REPUBILQUE DU SENEGAL

N°221 782550045

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE: A KEY FOR

SUCCESS.

PRESENTE PAR:

Mr. Ibrahima Dia

THE PRESENT TENSES

A) THE PRESENT SIMPLE Formation:

verb without to

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 Subject ₊

We add an S in the third singular person.

e.g.: to fix → she fixes to fly
→ he flies to play → she plays
to work → he works to go
→ she goes
Context:We use the present simple to talk about repetitive actions, habits, general truths (ex:
Proverbs, scientific law).
Expressions: which often go with the present simple are: every, adverbs of frequency (ex:
always, sometimes, often, never, seldom, rarely, usually…),on ₊ day in the plural (ex: on
Tuesdays), nowadays etc…
Examples: 1- Today life becomes harder and harder.
2- Nowadays women no longer stay at home.
3- Every four years, Americans hold presidential elections.
4- The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
5- Sea water is salty.
B) THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Formation:Subject ₊ am or is or are ₊ verb ₊ ing
Context: We use the present continuous to talk about an action which is happening at the
moment.
Expressions: which often go with the present continuous are: listen! Look! Right now, be
careful! While, at the moment….
Examples: 1- watch out! A lorry is coming over there.
2- The ministers are holding a meeting at the moment.
3- Right now we are learning English.
4- While he is painting, he shuts the door.
C) THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE.
Formation:Subject ₊ have or has ₊ past participle
Context: we use the present perfect to talk about an action which happened but has a result
now. It is used to give information or to make a notice.
Expressions: which are often used with the present perfect are: adverbs (just- already-
never),not …. Yet; for (duration), since (beginning of an action), recently, always, ever;
allmy life, so far….
Examples: 1) the prime minister has recently reshuffled his cabinet.
2) It’s the most terrible war I have ever seen.
3) I have never murdered a person all my life.
D) THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formation:Subject ₊ has or have ₊ been ₊ verb ₊ ing form
Context no1: It is used to talk about an action which started in the past and continues in the
present time.
Context no2:It is used to talk about an action which has finished with some clues.
Expressions: Which are often used with the present perfect continuous are: for, ago…
Examples: 1- he has been teaching English for eleven years.
2- President Wade has been leading the country since 2000.
3- Us army has been killing innocents in Iraq.
4- Why are your clothes so dirty? You have been fighting.

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 Subject ₊

THE PAST TENSES

A) THE PAST SIMPLE

Formation: regular verb / Subject ₊ irregular past form
Context: It is used to talk about an action which happened or took place at a specific moment
(time) in the past.
Expressions: often used with the past simple are: yesterday, ago, last ( ₊ year or month or
week…), in ₊ year in the past (ex: 1997).
Examples: 1- In 2000 President Diouf lost the elections.
2- Last year many of our candidates succeeded in the Baccalaureat exam.
B) THE PAST CONTINUOUS
Formation:Subject ₊ was or were ₊ verb ₊ ing form
Context: It is used to talk about an action which was in progress sometime in the past.
Expressions: this time last ₊ (day or week or month or month…) or the expressions
listedwith the past simple.
Examples: 1- this time last Sunday I was having a rest.
2- He didn’t attend my wedding ceremony because he was welcoming some
guests.
C) THE PAST PERFECT
Formation:Subject ₊ had ₊ past participle
Context: It is used to talk about a past action which happened (occurred or took place) before
another past one.
Expressions:Before ₊ past simple (2nd action) → Past perfect (1st action)
Exple:Before I met Binta, I had known Cathy.
After ₊ Past perfect (1st action) → Past simple (2nd action) Exple:
After I had taken my shower, I had my breakfast:
D) THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formation: Subject ₊ had been ₊ verb ₊ ing form
Context: It is used to talk about an action which was in progress before another past one and
whose duration is mentioned. Expressions: (see the present perfect)
Examples: 1-Saddam Hussein had been leading Iraq for many years before Americans caught
him.
2- We had been watching for half an hour when there was a power cut.

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 Subject ₊

THE FUTURE TENSES

A) THE FUTURE SIMPLE

Formation: will or shall ₊ verb without to
Context: It is used to talk about intentions, projects, wishes, plans etc…
Expressions: which are often used with the future simple are: tomorrow, next ₊ moment,
inthe coming ₊ moment to come, in ₊ year in the future.
Examples: 1- We shall succeed in our exam in July.
2- I will buy a nice car next year.
3- On February 2012, Senegal will organized presidential elections.
B) THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS
Formation:Subject ₊ will or shall ₊ verb ₊ ing form
Context: It is used to talk about an action that will be in progress at a specific time in the
future.
Expressions: which are often used with the future continuous (see the future simple), this
time ₊ moment in the future.
Examples:1- This time next year, most of us shall be studying at university.
2- This time next Sunday, some of us will be sleeping.
C) THE FUTURE PERFECT
Formation: Subject ₊ will or shall ₊have ₊ past participle.
Context: It is used to talk about an action that will be completed at a definite time in the
future.
Expressions: which is often used with the future perfect is : by ₊ moment in the future
Examples: 1- By the end of this class, we will have seen almost all the English tenses.
2- By 2011, I will have learnt English for 9 years.
D) THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Formation:Subject ₊ will or shall ₊ have been ₊ verb ₊ ing form
Context: It is used to talk about an action that will be in progress at a certain time in the
future.
Expressions: (see the future simple)
Examples: 1- In 2011, I will have been teaching English for 6 years.
2- Next April 4th, our country will have been celebrating its 51st Independence
day.

SPECIAL USES

→ It’s the first or second or third time ₊ Present perfect

Exple:It’s the first time; I have seen such a handsome boy.
→ It’s high time ₊ Simple Past/ Preterit
→ It’s about time →
It’s time
Exple: It’s high time teachers stopped their strike.
→ It was the first time ₊ Past Perfect
Exple: It was the first time the man had set foot in America.
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 Subject ₊

→ It’s ₊ period of time ₊ since ₊(last) ₊ Simple Past or Present Perfect e.g.
1- It’s two months since I (last) saw him.
2- It’s some years since people have given up circumcising girls.

→ It’s important/ interesting (that) + Subject + should + infinitive of the verb

e.g. It is important that we should learn English.

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 PRACTICE

1- These ladies …………………………………………….since this morning. (to chat)

2- Before he got the job, he …………………………………………… hard. (to struggle)
3- I know that there are many good teams but mine …………………………….the champions
league. (to win)
4- They …………………………………a film when their father entered the waiting room. (to
watch)
5- This time next year, people …………………………………for the results of the elections.
(to wait)

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

REVISION: Equivalents of modals

May → to be allowed to
Must → to have to
Can → to be able to
I) SIMPLE CONDITIONAL
Formation: If + subject + past simple (if clause or subordinate clause) + subject + would +
inf. Without to (main Clause)
Context: we use this structure to talk about unreal present.
e.g. If I had a lot money, I would travel around the world. (but I do not have a lot of money)
•We also use sentences like this to talk about unlikely present or future situations.
e.g. If she loved you , she wouldn’t be so horrible to you. 1-
People vote for him because he gives them money.
→ If he didn’t give them money, people wouldn’t vote for him.
2- Government officials embezzle money that’s why our country can’t develop.
→ If government officials didn’t embezzle money, our country would be able to develop.
II) PAST CONDITIONAL
Formation:If + subject + past perfect (if clause) + subject + would have + past participle.
This structure is often called the third conditional.
Context: We use this structure to talk about unreal past situation.
e.g. 1- The Senegalese foot ball team lost the match because they didn’t play well.
→ if the Senegalese foot-ball team had played well, they wouldn’t have lost the match.
2- The joola boat sank because it was overloaded. → If the joola boat
hadn’t been overloaded, it wouldn’t have sunk.

III) INVERSION
1- If they had known, they wouldn’t have come.
→ Had they known, they wouldn’t have come.
2- If I had learnt my lessons, I wouldn’t have had a bad mark. → Had I learnt my lessons, I
wouldn’t have had a bad mark.
3- He would have eaten if he hadn’t seen the doctor.

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→ Hadn’t he seen the doctor, he would have eaten. 4-
If he caught the mugger, he would kill him.
→ Did he catch the mugger, he would kill him.

IF CLAUSESA)
Reminders
1st form (potential): if he comes, he will pay me.
2nd form (unreal present): if she went to the FIDAK, she would buy nice clothes. 3rd form
(unreal past): if I had had a lot of money, I would have travelled to the USA. (last year)
B) Reformulation:1)
with unless
Examples:
a- She would leave if he didn’t see her. → Unless he saw, she’d leave. b- if
they hadn’t lived in the suburb, they wouldn’t have been aggressed. →
Unless they had lived in the suburb, they wouldn’t have been aggressed. c-
if he doesn’t eat, he won’t sleep. → unless he eats, he won’t sleep.
N.W:IF₊ negative verb = UNLESS₊positive verb
2) With Because
1- he doesn’t come because he is ill. → if he weren’t ill, he would come.
2- they left because he didn’t respect them. → If he had respected them, they wouldn’t
haveleft.
N.W: with because we cross the clauses and tenses and forms of the verbs change also.
3) With that’s (the reason) why, so a- he doubles the
class that’swhy he works hard. → If he didn’t double
the class, he wouldn’t work hard. b- she didn’t work, so
she stole.
→ If she had worked, she wouldn’t have stolen.
N.W: with that’s why we do not cross the clauses but tenses and forms of the verbs change.
3) With otherwise = if nota- he is cautious, otherwise he will be hurt
→ he is cautious if not he will be hurt. → if he weren’t
cautious, he would be hurt. b- they didn’t laugh,
otherwise they would be punished. → if they had
laughed, they would have been punished.
N.W: with otherwise we do not cross the clauses but the form change only in the subordinate
clause.

