STUDY OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS OF SELF-POWERED

PHOTODETECTORS

Enrollment No.- 9920102034,9920102041,9920102051

Name Of Students- Ritik Gera, Ruchin Rai, Shikhar Srivastava

Name Of Supervisors – Dr. Varun Goel and Dr. Abhijeet Upadhya

May, 2024

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of

Technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

JAYPEE INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, NOIDA

i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Major project entitled, “STUDY OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS OF
SELF-POWERED PHOTODETECTORS” submitted by Ritik Gera, Ruchin Rai, and Shikhar
Srivastava in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in
Electronics and Communication Engineering of Jaypee Institute of Information Technology, Noida
has been carried out under my supervision. The matter embodied in this report is original and has not
been submitted for the award of any other degree.

Signature of Supervisor:

Name of the Supervisor(s): Dr. Varun Goel and Dr. Abhijeet Upadhyay

ECE Department,

JIIT, Sec-128,

Noida-201304

Date: 07-05-2024

ii
 DECLARATION

I declare that this written submission represents my ideas in my own words and where others' ideas or
words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original sources. I also declare that
I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented or
fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my submission. I understand that any violation of the
above will be cause for disciplinary action by the Institute and can also evoke penal action from the
sources which have thus not been properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been taken
when needed.

Name: Ritik Gera

Enrollment No.: 9920102034

Name: Ruchin Rai

Enrollment No.: 9920102041

Name: Shikhar Srivastava

Enrollment No.: 9920102051

Date: 07-05-2024

iii
 ABSTRACT

Since titanium trisulphide (TiS3) possesses excellent optical and electrical properties, it has found
extensive application in the optoelectronics industry. This work uses a Solar Cell Capacitance Simulator
in one-Dimension (SCAPS-1D) software to statistically investigate and analyse a self-powered
photodetector employing bulk CdSe/TiS3 p-n heterojunction. SCAPS-1D has examined the energy
bands, current density-voltage (J-V), electron-hole generation or recombination rate, and spectrum
response features. The influence of thickness, shallow acceptor or donor density, and defect density are
studied in order to enhance the performance of photodetectors. Through optimization, the ideal thickness
for the CdSe and TiS3 layers is found to be 700 nm and 2.5 μm, respectively. The superior shallow
acceptor (donor) has a density of 1015 (1022) cm−3. High-grade TiS3 film with a defect density of
approximately 1014 cm−3 is necessary. For the CdSe layer, the maximum defect density is 1017 cm−3.
Consequently, the heterojunction-based photodetector with ideal settings shows a good photo response
between 300 and 1300 nm. Under the air mass 1.5 global tilt (AM 1.5G) illuminations, the optimal short-
circuit current reaches 35.57 mA/cm2 and the open circuit voltage is about 870 mV. The simulated
photodetector has a responsivity (R) of 0.36 A W−1. The simulation result offers a viable avenue for
future study to expand the capabilities of the optoelectronic device based on TiS3.

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 ACKNOWLEGMENTS

The success of our project depends largely on the encouragement and help of many others. We
take this opportunity to express our thankfulness to the people who have contributed to the
successful completion of this project and have been the real guiding force in our project. We
would like to show our gratitude to our project mentor Dr. Varun Goel and Mr. Abhijeet
Upadhyay for continuously guiding and tremendously helping us throughout this project. We
feel motivated and encouraged every time we attend the meeting with him. Without his
encouragement and guidance, the completion of this project on “STUDY OF DIFFERENT
PARAMETERS OF SELF-POWERED PHOTODETECTORS” would not have been
achieved.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter No. Topics Page No.

Certificate ii

Declaration iii

Abstract iv

Acknowledgements iv

List of Figures vii

Chapter-1 Introduction 1

Chapter-2 Literature survey 16

Chapter-3 Methodology 24

Chapter-4 Numerical Simulation and Design Structure 29

Chapter-5 Results and Discussions 32

Chapter-6 Conclusion and Future Scope 38

References 40

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 List of Figures

Fig. No. Content Page No.

1.1 Photodetector 1

1.2 Highly Sensitive and Ultra-Fast Self-Powered Photodetector 4

1.3 Classification of Self-Powered Photodetector 8

1.4 Application of Self-Powered Photodetector 11

2.1 (a) Schematic Structure and (b) Rise time and delay time of Sb2Se3 16
Photodiode

2.2 (a) Schematic Structure and (b) cross-section SEM image of the 17
CdS/CIGS photodiode

2.3 Plot of Wavelength to the Infrared Response 19

2.4 Synthesis at room-temperature and structural characterizations of 20

CsBr/KBr assisted

2.5 Fabrication of MSM Device 21

2.6 Structure of Ultraviolet Photosensors 22

2.7 TiO2 Based Photodetector 23

3.1 SCAPS Working Panel 27

3.2 Solar Cell Definition Panel 28

4.1 Structure of FTO/CdSe/TiS3 based Self-Powered Photodetector 30

5.1(a) J–V characteristic curves for varying the CdSe layer thickness. 32
5.1(b) Quantum Efficiency for varying the CdSe layer thickness 32

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5.1(c) thickness vs efficiency curve 33
5.1(d) thickness vs Voc Curve 33

5.1(e) Thickness vs Fill Factor Curve 33

5.1(f) thickness vs Jsc Curve 33

5.1(g) Responsivity variation with respect to the CdSe Layer thickness 33

5.2(a) J–V characteristic curves for varying the TiS3 layer thickness 34

5.2(b) QE(%) curve for varying TiS3 thickness 34

5.2(c) thickness vs Fill Factor 34

5.2(d) Thickness vs Jsc 34

5.2(e) Thickness vs Voc 34

5.2(f) Thickness vs Efficiency Curve Of Tis3 Layer 34

5.3 TiS3 Simulation Panel 35

5.4(a) J–V characteristic curves for varying the PbS defect density 36

5.4(b) Defect Density vs Jsc Variation 36

5.4(c) Defect Density vs Voc Variation 36

5.4(d) Defect Density vsEfficiency 36

5.4(e) Defect Density vs Fill Factor Variation 36

5.4(f) Defect Density Simulation Panel 36

5.5(a) J-V Characteristics Curve 37

5.5(b) Responsivity Curve 37

viii
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
The steady increase in energy consumption has pushed investors and entrepreneurs to look into
alternative energy sources. The Sun is the most important source of energy because it is abundant and
readily available almost everywhere on Earth. A photodetector converts sunlight into electricity. This
chapter discusses the fundamentals of photodetectors, such as their types, operations, and parameters.

