Fall Hazards2

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Fall hazards are one of the most serious and most common hazards found
on a construction site. Fall hazards may cause you to fall onto the same
level you are working on, or you may fall from one level to another.
When you trip and fall while working you may receive nothing more than
a scratch or a slight bruise. Unfortunately, that is not always the outcome.
If you fall from one level to another, your risk of a serious injury or
possibly even death has greatly increased. It may surprise you to know
that falls are a leading cause of death for construction workers.

This program will help you recognize common fall hazards and show you
ways to decrease those hazards at your job site. By the end of this
program, you will be able to recognize and control these fall hazards.

Throughout this program, you will be shown examples of safe and unsafe
conditions. Two different symbols will be used to represent safe and
unsafe conditions. The red “No” symbol is used to denote unsafe
conditions, and the green “Yes” checkmark will be used to show safe
conditions.

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Each year workers in all industries die from falls. According to the latest
Bureau of Labor Statistics, during 2006 there were 5,703 occupational
fatalities. Of all occupational fatalities, 809 deaths were caused by falls
which represents 39 more deaths from falls than 2005. Of those
occupational deaths, 428 were in the construction industry. That means
that more than 50% of all deaths from falls occur on construction sites.
Overall, more than 14% of all occupational fatalities are from falls.

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Fall hazards can be found on almost any construction site. Some of the
areas where fall hazards are found include:

*Building structures and exterior construction – Many times working on


the exterior of a building can expose you to falls from greater heights.
You may be on the roof of a building exposed to a fall of 10, 20, 30 feet
or even more. You may be working on concrete forming with no
scaffolding.

*Scaffolds and other work platforms – Scaffold and other elevated work
platforms expose you to fall hazards since you are working at greater
heights. If the scaffolding or work platforms are not properly constructed
or maintained, your fall hazards are increased.

*Store-bought and job made ladders – Ladders are used regularly in


construction and since we use them often we become very comfortable
when using them. Because we are so comfortable we often overlook the
hazards of using either a manufactured or a job made ladder.

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Work conditions 6 feet or higher above the lower level requires the use of fall
protection. Some areas where you might need fall protection of some sort include:
*Unprotected sides and edges: These are the sides and edges of walking and working
surfaces that do not have walls, guardrail systems or other means of protection.
"Guardrail system" means a vertical barrier, consisting of, but not limited to, top rails,
mid rails, and posts, erected to prevent employees from falling off a scaffold platform or
walkway to lower levels.
*Leading edges: These are the edges of a floor, a roof, the formwork for a floor or other
walking surface that changes locations as additional floor, roofing, decking, or
formwork sections are placed.
*Excavations: Excavations are any man-made cut, cavity, trench or depression in the
surface of the earth. Excavations have their own hazards associated with them.
*Walking/working surfaces: These are any surfaces, whether vertical or horizontal,
where employees work. Depending on the heights of these surfaces, you may be
exposed to falls.

All of the conditions listed will increase your risk of falling. However, these are not the
only areas where you may be exposed to falls. Regardless of height, fall protection must
be used when working above:
* Dangerous equipment
* Sharp objects
* Piercing objects
In this photograph the workers have no fall protection and are exposed to falls greater
than 6 feet. Additionally, both workers have positioned themselves where they cannot
see the edge of their working surface. It would be easy for each of them to back off the
edge and fall. An acceptable means of fall protection for this situation would be the

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installation of guardrail system.

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In this example of an unsafe condition, the worker is standing in the
window opening at the edge of his working surface with no means of fall
protection. The worker is exposed to a fall of greater than 6 feet because
he is working on the second level of this building.

One way this worker would be protected from a fall and possible injury is
by using a personal fall arrest system. A personal arrest system is a fall-
protection system that prevents the user from falling any distance. The
system includes either a body belt or body harness, anchorage,
connectors, and any other equipment as deemed necessary.

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As stated previously, if you are working at a height of 6 feet or more you
must have some form of fall protection. These workers were protected
from a fall until they stepped outside of the lift. Once they exited the lift
they lost all of their fall protection.

For these workers to be safe, some form of fall protection must be used.
They could install a guardrail system or use personal fall arrest systems.

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Here we have workers building concrete forms who are exposed to a fall
greater than 6 feet and who do not have any form of fall protection. One
way to protect them is to utilize a personal fall arrest system. By using a
personal fall arrest system, the workers would only fall six feet if they
would fall off their working surface. This is assuming the workers were
wearing a body harness with a lanyard (a flexible line of rope, wire rope,
or strap which generally has a connector at each end for connecting the
body belt or body harness to a deceleration device, lifeline, or anchorage)
attached that was shorter than 6 feet.

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Guardrail systems must be properly maintained to provide protection for
workers. These are used to prevent the worker from falling by using a
physical barrier. If this barrier is damaged or removed, the system no
longer provides protection.

As you can see in this photograph, the guardrail has been removed and
the fall protection is no longer provided.

The requirements for guardrail systems will be discussed later in this


program.

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Since guardrails that are broken or removed provide no protection, it is
important that they be well constructed and properly maintained at all
times.

