ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT AND SCALING:- Measurement: The term ‘measurement’ means assigning

numbers or some other symbols to the characteristics of certain objects. When numbers are used,
the researcher must have a rule for assigning a number to an observation in a way that provides an
accurate description.  Scaling: Scaling is an extension of measurement. Scaling involves creating a
continuum on which measurements on objects are located

Types of Measurement Scale:- Nominal scale: This is the lowest level of measurement. Here,
numbers are assigned for the purpose of identification of the objects. Any object which is assigned a
higher number is in no way superior to the one which is assigned a lower number.///Ordinal scale:
This is the next higher level of measurement. One of the limitations of the nominal scale
measurements is that we cannot say whether the assigned number to an object is higher or lower
than the one assigned to another option///Interval scale: The interval scale measurement is the
next higher level of measurement.  It takes care of the limitation of the ordinal scale measurement
where the difference between the score on the ordinal scale does not have any meaningful
interpretation.  In the interval scale the difference of the score on the scale has meaningful
interpretation..///Ratio scale: This is the highest level of measurement and takes care of the
limitations of the interval scale measurement, where the ratio of the measurements on the scale
does not have a meaningful interpretation.  The mathematical form of the ratio scale data is given
by Y = b X.  In ratio scale, there is a natural zero (origin)

Definition of Attitude  An attitude is viewed as an enduring disposition to respond consistently in a

given manner to various aspects of the world, including persons, events and objects.///Components
of Attitude:  Cognitive component  Affective component  Intention or action component

Classification of Scales:- Single item vs multiple item scale:  In the single item scale, there is only
one item to measure a given construct.  In multiple item scale, there are many items that play a
role in forming the underlying construct that the researcher is trying to measure. This is because
each of the item forms some part of the construct which the researcher is trying to measure.

Comparative vs non-comparative scales:- Comparative scales – In comparative scales it is assumed

that respondents make use of a standard frame of reference before answering the question.//Non-
Comparative Scales – In the non comparative scales, the respondents do not make use of any frame
of reference before answering the questions.
Itemized rating scale – In the itemized rating scale, the respondents are provided with a scale that
has a number of brief descriptions associated with each of the response categories.Examples of
Itemized Rating Scales: Likert scale  The respondents are given a certain number of items
(statements) on which they are asked to express their degree of agreement/disagreement.

Semantic Differential Scale  This scale is widely used to compare the images of competing brands,
companies or services.  Here the respondent is required to rate each attitude or object on a
number of five-or seven-point rating scales. This scale is bounded at each end by bipolar adjectives
or phrases.

Measurement Error This occurs when the observed measurement on a construct or concept deviates
from its true values. Reasons  Mood, fatigue and health of the respondent  Variations in the
environment in which measurements are taken  A respondent may not understand the question
being asked and the interviewer may have to rephrase the same. While rephrasing the question the
interviewer’s bias may get into the responses.

Criteria for good measurement:- Reliability Reliability is concerned with consistency, accuracy and
predictability of the scale. Methods to measures Reliability  Test–retest reliability  Split-half
reliability  Cronbach’s Alpha Validity The validity of a scale refers to the question whether we are
measuring what we want to measure. Different ways to measure Validity  Content validity 
Concurrent validity  Predictive validity Sensitivity Sensitivity refers to an instrument’s ability to
accurately measure the variability in a concept

DATA PROCESSING :- The data preparation process DATA EDITING. DATA TABULATION. DATA
CLASSIFICATION. DATA CODING. EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS

Field work validation:- Pre-survey  In case the form has been translated into another language 
The questionnaire survey has to be done at multiple locations and if one has outsourced to outside
research investigators , thus there might have been discrepancy in conduction or recording

Post-survey  The qualifying instructions like-“in case answer is ----- please answer the next set of
questions else go to question-----.” were overlooked.  The respondent seems to have used the same
response category for all the questions.  The form that is received back is incomplete.  The form
has been filled in by someone who is not representative of the population to be studied.

Benefits of data editing  The data obtained is complete in all respects.  It is accurate in terms of
information recorded and responses sought.  Questionnaires are legible and are correctly
deciphered, especially the open ended questions.  The response format is in the form that was
instructed.  The data is structured in a manner that entering the information will not be a problem.