1.1 Photodetectors
Devices called photodetectors are made to recognize and translate optical or light impulses into
electrical signals. They are essential parts of several applications in a variety of scientific and industrial
domains. When light particles called photons interact with a substance, an electric current or voltage is
produced. This is the basic idea underlying photodetection. Usually, incoming photons excite electrons
in semiconductor materials, resulting in the creation of electron-hole pairs that contribute to the
electrical signal.
In many different technologies, such as optical communication systems, industrial electronics, medical
devices and healthcare, analytical equipment, automotive systems, and more, photodetectors are
essential components. They are used for things like scientific research, environmental monitoring,
medical imaging, security systems, and data transmission via fiber-optic networks.

Different kinds of photodetectors exist, and each is appropriate for a particular use. Avalanche
photodiodes (APDs), photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), phototransistors, and photodiodes are typical
examples. The structural, operational, and performance features of these devices vary, enabling
engineers to choose the best kind for a particular use.

Figure 1.1: Photodetector

1
1.2 Working Principle of Photodetectors
Photodetectors are essential tools used in many scientific fields and industries to identify and transform
optical or incident light signals into electrical signals. Comprehending the underlying principles of
photodetectors is essential to maximizing their efficiency and guaranteeing their effectiveness in a variety
of applications.
1.Photon Absorption and Electron-Hole Pair Generation: An incident light's interaction with
semiconductor materials is the fundamental process of a photodetector. Photons from the incident light
are absorbed by the semiconductor material as they hit the photodetector's surface. The material's
electrons gain energy from this absorption process, which leads to their shift to higher energy states and
eventual breakup from their atomic connections. This leads to the creation of electron-hole pairs, in which
an electron is split off from its matching hole in the atomic structure of the material.

2.Electric Field and Charge Movement: There is usually an electric field inside the photodetector
device, which can be applied externally or intrinsic to the device structure. Within the semiconductor
material, the divided charges—holes and electrons—move in opposing directions as a result of the action
of this electric field. Whereas holes travel toward areas of negative charge, electrons gravitate toward
areas of positive charge.

3.Generation of Electrical Signal: An electric current or voltage is produced across the photodetector
device as a result of the movement of charges under the influence of the electric field. This voltage or
current provides a quantifiable indicator of the amount or intensity of incident light. Through the
quantification of the electrical signal produced, photodetectors provide precise light detection and
characterisation across a range of applications.

4.Variations in Photodetector Types: Although most photodetector devices operate on the basic
principle outlined above, different kinds of photodetectors may use variants on this idea. A PN junction,
for instance, is used in photodiodes to enable charge separation and photocurrent generation. While
phototransistors enhance the photocurrent for better detection capabilities, avalanche photodiodes
(APDs) use the avalanche phenomenon to gain higher sensitivity.

In summary, photodetectors work by converting optical signals into electrical signals by the interaction
of light with semiconductor materials, which results in the production and movement of charge carriers
within the device.

2
1.3 Types of Photodetectors
Different varieties of photodetectors are available, each tailored to meet certain needs depending on
parameters like sensitivity, spectrum range, speed, and cost.
1. Photodiodes:
• PN Junction Photodiodes: PN Junction Photodiodes are the most basic sort of
photodiodes, consisting of a PN junction in a semiconductor material.
• PIN Photodiodes: PIN photodiodes have an inherent layer between the P and N regions,
which increases sensitivity and decreases capacitance. They are ideal for high-speed
applications.
• Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs): Avalanche photodiodes (APDs): APDs use the
avalanche phenomenon, in which carriers accelerated by an electric field cause further
ionisation events, resulting in signal amplification. They have higher sensitivity, but
require higher voltages and produce more noise than traditional photodiodes.
2. Phototransistors:
• Phototransistors boost photocurrent to improve detection capability. They have a light-
sensitive base region sandwiched between the emitter and collector portions. When
photons reach the base area, they affect the transistor's conductivity, resulting in an
enhanced output current.
3. Vacuum-Based Photodetectors:
• Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs): When photons strike a photocathode, electrons are
emitted. These electrons undergo cascade amplification as they pass through a sequence
of dynodes, resulting in an incredibly sensitive detector capable of detecting single
photons. PMTs are critical in low-light applications including particle physics and
astronomical studies.
4. Emerging Photodetectors:
• Perovskite Photodetectors: Perovskite materials display intriguing optoelectronic
capabilities, allowing low-cost and high-performance photodetection throughout a large
spectrum range, and are being studied for applications in solar cells, imaging, and optical
communication.
• Quantum Dot Photodetectors: Quantum dots are semiconductor nanoparticles that have
configurable bandgaps. They have excellent quantum efficiency and can be integrated

3
 into a variety of photodetector designs, allowing for applications in displays, imaging, and
sensing.
5. Specialized Photodetectors:
• Photovoltaic Cells: Photovoltaic cells, which are generally used to convert energy in solar
panels, can also operate as photodetectors. When exposed to light, they generate a voltage
whose magnitude is proportional to the intensity of the incident light.

1.4 Self-Powered Photodetectors

A new frontier in photodetection technology, self-powered photodetectors promise autonomous, energy-
efficient functioning without external power sources. This field of study is rapidly expanding. These
cutting-edge gadgets do not require batteries or wired connections since they use ambient light energy to
generate electrical power for functioning. Their ability to combine photovoltaic and photodetection
functions into a single device architecture is essential to their operation. Self-powered photodetectors
may simultaneously detect incoming light signals and create the necessary power to run electronic
circuits or convey data by using photovoltaic materials, which efficiently convert light into electricity.
Its ability to sustain itself creates new opportunities for applications in wearable electronics, energy
harvesting systems, Internet-of-things (IoT) devices, and remote sensing. In order to improve the
performance of self-powered photodetectors, research activities in this subject are concentrated on
increasing their sensitivity and efficiency as well as investigating new materials and device architectures.
Furthermore, developments in flexible electronics and nanotechnology have made it possible to create
transparent, flexible, and lightweight self-powered photodetectors that may be integrated into a variety
of settings and devices. Autonomous photodetectors have enormous potential to overcome these issues
and spur innovation in optoelectronics as the need for energy-efficient and self-sufficient sensing systems
grows. The creation of self-powered photodetectors also tackles important problems with energy usage
and environmental sustainability.

