is 2, so for
50Hz the maximum speed is 3000rpm.
— High speed of rotation produces strong
centrifugal forces, which impose upper
limit on the rotor diameter.
Cylindrical rotor Machines
Salient Rotor Machine
 Difference B/W Cylindrical & Salient Pole
Rotor
 Cylindrical Type  Salient Pole
 Small diameter Type
 Large axial length  Large diameter
 High speed  Small axial length
 Steam turbine &  Low speed
motors are used  water turbines &
as prime mover IC engines. are
used a prime
mover
Field Excitation and Exciters

 DC field excitation is an important part of

the overall design of a synchronous
generator
 The field must ensure not only a stable
AC terminal voltage, but must also
respond to sudden load changes — rapid
field response is important.
 Main and pilot exciters are used
 Brushless excitation systems employ
power electronics (rectifiers) to avoid
brushes & slip ring assemblies.
 Three methods of excitation

1.slip rings link the rotor’s field winding

to an external dc source
2. dc generator exciter
• a dc generator is built on the same shaft as the ac
generator’s rotor
• a commutator rectifies the current that is sent to
the field winding
3. brushless exciter
• an ac generator with fixed field winding and a rotor
with a three phase circuit
• diode/SCR rectification supplies dc current to the
field windings
Basic Principle of Operation
Basic Principle of Operation
 Ventilation or Cooling of an Alternator

 The slow speed salient pole alternators are

ventilated by the fan action of the salient poles
which provide circulating air.
 Cylindrical rotor alternators are usually long, and the
problem of air flow requires very special attention.
 The cooling medium, air or hydrogen is cooled by
passing over pipes through which cooling water is
circulated and ventilation of the alternator.
 Hydrogen is normally used as cooling medium in all
the turbine-driven alternators because hydrogen
provides better cooling than air and increases the
efficiency and decreases the windage losses.
 Liquid cooling is used for the stators of cylindrical
Advantages of Alternator
over D.C.Generator
 Generation of power at High level.
 Easy to collect High current.
 No commutation.
 Easy to provide Insulation & Cooling in stationary
armature.
 Low voltage level in field so less insulation
required.
 Electrical & Mechanical Degree

360
mechanical 360
mechanical
For 2 pole For 4 pole
1 electrical cycle=1 mechanical 2 electrical cycle=1 mechanical
cycle 360 mechanical = 360 xcycle
(P/2)
electrical
1 mechanical cycle = (P/2) electrical
 Induce EMF Frequency

• 1 Mechanical Revolution = P/2 cycle of

EMF
• P/2 cycles/revolution
• For N rpm, (N/60) revolutions/sec
• Frequency = cycles/sec = f
• f = (cycles/revolution)x (revolution/sec)
= ( P/2) x (N/60) Hz
= (PN/120) Hz
P 2 4 8 12
For 50NHz 3000 1500 750 500
EMF Equation

For one conductor

 Induced EMF/revolution = dø/dt volt
= (P x ø)/
(60/N) volt
= 2fø volt
 For Coil, EMF/revolution = 4fø volt

 Average EMF/phase = (Turn/phase)x 4fø

volt
= 4føTPH volt
 R.M.S. value of EMF = Form Factor x Avg
 Armature winding of alternator

Armature winding in an alternator may be either closed

type open type.

There are some common properties of armature

winding.

 Two sides of any coil should be under two adjacent

poles. That means, coil span = pole pitch.
 The winding can either be single layer or double
layer.
 Winding is so arranged in different armature slots,
that it must produce sinusoidal emf.
 Windings
 Some of the terms common to armature windings
are described below:

1 Conductor - A length of wire which takes active part

in the energy conversion process is a called a
conductor.

2 . Turn. - One turn consists of two conductors.

3 . Coil. - One coil may consist of any number of turns.

4. Coil side. - One coil with any number of turns has
two coil - sides
The number of conductors (C) in any coil-side is
equal to the number of turns (N) in that coil.
Types of Windings

5. Single layer & Double Layer

 Single- layer winding

One coil-side occupies the total slot area
Used only in small ac machines
 Double- layer winding
Slot contains even number (may be 2,4,6 etc.) of coil-
sides in two layers
Double-layer winding is more common above about 5kW
 Types of Windings

 The advantages of double-layer winding

over single layer winding are as follows:

 Easier to manufacture and lower cost of the

coils
 Chorded-winding is possible
 Lower-leakage reactance and therefore ,
better performance of the machine
 Better emf waveform in case of generators
 Types of windings
Single phase armature winding can be either
concentrated or distributed type.

 Concentrated & Distributed winging.