Data editing Field editing: usually done by the field investigators at the end of every field day the
investigator(s) who must review the filled forms for any inconsistencies, nonresponse, illegible
responses or incomplete questionnaires. Centralized in-house editing: usually done at the
researcher’s end.  Backtracking  Allocating missing values  Plug value  Discarding unsatisfactory
responses

Data coding The process of identifying and denoting a numeral to the responses given by the
respondent is called coding  Field  Record  File  Data matrix

Code book formulation  Appropriate to the research objective  Comprehensive  Mutually

exclusive  Single variable entry
Pre-Coding closed-ended questions:- Dichotomous questions: Do you eat ready-to-eat food? Yes=1;
no=0 (X-1), Ranking questions,,, Checklists/multiple responses How many columns will you make for
the following question?,, Scaled questions,,, Scaled questions,,,

Classification and tabulation of data  Classification by attributes: mostly categorical  Classification

by class intervals: this could be exclusive or inclusive  Tabulation: arrangement of data into an
orderly arrangement of rows and columns in order to subject it to statistical analysis

Statistical software packages  MS EXCEL  MINITAB  System for Statistical Analysis(SAS) 

Statistical Software for Social Sciences(SPSS)

Ethical Issues of Marketing Research:- Purpose & Use Of Data Collected data should not be used for
any other purpose.  Information or data collected from respondents should not be used for any
other purpose or for any other research work.  In this case, the researcher plays a crucial role and
he can assure respondents about the security of the opinions and information given by the
respondent. Force To Answer The researcher should not force any respondent for answers.  The
researcher can explain the importance or necessity of answer to that question for research work, but
he/she should not make compulsion or impel respondents to answer a particular question Data
Confidentiality Protection of data or confidentiality of data  Researcher or research organization
should protect data properly.  They should keep confidential data or information very safe and
secure.  Any client or outside person should not access confidential and important data from the
organization Personal Or Sensitive Questions In case of personal or sensitive questions,the
researcher should give time to respondents to think about it, and refuse to participate in the study. 
Researcher or trained staff of appropriate sex can be used to reduce embarrassment caused. For
example, suppose questions are related to the female product, then it will be better to select female
staff to do the research Unbiased And Accurate Proper, Unbiased and accurate information
collection  Marketing researcher should collect accurate information and report to the research
organization & client without any bias

Qualitative vs quantitative method

Research stage Qualitative Quantitative

Study objective Exploratory, Definite, conclusive

investigative and predictive

Research design Loosely structured Structured,

controlled conditions

Sampling plan Small samples Large/representative

samples

Type of approach Loosely structured Formatted &

structured

Data analysis Textual and non- Statistically tested

statistical and authenticated
 Study deliverables Explanatory and Conclusive and action
supportive oriented

QUALITATIVE METHODS OF DATA CO

Qualitative Research
Procedures

Direct Indirect
(Nondisguised) (Disguised)

Observation Focus Depth Content

Groups Interviews Analysis

Projective Sociometry New

Techniques

Association Completion Construction Expressive Choice /

Techniques Techniques Techniques Techniques Ordering

Observation method Observation involves viewing and recording individuals, groups, organizations
or events in a scientific manner in order to collect valuable data related to the topic under study.

Method format:  Standardized and structured  Non-standardized and unstructured

Level of respondent consciousness  Disguised observation  Undisguised observation Observation

setting  Natural environment  Simulated environment Role of the human participant 
Participating  Non-participating

Mechanical observation method  Store scanners and store cameras  Audio and people meters 
Psycho galvanometer  Oculometers  Pupilometers  Voice pitch meter

Content analysis technique involves studying a previously recorded or reported communication and
systematically and objectively breaking it up into more manageable units that are related to the topic
under study.  Material studied is usually ex-post facto.  Study and analysis is, however, primary
and problem specific.

Content Analysis Universe of content  Word  Theme  Character  Space measures  Time
measures  Item
Content Analysis Validating the findings Obtaining the analysis from multiple evaluators and cross
validating using the following formula  Pr (a) = the relative observed agreement between the two
raters  Pr (e) = the probability that this is due to chance. If the two raters are in complete
agreement then Kappa is =1. If there is no agreement then Kappa=0, 0.21-0.40 is fair, 0.41- 0.80 is
good and 0.81-1.00 is considered as excellent.

Focus group discussion:- A focus group discussion involves collecting information from a
representative group of respondents in a neutral setting. The process generally involves a moderator
who maneuvers the discussion on the topic under study.  It is essentially a sociological technique. 
The group dynamics influence the individual to respond in divergent ways.

Key elements of focus group method  Size: Ideal recommended size for a group discussion is 8 to
12 members.  Nature: Composition of the group should be homogenousin terms of demographic
and psychographic traits and product/subject knowledge.  It is  Acquaintance: recommended that
the members in a group should be strangers to each other.  Setting: Discussion setting should be
neutral, informal and comfortable. Time period: usually recommended that the discussion should
take place in a single setting.  Recording: human or mechanical recording of the entire discussion. 
Moderator: key conductor, might be a participant or a non-participant.