Figure 1.2: Highly Sensitive and Ultra-Fast Self-Powered Photodetector

4
A self-powered photodetector's semiconductor structure, which is usually made up of layers with varying
doping concentrations to form p-n junctions, is its central component. After photon absorption, this
junction creates the depletion area where charge separation takes place. The selected spectral range and
the photodetector's performance parameters determine which semiconductor material is best. For visible
and near-infrared applications, common materials include silicon; for infrared detection, common
materials include compound semiconductors like gallium arsenide (GaAs) or indium gallium arsenide
(InGaAs). When incident light interacts with semiconductor material, it excites electrons from the
valence band to the conduction band and leaves holes in the valence band, which is the first step in the
operation of a self-powered photodetector. The created electron-hole pairs are separated by the internal
electric field in the depletion zone of the p-n junction, which leads to the migration of electrons towards
the n-type region and holes towards the p-type region. The potential difference that results from the
charge carriers migrating throughout the device can be monitored as the output signal.
The intensity of the input light immediately correlates with the output signal's magnitude, which is also
known as the photovoltaic or photocurrent. Self-powered photodetectors can detect and quantify light
levels throughout a large dynamic range with accuracy thanks to this linear relationship. Moreover, by
choosing suitable semiconductor materials with certain bandgap energies, the photodetector's spectrum
responsivity—that is, its sensitivity to various light wavelengths can be customized. Self-powered
photodetectors have several benefits in real-world applications, especially where a continuous power
source is difficult or unfeasible. Self-powered photodetectors, for instance, can function independently
in wireless sensor networks and distant environmental monitoring systems by gathering energy from
surrounding light sources. Similar to this, self-powered photodetectors offer small and effective light
detection solutions in optical communication systems and any biomedical equipment.
The goal of ongoing research and development in self-powered photodetectors is to increase their
adaptability, performance, and efficiency across a range of applications. Self-powered photodetectors
could be able to achieve new functions and improve their capabilities through advancements in material
science, device design, and fabrication techniques, solidifying their place as essential parts of
contemporary optoelectronic systems.

1.4.1 Operation of Self-Powered photodetector

• The photovoltaic effect, a key concept in semiconductor physics, provides the basis for how self-
powered photodetectors work. When incident photons have enough energy, they interact with the
photodetector's semiconductor material, creating electron-hole pairs in the device's depletion

5
 zone. This area is usually created at the intersection of p-type and n-type semiconductor layers,
where the inherent potential creates an electric field. The voltage or current produced as a result
of the separation of charge carriers by this electric field is used as the photodetector's output
signal.
• One important metric for measuring a photodetector's effectiveness in turning incident light into
an electrical signal is its responsiveness. It is measured in A/W or V/W units and is defined as
the output current or voltage divided by the incident optical power. Quantum efficiency gives
information about how well the device captures light by calculating the fraction of incident
photons that produce electron-hole pairs. Response time is a measure of how quickly a
photodetector can detect changes in light intensity, whereas noise characteristics impact the
sensitivity and signal-to-noise performance of the device. These parameters include dark current
and noise equivalent power (NEP). The range of light intensities over which a photodetector can
reliably detect and measure light signals is referred to as its dynamic range; this property is
important for applications involving variable lighting.
• The performance of self-powered photodetectors is enhanced by engineers through the selection
of materials, optimization of device design, and tweaking of operational parameters. To provide
the required spectrum responsiveness and efficiency, material selection entails selecting
semiconductor materials with the right bandgap energies, absorption coefficients, and carrier
mobilities. Optimizing device geometry, layer thicknesses, and doping profiles to maximize
charge carrier collection and reduce recombination losses is the main goal of device design
optimization. Operational parameter adjustment improves the device's sensitivity, reaction time,
and noise characteristics to satisfy application-specific needs. Examples of operational parameter
tuning include changing the operating temperature or applied bias voltage.

6
1.5 Classification of Self-Powered Photodetectors

Self-powered photodetectors (PDs) can be classed depending on a number of factors, including the
technique of energy conversion, the semiconductor material employed, and the application context.
This is a classification of self-powered photodetectors –

1. Schottky Junction Photodetectors:

• Principle: Schottky junction photodetectors use the Schottky barrier produced at the
interface of a metal and a semiconductor. When light strikes the metal-semiconductor
junction, electron-hole pairs are formed in the semiconductor. The built-in electric field
at the junction separates these carriers, resulting in a photocurrent.
• Structure: The Schottky junction is commonly formed by depositing a metal layer (such
as platinum or gold) on a semiconductor substrate (such as silicon or gallium arsenide).
The metal works as an electrode, whereas the semiconductor is the active material for
light absorption.
2. Heterojunction Photodetectors:
• Principle: Heterojunction photodetectors use the interface of two semiconductor
materials with distinct bandgaps. This heterojunction generates an electric field that helps
separate photo-generated carriers and improves photodetection efficiency.
• Structure: The device is made up of two semiconductor layers with differing bandgaps
grown epitaxially on top of one another. The heterojunction arises at the interface of these
layers, posing a potential barrier to charge separation.
3. Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Photodetectors:
• Principle: Photoelectrochemical photodetectors are based on photoelectrochemical
processes that occur at the interface of a semiconductor electrode and an electrolyte
solution. Light absorption forms electron-hole pairs, which cause redox reactions at the
electrode-electrolyte interface, resulting in photocurrent.
• Structure: The device is typically made up of a semiconductor electrode (such as titanium
dioxide or cadmium sulphide) submerged in an electrolyte solution. Incident light is
absorbed by the semiconductor electrode, resulting in charge carriers that participate in
redox reactions with electrolytes.