EXPRESSING WISHES AND REGRETS: Wish or If only

A) Expressing wishes or regrets in the present. (Unreal present) → Je souhaiterais

Formation:Subject + wish (es) or if only + subject + Simple past
1- It’s a pity that I don’t eat chicken.
→ I wish I ate chicken
2- What a shame she doesn’t know the past form of the verb to do. → I wish she knew the
past form of the verb to do.
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3- It’s a pity that Senegalese ministers embezzled money.
→ He wishes Senegalese ministers didn’t embezzle money.
B) Expressing wishes or regrets in the past.(unreal past) →j’aurais souhaite
Formation:subject + wish(es) or if only + subject + past perfect e.g. 1- It’s a pity my
candidate lost the elections.
→ I wish my candidate hadn’t lost the elections.
→ If only my candidate hadn’t lost the elections.
→ I wished my candidates hasn’t lost the elections.
2- It’s a pity you didn’t win the prize last year.
→ He wishes you had won the prize last year.
→ He wished you have won the prize last year. →
If only you had won the prize last year.
3- I’m sorry for kissing your girl friend.
→ I wish I hadn’t kissed your girl friend.
4- It’s a pity he didn’t attend the extra class.
→ I wish or If only he had attended the extra class.
C) Expressing Potential. (j’aimerais)
Formation:Subject + wish(es) or If only + subject + would + verb without toContext:
we use this structure to complain about a situation, that is to say when we want
something to stop happening or we want something different to happen. e.g. I wish the
rain would stop. (Suppose it is raining)
If only teachers would come to school every day. . ( it is obvious that teachers don’t come
to school every day)
Your English teacher shouts at you and you don’t like it
→ We wish our English teacher wouldn’t shout (would stop shouting) at us.

EXPRESSING
PREFERENCE:
WOULD RATHER

We use would rather + past tense to say that one person would prefer someone else to do
something.
A) EXPRESSING PREFERENCE IN THE PRESENT.
We can express preference in the present with the past simple if we have structures like these:
e.g. 1- I’d like the president not to submit a bill on gender parity.
→ I’d rather the president didn’t submit a bill on gender parity.
2- It’s a pity I don’t live in the city center.
→ I’d rather I lived in the city center.
Formation: subject + would rather + subject + Past Simple
B) EXPRESSING PREFERENCE IN THE PAST.
We express preference in the past with the Past Perfect. e.g.
1- It’s a pity you didn’t invite me.
→ I’d rather you had invited me.

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2- I didn’t get married early and I regret it. → I’d rather I had got
married early.
3- It’s a pity we sold our house to this man.
→ Daddy would rather we hadn’t sold our house.
Formation:Subject + would rather + subject + Past perfect

CONSOLIDATION: Rewrite the following sentences without changing their initial meaning.
1- why didn’t you buy a house in the city center.
→ I’d rather ……………………………………………………………………………………
2- I’m sorry for not reminding you of the meeting.
→ I wish ………………………………………………………………………………………
3- It’s a pity I can’t afford a house in Paris.
→ If only ………………………………………………………………………………………
4- What a shame she doesn’t know anything about school.
→ I wish ……………………………………………………………………………………
5- They regret having sold their garden.
→ They wish ……………………………………………………………………………………
6- I’m sorry for forgetting my passport at home.
→ I wish ………………………………………………………………………………………
7- It’s a pity we didn’t catch the bus.
→ If only …………………………………………………………………………………

DIRECT AND REPORTED (INDIRECT) SPEECH.

Study this dialogue:

-Mr. FAYE: I think I will go to Spain for my holidays if I have money (1).
-Mr. DIALLO: Really?
-Mr. DIOP: What did Mr. Faye say?
-Mr. DIALLO: He said he would go to Spain for his holidays if he had money (2).
In Sentence N1 Mr. Faye is directly speaking to his friends. It’s what we call direct speech. In
Sentence N2 Mr. Diallo reports to Mr. Diop what Mr. Faye said this is called reported speech.

A/ Direct Speech.
In direct speech, we give the exact words or ideas of the speaker and we use quotation marks.
Example: Alpha said “I’m leaving tomorrow to London”.
B/ Reported Speech.In reported speech we report
on somebody’s words indirectly by changing some of the speaker’s words and we
don’t use quotation marks. Example: Alpha said (that) he was leaving the following
day to London.
C/ From Direct to Reported speech.
1- The present or future reported speech.
When the verb used in the direct speech is in the present or future there is no change of tenses
in the reported speech and also in other cases mentioned below. Example:

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a) Aly says “I’m going to play football with my friends”.
→Aly says that he is going to play football with his friends.
b) “I’m your best friend”. She has told. → She has told that she is my best friend.
● Must and Need
Examples: a) “we must obey our parents.” Children said
→ Children said that they must (had to) obey their parents.
b) “You need my help.” She told me
→ She told me that I need (needed) her help.
● To be born
Example: “I was born in you native country.” He told me
→ He told me that he was born in my native country.
● Past dates.
Example: “I bought this car in 2010.” He said
→ He said that he bought that car in 2010.
2- The past reported speech.
In general in the past reported speech the verb that reports is in the preterit or past perfect.
And in this case there are changes of tenses. a) Changes of tenses
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Present Simple → Preterit
Present Continuous → Past Continuous
Future Simple → Simple Conditional
Preterit → Past perfect
Present perfect → Past perfect
Past perfect → Past perfect
Simple Conditional → Past conditional
b) Changes of pronouns and adjectives
Direct speech reported speech
I, we → he, she, they
Me, us → him, her, them
My, our → his, her, their
Mine, ours → his, hers, theirs
Myself, ourselves → himself, herself, ourselves. c)
Changes of adverbs of place and time
Direct speech reported speech
Today → yesterday
Tonight → that night
Tomorrow → the following day
Yesterday → the day before
Last (week, year, month) → the previous (week, year, month)
Next (week, year, month) → the following (week, year, month) D/
Reporting Questions.
1- Wh- questions
Reported questions are expressed as statements and we don’t use the auxiliary verb do.
Example: john asked “where does Fatima live in Dakar?” → John asked
where Fatima lived in Dakar.
2- Yes/ No questions.
If there is no question word in the question of the direct speech we introduced IF or
WHETHER in the reported speech.
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Example: John asked “Does Fatima live in London?”
→John asked if/whether Fatima lived in London.

E/ Reporting: orders, requests, suggestions, advices prohibition etc….

We express orders, requests, suggestions, advices, prohibition in reported speech by using
the following structure: To + INFINITIVE FORM
Examples: a) “You should phone the police.” → She advised her to phone the police.
b) He said to me “come back in my office”. → He said to me to come back to his
office.
In negative form we have: NOT + TO + INFINITIVE
FORMExample: “Don’t touch my camera” he told me
→ He told me not to touch his camera. N.W:
In general with the following verbs : to advise, to promise, to warn, to threaten, to offer, to
prohibit, to invite, to ask to express advice, warning, threat, offer, prohibition, invitation, and
request we use the structure above. Ex: “you should stop smoking.”
→ The doctor advised him to stop smoking.
● Reported of to come / to go
Example: “come on here”. He told you
→ He told you to go there ●
Reported of to bring / to take.
Example: “bring me my mobile”.
→ He told her to take him his mobile.
Practice: Report the following sentences using the given clues.
1- “I don’t like classical music.” →He told me that…………………………………………
2- “I have to go out now.” →She said to her…………………………………………………
3- “We can save energy by using solar power.” The scientist claimed
→The scientist claimed………………………………………………………………………
4- “Abdoulaye speaks English very well.” Mary remarks.
→Mary remarks that……………………………………………………………………………
5- “The prisoners escaped yesterday.” Someone said.
→Someone said………………………………………………………………………………
6- “Clean it yourself.” →Mother told
her………………………………………………………
7- “Fasten your safety belts.” →The speaker announced……………………………………
8- “Are you going to eat in the cafeteria?”
→ She asked us………………………………………………………………………………
9- “Did the greengrocer have any fresh vegetable?” my mother asked me.
→ My mother asked me………………………………………………………………………
10- “Can you bride a bicycle?”
→ The boy asked me…………………………………………………………………………
11- “Eat up your dinner at once or I will punish you.” My moth
→ My mother told me……………………………………………………………………… 12-
“Write your name clearly at the top and then take down these points as I call them out.”
→ The teacher told us…………………………………………………………………………
13- “Don’t spend all your money on food and drink. Save some for your future.”
→ Grandfather advised us………………………………………………………………………

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14- “Are my shoes cleaned yet?” →My brother asked…………………………………………
15- “Is it raining heavily?” → He
asks………………………………………………………
16- “Don’t try to be funny.” →The teacher told the boy………………………………………..
17- “Mind the steps.” → He warned the old man………………………………………………
18- “Bring in the two accused men and then care they don’t get away.” The judge told them.
→ The judge told them…………………………………………………………………………

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

A) FROM ACTIVE TO PASSIVE.