This photograph is the same as on the previous slide, however, now the
guardrail has been repaired and the workers working on that level of the
building are protected.

The slide however, still presents a dangerous scenario since some


materials could be kicked off and fall on any worker below. In these
situations toe boards and/or other means of protection such as screens and
netting must be provided.

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There are two types of falls that need to be considered: (1) falls to the
same level, such as when walking on the ground and you trip, and (2)
falls to a lower level, such as when you fall off a roof and land on the
ground. Serious injuries can occur with each type of fall. The severity of
the injury greatly increases if you fall onto a sharp object such as rebar or
onto a dangerous equipment.

When a worker falls onto rebar or other sharp objects, he/she may be
impaled. The force of the falling worker will drive the rebar or other
sharp object into the body. Depending on the height of the fall and length
of the rebar, it may go completely through the worker.

Two levels of protection must be put into place to protect workers from
falling onto sharp objects. The first is to install a fall protection system to
prevent the workers from falling. The second is to cover the sharp objects
so workers cannot be impaled. The covers must be strong enough to
withstand 250 pounds dropped from a height of 10 feet. Some types of
rebar caps are not strong enough and will only make a larger hole as the
rebar goes through the worker’s body.

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This photograph shows footings with rebar extending from it exposing workers
to impalement hazards.

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Open excavations and pier holes must be guarded or protected to prevent
workers from falling into them. One way to guard a pier hole such as
this, is to build a guardrail system around it. The guardrail will keep
workers away from the edge so they cannot fall into the hole.

This photograph shows a 30 inch wide pier hole with no fall protection.
This pier hole is also a serious hazard because it is greater than 40 feet
deep with nothing to prevent the worker from falling in.

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Scaffolds are used to create a safe work platform at the job site. They are
elevated, temporary work platforms. The following will be discussed
during this program:
*Supported scaffolds are the type of scaffolding most often used on
construction sites. They are made from one or more platforms supported
by outrigger beams, brackets, poles, legs, uprights, posts, frames, or
similar ridged support.
*Guardrail systems are required on scaffolding and must include a top
rail, a mid rail, and a toe board. The specific requirements of the
guardrail system will be discussed in detail later.
*Access ladders are used by workers to gain access to the scaffold. These
ladders must be properly designed and provide safe access for workers.
*Powered work platforms are also used to access working surfaces.
Powered work platforms include scissor lifts and aerial lifts.
*The role of the competent person during scaffold erection, etc.
“Competent person” means one who is capable of identifying existing
and predictable hazards in the surroundings or working conditions which
are unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to employees, and who has
authorization to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them.

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•Before the scaffold is used, direct connections shall be evaluated by a competent
person who shall confirm, based on the evaluation, that the supporting surfaces are
capable of supporting the loads to be imposed.
•The employer shall provide safe means of access for each employee erecting or
dismantling a scaffold where the provision of safe access is feasible and does not create
a greater hazard. The employer shall have a competent person determine whether it is
feasible or would pose a greater hazard to provide, and have employees use a safe
means of access. This determination shall be based on site conditions and the type of
scaffold being erected or dismantled.
•Scaffolds and scaffold components shall be inspected for visible defects by a
competent person before each work shift, and after any occurrence which could affect a
scaffold's structural integrity.
•Scaffolds shall be erected, moved, dismantled, or altered only under the supervision
and direction of a competent person qualified in scaffold erection, moving, dismantling
or alteration. Such activities shall be performed only by experienced and trained
employees selected for such work by the competent person.
•Work on or from scaffolds is prohibited during storms or high winds unless a
competent person has determined that it is safe for employees to be on the scaffold and
those employees are protected by a personal fall arrest system or wind screens.
•Employers shall have a competent person determine the feasibility and safety of
providing fall protection for employees erecting or dismantling supported scaffolds.
Employers are required to provide fall protection for employees erecting or dismantling
supported scaffolds where the installation and use of such protection is feasible and does

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not create a greater hazard.

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Scaffolds must be safely constructed. The legs or poles of scaffolding
must have a firm foundation in order to support the scaffold, the
equipment placed on the scaffold and the workers working on the
scaffold.

The foundation begins with the base plate. The base plate must then rest
on mud sills or other firm foundation. Never place the scaffold legs on
items such as rocks, sand, uneven surfaces, or cement blocks.

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To avoid falls and other hazardous conditions, you should only work
from scaffolds that are properly constructed and supported. If the scaffold
does not have a stable foundation, then the scaffold may move or shift
causing the scaffold and you to fall.

This scaffold has a base plate but it is not resting on a firm foundation.
The base plate is resting on blocks, uneven timbers and planking over
uneven ground.

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If you use scaffolding in a stair well, you must ensure that it is
constructed properly. It must be leveled and properly supported to
provide a safe working surface. When trying to level scaffolding, never
use bricks, blocks, or other unstable materials.

This photograph shows a scaffold set up in a stair well that is not properly
supported and is leaning to one side. It would be easy for this worker to
lose his balance and fall. In addition, an improperly supported scaffold
may collapse.