7
 Figure 1.3: Classification of Self-Powered Photodetector

1.6 Working Principles of Self-Powered Photodetector

The photovoltaic effect converts incident light directly into electrical energy, which is how self-powered
photodetectors (PD) work. These devices may create their own electrical power without the use of an
external power source, making them ideal for applications where access to power is limited or
impracticable. Here's a full description of how self-powered photodetectors operate:

• Photovoltaic Effect: When photons impact the photosensitive material of the photodetector, they
transmit energy to the electrons in the material, causing them to break free from their atomic
connections and form electron-hole pairs.
• Electron-Hole Pair Formation: Incident photons excite electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band, leaving positively charged holes in the valence band. This process generates
electron-hole pairs, which carry electrical charge.
• Internal Electric Field: Within the photodetector, there exists an internal electric field, typically
created by the device's structure or doping. This electric field separates the generated electron-
hole pairs, causing the electrons to move towards one electrode (typically the cathode) and the
holes to move towards the other electrode (anode).
• Generation of Photocurrent: Separated charge carriers migrate towards their respective
electrodes, causing an electric current to flow within the device. This flow of current, known as
photocurrent, is proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
• Output Signal: The photocurrent created by the photodetector is the output signal, which can
be further processed or used in a variety of applications such as data transfer, imaging, and
environmental sensing.

8
1.7 Parameters of Self-Powered Photodetectors

Performance parameters of self-powered photodetectors (PDs) are critical criteria for determining their
efficiency, sensitivity, and suitability for specific applications. Here are some critical performance
indicators:

1) Responsivity(R): Responsivity (R) is the ratio between the output electrical signal (current or
voltage) and the incident optical power. It measures the detector's sensitivity to light and is usually
stated in figures like A/W (amperes per watt) or V/W (volts per watt). Higher responsivity levels
imply increased sensitivity to incident light.
𝑰
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝑹) =
𝑷𝒐𝒑𝒕
2) Quantum Efficiency (QE): Quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of the number of charge
carriers created by incident photons to the total number of incident photons. It represents the
proportion of incident photons that contribute to the creation of an electrical signal in the
photodetector. Quantum efficiency is commonly represented as a percentage.
𝑵𝑬
𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑵𝒑𝒉
3) Noise Equivalent Power (NEP): Noise Equivalent Power (NEP) is the minimal observable optical
power that yields a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of one. It measures the photodetector's sensitivity to
low-level optical signals and is inversely related to its signal-to-noise ratio. Lower NEP levels suggest
a higher sensitivity to weak optical signals.
𝑵𝑬
𝑵𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓(𝑵𝑬𝑷) =
𝑹
4) Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the range of optical frequencies or modulation frequencies over which the
photodetector can accurately detect and respond to changes in incident light. It is critical for
applications requiring fast detection, such as optical communication or spectroscopy. Bandwidth is
commonly measured in hertz (Hz) or gigahertz (GHz).
5) Rise time & Fall Time: The rise time and fall time of a photodetector's output signal refer to the
time it takes to rise from a specific fraction (e.g., 10% to 90%) or fall from a defined fraction (e.g.,
90% to 10%) of its maximum value in response to a step change in input light intensity. These values
are critical for applications that require rapid response times, such as high-speed data communication.
6) Linearity: Linearity describes the degree to which the photodetector's output signal is proportionate
to the input optical power throughout a certain range. A linear response provides accurate detection
9
 and measurement of optical signals at varying intensities. Nonlinearities can cause problems in
applications that need accurate signal identification and characterisation.
7) Dynamic Range: Dynamic range is defined as the ratio of the photodetector's maximum detectable
optical power (saturation level) to its smallest detectable optical power (noise floor). It specifies the
range of optical power levels over which the detector may work precisely without saturation or
excessive noise. A wider dynamic range shows more adaptability to fluctuating signal intensities.
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑫𝒚𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 =
𝑷𝒎𝒊𝒏
8) Specific Detectivity: Specific detectivity is an important performance characteristic for
photodetectors, indicating their capacity to detect weak optical signals in the presence of noise.
Detectivity integrates the photodetector's responsivity and noise characteristics into a single figure of
merit. Here is the formula for detectivity.
𝑹
𝑫𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑵𝑬𝑷

1.8 Applications of Self-Powered Photodetectors

Self-powered photodetectors have a wide range of applications in a variety of sectors and fields because
of its ability to create electrical power directly from incident light without the need for an additional
power source. Here are a few significant applications:

• Solar Energy Harvesting: Solar energy harvesting involves using self-powered photodetectors
in solar cells and photovoltaic systems to convert sunlight to electricity. They can create electrical
power on their own, making them perfect for off-grid applications such remote power generation,
solar-powered sensors, and portable electronics.
• Optical Communication: In optical communication systems, self-powered photodetectors act as
receivers, detecting optical signals transmitted over fibre optic cables. They allow for high-speed
data transfer in telecommunications networks, internet infrastructure, and data centres.
• Environmental Monitoring: Environmental sensors use self-powered photodetectors to
measure light levels in both indoor and outdoor contexts. They can be utilized in a variety of
applications, including ambient light sensors, weather stations, and energy-efficient lighting
control.
• Biomedical Sensing: Self-powered photodetectors are used in biomedical equipment and sensors
to perform tasks such as pulse oximetry, fluorescence detection, and phototherapy. They allow

10
 for non-invasive measurement of biological parameters, tissue oxygenation levels, and diagnostic
imaging in healthcare and medical diagnostics.
• Security and Surveillance: Security cameras, surveillance systems, and motion detectors use
self-powered photodetectors to detect changes in light levels. They enable security systems to
operate autonomously in outdoor conditions, remote locations, and low-power applications.
• Wearable Technology: Wearable electronics and smart textiles can include self-powered
photodetectors into clothing, accessories, and wearable gadgets for applications such as health
monitoring, activity tracking, and augmented reality. They provide for energy-efficient operation
and wireless connectivity in wearable technology.
• Industrial Automation: Self-powered photodetectors are used in industrial automation and
process control systems to measure light intensity, detect objects, and regulate machines. They
are utilized in applications including light barriers, optical sensors, and industrial robots to ensure
precise and dependable functioning in manufacturing settings.
• Scientific Research: Self-powered photodetectors are commonly employed in scientific research
for spectroscopy, imaging, and photon counting. They allow for precise detection and
measurement of light signals in experiments, research investigations, and analytical instruments.

Figure 1. 4: Applications of Self-Powered Photodetectors

11
1.9 Comparison between Self-powered Photodetector and Normal
Photodetector
The main way that a self-powered photodetector varies from a regular photodetector is that it can produce
electricity on its own without the need for an external power source. Both kinds of photodetectors work
by translating light into electrical impulses, but they do so in different ways and might need different
design considerations. A conventional photodetector, like a photodiode or phototransistor, needs an
external power supply to bias the device and extract the photocurrent it generates in order to convert light
into electrical signals. This indicates that in order for conventional photodetectors to function, they need
an extra power source, usually an external power source or battery.