Example: 1- Musa chose the right number. → The right number was chosen by Musa.

2- She is neglecting the children. → The children are being neglected by her.

1- Formation:

Active:Subject ₊ verb ₊ object.

Passive:Object ₊ to be ₊ past participle ₊ (subject)

TENSES ACTIVE PASSIVE
Present simple Xxxxxxxxxx Am / is / are ₊ Past Participle Too
Joola eat too much rice. much riceis eatenby joola.
Past simple Xxxxxxxxxx Was / were ₊ Past Participle
Alpha broke the chair. The chair was broken by Alpha.
Future simple Will / shall ₊ infinitive Will / shall ₊ be ₊ Past Participle
The students will organize a party. A party will be organized by students.
Present Would / should ₊ infinitive Would / should ₊ be ₊ Past Participle
conditional They would postpone the match. The match would be postponed
Past Would / should ₊ have ₊ P.P They Would/should ₊ have ₊ been ₊ P.P The
conditional would have postponed the match. match would have been postponed.

Present Am / is/ are ₊ verb ₊ ing Am / is / are ₊ being ₊ P.P The

continuous Students are writing the lesson. lesson is being written by
students.
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Past Was / were ₊ verb ₊ ing Was / were ₊ being ₊ P.P
continuous Binta was cleaning the kitchen. The kitchen was being cleaned by
Binta.
Present perfect Have / has ₊ P.P Have / has ₊ been ₊ P.P The
Students have written the lesson. lesson has been written by
students.
Past perfect Had ₊ P.P Had ₊ been ₊ P.P
The teacher had explained the The lesson had been explained by the
lesson. teacher.

2- Passive with defectives ( can, must, may…)

Examples: a) Alpha can movethe table. → The table can be moved by Alpha.

b) Childrenmust obeytheir parents. → Parents must be obeyed by their children.

c) Our team may win the cup. → The cup may be won by our team.

N.W: a) He was able to decipher the code. → The code could be deciphered by him.

b) She was allowed to write letters. → Letters might be written by her.

3- Passive with two objects.

Examples: a) Mum gave me a present for my birthday.

→ I was given a present for my birthday by mum.

→ A present was givento me for my birthday by mum.

4- Multiple Passive.

Examples: a) he kissed, shocked and strangled the girl.

→ The girl was kissed, shocked and strangled by him.

b) If he takesa decision, his father willcall him.

→ If a decision is taken by him, he will be called by his father.

5- Impersonal Passive.

Examples: a) People say that English is difficult.

→ It is said that English is difficult.

→ English is said to be difficult.

b) People said that she was a good person.

→ It was said that she was a good a good person.

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 → She was saidto be a good person.

c) People say that he was ill. → He is said to have been ill.

d) People said that he had been ill. → He was said to have been ill.

e) Nutritionists assert that eggs bore proteins. → Eggs are asserted to have borne
proteins.

6- Passive with (to get, to have, to make)

● To get

Examples: a) Hooligans killed him. → He got killed by Hooligans

→ He was killed by hooligans.

b) Someone burns her. → She gets burnt. → She is burnt.

● To have. (Form: to have ₊ obj. ₊ P.P)

Examples:a) I have my shoespolished.→ My shoes are polished.

b) She had hercarpainted. → Her car was painted.

● To make. (Form: to make ₊ obj. ₊ infinitive). Examples: a) I make you do a test. → A test

is done.

b) She made us join the club. → The club was joined by us.

7- Passive with prepositions and phrasal verbs.(with, of, in).

Examples: a) Dust covers the floor. → The floor is coveredwith dust.

b) It is made in Senegal.

c) He isknownof the police.

d) He looked at him. → She was lookedat by him.

e) The teacher talks to the students.→ The students are talked to by the teacher.

8- Passive of interrogative sentences.

Examples: a) Did he open the door? → He opened the door. → The door is opened by him.

Result: → Is the door opened?

b) Are the kids washed by Fatima? → The kids are washed by Fatima.

→ She washes the kids.

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Result: → Does she wash the kids?

B) FROM PASSIVE TO ACTIVE.

Examples: a) He has been honored. → People have honored him.

b) The room is cleaned by Astou. → Astou cleans the room.

c) He isn’t respected. → Nobody respects him or People don’t respect him.

Practice:

Rewrite the following sentences using the prompts given.

1- They organize activities all the time. → Activities…………………………………………

2- He hadn’t been tied by the thieves. → The thieves…………………………………………

3- You were able to mail flowers. → Flowers…………………………………………………

4- Aren’t you trusting me? →

Am……………………………………………………………..

5- God forgave me my sins. → I………………………………………………………………

6- People say that President Wade is old. → President Wade……………………………

THE INTERROGATIVES OR QUESTION WORDS.

They express a specific circumstance and can be direct or indirect. See the chart below:
Question-word Grammatical Examples
function

Who (without a noun) Subject and object The boy is helping his father.
(people)
Who is helping his father?

Who is the boy helping?

Whom Object (people) The boys are helping their father.

Whom are the boys helping?

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Which (with or without Subject and object The youngest boy is the best player.
noun/pronoun) (people/ animals
They rewarded the best writer.
and things)
Which boy is the best player?
- Restricted choice
Which writer did they reward?

What (with or without Subject and object This dog is always barking at night.
noun) (animals and things)
She opened the door and smiled.

What is always barking at night?

What did she open?

What + noun Subject and object I would rather vote for the youngest
(People) Preference candidate.
- choice
What candidate would you vote for?

What + To do (to be Verbs expressing She was looking for her purse.
adapted ) actions
Whatwas she looking for?

Last week they all travelled to Dakar.

Whatdid they do last week?

They do the washing up everyday.

What do they do everyday?

What...like(how) Weather It’s quite windy since two days.

What is the weather like?

How is the weather?

What...like(look Moral qualities I’ve never seen such a handsome man.

like/how)
What is the man like? How is the man?

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Whose (with or without a Possession This car is Hamidou’s new one.
noun)
Relationship Whose car is this? Whose is this car?

This boy is the President’s son.

Whoseson is this boy?

Where Place They often spend their holidays abroad.

Where do they often spend their holidays?

Why Reason (cause) She is late because she was sleeping.

Why is she late?

what...for Purpose She went into the room to sleep again.

What did she go into the room for?

When Definite time/Date He finally arrived last week.

When did he finally arrive?

How + adjective/adverb Description (Quality The sky is cloudy today.

& state)
How is the sky today?

The sky is very cloudy today.

How cloudy is the sky today?

How long Duration They have been learning English for

sixyears.

How long have they been learning English?

How often Frequency These students go to school twice a week.

How often do these students go to school?

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How far Distance Thies is seventy kilometres far from the
capital city.

How far is Thies from the capital city?

How many Number The shopkeeper gave her two kilos of rice.

How many kilos of rice did the shopkeeper

give her?

How much Quantity The shopkeeper gave her two kilos of rice.

How much rice did the shopkeeper give

her?

How much Price These oranges cost 200 francs cfa.

How much did these oranges cost?

These days the kilo of flour is 350 francscfa.

How much is the kilo of flour these days?

How fast Speed Hamidou’s new car is 320 km/hour fast.

How fast is Hamidou’s new car?

How high Height Kilimanjaarois5450 metershigh.

How high is Kilimanjaaro mountain?

How wide Width In London, our dining room was six meters
wide.

How wide was our dining room in London?

How long Length In London our dining room was nine meters
long.

How long was our dining room in London?

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How deep Depth At this level, the river is twenty meters
deep.

How deep is the river at this level?

How heavy Load/weight This mammal is two tons heavy.

How heavy is this mammal?

How old Age Rudyard Kipling was 71 years old when he

died.

How old was Rudyard Kipling?

How + verb Manner/health He walks very slowlyHow

does he walk?

He feels very sick.

How does he feel?