Furthermore, this scaffold is missing toe boards and yet materials are or
may be placed on the scaffold and can hit workers climbing up the stairs.

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When working on scaffolding at heights of 6 feet or more above a lower
level, guardrail systems must be installed. The guardrail systems will
provide a physical barrier to prevent you from falling. The guardrail
system must be installed along all open sides and ends of the platforms.

The guardrail system must be installed before the scaffold can be used by
workers.

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Guardrail systems are required for your protection. Never use a scaffold
that does not have a proper guardrail system installed. Many workers
will use a scaffold without a guardrail system because they think nothing
will happen to them and the guardrail system is not really needed. The
guardrail systems may be the only thing between you and a fall to your
death.

In this photograph the worker is on the third level of the scaffold and
working unsafely. There is no guardrail system in place to prevent him
from falling.

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Scaffold platforms must be fully and properly planked. The planks must
fully cover the platform to create a safe working surface. Gaps between
the planks and the uprights must not be greater than 1 inch wide.

In addition, scaffolding planks must be maintained in good condition.


They must not be broken, cracked, warped or painted.

This photograph shows scaffolding 3 sections high that is not fully


planked on the lower 2 sections.

In addition, we can observe that there is some overlap between scaffold


planks. In that sense, on scaffolds where platforms are overlapped to
create a long platform, the overlap shall occur only over supports, and
shall not be less than 12 inches (30 cm) when the planks are shorter than
10 feet and 18 inches when planks are longer than 10 feet, unless the
platforms are nailed together or otherwise restrained to prevent
movement.

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Scaffolding is designed to allow workers to reach their work safely.
When you stand on blocks, boxes, buckets or ladders you are no longer
working safely. Blocks, boxes, buckets, ladders and other objects where
workers might stand on, are very unstable and will probably cause a fall.

Also, you may be raised above the level of the guardrails, and in the
event of a fall, you would go over the rails without them stopping you. If
you need to reach a level higher than the scaffolding allows, you must
raise the height of the scaffold.

In this photograph the worker has created a serious fall hazard by


standing on blocks while on a scaffold platform that is not fully planked
and has no guardrail system. In addition, a guardrail system is needed,
and the competent person should have never allowed these hazards to be
created during erection and throughout the work.

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When working from a scaffold you must have a safe way to access the
working level. Always use a ladder that is designed for use with the
scaffold and is safely attached to the scaffold.

Never climb a scaffold using the cross braces like the worker in this
picture.

Workers must always have a safe way to access the scaffold.

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No matter how high the scaffold is, always use safe means to access the
scaffold. Safe methods of accessing a scaffold are the use of ladders or
stairs. Never use blocks, bricks, walkboards, and other unsafe methods to
access a scaffold.

In this photograph the worker is using a board placed on top of a wall


block as a ramp to access the scaffold. The “ramp” may slip from the
edge of the scaffold, the board may break or the blocks may fall or break.
If any of these happen, the worker may fall. Also, the worker may fall at
anytime while walking on the “ramp”.

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When scaffold platforms are more than 2 feet above or below a point of
access, portable ladders, hook-on ladders, attachable ladders, or other
means of safe access must be provided. Other types of access may
include stair towers, ramps, or walkways. Cross braces cannot be used as
a means of access.

When using portable hook-on ladders, they must be positioned so they do


not tip the scaffold over.

In addition, the spacing of the ladder rungs must be 16 ¾ inches or less


and have a minimum length of 11 ½ inches.

Following these guidelines will allow you to safely access scaffolding


and reduce your risk of falls.

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Powered platforms allow you to access heights and work from a
protected area. These powered platforms include:

*Aerial lifts: These lifts include vehicle mounted aerial devices such as
extendible boom platforms, aerial ladders, articulating boom platforms
and vertical towers.
*Man-baskets placed on a forklift: Man baskets used on forklifts must be
engineered and designed specifically for that purpose.
*Scissor lifts: These lifts are lifted using a mechanism that raises the
platform vertically so the worker can reach an elevated height.

Each of these powered work platforms will allow workers to perform


their work at heights relatively safely. Before you use any lift, you must
be trained in its operation and the associated hazards.

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Always make sure you have proper fall protection and training before
using a powered platform. Proper fall protection includes the use of
guardrail systems. Lifts must have mid rails and top rails on all sides
including the point of access.

Workers must use a fall restraint system while working in an aerial


platform. This will prevent you from falling outside the lift while
working.

The brakes of these lifts must be set when used and workers must not
move the lifts while they are in use. You should not move an aerial lift
while in use, unless it is specifically designed for that purpose.

Never stand on the guardrails of a powered platform or lean outside of


the basket because you might fall.

This photograph shows a worker who is standing on the mid rail and
leaning over the edge. This worker could easily lose his balance and fall

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out of the platform.

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Only use equipment that is designed for lifting people and suitable for the
assigned task. Never improvise and build your own lifting platform.

This slide shows both: a good and a bad example of a “personnel lift”.
The photograph on the left shows the bad example. This is not a powered
work platform. This is a wooden pallet being lifted with a forklift. There
are no guardrail system, the worker is not tied off, and the platform was
not designed for lifting workers. This is very dangerous and should never
be attempted.