1.9.1 Power Source:

Self-powered photodetectors are a revolutionary development in optoelectronics that completely rewrite

the rules for power supply in photodetection systems. Self-powered photodetectors use novel energy
harvesting techniques to provide their own electrical power, in contrast to typical photodetectors that
depend on external power sources like batteries or electrical grids. Modern technologies like
thermoelectric generators, piezoelectric materials, and solar cells are integrated directly into the
architecture of the photodetector to achieve this self-sufficiency. Self-powered photodetectors rely on
ambient energy sources including sunshine, vibrations from machinery, and temperature differences to
operate continuously without external power inputs. Because autonomy and dependability are crucial in
a variety of real-world scenarios, such as wireless sensor networks, Internet of Things devices, and
environmental monitoring, self-powered photodetectors therefore have a lot of potential.

1.9.2 Energy Harvesting:

Self-powered photodetectors' primary innovation is their sophisticated energy harvesting technology,
which allows them to effectively transform ambient light into electrical power. These gadgets make use
of a wide range of energy collecting techniques, each designed to maximize energy conversion efficiency
and capture particular environmental stimuli. For instance, photovoltaic cells use semiconductors like
silicon or gallium arsenide to absorb photons and produce electron-hole pairs in order to use the
photovoltaic effect to turn incident light into electricity. In contrast, piezoelectric materials use the
piezoelectric effect to transform mechanical strain or vibrations into electrical charge. This allows energy
to be extracted from a variety of sources, including mechanical motion, acoustic waves, and structural
vibrations. Self-powered photodetectors may efficiently gather and use ambient energy sources to sustain

12
continuous operation, guaranteeing dependable performance across a range of conditions and
applications, by integrating these different energy harvesting processes.

1.9.3 Autonomy:

Self-powered photodetectors are distinguished from conventional photodetection systems that depend on
external power sources by one of its key features: autonomy. Self-powered photodetectors work
independently without constant connection to external power grids, batteries, or wired power sources
because of their capacity for self-sufficient power generation. Because of their autonomy, they can
operate sustainably and independently in a variety of settings, such as isolated, harsh, or off-grid ones
where it may be difficult or impossible to access traditional power infrastructure. Because continuous,
dependable operation is crucial in applications like industrial automation, infrastructure sensing, and
environmental monitoring, self-powered photodetectors provide unmatched flexibility and durability.
Additionally, self-powered photodetectors' autonomy lowers maintenance needs, operating expenses,
and environmental effect, making them more appealing for long-term deployments in a variety of real-
world applications.

1.9.4 Environmental Adaptability:

Because self-powered photodetectors may generate electricity from ambient sources, they are very
adaptable to varying environmental conditions. Self-powered versions of photodetectors can function
well in a variety of environmental scenarios, such as harsh or distant areas with limited access to
conventional power infrastructure, in contrast to regular photodetectors that only require external power
inputs. Their incorporation of energy collecting devices, which enable them to gather energy from
sources like sunshine, temperature differentials, or mechanical vibrations, facilitates this adaptability.
Self-powered photodetectors hence provide increased robustness and adaptability, which makes them
ideal for uses in industrial automation, outdoor monitoring, and environmental sensing.

1.9.5 Reliability:

Self-powered photodetectors are incredibly reliable because of their strong construction and ability to
generate their own electricity. Self-powered photodetectors can continue to function even in difficult
circumstances, in contrast to typical photodetectors that could be vulnerable to power outages or
disruptions. Self-powered photodetectors lessen their reliance on external power infrastructure by
utilizing ambient energy sources, lowering the possibility of downtime or performance deterioration
13
brought on by problems with the power supply. They are perfect for important applications including
security systems, infrastructure monitoring, and remote sensing networks where continuous sensing or
monitoring is crucial because to their inherent reliability.

1.9.6 Scalability:

Self-powered photodetectors can be easily integrated into a range of systems and environments because
of their scalability and flexibility in deployment. Because of their self-sufficient power generation
capabilities, installation and deployment procedures are made simpler by removing the need for intricate
wiring or external power sources. Self-powered photodetectors are also well-suited for applications
ranging from single sensor nodes to massive sensor networks because they are flexibly scalable to meet
changing power requirements or sensor densities. IoT applications, smart infrastructure, and
environmental monitoring networks find self-powered photodetectors appealing due to their scalability,
which allows for cost-effective deployment and scalability.

1.9.7 Sustainability:

Self-powered photodetectors minimize carbon emissions and lessen dependency on non-renewable

energy sources, which promotes environmental sustainability. Self-powered photodetectors minimize
waste and environmental effect by utilizing ambient energy sources like heat, sunshine, or mechanical
vibrations instead of requiring throwaway batteries or external power infrastructure. Their self-sufficient
operation further improves their environmental credentials by lowering energy usage and operating costs
over the device's lifetime. Because of this, self-powered photodetectors are a more environmentally
friendly option than conventional photodetection systems, supporting international initiatives to advance
sustainable technology and lessen dependency on fossil fuels.

1.9.8 Versatility:

Self-powered photodetectors are incredibly adaptable, allowing for their use in a variety of settings and
applications. They can be used for a variety of sensing and monitoring jobs, such as industrial automation,
environmental sensing, and structural health monitoring, because of their capacity to produce electricity
from ambient energy sources. Self-powered photodetectors also offer flexibility and adaptability to suit
individual application requirements because they are simple to deploy as independent devices or
incorporate into existing systems. Because of their adaptability, they are priceless resources for

14
practitioners, researchers, and engineers looking for cutting-edge answers to a range of real-world
problems.

1.9.9 Enhanced Security:

Self-powered photodetectors are perfect for applications needing dependable detection and surveillance
capabilities since they provide improved security features. Self-powered versions guarantee ongoing
operation even in the case of power outages or tampering attempts by doing away with the requirement
for external power sources. The ability of security systems to withstand external interruptions improves
their dependability and efficacy, facilitating the timely identification and remediation of possible threats
or intrusions. Additionally, self-powered photodetectors' scalability and autonomy enable flexible
deployment in a range of security scenarios, such as asset protection, perimeter monitoring, and access
control, improving situational awareness and overall security posture.