ADJECTIVES: COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

A/ COMPARATIVES:
1- Use of comparatives
We use comparatives when we compare one person, thing or animal with another one.
Example: Astou is more intelligent than Alima. Hare is faster than Hyena.
2- Forms of comparatives

a) Comparatives of Superiority*
Short adjectives.
We form comparative of superiority of short adjectives as follows: Adj. + er/ier/r + than
Examples: Dakar is bigger than any given town in Senegal. My house is nicer than yours.
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*Long adjectives.
We form comparative of superiority of long adjectives as follows: More + Adj. + than.
Example: Reading instructive novels is more interesting than watching violent films. b)
Comparative of Equality.
We form comparative of equality of short and long adjectives as follows: As + Adj. + As: to
say that two people, things or animals are the same in some way.
Examples: Amina is as nice as Viviane. This test is as difficult as the last one. c)
Comparative of Inferiority.
We form comparative of inferiority of short and long adjectives as follows: Less +Adj. +
than.
Example: He is less intelligent than his brother. d)
Parallel Comparative.
We have parallel comparatives as follows: The + comparative clause, the + comparative +
Cl.
Example: The more she eats, the fatter she becomes. The smaller a car is, the easier it is to
park.
e) Gradual comparative.
We form gradual comparatives to say that something is increasing ( de plus en plus) as
follows:
*Short adjectives: Adj. + er and Adj. + er
Example: The weather is getting colder and colder.
*Long adjectives:More and more + adj.
Example: Teaching is getting more and more difficult. f)
Decreasing Comparatives.
We form it as follows: Less and less + adj. to say that something is decreasing.
Example: She is getting less and less beautiful. He is becoming less and less fat.
B/ SUPERLATIVES:
1- Use of Superlatives.
We use superlatives when we compare one subject in a group with two or more elements.
2- Forms of Superlatives.
a) Superlatives of Superiority

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*Short adjectives: we form superlative of superiority of short adjectives as follows:
The + adj. + est/st/iest. → King Henry IV was the happiest king in Europe.
*Long adjectives: we form it as follows: The most + adj. → Our president is the most
intelligent.
b) Superlative of Inferiority.
We have superlative of inferiority of short and long adjectives as follows: The least + adj.
Example: This equation is the least difficult. This idea is the least clear. N.W: Irregular
comparatives and superlatives.
Good - better - best
Bad - worse - worst
Far - farther - farthest
Further - furthest
Little - less - least
Late - later - last
Many/much - more - most
Practice:Rewrite the sentences using the prompts given.
1- As he grew richer, he became more and more selfish.

→ The……………………………………,the…………………………………………………
2- If they are curious, they become intelligent.

→ The………………………………………the……………………………………………….
3- I have never seen such a bad match.

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES WITH (who, whom, whose, which, where, that,
when, why, etc…)

A/ Study the following sentences.(When, why)

I spoke to the woman who owns the hotel.(1)Did you see the letter that come yesterday? (2)
In our examples: who owns the hotel and that come yesterday are called defining relative
clause. These clauses tell us which persons or things the speaker means. And who and that
are called Relative Pronouns, used to link two different relative clauses.
B/ Use of Relative Pronouns.
1- WHO
Who is the relative pronoun subject referring to people. Ex: the man who is coming is my
brother. The girl who gave me the money is very nice.

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2- WHICH
We can use which as relative pronoun subject or object instead of that in a defining relative
clause referring to animals or things. Ex: The bag which is on the table belongs to Daddy.
Subj. The newspaper which I brought is in my bag. Obj.
3- THAT
That is a relative pronoun subject or object referring to animals and things and sometimes to
people. Ex: The keys that were on the table have disappeared. Subj.
Ex: It is the book that I told you yesterday. Obj.
4- WHOM
Whom is a relative pronoun object referring to people.
Ex: I met a woman whom I know. The man whom I saw last Saturday at the beach is Yekini.
5- WHOSE
Whose is a relative pronoun used in relative clause in place of his, her, their to show
possession or belonging. Ex: This is the woman whose husband is in Germany.
6- WHERE
Where is a relative pronoun referring to places in a relative clause.
Ex: London is the city where she was born.
7- WHEN
When is a relative pronoun object referring to time. Ex: Is there a time when we can meet?
8- WHY
Why is a relative pronoun used in a relative clause after the word reason.
Ex: Is there a reason why she dropped out the idea of going to New York. N.W:
we can leave out the relative pronoun when, where or why.

Ex: Is there a reason (why) you want to leave?

Ex: Is there a time (when) we can meet?
9- PREPOSITION + RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Sometimes we can use a preposition (in, with) before which or whom.
Ex: The people with whom I stayed were very kind. This is the city in which I was born.

N.W: Don’t mingle or confound who, which, whose, whom, when, as relative pronoun and as
question word. Ex: the man who was on T.V is the president.
Ex: Who was talking on T.V?
Practice: Insert in the blank a relative pronoun.

1- The gangster………………hand was torn is identified.

2- The toy, the color………………is black is exiting.

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3- The nurse………….looks after the orphan is very kind.

4- The board …………….is black is ours.

5- The house………………...she hides the money is a castle.

THE DEFECTIVES and SEMI- DEFECTIVES

A) THE DEFECTIVES
1- CAN ( to be able to)
We can use the defective CAN to express:
→Purchase power: example: she can afford that nice car.
→Physical capacity: example: Balla Gaye 2 can lift 600kg.
→Intellectual faculty: example: the journalist can speak French and English.

→Informal permission (it’s permission between friends) Example:

Can I (borrow your pen)?

→Reformulation
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 To have the capacity
The possibility
The faculty/ the ability
Examples:
1- He has the capacity to win the race. →he can win the race.
2- She is having the possibility to walk. →she can be walking.
3- They had the ability to cheat. →they can have cheated.
4- We had the faculty to write letters. →we can have written letters.
5- We were having the ability to go fast. →we can have been going fast.
6- He will have the possibility to run. →he can run.

7- She doesn’t have the ability to go. →she can’t go.

8- He didn’t have the possibility to walk. →he can’t have walked.

9- He wasn’t having the capacity to run. →he can’t have been running.
2) MAY ( to be allowed to
Permitted to
Authorized to
We can use the defective MAY to express:

→Probability (doubt- hesitation):

It may rain. (il se peut qu’il pleuve)

He may win the prize, I don’t know.

→Prayer/Wish:
May God bless you.
May you succeed in your exam.

→Formal permission:
May I go out sir, please? Yes, you can. (Oui tu as la possibilité)

Sir, may I drive your car? No, you mustn’t. (Non tu n’as pas le devoir)

→Reformulation
Perhaps peut etre I’m not sure I’m unsure / uncertain

May be certain I’m doubtful

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Examples :
1- Perhaps he comes. → he may come
2- May be she will learn. →she may learn
3- I’m not sure he drove the car. →he may have driven the car.
4- She is doubtful that he bought it. →he may have bought it.
5- Perhaps she didn’t sing. →she may not have sung.
6- May be he wasn’t joking. →he may not have been joking.

7- He isn’t sure she didn’t lie. →she may not have lied.
8- He is doubtful that she went.→she may have gone.
3) MUST ( to have to)
We can use the defective MUST to express:

→ Strong obligation: he
must eat and drink.

→ Certainty:
The man who is coming must be my brother.
This graduate student must be good at English.

→ Reformulation:
To have obligation to be obligatory
Compulsory
Obliged
Examples:

1- It was obligatory for me to go. → I must have gone.

2- he undoubtedlybroke the glass. → he must have broken the glass.
3- they are surely playing. → they must be playing.
4- I’m sure he jokes. → he must joke.

5- I’m sure she didn’t travel. → She can’t (not mustn’t) have travelled.
CONSOLIDATION: rewrite the following sentences using the prompt given

a) I’m sure he didn’t find the key. → He …………………………………………………….

b) She wasn’t surely relying on us. → She ……………………………………………………

25
c) He undoubtedly breaks the rules. → He …………………………………………………….

d) They are certain he wasn’t reading. → He…………………………………………………...

4) SHOULD / OUGHT TO (DEVRAIS)
We can use both should / ought to to talk about obligation and duty to ask for and give advice
and in general, to say what is right or good.

→ SHOULD ₊ VERB without to → to give advice You

ought to / should respect the environment.

You should obey your parents.

→ We use OUGHT TO / SHOULD ₊ P.P to say that someone did wrong thing in the past. (to
express regret)

I shouldn’t have gone to bed very late. → I ought not to have gone to bed very late.
PAST:
Affirmative negative

I oughted to go → I didn’t ought to

I ought to have gone → I ought not to have

→REFORMULATION
With ought tohe shouldn’t lie. → he

oughtn’t to lie.

They shouldn’t have gone. → They oughted to go. / They ought to have gone.

You shouldn’t have raped this girl. → I wish you hadn’t raped this girl.

With should (to advise)

She advises you to obey your parents. → you should obey your parents.

1-He advised her to go. → she oughted to go.

→ she ought to have gone.

→ she should have gone.

2- He wasn’t advising me to cheat.₌ He was advising me not to cheat.

→ I oughtn’t to have been cheating.

→ I didn’t ought to be cheating.

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→ I shouldn’t have been cheating.
B) THE SEMI – DEFECTIVES
1- To NEED (avoir besoin)
We use toneed to express necessity.
Present: Affirmative. Negative.

I need to go → I don’t need to go

He needs to go → He doesn’t need to go

He needn’t go
We also use don’t need or needn’t to say that it is not necessary to do something.
Past: Affirmative. Negative.

He needed to go → He didn’t need to go

He needn’t have gone

N.W: need ₌ must → I need to go ₌ I must go. I need you ≠ must (impossible)

→ REFORMULATION:

-It’s necessary / It’s a necessity

1- it’s necessary for us to drink. → We need to drink or We must drink.

2-It was a necessity for me to leave. → I

-Not to be necessary ₌ to be unnecessary

It wasn’t necessary for her to sleep. → She needn’t have slept or she didn’t need to sleep. 2-
To DARE (oser)

a) He dares to face a lion. → He doesn’t dare to face a lion. Or he daren’t face a lion.

b) He dared (durst) to face a lion. → He didn’t dare to face a lion. Or he daren’t face a lion.