The photograph on the right is the good example. This lift is specifically
designed to carry workers. The employees are protected by a complete
guardrail system and the workers are tied off.

The photograph on the left shows an example of a hazard created by


using an equipment that is NOT designed to lift people. Through routine
inspections the competent person in this construction site should have
never allowed this scenario to be created.

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Never allow yourself to be lifted in an unsafe work platform and never lift
anyone else.

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When stairs are under construction they are dangerous and should not be used unless fall
protection is provided. Stairways having 4 or more risers must have a stair-rail system
and/or guardrail system that protects the worker from falling off the unprotected edge.
During construction, all worker points of access where there is a break in elevation of
19 inches or higher, must have means of access that can be either a stairway, a ladder, a
ramp, an embankment, or a personnel hoist.
Workers must not use a stairway with pan stairs that are not filled and where treads have
not been placed or secured. These stairways are unsafe and expose you to fall hazards.
In this photograph, the stairway does not have a stair rail on the open side and the stairs
are not completed, so they are not safe to use.
In addition:
•All stairway parts must be free of dangerous projections such as protruding nails.
•A stair rail must be installed along each unprotected side or edge.
•When the top edge of a stairwell system also serves as a handrail, the height of the top
edge must be between 36 and 37 inches from the upper surface of the stair rail to the
surface of the tread.
•Mid rail or equivalent intermediate structural members must be provided midway
between the top rail and stairway steps of the stair rail system. Intermediate vertical
members, such as balusters, when used must be installed so that there are no openings
more than 19 inches wide.
•Handrails and top rails of the stair rail systems must withstand 200 pounds applied on
the top edge downward and outward along the top edge.

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•Unprotected sides and edges of stairway landings must be provided with standard 42 inch
guardrail systems.

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A stairway of 4 or more risers must have a handrail. When only one rail
is provided, it must be placed on the right-hand side when climbing
down. The majority of falls on stairs occur while the person is descending
the stairs and the majority of the workers are right handed. That is why
the handrail is to be placed on the right side descending.

This photograph shows a stairway that is enclosed on both sides. It also


shows the rails that are to be placed in the stairway. These stairs may not
be used by workers because they are incomplete and unsafe.

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Using stairs that are incomplete or unfinished exposes you to fall hazards.
As stairs are being constructed, workers are often tempted to use them
instead of using the safe access that has been provided. The unfinished
stairs are convenient, however, they are very hazardous. Stairs that do
not have handrails expose you to falls. Stairs that have empty pans
expose you to tripping hazards. You should never use stairs that are
incomplete; they are unsafe.

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Ladders are used on construction sites to access overhead work surfaces
because they are convenient, portable and can be used almost anywhere
on the site. Ladders used on construction sites must be in good condition
and free from defects that could make them unstable or unsafe.

Always inspect ladders before using them. When inspecting ladders look
for cracks in the frame, breaks in any area, missing or broken rungs,
protruding objects that can catch you or your clothing, and oil, grease, or
mud that can make the steps slippery. If you find any defects on the
ladder take it out of service immediately and dispose of it. Never use a
broken ladder!

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As previously stated, ladders are one of the most commonly used work
platforms in construction. They are also one of the most commonly
misused pieces of equipment. The safe use of ladders will help prevent
many common work accidents. Standing on the top or the first step of a
ladder is not safe.

Do not use the top step of a ladder as a step and do not stand on the top of
a ladder.

In this photograph you can see the worker is standing on the top of a step
ladder. This is a very unsafe practice because the worker can lose his
balance, fall, and be seriously injured.

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All store-bought ladders have safety labels on them. Be sure to read the
labels for instructions and to ensure proper use. Look for a sticker on the
ladder, like the one in this photograph, that will state where not to stand
on the ladder. Usually the 2nd rung from the top is the highest step on a
step ladder that is safe to use.

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When using step ladders, be sure to open the ladder completely. Lock the
cross braces to ensure the ladder remains open. Place the feet of the
ladder on a firm foundation. Never use the cross braces or the back side
of the ladder for climbing.

Once the ladder is properly placed, you can use the ladder safely. Be sure
to maintain good footing while on the step ladder.

Also, use the correct size ladder for the job to be done. If your ladder is
too short, you will be tempted to stand on the top to further your reach. If
your ladder is too tall, it may not fit in the space you are trying to work
in.

In this photograph you can see two workers correctly using step ladders.
They have their ladders properly placed, cross braces locked and they are
standing on the correct steps.

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Always use the right equipment for the job. Scaffolds and ladders are
designed to create safe work platforms so workers can reach the job
safely. But sometimes workers take a shortcut and try to make a
temporary scaffold out of saw horses, blocks, boards, ladders, 5 gallon
buckets or whatever is at hand. Never take a short cut because it takes
too much time or effort to do the job correctly. Do it right the first time!
Short cuts lead to hazardous situations where you may be injured or
possibly even killed.

In this photograph, the worker chose to use a 5 gallon bucket to access a


workspace above his head. By making this choice, the worker has put
himself at risk of falling and hurting himself.