1.9.10 Adaption to Remote Environments:

In difficult or distant situations where access to traditional power sources may be limited or unfeasible,
self-powered photodetectors perform exceptionally well. Their capacity to generate electricity from
ambient energy sources allows them to function independently in off-grid environments such isolated
wilderness areas, offshore platforms, or subterranean installations. Applications requiring constant
observation or surveillance in difficult conditions, such as environmental research, offshore energy
production, and wildlife conservation, will find great value in this capability. Self-powered
photodetectors provide data collecting, analysis, and decision-making in vital domains including
ecology, hydrology, and natural resource management by offering dependable sensing and monitoring
capabilities in distant environments.

15
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1) Self-powered photodetector with fast response based on
Sb2Se3/Cu2S/Si Heterojunction [1]

• Thin films of antimony selenide (Sb2Se3) are used as semiconductor materials due to their good
photoelectric response in the visible and near-infrared ranges.
• The addition of copper sulphide (Cu2S) film improves the separation and migration of
photogenerated carriers in the Sb2Se3 film.
• Thermal evaporation is used to deposit thin layers of Sb2Se3 and Sb2Se3/Cu2S onto n-type
silicon wafers.
• Photodetectors made of Sb2Se3/Si and Sb2Se3/Cu2S/Si heterojunctions have outstanding optical
response and stable switching ratios at 638 nm and 980 nm wavelengths.
• Cu2S film as a mid-layer improves the on/off ratio, resulting in better performance
characteristics.
• At various wavelengths, Sb2Se3/Cu2S/Si heterojunction outperformed Sb2Se3/Si heterojunction
in terms of response time.

Figure 2.1: Fig.(a) Schematic Structure and (b) Rise time and delay time of Sb2Se3 Photodiode

2.2) High-performance dual-mode ultra-thin broadband CdS/CIGS

heterojunction photodetector on steel [2]

16
 • Fabrication of an ultra-thin CdS/CIGS heterojunction photodiode on steel, allowing for dual-
mode broadband photodetection in the ultraviolet to near-infrared region.
• A demonstration of photovoltaic mode in which the CIGS photodiode serves as a self-driven
photodetector with exceptional photodetection capabilities.
• The record has a detectivity of about 4.4×1012 Jones, a low noise equivalent power (NEP) of 0.16
PW Hz−1/2, and a high I_light/I_dark ratio of around 103.
• The photovoltaic mode has a modest responsivity of 0.39 A W−1 and an external quantum
efficiency (EQE) of around 71% under particular illumination circumstances (20 µW cm−2 at 680
nm).
• Under the same illumination circumstances, the photoconductive mode increased responsivity to
1.24 A W−1 and EQE to roughly 226% with a 1 V reverse bias.
• Minority electrons localize in defects, surface states, and depletion regions of the CIGS
photodiode, resulting in excess hole accumulation in the ultra-thin CIGS photodiode and an EQE
of more than 100%.

Figure 2.2: Fig.(a) Schematic Structure and (b) cross-section SEM image of the CdS/CIGS photodiode.

2.3) A self-powered photodetector based on a CH3NH3PbI3 single crystal

with asymmetric electrodes [3]
• The use of methylammonium lead iodide perovskite (MAPbI3) single crystal due to its
outstanding properties such as strong light absorption, long carrier diffusion length, high carrier
mobility, low trap-state density, and low surface recombination velocity.
• The creation of a self-powered photodetector using asymmetric Au-Al electrodes and the MAPbI3
single crystal.

17
 • To address the difficulty of metal-semiconductor interactions, Schottky junctions between the
electrodes and the perovskite material are used.
• Optimized the channel length between Au-Al electrodes to 30 μm for efficient electron-hole pair
separation and transportation.
• The device performed well under 1 sun illumination, with a short-circuit photocurrent density of
6.86 mA cm−2 and an open-circuit voltage of 0.7 V.
• Significantly higher photocurrent than devices based on perovskite polycrystalline films with a
comparable structure.
• The gadget is highly sensitive and can detect incident power densities as low as 1 × 10−8 W cm−2
with a responsivity of 0.24 A W−1 without bias.
• Broadband photo response from 375 nm to 808 nm, complemented by quick response time.

2.4) Simulation Study of n-ZnO/Perovskite/p-Cu2SnS3 Based Self-

Powered Photodetector [4]
• Perovskite's strong optoelectronic qualities make it suitable for use in self-powered
photodetectors.
• Simulation research was conducted to build and optimize an n-ZnO/Perovskite/p-Cu2SnS3
heterostructure-based photodetector.
• To increase device performance, perovskite is used as an absorber material sandwiched between
two inorganic materials that serve as the electron transport layer (ETL) and hole transport layer
(HTL).
• ETL and HTL are achieved by using active absorber perovskite (CH3NH3PbI3) in conjunction
with n-ZnO and p-Cu2SnS3 materials.
• Maximum responsivity is around 0.35 A/W throughout a wide visible spectrum (300-900 nm),
with claimed external quantum efficiency (EQE) ranging from 25% to 80%.

2.5) A Surface Plasmon Enhanced Infrared Photodetector Based on InAs

Quantum Dots [5]

• Integration of gold Two-Dimensional Hole Array (2DHA) with semiconductor InAs Quantum
Dot (QD).
• At plasmonic resonance, the infrared photo response increased by 130% absolute.
18
 • Optimized 2DHA design for efficient light coupling to a confined plasmonic mode.
• QD layers are closely spatially matched to the wave function extent of the plasmonic mode.
• 2DHA processing is suitable with large-scale manufacture while maintaining noise current
properties.
• Expected impact: Improved performance is appropriate for surveillance and medical diagnostics
applications.

Figure 2.3: Plot of Wavelength to the Infrared Response

2.6) Flexible and Self-Powered Photodetector Arrays Based on All-

Inorganic CsPbBr3 Quantum Dots [6]
• Flexible and self-powered photodetector arrays have been developed utilizing all-inorganic
perovskite quantum dots (QDs).
• The use of CsBr/KBr-mediated QDs results in enhanced surface morphology, crystallinity, and
decreased defect densities when compared to pure CsPbBr3 QDs.
• Material characterizations show that CsBr/KBr-mediated CsPbBr3 QDs have increased carrier
transport, photoluminescence efficiency, and carrier lifetime.
• Flexible photodetector arrays with optimum CsBr/KBr treatment demonstrate:
o High open-circuit voltage of 1.3 V and a response of 10.1 A W-1.
o Specific detectivity of 9.35 x 1013 Jones.
o The on/off ratio can reach 104, especially in self-sustaining operating mode.
• Excellent flexibility and electrical stability, with minimal degradation after 1600 bending cycles.