N.W:daren’t have ₊ past participle doesn’t exist.

→ REFORMULATION
To have the courage To be courageous enough to
Audacity audacious
Bold enough to (fougueux, temerraire, intrepide)

She wasn’t bold enough to slap her husband. → She daren’t slap her husband

He didn’t have the audacity to court you. → He daren’t court you.

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C) THE MODALS. ( shall / will, should / would)

I can’t have gone. → je n’ai pas pu partir.

He shouldn’t have lied. → il n’aurait pas du mentir.

→ SHALL / WILL
I YOU
WE shall (future simple) HE, SHE, IT shall ≠ will (obligation)
THEY

LINKING WORDS OR CONNECTORS

A) DEFINITION
A linking word or connector as its name suggests is a word or phrase that links or connects
two different parts of a sentence (two clauses, ideas, phrases).
Example: The telephone rang twice when I was watching TV.
There are linking words of time, contrast, purpose, result and cause, etc....
B) LINKING WORDS OF TIME
The main linking words of time are: when, as, while, after, as soon as, before, until etc…
→We use when, as, while if we want to say that things happen at the same time.
Example:They saw Amadou as (when, while) they were playing along the street.
→we use when, as soon as, after, before if we want to say things happen one after the other.
Example: they went out yesterday when (as soon as, after) they had finished their breakfast.

28
N.W: note that when we talk about the future we normally use the present simple after: when,
as soon as, before.
Example: they will go out as soon as they finish the debate. Sometimes when can have the
same meaning as: while, as, before, after.
→ We use until or till to mean up to the time when.
Example: we waited until she arrived from Paris.
C) LINKING WORDS OF CONTRAST and OPPOSITION.
The main linking words of contrast are: although, even though, though, despite, in spite of,
while, however, whereas, nevertheless, unlike.
Example: 1- He passed his exam although he hadn’t studied hard.
2- The Gambians are humble whereas the Senegalese are boastful.
→ We use in spite of or despite to talk about contrast, and we can use a NOUN or an ING
form.

Examples:1)Despite being late, they didn’t hurry.

2) Inspiteof the bad weather, they went out.
→ We can also say in spite of/ despite the fact that. Ex: despite the fact that they were late,
they didn’t hurry.
D) LINKING WORDS OF REASON or CAUSE.
The main linking words of reason are: because, because of, as,since, thanks to or owing to
(positive cause), due to (negative cause).
Example: 1) We didn’t go out because it was raining cats and dogs.
2- Since you haven’t got any money, I will lend you some.
3- I succeeded in my exam thanks to my own effort.

4- Owing to the bad weather, we didn’t go out.

5- Your flight is delayed due to the fog.
N.W: We use because of before a noun. → We arrived late because of the rain.
E) LINKING WORDS OF RESULT.

The main linking words of result are: so, as a result, that’s why, therefore, so/such…………
that
Examples: 1) he was late so, he ran to the station.
2- He failed his exam therefore (that’swhy) he took it again.
F) LINKING WORDS OF PURPOSE(objective, goal).
The main linking words of purpose are: to, for in order to, so as to, so that.
29
Example: I went to England in order to (to) perform my English.
N.W: in negative sentences we use in order not, so as not to. Ex: We got up early so as
not(in order not) to be late.

→We can use for to talk about a person’s purpose, but only when it is followed by a noun not
by a verb. Ex: I’m going out for a walk. We went to the restaurant for diner.

→We use for ₊ ING forms to talk about the purpose or function of something.

Examples: we use this machete for cutting wood.

→ We use so that to talk about purpose. We often use this structure with can, can’t, will,
willnot. Ex: I give the money so that you can buy ice-cream.
G) LINKING WORDS OF ADDITION.

The main linking words of addition are: moreover, in addition, furthermore, what’s more,
besides, not only………….but also.
Examples: 1- He opened my bag, what’s more he stole cell phone.
2- She shouts at her husband, moreover she beats him.
H) LINKING WORDS OF CONDITION.
The main linking words of condition are: if, unless (if not), provided that, providing that,
so long as.
Examples:1- We are sure to be on time unless we get caught in a traffic jam.

2- So long as my first wife takes care of me, I won’t take a second wife.

3- We’ll go away provided that we can’t rent a car.

FRONTING with NEGATIVE, SEMI (QUASI)-NEGATIVE,

andRESTRICTIVE.
Negative, semi-negative or restrictive words fronted or placed at the beginning of a sentence
require an inversion of the subject and the auxiliary. And in this case we have this:

N/ S.N/ R words ₊ Aux. ₊ Subj. ₊ Past Participle

A) Fronting with Negative Examples:

• Never
I have never seen a lion. →Never have I seen a lion.

• Nowhere (not anywhere)

A village without a student doesn’t exist anywhere. →Nowhere does a village without a
student exist.

• Not ₊ noun

30
He didn’t find a student. →Not a student did he find.
• Not only -------------- but (also or as well)

The teacher sent Alpha out and gave him zero. → Not onlydid the teacher send Alpha out but
he(also) gave him zero.
He comes late and disturbs us. → Not only does he come late but he disturbs us as well.
• Not merely ------------- but also (as well) / Not simply --------------- but also (as well).
They learn their lessons and they behave well. → Not merely do they learn their lessons but
they also behave well.
• Under no circumstances (whatever the situation or reason)

A terminal class student shouldn’t play truant. → Under no circumstances should a terminal
class student play truant.
B) Fronting with semi-negative.
Examples:

• Seldom
He seldom smokes cigarettes. → Seldom does he smoke cigarettes.
My pen friend seldom wrote me letters. → Seldom did my pen friend write me letters.

• Little ( not much)

I didn’t know much about mathematics. →Little did I know about mathematics.

• Rarely (not often)

A good student rarely comes late. → Rarely does a good student come late.
• No sooner ---------------- than
• Hardly --------------------- when
• Scarcely ------------------ when
• Barely -------------------- when
He bought a new car and he lost his job. → No soonerhad he bought a new car than he lost
his job.
He went abroad and immediately his wife delivered. → Hardly had he gone abroad when his
wife delivered.
C) Fronting with restrictive Examples:
The only way to succeed is to work hard.
→ Only if you work hard will you succeed.
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→ Only with hard work will you be able to succeed.
→ Only by working will you be able to succeed.

● Only through

“Only through hardship, militant action and sacrifice can freedom be won”. Nelson Mandela

● Only when (restriction on the moment)

Before I came to casamance I didn’t know that Sedhiou is the capital of pakao.
→ Only when I came to casamance did I know that Sedhiou is the capital of pakao.

● Only now (moment)

Before I became a teacher I didn’t know that Senegalese students are rude.
→ Only now I’m a teacher, do I know that Senegalese students are rude.

● Only later (moment)

When I was a child, I didn’t agree that our parents make too many sacrifices for us.
→ Only laterdid I agree that our parents make too many sacrifices for us. Consolidation
exercise
Rewrite the following sentences without changing their initial meaning.
1) They invaded the country and killed many innocents.

→ Not only ……………………………………………………………………………………

2) Before I travelled to Banjul I didn’t know that it is a dirty city.

→ Only ………………………………………………………………………………………..
3) He left his office and immediately after his personal assistant called him.

→ No sooner …………………………………………………………………………………..

4) She rarely misses English classes.→Rarely ………………………………………………

5) Whatever the situation, a prisoner shouldn’t be released without trial.

→ Under no circumstances …………………………………………………………………

6) The only way to achieve peace is to sit down and talk.

→ Only ………………………………………………………………………………………

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 PREPOSITIONS AND PHRASAL VERBS
A- PREPOSITIONS
1- Definition

A preposition is an invariable word such as: on, in, at, out, of, from etc… which expresses the
relationship between a word or an expression with another one usually (but not always) of a
noun, a pronoun, or a participle. Examples: a- the book is on the table. b- he is in
the bedroom.
2- Uses of some prepositions

-Direction (to): → she is going to the market.

-Origin (from): → moussoukeba is from Inor.
-Place ( in, out, on, at(small place)):
→ They live in ziguinchor.
→ the teacher is out.
→ My bag is on the table.

→ He lives at Kegneto.

-Time (in, on, at, at, till, during…)

→ She was born in 1990. / Theses times’ terminal class students go to school on Sunday.
→ Every morning I get up at 6 o’clock. / She will stay till Tuesday.
→ He was here during the tabaski holidays.
-Place and Movement (into, inside)

→
-Place and Position (under, through, above, below, across, near/next, against, behind,
between, in front of)
→ the cat is under the table.
→ She lives in front of the school.
.-Movement (towards, forwards, backwards, up, down, off)
→ He is heading towards Touba.
-Duration (for): → he has been living here for three years.
-Relationship (with): → they went to the beach with their girl-friends.
-Possession (of): → the house of Alpha is very nice.
33
-Means (by, on): → Amina goes to school by car whereas john goes on foot.
-Estimation (about, around): → he is about sixteen years.
N.W: To sum up we notice that there are different prepositions expressing: time, place,
movement, origin, position etc…and one preposition can express more than one thing
depending on the context it is used.
Examples: 1- I was born in 1992. (time)
2- I live in Bounkiling. (place)
B°/ PHRASAL VERBS.
1-Definition
A phrasal verb is a phrase composed of a simple verb and one or more particles which
together function like a verb.
Examples: to go (in, out, on), to look (after, at), to wait (on, for) etc…

2- Phrasal verb ₊ one preposition

Examples: to suffer from, to deal with, to turn up/down, to run away, to wake up, to keep on,
to die of, to cover with, to put on/off etc…….