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As mentioned previously, it is not safe to stand on the top of a ladder. It
is also not safe to sit on the top of a ladder. The top of a ladder was not
designed to be used as a step or a seat. Sitting on top of a step ladder or
straddling across the step ladder is an extremely dangerous practice. The
most hazardous part of sitting on the top of a ladder is the act of sitting
down. While climbing from one side to the other and then sitting down,
it is easy to lose your balance and fall.

When straddling a ladder, as in the photograph on the left, you have


shifted the weight from the center of the ladder to one side of it, thus
making a once stable ladder very unstable. Once the ladder has become
unstable, your chance of falling with it has greatly increased.

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Always use ladders for their intended purposes. A step ladder is designed
to be used in a fully opened, locked position.

As you can see in this photograph the step ladder is folded and leaning
against a scaffold. Using a step ladder this way is a dangerous practice.
Always make sure the ladder is fully opened and locked into position.

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Always place ladders on stable and level surfaces to prevent accidental
movement. Place the feet on a level flat surface.

In this photograph, the ladder is resting on a rock which is very unstable


and can cause the ladder to tip and fall.

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Ladders must be positioned at a safe angle to avoid potential fall hazards
when climbing. This drawing shows a ladder that is properly leaning
against a structure. The structure is 16 feet high and the ladder is
extended properly 3 feet over the edge.

In this example the ladder must be placed with the feet at least 4 feet
away from the structure to maintain a safe angle. This angle is a 1 to 4
ratio. This means that for every 4 feet of height on the structure you
should move the feet or base of the ladder 1 foot away from the structure.

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When using a ladder to access an upper landing such as a roof, the side
rails of the ladders must extend at least 3 feet above the landing surface
to allow for safe access. If a ladder cannot be extended 3 feet above the
landing surface, the ladder must be secured to the top of the landing to
prevent the ladder from slipping. A grab rail for workers to use while
mounting and dismounting the ladder is also required.

This photograph shows a worker accessing the roof of a building with the
ladder not extending 3 feet above the roof surface. The ladder is not
secured and there is no grab rail for him to use.

Remember Rule 33 = 3 points of contact, 3 feet above the landing


surface.

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This slide shows both correct and incorrect ladder placement. The
photograph on the left shows correct placement and is a good example.
The ladder is placed on a firm level surface at a proper 1:4 distance from
the wall. The yellow circle shows the manufacturers instructions for safe
ladder placement.

The photograph on the right is a bad example showing improper ladder


placement. The ladder is placed on a firm level surface, however, the
ladder is placed too far from the structure. This creates an angle greater
than a 1:4 ratio. The incline is unsafe when climbing the ladder. This
angle may also cause the ladder to flex and slide off the structure.

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Many ladder accidents happen when workers try to carry tools or
materials while climbing the ladder. You must maintain contact with the
ladder using both hands to keep a safe grip. Always face the ladder when
going up or down. Never go down a ladder as if going down stairs.

Never climb a ladder while carrying any materials. In order to safely


climb a ladder, you must keep three points of contact with the ladder at
all times. This means that a combination of 2 feet and 1 hand or 2 hands
and 1 foot must be contacting the ladder at all times. If you are carrying
a tool or building materials up or down a ladder it is impossible to
maintain three points of contact.

This photograph shows a worker climbing a ladder while carrying a


block. At this moment, he has three points of contact. The moment he
raises a foot to move up the ladder, he only has 2 points of contact. He is
at risk of falling and hurting himself.

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Job made ladders are one way that construction workers can create a safe
access to a work area. Many times a single manufactured ladder is not
sufficient for the job and something more is needed. A job made ladder
may allow more workers to access the work surface. Some job made
ladders are designed so workers can ascend the ladder on one side and at
the same time workers can descend on the other side. The principle is
similar to 2 stairways located next to each other with one designated up
and the other designated down.

Job made ladders can be beneficial, however, many times the ladder is
not constructed properly and creates more hazards. When constructing
job made ladders, make sure the steps are equally spaced, that there are
no missing or damaged steps or rungs, and that there are no sharp edges
or nails sticking out of the ladder.

This is a photograph of a properly constructed job made ladder. It is also


an example of a ladder that can be used by two workers at the same time.
One worker may be ascending while the other is descending.

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Both job made and manufactured ladders must be maintained in good
condition. The steps must be equally spaced and kept free from damage.
Never use a job made ladder that is damaged or has missing steps.

A ladder that has not been properly built is of no use on a construction


site. If the ladder is not built correctly, it must be removed from service
immediately and disposed of.

This photograph shows a job made ladder that has a missing step and
other steps that are not equally spaced. This ladder is a hazard and must
be removed from service immediately.

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Job made ladders must be constructed so that no nails or sharp edges
protrude from the ladder. Nails or pieces of wood that are not flush with
the surface create tripping and catching hazards. Anything that protrudes
beyond the surface of the ladder has the potential to catch clothing, tools,
electric cords, jewelry or even your skin. When any of these objects are
caught, you may rip your clothing or jewelry, drop a tool, damage the
insulation on an electric cord, or rip your skin open. Any of these acts
may cause you to fall and suffer a greater injury.