In Concentrated Winding
all the conductor of coil in 1 slot

In Distributed winding
all the conductor of coil in more than 1
slots
 Concentrated Armature Win
 Concentrated winding is employed where number
of slots on the armature is equal to number of
poles in the machine.
 This armature winding of alternator gives
maximum output voltage but not exactly
sinusoidal.
The most simple single phase
winding, is shown . Here, number
poles = number of slots = number
of coil sides. Here, one coil side is
inside one slot under one pole
and other coil side inside other
slot under next pole.

Clearly the emf induced in one coil side is added to that of

adjacent coil side.
 Distributed Armature Winding of
Alternator

 For obtaining smooth sinusoidal emf wave from,

conductors are placed is several slots under
single pole. This armature winding is known as
distributed winding.
All the winding turns are arranged in
several full pitch or fractional pitch
coils

• These coils are then housed in the

slots spread around the air - gap
periphery to form phase or
commutator winding

• Examples of distributed winding are

-Stator and rotor of induction

machines
-The armatures of both synchronous
 Windings
 The distance b/w the two coil sides is
called the coil span.
 The angular distance b/w the central line

of one pole to the central line of the next

pole is called pole pitch.
Full pitch & Short pitch winding
 Pitch factor

 In short pitched coil, the induced emf of two coil

sides is vectorically added to get, resultant emf of
the coil
 In short pitched coil, the phase angle between the
emfs induced in two opposite coil sides is less than
180° (electrical).
 In full pitched coil, the phase angle between the
emfs induced in two coil sides is exactly 180°
(electrical). Hence, the resultant emf of a full pitched
coil is just arithmetic sum of the emfs induced in
both sides of the coil.
 And the , vector sum or phasor sum of two quantities,
is always less than their arithmetic sum. Pitch factor
Pitch Factor/ Coil Span Factor
Kc
 Kc = factor by which EMF get reduced due to
short pitch
 α – short pitch angle
 Coil is shorted by angle α
 Kc = Cos(α/2)

actual voltagegeneratedin the coil

kc =
voltagegeneratedin the coil of span180 electrical
1800
phasorsum of the voltagesof two coil sides
α =
arithmaticsum of the voltagesof two coil sides
1800 -α
AC 2AD
= = =cosa / 2
2AB 2AB
Advantage of Short pitching and chording

 Shortens the end of the winding and therefore

there is saving in the conductor material.

 Reduces effects of distorting harmonics and thus

t h e w a v e f o rm o f t h e g e n e r a t e d v o l t a g e i s
improved and making it approach a sine wave.
 Distribution Factor
 In distributed winding, coil sides per phase are
displaced from each other by an angle equal to the
angular displacement of the adjacent slots. Hence,
the induced emf per coil side are not an angle equal
to the angular displacement of the slots.

So, the resultant emf of the winding is the phasor

sum of the induced emf per coil side. As it is phasor
sum, must be less than arithmetic sum of these
induced emfs. are under one pole.
 Distribution Factor Kd

phasor sum of the voltages of two coil sides

kd =
arithmetic sum of the voltages of two coil sides

 Kd = factor by which EMF get reduced due to distributed

winding.
 n = slots / pole
 m = slot / pole. phases
 Slot angle β =180/ n
 Kd = sin(mβ/2)
m sin(β/2)
 Distribution Factor Kd
phasor sum of the voltages of two coil sides
kd =
arithmetic sum of the voltages of two coil sides
Generalized EMF equation

 For full pitch & concentrated winding

EPH = 4.44 føTPH volt
 For short pitch & distributed winding
EPH = 4.44 Kc Kd f ø TPH volt
Voltage drop in Induced
EMF
 Due to following resistance

1.Armature resistance Ra

2.Armature leakage reactance Xl

3.Armature reaction Xa
Voltage drop in Induced
EMF
 1.Armature resistance Ra
Resistance offered by the armature
winding
In star connection, In delta
connection
Voltage drop in Induced
EMF
2.Armature leakage reactance Xl
 Armature flux develop by current carrying

conductor
 Armature Flux do not crosses the air-gap but
takes different paths and makes the winding
inductive.
Voltage drop in Induced
EMF
 Armature reaction Xa
 Effect of armature flux on the main field
flux on loading condition.
 For Unity p.f.
cross magnetizing effect
 For zero p.f. lagging
demagnetizing effect
 For zero p.f. leading
magnetizing effect
Voltage Regulation

 % regulation = E0 - V x 100
V
 Determination of voltage regulation

 Synchronous Impedance or emf Method

 The Ampere turn or MMF method
 Zero Power Factor or Potier Method

 All these methods requires

 Armature resistance Ra
 Open ckt/No load Characteristics
 Short Ckt Characteristics
 Determination of voltage regulation
 Value of Ra:
 Ra can be measured directly by voltmeter
and ammeter method or by wheatstone
bridge.