3- Phrasal verb ₊ two prepositions

Examples: to keep up with, to run away, to cut down, etc….

C) PRACTICE
Complete the following sentences with the right preposition.
1-a) She always goes to the market …… foot. b) He is charged ……….. having stolen the
money. c) Heat changes ice ……………water.

2-a) Farba is interested …….. Politics. b) You should be ashamed …….. yourself.

3-“Every week Daddy supplies us ………… rice and oil”. The little joola said.

4-a) do agree …….. my idea? b) This girl is good …….. Spanish.

5- Ami look ………. Your sister, you should always take care ……… her.

6- The president has to preside ……… the meeting.

7-a) A nice girl waited ……. Me at the resto. b) I heard the news …… the radio.

8- These people are poor, they live ……….What they are given.

9- You don’t have to comment …….. everything I say ok.

10- this team had better give ………instead ………losing time.

11- The concert was called ………because of the rain.

34
 COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.
A) NOUNS.

Examples: 1-the car of Ali. → Ali’s car

2- The ball of James. → James’ ball

3- The door of the car. → The car door
4- A pot with a handle. → A handle pot 5- The handle of the pot. → the pot

handle.

B) ADJECTIVES.
The girl is 20 years old.→she isa 20 year old girl.

The house is at the side of the sea. → This is a sea side house

The car which is dark blue is brand new. → This is a dark blue brand new car.

●A cart dawn by a horse. → A horse drawn cart.

●The girl sheds tears. → She is a tear shedding girl.

These news break heart. → These are heart breaking news.

This man work hard. → This is a hard workingman.

● She is a woman with blue eyes. → She is a blue eyed woman.

He is a man with short legs. → He isa short legged man.

He is the devil with pale skin. → He is the pale skinned devil.

NO MATTER…
Though

Although Despite ₊ noun

Even though In spite of ₊ ing No matter

Even if

How → however → howsoever (state, manner)

What → whatever → whatsoever (action, thing)

35
No matter when → whenever → whensoever (time)

Who → whoever → whosoever (person) 1) No matter how

(state, manner).

Examples: a) though he walks fast, he arrives late.

b) Fast as though he walks, he arrives late.
c) Fast as he walks, he arrives late.
d) No matter how fast he walks, he arrives late.
e) Despite his walking fast, he arrives late.
His fast walk, he arrives late.
2) No matter what (status, action).
Examples:a) Though he is a teacher, he studies.
→ No matter whathe is, he studies.
b) Though she worked, she was poor.
→ No matter what she did, she was poor.

c) Though she worked hard, she was poor. → No matter

how hard she worked, she was poor. d) Whatever skirt
she tries, it gets wide.
→ No matter what skirt she tries, it gets wide.
3) No matter where (place).
Example:Though she lives near, she always comes ate.
→ No matter where she lives, she always comes late.
4) No matter when (time).
Example: Though she woke up early, she came late.
→ No matter whenshe woke up, she comes late.
5) No matter who (person).
Example: Anybody who has a green card can enter.

→ No matter who
Practice : rewrite the sentences using the clues given.

1- In spite of working, he is poor. → No matter ……………………………………………….

36
2- However wealthy she was, she was homeless.

→ Wealthy ……………………………………………………………………………………..

→ Despite ………………………………………………………………………………………
3- Though he went to bed early, he overslept.

→ No matter …………………………………………………………………………………
4) Despite her ignorance, she studied.

→ No matter ………………………………………………………………………………….

5) Despite our belief, we joke. → No matter …………………………………………………

THE TAGS
A) YES / NO TAGS
1- Did he follow us?
Yes, he did

No, he didn’t
2- May I go out, please?
Yes, you can

No, you mustn’t

B) TAG-QUESTIONS.
Halima is a Portuguese teacher, isn’t she?
Form:

STATEMENT TAG
Positve Negative
Negative Positive

→ Positive statement: He hit wall, didn’t he?

→ Negative statement: She hasn’t joked, has she?
I) When the verb of the statement is an auxiliary or a modal auxiliary, we repeat this
auxiliary or this modal in the tag.
Examples:1- a) Modu is a student, isn’t he? b) Fatima hasn’t a good mark, has she?

37
 2- a) He can’t play the guitar, can he? b) They must accept, mustn’t they?
N.W: I’m (in the statement) → aren’t I? (in the tag)
II) When the verb of the statement is an ordinary verb, use do, does, or did in the tag.
Examples: 1- Senegalese people eat rice every day, don’t they?
2- She doesn’t speak English fluently, does she?
3- They came back yesterday,didn’t they?
III) In statements beginning with (let’s), we have always (shall we?) in the tag.
Examples: 1- Let’sgo to school, shall we?
2- Let’s nottake the train, shall we?
IV) In sentences that express command (imperative), we have always (will you?) in the tag.
Examples: 1- Stoptalking, will you?
2- Don’tcome,will you?
V) In sentences that have negative adverbs such as: never, no, hardly, rarely, barely,
scarcely, vainly, seldom, we have always a positive tag.
Examples: 1- He’snevertaken the floor, has he?
2- They’d send us no present, would they?
VI) In sentences beginning with: everybody, everyone, somebody, someone, nobody,
noone, none, anybody, anyone, all, people etc…, the personal pronoun in the tag is
(they).
Examples: 1- Everybody knows Nelson Mandela, do they?
2- Nobody saw him, didthey?
VII) Sentences of which verbs have negative prefixes such as: un, dis, mis, ill….,the tag
ispositive.
Examples:1- She had ill-treated the orphan, had she?
2- He unloads the gun, does he?
3- You’ll mislead the blind, will you?
C) CONFORMITY

a) “ Moi aussi”
Examples: 1- He missed the bus, so did we. (or we did too)
2- They take a bath, so does she. (or she does too)

3- We’ve watched this movie, so has he. (or he has too)

38
b) “ Moi non plus”

Examples: 1- They don’t shout at her, neither does he. (or nor does he or he doesn’t either)

2- He went nowhere, neither did I. (or nor did I or I didn’t either).

Practice: Answer correctly.

1- You slept; so……………………….Ali.

2- You don’t speak Latin; neither……………he.

3- You will play;………………………….the boy.

4- They didn’t come;……………………I.

5- He must listen;……………………the pupils.

6- You wouldn’t understand; …….……………….they.

7- You said no word; …………………………..Fatou.

8- He never drinks wine;………………………….his friends.

9- Ali speaks English;……………………….?

10- Everybody slept;……………………………..?

11- They are playing foot-ball;……………………….?

12- (to succeed)……………………………in the coming exam; won’t you?

13- (to cut)…………………………the bread; didn’t he?

THE GERUNDS
A gerund is the ing form of a verb used as a noun. It can be found in many structures such as :
1) Continuous forms.
Examples: a) Look! The teacher is cleaning the board.
b) Tomorrow same moment, we shall be learning English.
c) She’s been leaving in Bounkiling for five years now.
2) Gerund as a noun.

● Gerund used as the subject of the sentence. Examples: a) Speaking is much easier than
writing. b) Smoking is prohibited.

● Gerund used as the object of the verb.

39
Examples: a) I enjoychatting with my friends on face book.
b) My teacher prefersdictating than writing on the board.
● Gerund used as the object of the preposition.
Examples: a) Any student has no excuse ofbeing late.
b) All graduate students are interested inlooking for a job.
3- Gerund to express a suggestion.
Examples: a) Why don’t you read this novel?
→ What aboutreading this novel?
→ How aboutreading this novel?
4- Gerund in subordinate clauses introduced by while or meanwhile.
Examples: a) While the teacher is explaining the lesson, she interfered.
b) Meanwhile she is cleaning the house, he is digging a hole.
5- Gerund after before and after.
Examples: a) Afterhe took his bath, I joined him. (different persons)
b) Aftertaking his bath, he goes to work. ( same person)
b) Afterhaving taken his bath, he went to work. (narration)
c) Beforehe came, I had called him. (different persons)
d) Beforecoming, he had taken a bath. (same person)

6- Common preposition combination followed by gerunds.

-be excited keep someone

-be worried about ₊ gerund prevent someone

Prohibit someone from ₊ gerund

-complain stop someone

-dream

-talk about ₊ gerund believe

-think be interested

Participate in ₊ gerund

Succeed
-apologize
40
-blame be accused
-forgive be capable

-have an excuse for ₊ gerund be guilty

-have a reason be tired of ₊ gerund

-be responsible take care

-thank someone take advantage
For the purpose
-be accustomed
-in addition
-be committed
-be devoted

-look forward to ₊ gerund

-object
-be opposed
-be used

Practice: complete each sentence with any appropriate gerund

1- Would you mind ………………………. The door? Thanks. (to open)

2- The Police officer told him to stop, but the thief kept……………………(to run)

3- I enjoy………………….a long walk every morning. (to have)

4- He told a really funny joke. We couldn’t stop……………………..! (to laugh)

5- I spent five hours………………my homework last night. (to do)

6- ………………………alone at night in the forest may be dangerous. (to walk)

WORD BUILDING OR FORMATION

While dealing with word building or formation exercises, we look for items or clues which
tell us what kind of word is missing in the sentence (noun, adjective, verb or adverb). And
then we have to make sure by taking into consideration forms by using either a prefix (in front
of the word) or a suffix (at the end of the word).