This photograph shows a double headed nail protruding from a step in a


job made ladder. This is an unacceptable, unsafe condition.

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You must recognize potential hazards around you and make every effort
to avoid and reduce these hazards. The previous slides showing various
fall hazards were used to help you recognize hazards on the job. Hazard
recognition is the first step in having a safe workplace. But you must do
more. Once you recognize the hazard, you must do something about it.
By controlling or eliminating the hazard, you have made the workplace
safer.

Remember, safety starts with you. You need to have a willing, positive
attitude towards safety in the workplace. You have people depending on
you everyday and they expect you to come home alive and well.
Practicing safety on the job will allow you to go home to the ones you
love.

In the following section we will focus on the methods used to control fall
hazards.

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Remember, when construction activities are performed at 6 feet or higher
above a lower level, fall protection must be provided to protect the
worker.
But what is “fall protection”? Fall protection is a method that has been
put in place to keep you, the worker, from falling to a lower level. Fall
protection may be a physical barrier or a system of rules put in place to
keep you from entering an area that exposes you to a fall. Some methods
of fall protection are:
•Guardrail systems: Physical barriers that are put into place to
prevent you from falling.
•Warning lines: A physical barrier that keeps you a safe distance
from an open edge. Warning lines do not keep you from falling,
they are used to keep you out of a hazardous area.
•Fall arrest systems: Fall arrest systems do not keep you from
falling. They arrest, or stop your fall if they are designed and
installed properly.
•Floor covers: Physical barriers used to cover a hole in a floor or
other walking/working surface. The floor openings can be a mere
trip hazard or may be large enough that you can fall through to a

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lower level. An example of a large floor opening is a skylight. An
uncovered skylight exposes you to a fall through the roof to a lower
level.

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As stated earlier, guardrail systems are a physical barrier used to prevent
you from falling. They are an excellent system designed to keep workers
from falling more than 6 feet to a level below. Guardrail systems are
typically made of wood or steel cables.

The guardrail system includes guardrails, such as the top rail, the mid
rail, the posts and footings. We will be discussing the top rail and the mid
rail in more detail as we go. The guardrail must be constructed with a top
rail (non-cable) at approximately 42 inches (plus or minus 3 inches).
This height is designed to prevent workers from going over the top of the
guardrail system. If workers are working on stilts, then the top rail must
be elevated to accommodate the workers extended height.

The mid rail is designed to prevent fallen workers from going under the
top rail and falling to the lower level. The mid rail must be midway
between the top rail and the working surface.

A toe board must also be installed to protect workers below from falling
objects such as nails, tools and other equipment.

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A guardrail system must be strong enough to prevent a worker from
falling through. Remember, guardrail systems are a physical barrier. That
barrier must not be weak. Both the top rails and the mid rails must be
strong. The top rails must be able to support 200 lbs. of force downward
and outward. Downward force is the force applied to the top of the rail
and pushing or pulling down. This means that if a 200 lb. weight was
hanging from the top rail, the rail would support the weight without
breaking. Mid rails shall be capable of withstanding, without failure, a
force of at least 150 pounds applied in any downward or outward
direction at any point along the mid rail. Outward force is the force that is
applied from the side pushing the rail out. This is the equivalent of a
worker falling into the side of the rail.

The guardrails must be smooth so workers are not cut and nothing snags
on clothing. The guardrails must not overhang the end of the system. This
causes a hazard because workers can get caught on the projecting ends.

Guardrails cannot be made of steel banding or plastic banding.

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When a guardrail system is constructed out of cables, they must meet
similar requirements as guardrails constructed from wood. The top rail is
at the same height and must meet the 200 lbs. downward and outward
force requirement. Cable top rails must be at least 42 inches in height
whereas wood top rails must be 42 inches (+/- 3 inches) in height.

It is very important that the cables remain tight. Cables can loosen over
time and then they will droop or sag. When this happens, the rail height
can be less than 42 inches. Additionally, the cable will have play in it
that will allow it to move and not prevent a worker from falling.
When guardrail systems are used to protect a floor opening, the opening
must be guarded on all sides.

This photograph shows a floor opening that is guarded on all open sides
with a cable guardrail system. Notice the toe boards are in place to
prevent objects from falling onto workers below.

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Steel cables are smaller in diameter than wooden rails and cannot be seen
as easily from a distance. So if you use steel cables, the top rail must be
flagged with a high visibility material. The flags must be placed every 6
feet for the entire length of the rail. The flags can be made of highly
visible caution tape, reflective tape, manufactured flag banners or any
other material that is highly visible and can be seen from a distance.

In this photograph, yellow caution tape is placed every 6 feet along the
length of the rail.

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When using steel cables, or wire rope, you must know how to properly
secure the end of the cable. A cable cannot be tied in a knot or left to
hang freely. The cable will run the post and then back over itself to be
secured. Clamps are used to secure the ends of a steel cable.