19
 • A uniform optical response distribution was discovered in flexible detector arrays, which is
crucial for practical imaging systems.
• The findings enhance the practical use of perovskite products in wearable and portable
applications.

Figure 2.4: Synthesis at room-temperature and structural characterizations of CsBr/KBr assisted

2.7) Improved Stability and Photodetector Performance of CsPbI3

Perovskite Quantum Dots by Ligand Exchange with Amino ethanethiol
[7]
• Enhancing the stability of CsPbI3 perovskite quantum dots (QDs) in solution and thin films.
• Replacing the initial long-chain ligand with the short-chain ligand 2-aminoethanethiol (AET), in
combination with oleyl amine.
• As a result, a thick ligand barrier is formed around the particles which:
o It prevents water infiltration and film damage.
o Heals flaws.
• The AET ligand inhibits QD surface capture, which increases photoluminescence (PL) activity.
• AET-CsPbI3 QDs preserve optical properties in solution and film.
• Over 95% of the original PL intensity was retained after 1 hour in water and 2 hours of UV
irradiation.
• Photodetector Performance:
20
 o Excellent photosensitivity: 105 mA W-1.
o High sensitivity: 5 x 1013 Jones at 450 nm and 3 x 1013 Jones at 700 nm.
o Photodetectors maintain about 95% of their original performance after 40 hours in
ambient air without encapsulation.

2.8) Self-powered UV photodetector performance optimization based on

Ag nanoparticles-encapsulated-ZnO nanorods by photo-deposition
method [8]

• Used a simple and cost-effective hydrothermal approach in conjunction with a photo-deposition

method.
• Silver nanoparticles encapsulated in zinc oxide nanorods (Ag NPs/ZnO NRs) were synthesized
and arrayed on a silicon substrate.
• Self-powered UV photodetector device made of metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM).
• Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) results revealed a significant change in
the morphological surface of ZnO NRs following the photo-deposition process, verifying the
presence of Ag nanoparticles.
• The current-voltage (I-V) properties of the Ag NPs/ZnO NRs photodetector showed increased
conductivity compared to the photodetector without Ag NPs.
• The MSM device with Ag NPs/ZnO NRs achieved performance metrics of 42.79 A W-1,
• External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) of 13,436.06% at 15 V bias voltage, and Sensitivity of
18,503% at 0 V bias voltage.
• Modified gadget is regarded suitable for self-powered photodetectors.

Figure 2.5: Fabrication of MSM Device

21
2.9) Performance evaluation of transparent self-powered n-ZnO/p-NiO
heterojunction ultraviolet photosensors [9]
• NiO/ZnO thin film heterojunction diodes were created using the dc magnetron sputtering process.
• Performance evaluation for UV sensor applications.
• Device Configuration: At ambient temperature, ITO/ZnO/NiO/Ag demonstrated outstanding
current-voltage rectifying properties (~105).
• The effect of quick thermal annealing treatment on photodetector capabilities of a manufactured
ITO/ZnO/NiO thin film stack was investigated.
• Investigation of structural, optical, and spectroscopic properties was carried out.
• Testing of ITO/ZnO/NiO/Ag diodes under 365 nm UV light illumination (power density: 0.06
mW/cm2).
• In self-powered mode, response time was recorded at 197.29/537.10 ms.
• The photodiode device had a spectrum responsivity of 13.01 mA/W and a steady photo detectivity
of 5.66 × 1011 Jones at room temperature.
• The n-ZnO/p-NiO heterojunction photodetector was shown to be capable of detecting feeble UV
light in self-powered mode.

Figure 2.6: Structure of Ultraviolet Photosensors

22
2.10) High-Performance and Self-Powered Alternating Current
Ultraviolet Photodetector for Digital Communication [10]
• Developed a self-powered UV photodetector using titanium dioxide.
• Characteristics include:
o High detectivity: approximately 1.8 × 1010 Jones. Excellent photoresponsivity: 0.32 mA
W−1 during pulsed illumination (λ = 365 nm, 4 mW cm−2).
o The alternating current photovoltaic effect improves efficiency by 114% and 2017% when
compared to the standard direct current photovoltaic effect.
o High on/off ratio: around 103.
o Rapid rise/decay time: 112/63 μs.
o Noise equivalent power is 5.01 × 10−11 W/Hz1/2 under self-bias circumstances.
o Photoconductive atomic force microscopy discovered charge transport at the nanoscale.
o Device size can be reduced to less than ten nanometres (about 35 nanometres).
• Practical application: Interpreting digital codes.
• Implications: Promotes energy-efficient design of ultrafast photodetectors.
• Suitable not only for optical communication, but also for advanced optoelectronic applications
such as digital display and sensing.

Figure 2.7: TiO2 Based Photodetector

23
 CHAPTER-3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction to SCAPS
The computational tool known as SCAPS, or "Solar Cell Capacitance Simulator," is used in the field of
photovoltaics to simulate and analyze the electrical properties of solar cells. Researchers and engineers
frequently utilize SCAPS, which was created by Drs. Markus Gloeckler and Christophe Ballif at the
Swiss Center for Electronics and Microtechnology (CSEM), to simulate and improve the performance
of solar cell systems.
The purpose of SCAPS is to model the electrical behavior of several kinds of solar cells, such as
perovskite, organic photovoltaics (OPVs), thin-film (such as amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and
copper indium gallium selenide), and silicon-based cells. Predicting these solar cell architectures'
electrical properties and performance metrics under various operating scenarios is its main duty.