41
A) THE USE OF PREFIXES.
A prefix is a word-part added at the beginning of a base word. We can have many prefixes,
example: prefixes (un, in, il, ir, im, dis) are often used to give adjectives (and some verbs and
nouns) a negative meaning: they mean “NOT”.

Prefixes Meaning and Uses Examples

un (not) used with many different words. Unfriendly, unacceptable,
unemployed
im / in (not, negative, contrary); im isused before Impossible, immoral,
some words beginning with m or p and in imperfection, impolite
isusedbefore a limited number of words Inapt, inaccessible, inaction
ir ( contrary, negative); used before some words Irregular, irrelevant,
beginning with r. irrational, irresponsibility
il (not, contrary), used before some words Illegal, illogical, illiterate,
beginning with l. illegitimacy
dis (not, contrary), used before adjectives and Dishonest, disuse, disagree
few verbs
mis (Contrary, wrong, false) used before nouns Misunderstanding,
and some verbs. misconduct, misadventure
over (excess) used before some verbs, nouns and Oversleep, overestimation,
adjectives. overpopulated, overeat
non (contrary, negative), used before some nouns Non-aligned, nonsense,
and adjectives nonagression, non-standard
re (Repetition), used before some nouns or verbs re-election, reaffirm, rewrite

B) THE USE OF SUFFIXES.

A suffix is a word-part added to the end of the word base. We have many suffixes such as:
Suffixes Uses Examples
-able -Used to form many adjectives from nouns or Enjoyable, comfortable,
verbs. knowledgeable, suitable
-words ending with able quite often express the Undrinkable,
opposite meaning by adding the prefix -un unreachable
-ible Able and ible have the same meaning: “can be Comprehensible
done”
-less Used to mean without ₊ the meaning of the noun Effortless, homeless
-ful Used to mean full of ₊ the meaning of the noun Beautiful, careful
-er / ist / or They are added to existing nouns or verbs and Driver, journalist, actor,
describe people and their jobs. seller, governor
-ie, let, ling Added to a noun form a Birdie, booklet, gosling
-dom After a noun or an adjective indicates a condition, Kingdom, wisdom,
a state or a domain boredom, freedom
-hood Added to an adjective or a noun indicates a period Childhood,
42
 or a state brotherhood, falsehood
-ship Added to a noun or sometimes to an adjective form Friendship, lordship,
an abstract noun. apprenticeship, hardship

-th After a verb or an adjective, gives the Long → length To

corresponding noun bear → birth
-d, t Added to a verb even if that verb somehow To do → a deed,
changes, gives the corresponding noun. to flow→ a flood To
draw → a draught
-en -Used to form the past participle of certain verbs. - To eat → eaten
after a noun, it indicates the nature of which it is To break → broken
made. Golden, wooden,
-after an adjective, it indicate a change of state or woolen
condition Blacken, fasten, tighten
-ly -after a noun or an adjective, it means that has the Daily, weekly, godly
characteristics or the qualities of Quietly, sadly, happily

● Verbs ₊ Suffixes
Verbs Suffixes Nouns

To jog, to spell -ing Jogging, spelling

To improve, to manage -ment Improvement, management

To elect, to discuss -ion Election, discussion

To inform, to organize -ation Information, organization

● Adjective ₊ Suffixes
Adjectives Suffixes Nouns

Weak, happy -ness Weakness, happiness

Stupid, similar -ity Stupidity, similarity

PRACTICE
I-GAP FILLING AND REFORMULATIONCONDITIONAL.
43
Reformulatethese sentences without changing their initial meanings.

1-The more you eat, the fatter you get.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2-They failed at their exam because they didn’t work.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3-If he does not run faster, he won’t win the race.

Unless……………………………………………………………………………………………………

4-You must come on time otherwise the teacher will get angry.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5-You have not finished your homework that’s why Daddy won’t let you get out.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6-He was fired dead because he stole the money.

If……………………………………………………………………………………………………

5-Jack was cheating that’s why he scored a very bad grade.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6-In your place I wouldn’t give him the information.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

7-Provided that it rains, I will pop at yours around 10.

If………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8-People were not united that’s why their enemies all got victory on them.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9-You didn’t understand anything because you didn’t listen the Imam.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10-Unless you go to the doctor, you won feel better.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11-Any man driving dangerously will have to pay a fine.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

12-Hurry up, otherwise you will miss the bus.

44
If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

13-He didn’t respect the gods instruction, so he got punished.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………1
4-As a result of his mistake, he was jailed.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

15-What about going to the club? You’ll enjoy yourself.

If…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

REGRETS and PREFERENCES.

Express regret in these sentences by using whish or if only.

1-This boy regretted having insulted you.

This boy wished…………………………………………………………………………………………

2-It’s a pity the President was jeered at.

People whish………….…………………………………………………………………………………

3-What a shame! He failed at his exam.

He wishes……………...…………………………………………………………………………………

4-It was a pity he didn’t come.

If only…….…………………………………………………………………………………………

5-His father regrets beating him.

His father wishes………………………………………………………………………………………..

6-You shouldn’t have answered in this bad way.

I wish ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

7-I’m sorry you ignore this rule.

I wish………………………………………………………….…………………………………………

8-What a pity! Aminata didn’t catch the bus.

I wish….……………………………………………………………………………………………..

9-It’s regrettable the government didn’t satisfy the teachers’ grievances.

I’d rather the government…………………………………………………………………………….

10-I would like him to have been elected.

45
I………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

12-What a shame! They missed the point.

I…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

13-Why didn’t you come with him?

I’d rather you……………………………………………………………………………………………

14-she regretted having lied to her mother.

She ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

15-You should have done your excises correctly.

I wish………….………………………………………………………………………………………….

16-I would like him to have won his match.

If only…………………………. …………………………………………………………………………

17-Joe shouldn’t have answered in this way.

I’d rather………………………………………………………………………………………………….

18-What a pity! You fail your test.

I wish……………………………………………………………………………………………………...

19-It’s regrettable you didn’t participate.

I’d rather………………………………………………………………………………………………….

20-I’m sorry she is hurt.

I’d rather………………………………………………………………………………………………….

REPORTED SPEECH and DIRECT SPEECH.

Reformulate the following sentences without changing their initial meanings.

1-Daddy asked him not to open the door.

Daddy……………………………………………………………………………………………………

2-Mammy wonders “Is it really true?”

Mammy…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3-His friend affirmed “we were solving this problem yesterday.”

His friend affirmed………………………………………………………………………………………

4-The teacher said “he has been disturbing the class that’s why I sent him out.”

46
The teacher said……………………………………………………………………………………...

5-The doctor warns him “ you will catch AIDS if you don’t stop.”

The doctor warns

him…………………………………………………………………………………….………………….

6-The dean said “There will be some changes in the school next year.”

The dean
said………………………………………………………………………………………………………

7-The inspector said “you are going to give us more proofs next week.”

The inspector
said………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8-This boy said that they had been there for hours.

This boy
said……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

9-“We’ll wait for you when we arrive first” they said.

They said………………………………………………………………………………………………..

10-He asked me what time I had waken up the day before.

He asked me……………………………………………………………………………………………

11-Mrs.Diop said to the driver that they would be late at 6.30 and he hoped he won’t be late.

Mrs.Diop said……………………………………………………………………………………………

12-“Don’t tell my parents about my lost bag” Ismaïla told his brother.

Ismaïla told his brother……………………………………………………………………………..

ACTIVE VOICE and PASSIVE VOICE.

Turn the following sentences from active to passive voice by using the prompt given.

1-The headmaster expected these students to succeed.

These students………………………………………………………………………………………….
2-All the candidates sign the document.

The document……………………………………………………………………………………………

3-People say that he was simple-minded person.

He…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4-People can reach at 33990056.

47
He ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5-The international community gave her the Nobel price last year.

She……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

6-Her apartment was destroyed by the fire.

She………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8-His friend was killed last year.

He…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9-It is believed that they succeed by cheating.

They………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10-This player had broken his leg.

His leg……..…………………………………………………………………………………………….

11-You must his secret.

His secret…………………………………………………………………………………………………

12-Did the news surprised him? No,

he…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

13-Her parents offered her a very nice watch.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

14-The orderly is going to post the letters.

The letters………………………………………………………………………………………………

15-Was the opened when you entered?

Yes, the door………………………………………………………

16-Once he arrives, they will question him.

He…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
17-The students heard the teacher scorn at him.

The teacher………………………………………………………………………………………………

18-It was known that he was jealous.

He…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

19-They will compulsory do the test.