The clamps used consist of a U-bolt, a saddle, and nuts. The U-bolt is
placed on the “dead end” of the cable. The “dead end” is the short end of
the cable. The saddle is placed on the load bearing cable. This is the long
end or the “live end” of the cable. The nuts are placed on the U-bolt and
tightened to hold the clamp assembly in place.

One way to remember which side the U-bolt and saddle go on is to


remember the phrase “Never saddle a dead horse”. You would never
saddle a dead horse, so why would you saddle a “dead end?” You can
take the analogy further and think of the U-bolt as the “cowboy” who sits
on the dead end or the dead horse, the saddle is placed on the live end or
the live horse and the cowboy’s boots or the nuts are put on to hold the
saddle.

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It may seem goofy at the moment, but if you remember to “Never saddle a
dead horse” you will always place the clamps in the correct position.
Additionally, all clamps must be placed in the same direction.

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Warning lines are used to keep workers away from an unsafe edge.
Warning lines are a physical barrier designed to keep workers from
getting close to the edge, not from falling over the edge. They do not
physically prevent a worker from gaining access to the edge. They do not
stop a fall. They are designed to work with a comprehensive program and
serve as a warning that hazards lie beyond the line.

The parts of the warning line system include the ropes, wires or chains
supported by stanchions and must be erected a minimum of 6 feet from
the edge. Workers are never to be in the area between the warning line
and the edge.

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The warning line must be sturdy enough to withstand 16 lbs. of force.
The line must be at least 34 inches from the ground and at the highest 39
inches. The warning lines must be flagged for visibility.

Remember to set warning lines 6 feet from the edge.

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Warning lines must be kept up and maintained. Never work in an area if
the warning line has been knocked down or damaged.

Report any unsafe condition to your supervisor.

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Since warning lines do not keep you from falling over the edge but they
warn you to keep a safe distance, they do no good if they are not properly
maintained. A warning line that has fallen to the ground or is in disrepair
does not properly warn workers of the hazard.

Warning lines must be repaired or replaced immediately when damaged.


You should report unsafe conditions to your supervisor. Never work in
an area if the warning line has been knocked down or damaged.

This photograph shows a warning line that has fallen. It does no good
lying on the ground!

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Another common system for protecting workers from falls is the use of a
personal fall arrest system. The fall arrest system does not prevent falls.
The design of a fall arrest system is to stop the worker from falling any
further. The worker has to fall before this system operates. A properly
designed fall arrest system will allow a worker to fall only a short
distance and then stop the fall.

The fall arrest system consists of a body harness, lanyard, and an


anchorage point. Each of these components must be properly maintained
and used.

Remember, before using any fall arrest system you must inspect the
equipment and be trained by your employer.

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Body harnesses come in different sizes and styles. But each harness, no
matter the style, is designed to hold your body securely after you have
fallen and are hanging from an anchorage point waiting for rescue. After
you have fallen and are suspended, your harness will protect your body
from further damage. The harness design allows your body to maintain
its blood flow and does not put pressure on internal organs.

In order for your harness to help you and not cause further harm, you
must wear it properly. It must be snug and not loose. The D-ring, where
the snap hook of a lanyard connects to the body harness, must be worn
between the shoulder blades, not low on the back. If you fall, you will be
hanging from that D-ring. If it is positioned properly, you will hang in an
upright position. If the D-ring is positioned further down the back, you
will hang more horizontally.

If your harness has a chest strap like this one, it must be secured and in
the proper position. If the strap is not secured, you may fall out of the
harness. If the strap is positioned too high, you may choke yourself if
you fall.

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Your fall protection is only as good as its components. A harness that is
not worn properly will not protect you and may cause more harm. If the
harness is too large or too small it will not protect you properly. A harness
that is too large or is not adjusted will allow a worker to fall out of it
during a fall. A harness that is too small or too tightly adjusted will injure
a worker who falls.

Before a harness is worn it must be inspected. Look for worn or torn


areas, cuts and abrasions, grease or paints, sun damage, or any other
visible damage. If any of these things are found, do not use the harness.
Get a new one before working at elevated heights.

When wearing a harness, it must be adjusted properly. The shoulder


straps must not be twisted and must be snug. The leg straps should be
positioned high on the legs, not twisted, and snug. Other straps must not
be twisted and must be snug. The D-ring should be between the shoulder
blades.

This photograph shows a harness that is worn improperly. The straps are

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loose and twisted. In the event of a fall, this worker would fall out of his
harness.

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The lanyard connects the harness to the anchorage point. If a worker
falls, the lanyard is the critical piece holding the suspended worker. The
lanyards are designed with a minimum breaking strength of 5,000 lbs.
and are made of synthetic materials. The lanyard hooks to the D-ring on
the harness with a locking snap-hook. The snap-hook must lock and be
able to handle 3,600 lbs.

Some lanyards are equipped with a shock absorber that will lessen the
forces of the fall on the workers body. These shock absorbers are only
used once and then must be replaced. Never use a lanyard with a shock
absorber that has been used.