Key moderator skills  Listening skills  Observation skills  Flexibility of approach  Empathetic yet
objectivity of conduction  Summary and closure approach

Planning & Conducting FGDs  Define the research objective(s) requiring discussion  Split and
bulleted into information areas  Identifying the respondent screening/selection criteria 
Conducting the FGD  Summarizing the findings of the FGD

Stages in group formation

Types of focus groups  Two-way focus group  Dual moderator group  Fencing moderator group 
Friendship group  Mini-groups  Creativity groups  Brand-obsessive groups  Online focus groups
Focus group discussions Advantages  Idea generation  Group dynamics  Process advantage 
Reliability & validity DISADVANTAGES Focus group discussions Advantages Disadvantages  Idea
generation  Group dynamics  Process advantage  Reliability & validity

Personal interview method:- The personal interview is a one to one interaction between the
investigator/interviewer and the interviewee. The purpose of the dialogue is research specific and
ranges from completely unstructured to highly structured Typical Usage:  Problem definition 
Exploratory research  Primary data collection

Conducting the personal interview :- Stating the interview objective  Identifying the interview
guidelines: unstructured, semi-structured or structured.  Screening the interviewees  Analysis and
interpretation of interview data

Categorization of personal interviews  Personal methods: these include at-home interviews, mall-
intercept interviews, computer assisted personal interviews.  Telephone methods: these include
traditional telephonic interviews, computer assisted telephonic interviews.

Projective techniques Projective techniques involve indirect questioning. The respondent is given a
relatively ambiguous stimuli and the underlying assumption is that the respondents would project
their underlying needs, emotions, beliefs and attitudes on to this object .  Association techniques 
Completion techniques  Construction techniques  Choice or ordering techniques  Expressive
techniques

Sociometric analysis Sociometry involves measuring the choice, communication and interpersonal
relations of people in different groups. The computations made on the basis of these choices indicate
the social attraction and avoidance in a group. Sociometric measures  Sociometric indices 
Sociometric matrix  Sociogram

QUESTIONNAIRRE DESIGNING:- The questionnaire method:- This is the simplest and most often
used method of primary data collection///There is a pre-determined set of questions in a sequential
format////Is designed to suit the respondent’s understanding and language command///Can be
conducted to collect useful data from a large population in a short duration of time

Criteria for questionnaire design:- The spelt out research objectives need to be converted into
specific questions///It must be designed to engage the respondent and encourage meaningful
response ///The questions should be designed in simple language and be self-explanatory

Types of questionnaire:- Formalized & concealed questionnaire: most response categories are
predefined, but latent cause of behaviour are derived from indirect questions,, Non-formalized &
concealed questionnaire: undisguised and most response categories are not predefined

Types of questionnaire method of administration:- Self-administered questionnaire: respondents

fills in the questionnaire him/her self///Schedule: the investigator/researcher reads out the
questions and records the respondents’ answers.

Criteria for questionnaire selection:- Population characteristics//Population spread///Study area

The questionnaire design process :- Convert the Research Objectives into the Information
Needed///Method of Administering the Questionnaire///Content of the Questions////Motivating
the Respondent to Answer///Determining Type of Questions///Question Design Criteria///Determine
the Questionnaire Structur///Physical presentation of the Questionnaire///Pilot Testing the
Questionnaire///Administering the Questionnaire
Type of questions

Question Content

Open – ended Closed - ended

Dichotomous Multiple Scales

Responses

Questionnaire designing criteria:- Clearly specify the issue///Use simple terminology///Avoid

ambiguity in questioning///Avoid leading questions///Avoid loaded questions///Avoid implicit
choices and assumptions///Avoid double-barrelled questions
Questionnaire structure:- Instructions///Opening questions///Study questions///Classification
information///Acknowledgement

REPORT WRITING AND PRESENTATIONS OF RESULTS :- Significance of effective documentation 

Provides a framework for the work that can be conducted in the same or related areas  Is a one-
way communication of the researcher’s study and analysis  A knowledge base on the topic under
study  Provides the necessary guidance for taking appropriate actions.  Authenticates the quality
of the work carried out and  Establishes the strength of the findings obtained.