 O.C Characteristic:
 This is plotted by running machine on No load

 S.C Characteristic:
 It is obtained by Short circuiting the armature
winding through a low value of resistance
ammeter. The excitation is so adjusted to give
1.5 to 2 times the value of full load current.
Synchronous Impedance
Method
 OCC is plotted by running machine on No load.
 SCC is drawn from data given by SC test.
 Let If is the field current and O.C voltage
corresponding to this field current is E1.

 Ra can be obtained as
Synchronous Impedance
Method
 The Ampere turn or MMF
method
 The ampere – turn /MMF method is the converse of
the EMF method in the sense that instead of having
the phasor addition of various voltage drops/EMFs,
here the Phasor addition of MMF required for the
voltage drops are carried out . Further the effect of
saturation is also taken care of.

 Data required for MMF method are:

• Effective resistance per phase of the 3-phase
winding R
•OCC at rated speed/frequency
•SCC at rated speed/frequency
 Steps:
 By suitable tests plot OCC and SCC
 From the OCC find the field current OA to produce rated voltage,
V
 From SCC find the magnitude of field current to produce the
required armature current.
 Draw field current at angle (90+Φ) from OA , where Φ is the
phase angle of current from voltage. If current is leading, take
the angle of field current as (90 - Φ).
 Find the resultant field current, If and mark its magnitude on the
field current axis.
 From OCC. find the voltage corresponding
 to If , which will be E0 .
Zero Power Factor or Potier
Method
 This method is based on the separation of
armature leakage reactance drop and armature
reaction effects. Hence, it gives more accurate
results.
 Data required are:
 No-load curve
 Curve of terminal voltage against excitation when
armature is delivering FL current at zero pf.
 Zero Power Factor or Potier
Method
Steps:
1. By suitable tests plot
OCC and SCC
2. Draw tangent to OCC
(air gap line)
3. Conduct ZPF test at
full load for rated
voltage and fix the point
B.
4. Draw the line BH with
length equal to field
current required to
produce full load
current at short circuit.
5. Draw HD parallel to
6. Draw DE parallel to voltage axis. Now, DE
represents voltage drop IXL and BE represents the
field current required to overcome the effect of
armature reaction. Triangle BDE is called Potier
triangle and XL is the Potier reactance
7. Find field current corresponding to E.
8. Draw FG with magnitude equal to BE at angle (90+
Ψ ) from field current axis, where Ψ is the phase
angle of current from voltage vector E (internal
phase angle).
9. The resultant field current is given by OG. Mark this
length on field current axis.
10. From OCC find the corresponding E0
.
 Parallel operation

 To full fill new increased load , two alternators

connected in parallel with bus bar.
Following parameter should be same for incoming
alternator & bus bar
1. Terminal voltage: The terminal voltage of incoming
alternator must be equal to the bus-bar voltage.
2. Frequency: The frequency of generated voltage
must be equal to the frequency of the bus-bar
voltage.
3. Phase sequence : The phase sequence of the three
phases of alternator must be similar to that of the
grid or bus-bars.
Synchronization
 In an alternating current electric power system,
synchronization is the process of matching the
speed and frequency of a generator or other
source to a running network.
 An AC generator cannot deliver power to an
electrical grid unless it is running at the same
frequency as the network.
 If two segments of a grid are disconnected, they
cannot exchange AC power again until they are
brought back into exact synchronization.
Synchronization
 In parallel operation of alternator the
first condition of voltage equality can be
satisfied by a voltmeter.
 To satisfy the conditions of equal
frequency and identical phases, one of
the following two methods can be used:
(i) Synchronization using incandescent
lamp
(ii) Synchronization using synchroscope.
 I n t h i s p ro c e s s , n e w r u n n i n g a l t e rn a t o r i s
connected to bus bar by matching frequency & V
by “synchroscope”.
 Synchroscope
 The generator is turning at a lower frequency than
t h e g r i d , t h e s y n c h ro s c o p e n e e d l e r o t a t e s
continually in the direction marked "slow" or "lag"
on the dial to indicate that the generator is running
slower than, or lagging behind, the grid.
 If the generator is running faster than the grid, the
needle rotates continually in the opposite direction,
marked "fast" or "lead".
 Next, the plant operator adjusts the speed of the
generator until it is running at precisely the same
speed (frequency) as the grid.
 As the frequency of the generator nears that of
the grid, the synchroscope needle slows down and
when the frequencies match, the needle stops
rotating.
 Synchronization using incandescent
lamp
 Three light bulbs were connected between the
generator terminals and the system terminals .
 As the generator speed changes, the lights will
flicker at the beat frequency proportional to the
difference between generator frequency and
system frequency.
 When the voltage at the generator is opposite to
the system voltage (either ahead or behind in
phase), the lamps will be bright.
 When the voltage at the generator matches the
system voltage, the lights will be dark.
 At that instant, the circuit breaker connecting the
generator to the system may be closed and the