Lanyards must be inspected before each use for visible damage. Look for
cuts, burns, oil, grease or any other defect. Make sure to test the locking
snap-hook and carabiner to see that they are working properly. Never use
a damaged lanyard and report any defects to your supervisor.

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Once the harness has been inspected, has been fitted and properly
adjusted and the lanyard has been inspected, the lanyard is then attached
to the D-ring on the body harness. Keep in mind that if you fall you will
be suspended by the lanyard and body harness. You want the D-ring of
the body harness in the proper position so you will hang vertically.

If the lanyard you are using has a shock absorber, be sure to attached the
lanyard to the harness with the D-ring closest to the shock absorber. You
want the shock absorber close to the body.

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The anchorage point is the place where you tie off to or hook to. This is
where the other end of your lanyard is connected. The anchorage point
must be able to withstand the force of a worker falling and the force of
the worker hanging on the lanyard.

An anchorage point must not move and must be very strong. Your life
may depend on the anchorage point you choose. The anchorage point
must hold at least 5,000 lbs of force. Never anchor or tie off to pipes,
wood structures, electrical wires, or other areas not designed for
anchorage points because they will not hold the minimum of 5,000 lbs.
required in the event of a fall.

In this photo, the worker has incorrectly tied off to a wooden guardrail –
this anchorage point will not hold a minimum of 5,000 lbs. if the worker
falls.

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As stated previously, the anchorage point you choose may save your life
or end it. Use structural steel members, concrete pillars or specially
designed or designated areas for anchorage points. You may need to ask
your supervisor for help in choosing a proper anchorage point.

The worker in this photograph is using a good anchorage point that could
withstand the force of a fall.

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A horizontal life line is used to allow a worker to stay tied off while he
moves through the work area. These are used on bridges, building
structures, and other areas to allow workers the freedom to move around.
The horizontal life line systems must be designed, installed, and used
under the supervision of a qualified person. These lines must be
maintained and kept free from abrasions and cuts.

A horizontal life line system will allow a worker to move freely, but will
protect him in the event of a fall. The lanyard is connected to the life line
as the anchorage point. You must always be tied off when using a
personal fall arrest system.

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In this picture the workers are using a Self Retracting Lanyard (SRL) –
commonly known on construction sites as a ‘yoyo’. The SRL will allow
the workers to stay tied off while they work near an unprotected edge of a
building. Workers must always be tied off when working with a personal
fall arrest system.

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Holes are defined as a gap or void 2 inches or more in a floor, roof or
other walking or working surface. Holes can be small and cause tripping
hazards that cause workers to fall to the same level. In this case, the
appropriate protective measure would be the installation of a hole cover.
Covers for holes in floors, roofs, and other walking/working surfaces
shall meet the following requirements:
•Covers located in roadways and vehicular aisles shall be capable of
supporting, without failure, at least twice the maximum axle load of the
largest vehicle expected to cross over the cover.
•All other covers shall be capable of supporting, without failure, at least
twice the weight of employees, equipment, and materials that may be
imposed on the cover at any one time.
•All covers shall be secured when installed so as to prevent accidental
displacement by the wind, equipment, or employees.
•All covers shall be color coded or they shall be marked with the word
"HOLE" or "COVER" to provide warning of the hazard.

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Holes can also be large and cause workers to fall through them to another
level. Workers must be protected from falling through holes that are 6
feet or greater from another level. Protective measures in this case can be
hole covers as previously discussed or guardrail systems:
•When guardrail systems are used at holes, they shall be erected on all
unprotected sides or edges of the hole.
•In case the holes are used for the passage of materials, the hole shall
have not more than two sides provided with removable guardrail sections
to allow the passage of materials. When the hole is not in use, a guardrail
system shall be provided along all unprotected sides or edges.
•In case holes are used as points of access (such as ladder ways),
guardrail systems shall be provided with a gate, or be so offset that a
person cannot walk directly into the hole
This photograph shows a floor hole that has been covered and labeled.

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All floor holes where an employee could fall through must be covered or
guarded. The cover must be marked to make sure everyone knows it is a
safety device.

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Another type of floor hole includes sky-lights. If workers are working in
an area with skylights, the skylights are considered floor holes. The
covering on a skylight is designed to let light in and is not designed to
hold the weight of a worker. Many times workers do not realize that sky-
lights cannot support their weight and will sit or stand on them. While
working during construction around skylights, a guardrail system around
all edges of the skylight would be the appropriate protective measure to
protect workers from falling through the skylight.

Never place tools or other items on a skylight. The weight of the tool or
object may be enough to break the skylight and cause the items to fall on
workers below.

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Pier holes and other footing holes that are more than 6 feet deep must
also be protected. These types of holes may be protected with guardrail
systems protecting all sides or may be covered.

If using a guardrail system, be sure to have the top rail at approximately


42 inches (plus or minus 3 inches) from the working surface, it must be
able to handle 200 lbs of force, and it must be maintained.

If using a floor cover, to cover the hole, be sure the cover can withstand
the weight of the workers, is marked properly, and secured so it does not
move.

These photographs show pier holes. The one on the right is protected
using a guardrail system while the one on the left is open exposing
workers to a fall.

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