Types of research reports  Brief reports - working papers/basic reports - survey reports  Detailed
reports  Technical reports  Business reports

Report structure :-Preliminary Section  Title Page  Letter of Authorization  Executive Summary
 Acknowledgements  Table of Contents Background Section  Problem Statement  Study
Introduction & Background  Scope & Objectives of the Study  Review of Literature Methodology
Section  Research Design  Sampling Design  Data Collection  Data Analysis Findings Section 
Results  Interpretation of Results Conclusions Section  Conclusion & Recommendations 
Limitations of the Study Appendices Glossary of terms Bibliography

Preliminary section  Title page  Letter of transmittal  Letter of authorization  Table of contents
 Executive summary  Acknowledgements

Background section  Problem definition  Study background  Review of literature  Study scope &
objectives

Methodology section  Research frame work or design  Sampling design  Data collection
methodology  Data analysis  Study results & findings

Final section  Interpretation of results  Conclusions & recommendations  Limitations of the study

End notes  Appendices  Bibliography  Footnotes  Glossary of terms

Effective report writing  Clear report mandate  Clearly defined methodology  Clear presentation
of findings  Representativeness of study findings

Guidelines for presenting tabular data  Table title  Table identification number  Data arrays 
Measurement units  Space, lines and rulings  Assumptions details and comments  Data sources 
Special mention

Oral presentations  Study background  Study findings  Study implications  Handouts  Slides 
Flipcharts & chalkboards  Video & audio tapes

SAMPLING CONSIDERATIONS

Sampling Concepts  Population: Population refers to any group of people or objects that form the
subject of study in a particular survey and are similar in one or more ways.  Element: An element
comprises a single member of the population.  Sampling frame: Sampling frame comprises all the
elements of a population with proper identification that is available to us for selection at any stage of
sampling.  Sample: It is a subset of the population. It comprises only some elements of the
population.  Sampling unit: A sampling unit is a single member of the sample.  Sampling: It is a
process of selecting an adequate number of elements from the population so that the study of the
sample will not only help in understanding the characteristics of the population but will also enable
us to generalize the results.  Census (or complete enumeration): An examination of each and every
element of the population is called census or complete enumeration.

Advantages of Sample over Census  Sample saves time and cost.  A decision-maker may not have
too much of time to wait till all the information is available.  There are situations where a sample is
the only option.  The study of a sample instead of complete enumeration may, at times, produce
more reliable results.

Sampling vs Non-Sampling Error  Sampling error: This error arises when a sample is not
representative of the population.  Non-sampling error: This error arises not because a sample is
not a representative of the population but because of other reasons. Some of these reasons are
listed below:  Plain lying by the respondent.  The error can arise while transferring the data from
the questionnaire to the spreadsheet on the computer.  There can be errors at the time of coding,
tabulation and computation.  Population of the study is not properly defined  Respondent may
refuse to be part of the study.  There may be a sampling frame error.

Sampling Design:- Probability Sampling Design - Probability sampling designs are used in conclusive
research. In a probability sampling design, each and every element of the population has a known
chance of being selected in the sample. Types of Probability Sampling Design  Simple random
sampling with replacement  Simple random sampling without replacement  Systematic sampling 
Stratified random sampling  Cluster sampling Non-probability Sampling Designs - In case of non-
probability sampling design, the elements of the population do not have any known chance of being
selected in the sample. Types of Non-Probability Sampling Design  Convenience sampling 
Judgemental sampling  Snowball sampling  Quota sampling

Determination of Sample Size :- The size of the population does not influence the size of the sample
Methods of determining the sample size in practice:  Researchers may arbitrary decide the size of
sample without giving any explicit consideration to the accuracy of the sample results or the cost of
sampling.  The total budget for the field survey in a project proposal is allocated.  Researchers may
decide on the sample size based on what was done by the other researchers in similar studies
Confidence interval approach for determining the size of the sample The following points are taken
into account for determining the sample size in this approach.  The variability of the population:
Higher the variability as measured by the population standard deviation, larger will be the size of the
sample.  The confidence attached to the estimate: Higher the confidence the researcher wants for
the estimate, larger will be sample size.  The allowable error or margin of error: Greater the
precision the research seeks, larger would be the size of the sample. Sample size for estimating
population mean - The formula for determining sample size is given as: n= Z 2 σ2/e2 Where n =
Sample size σ = Population standard deviation e = Margin of error Z = The value for the given
confidence interval
Correlation:- Correlation measures the degree of association between two or more variables. When
we are dealing with two variables, we are talking in terms of simple correlation and when more than
two variables are involved, the subject matter of interest is called multiple correlation

Types of Correlation  Positive correlation - When two variables X and Y move in the same direction,
the correlation between the two is positive.  Negative correlation: When two variables X and Y
move in the opposite direction, the correlation is negative.  Zero correlation: The correlation
between two variables X and Y is zero when the variables move in no connection with each other.