The test…………………………………………………………………………………………………
48
20-Amadou expects you to score a good mark.

You………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ASKING QUESTIONS
Find the questions corresponding to the underlined words or group of words.

1-Aly’s proposal is more interesting.

a-…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b-…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2-it takes him three hours to travel.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3-My car broke down yesterday.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4-They twice meet during the week.……………………………………..……………………………

5- I spent fifteen days in Morocco last year.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6-This student found something interestingfrom internet.

a-…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b-…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

7-All the delegates will meet at eleven.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

8-I like shirts.…………………………………………………………………………………………….

9-Shhh! Someone is knocking at the door.……………………………………………………………

10-He generally eats mutton.…………………………………………………………………………..

11-listen! The president is speaking to his fellow citizens.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

12-He failed to his exam because he had not worked.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

13-A good translator should have an English dictionary.

49
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

14-Hurry up! We shall go.

………………….......................................................................................................................................

15-The barman hates being scorn,……………………………………………………………………..?

16-The soldier doesn’t endanger people’s life,………………………………………………………..?

17-Thewell is 30 meters deep.…………………………………………………………………………..

18-The whole class came at ten.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

19-Amadou left his village to look for a job.

a-…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b-…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

COMPARATIVES
Use the appropriate comparatives in the following sentences.

If the fruit is fresh, it tastes good.

the fresher the fruit is, the better it tastes.

1-We got close to the fire. We felt warm.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2-If a knife is sharp, it is easy to cut something with.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3-That chair in the corner is comfortable. It is……………………………………chair in the room

(comfortable).

4-Aly and Ismaïla were nervous, but Ibrahima was……………………………… of all (nervous).

5-A lake and ocean.

…………………………………………………big as………………………………………………….

6-good health and money

………………………………………………important as…………………………………….……….

7-monkey and people

…………………………………………….agile in climbing trees as………………………….……….

50
8-A bee………………………………………………………..a bird. (big)

9-A city has……………………………………………a small town (traffic)

10-Sun light is much……………………………………………..moonlight (bright)

11-There is………………………………………..about geography in an encyclopedia than in a

dictionary (information).

12-when you blow up a balloon, it gets……………………………………………………….(big).

13-she sat there quietly, but during all that time she…………………………………………..(to get
angry) and finally she exploded.

14-I’ve been looking for a job for a month but in vain. I’m getting………………….(discouraged).

DEFECTIVES.

Rewrite these sentences with the suitable modal.

1-I’m not sure that they were there.

They………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2-she was doubtful on the truthiness of this statement.

She………………………………………………………………………………………………………

3-It was compulsory for him to answer the police.

He…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4-They had the possibility to swim across this river.

They………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5-They surely beated him.

They………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6- The boss was perhaps mistaken.

The boss…………………………………………………………………………………………………
8-You are not allowed to shout in the office.

You………………………………………………………………………………………………………

9-It is advisable for you to take correctly your medicine.

You………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10-It was a necessity for them to get a good job.

They………………………………………………………………………………………………………

51
11-I’m certain he is not lying.

He…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

12-They had the obligation to introduce their projects.

They………………………………………………………………………………………………………

13-She knew how to succeed easily in this field.

She………………………………………………………………………………………………………

14-They probably found the way.

They………………………………………………………………………………………………………

15-It is regrettable that they didn’t know.

They………………………………………………………………………………………………………

16-Maybe he has read this novel.

He…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

17-You are authorized to get out if you finish your work.

You………………………………………………………………………………………………………

18-Why don’t you stop talking?

You………………………………………………………………………………………………………

19-She is sure that he was not guilty.

He…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

20-It’s impossible that she did such a mistake.

She………………………………………………………………………………………………………

PREPOSITIONS AND PHRASAL VEBS

Complete the following sentences with the prepositions from the list below.

After - under - toward - in - during - on - in - before - at - for - away from – across s- after.

1-the mechanics is sitting…………………….the roof of my car.

2-Some people were talking………………………………….the movie.

3- An old man was coming…………………………………….us on his bike.

52
4- The party start………………………………six o’clock.

5-She put the book…………………………….her bag.

7-I’ll be late for school! It’s…………………………………..nine o’clock already.

8-We walked…………………………….the street to the park;

9-We always wash our hands………………………………….meals.

10-She ran………………………………….the dog because she was frightened.

11-Which letter comes…………………….D?

12- Don’t blame him, he is not responsible…………………………………this mistake.

13-Julio is a very intelligent student interesting…………………………………everything.

GERUND

Complete the sentences with prepositions followed by gerunds. Use the verbs in the given list:
ask – have – make – see – break – kill – open – talk – finish – lock – practice – wash.

1-Instead……………………………………….for help on each problem, you should use your book

and try to figure out the answers.

2-I look forward………………………………………you next time I’m in town.

3-The four-year-old was blamed…………………………………….the glass.

4-Alice told us that she was tired……………………………………...the dishes every night.

5-Because of the bomb scare, people were prevented…………………………………………..the

front door by a guard.

6-You should listen to other people instead………………………………….about yourself all time.

7-What do you feel……………………………………..for dinner? Does chicken and rice sound

good?

8-Frank is an environmentalist who objects…………………………………………wild animals for

sport.

9-Please don’t argue………………………………………..your homework. Just do it.

10-Marie is responsible………........all the door and windows and…………………..................sure

all the lights are turned off before she leaves work.

11-Amadou spent the time preparing the match, but in spite………………………………………

for many hours each day; he lost the match.

WORD BUILDING.

Use the correct suffix or prefix in the following sentences.

53
1-You’re worn out because you have………………………………………………today (work).

2-He is very……………………………………..in all his enterprises (success).

3-If you finish working with this computer, you can………………………………it (plug).

4-This document is very ………………………………………, you must read it (use).

5- I’ve a very interesting……………………………………on philosophy, you can read it (book).

6-That is a ………………………………(murder) that’s why he

is…………………………………………(prison).

7-After her parents’……………………………………she suffered a lot (depart).

8-………………………………………….is the most wonderful moment of life (child).

9-Their ……………………………………..is not bad, we can adopt it (propose).

10-Despite all the efforts made, he is still…………………………………………(job).

11-I think that you don’t follow me, you………………………………me at this point(understand)

12-Michael Jackson is very………………………………..pop singer (fame).

13-Have found……………………………………….in internet (some)?

14-Silent! We are……………………………………………the President’s speech (listen).

15-Please be ……………………………………..;you know that it impossible (reason).

16- The system was ………………………………………..by the numerous changes (weak).

17-It justified that all……………………………agree that the moon the turns the earth (science).

18- Pablo Escobar was the most……………………………….(danger)……………………….the

earth has ever known(traffic).

19-……………………………………….is very bad for the good ongoing of a country (dictator).

20-The………………………………………of the demonstration was really a success (organize).

21-if you………………………….(spell)words you’ll…………………………them (pronounce).

II- COMMUNICATIVE GRAMMAR.

A-Complete the following dialogue meaningfully.

FATHER: Where is Aly?

MOTHER: I…………………………………………………,……………………………….out.

FATHER: How can say this? ……………………………………at home?

54
MOTHER: Yes but I……………………………..to busy. Oh! Here he is.

FATHER: Didn’t I tell you to ………………………………………………………your grand father?

ALY: Yes Dadd but I ……………………………………….to school.

FATHER: When…………………………………………………………………………………there?

ALY:………………………………………………………………………………..right now.

FATHER: …………………………………………………………………………………..my greetings.

B- Fill in the following dialogue meaningfully: it is a police check.

POLICEMAN: Please ………………………………..car and ……………………...…………papers.

DRIVER: ………………………………………………………………………………………..…them.

POLICEMAN: Driving license, car license.

DRIVER: ……………………………………………………………….;…………………………home.

POLICEMAN: What……………………………………..…leg? How can you drive without papers.

DRIVER: I know it is abnormal but I ……………..slept and …………got them; so excuse me.

POLICEMAN: You……………………………………………………………………………………….

DRIVER: No, you have to understand me.

POLICEMAN: OK! You…………………………………………………………………..…..of 3000f.

C-Complete the dialogue below between Insa and his friend Abdou on illegal immigration.

INSA: Hay! What’s new today?

ABDOU: I was listening to the news this morning and heard about immigration.

INSA: So did I but I think it’s a horrible phenomenon.

ABDOU:………………………………………………………………………………………………….

INSA:……………………………………………………………………………………………………...

ABDOU:………………………………………………………………………………………………….

INSA: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ABDOU:…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

INSA :……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ABDOU :…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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D-Here is the conversation between a tourist and Ibn.

TOURIST: Please can you help me, I have just come here and I know nobody.

IBN: What……………………………………………………………………………….…….exactly.

TOURIST: I want to do some shopping.

IBN:………………………………………………………………………………………………………

TOURIST: Cigarettes…………………………………………………………………………………...

IBN: Is that all you want?

TOURIST: Yes. Where………………………………………………………………………………?

IBN: if you turn……………………………and…………….……………….…………..…….one.

TOURIST: Ok!...........................................................way………………………………..continue.

IBN: It depends on you but it’s not far from here.

TOURIST: Thank you.

IBN:……………………………………………………………………………………………..

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