3.1.1 Simulation Capabilities

• Device Modeling: By specifying material characteristics, layer thicknesses, doping
concentrations, interface characteristics, and other features, SCAPS users can build intricate
models of solar cell devices.
• Optical Simulation: It uses optical modeling to compute light absorption, transmission, reflection,
and quantum efficiency inside the structure of the solar cell.
• Electrical Simulation: SCAPS predicts electrical parameters such current-voltage (I-V)
characteristics, efficiency, fill factor, and open-circuit voltage (Voc) by simulating charge carrier
transit, generation, recombination, and collecting mechanisms within the solar cell.
• Effects of Temperature and Illumination: To produce precise performance estimates, the software
takes into account temperature relationships as well as various illumination scenarios (such as the
AM1.5 spectrum).
• Parameter Extraction: Researchers can validate and improve their simulation models by using
SCAPS to extract parameters from experimental data.
3.1.2 User Interface and Workflow

24
A graphical user interface (GUI) in SCAPS makes it easier to build up simulation models, modify input
parameters, and analyze results. Through user-friendly menus and input dialogs, users can define layer
structures, material attributes, device geometry, and simulation conditions. The program facilitates the
exploration of design spaces and the determination of ideal device configurations using batch
simulations, parameter sweeps, and optimization procedures.
3.1.3 Applications of SCAPS
• Design and Optimization of Devices: Detailed models of solar cell structures, including material
properties, layer thicknesses, doping concentrations, interface features, and device geometries,
can be created by researchers and engineers using this program. SCAPS assists in the optimization
of solar cell designs for increased performance, reliability, and efficiency.
• Material characterization and Analysis: The program is used by researchers to examine how
defects, interfaces, and material characteristics—like bandgap, carrier mobility, trap densities,
etc.—affect solar cell performance. They can learn more about the compatibility of various
materials for particular solar cell technologies.
• Process Development and Manufacturing: SCAPS is used by solar cell producers to optimize
and develop their processes. Through the use of software, they are able to model how various
manufacturing parameters—like surface treatments, annealing procedures, doping profiles, and
deposition techniques—affect the properties of solar cells.
• Strategies for Enhancing Efficiency: Researchers can model and examine how different design
changes (like surface texturing, anti-reflection coatings, bandgap engineering, and layer thickness
optimization), material engineering, and device architecture changes affect the overall
performance of the device.
• Analysis of Environmental and Operational circumstances: This entails examining how
variations in light intensity, temperature, solar spectrum, and shade affect the behavior of the
device. Through the simulation of realistic situations, SCAPS advances our understanding of
device stability and dependability and aids in the optimization of solar cell designs for practical
uses.
All things considered, SCAPS is essential to the advancement of solar cell technology because it makes
it possible to optimize device design, characterize materials, establish processes, implement efficiency
improvement plans, analyses the environment, and conduct photovoltaic research and teaching.
Because of its precision, adaptability, and user-friendly interface, it is a useful tool for both industry
experts and scholars.
25
3.1.4 Working of SCAPS [1]
1. Setup and Initialization: The user starts by turning on their computer's SCAPS program.
With the help of SCAPS's intuitive graphical user interface, users may specify simulation
parameters, enter data, and build models of solar cells.
2. Define Solar Cell Structure: In SCAPS, the user specifies the solar cell model's structure.
This entails defining the doping profiles, interface characteristics, layer thicknesses,
semiconductor materials employed (such as silicon, cadmium telluride, and perovskite),
and device architecture.
3. Optical Modelling: SCAPS simulates the behavior of light within the structure of a solar
cell by including optical modelling skills. This involves computing the quantum efficiency,
absorption, transmission, and reflection of light at various solar spectrum wavelengths
(e.g., AM1.5 spectrum).
4. Electrical modelling: Charge carrier transit, generation, recombination, and collection
mechanisms are the main topics of attention in SCAPS' simulation of the solar cell model's
electrical activity. Key electrical metrics like efficiency, fill factor, open-circuit voltage
(Voc), short-circuit current (Jsc), and power output are all calculated by the program.
5. Parameter Input and Adjustment: The user enters simulation settings (such as bias
conditions, simulation time), process parameters (such as temperature, illumination
intensity), and material parameters (such as bandgap, mobility, and longevity).
6. Numerical Simulation: Based on mathematical models and methods, SCAPS conducts
numerical simulations after the parameters and solar cell model have been established.
Coupling differential equations that explain the physical processes taking place within the
structure of the solar cell, such as carrier transport, generation, and recombination, are
solved by the software.
7. Data Analysis and Visualization: SCAPS produces simulation results that show the
electrical properties and performance metrics of the solar cell model as plots, graphs, and
numerical data. To compare various designs, comprehend how a solar cell behaves in
various scenarios, and spot areas for optimization, users can examine and visualize
simulation results.

26
 8. Optimization and Iteration: Users can tweak device topologies, change parameters, or
investigate different materials to optimize the solar cell design based on simulation
findings. Users can develop their models, validate against experimental data, and iterate to
attain desired performance targets using the iterative simulation cycles that SCAPS allows.
9. Validation and Verification: By contrasting simulated outcomes with experimental
measurements, SCAPS enables the validation and verification of simulation models.
By ensuring that the simulated behavior closely resembles actual observations, this
validation procedure improves the dependability of SCAPS simulations.
10. Reporting and Documentation: SCAPS offers capabilities for producing reports,
recording simulation parameters, showcasing outcomes, and exporting information for
additional study or display. Reports and visualizations created by SCAPS can be used by
users to share their discoveries, thoughts, and design suggestions.
To summaries, SCAPS operates in a step-by-step manner beginning with the description of the solar
cell structure and progressing through optical and electrical modelling, numerical simulation, parameter
input and adjustment, data analysis and visualization, optimization, validation, and reporting. With it,
users can model, evaluate, and enhance solar cell device performance for a range of photovoltaic
research and development applications.

Figure 3.1: SCAPS Working Panel

27
Figure 3.2: Solar Cell Definition Panel

28
 CHAPTER-4

NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS AND DEVICE STRUCTURE

The Department of Electronics and Information Systems at Gent University (Ghent, Belgium) created
SCAPS-1D (V3.3.07), the numerical simulation program utilized in this work. The software has been
widely used to simulate thin-film solar cells in order to investigate their optical and electrical
characteristics as well as the physics at play. The simulated results from SCAPS match well with the
experimental data, as reported in earlier papers. Many studies using the SCAPS-1D program have
examined its uses in identifying extremely efficient solar devices in recent years. In essence, SCAPS-1D
solves three sets of equations: electron continuity, hole continuity, and Poisson's equation—all while
adhering to boundary constraints. The following three equations are displayed:
𝜕 2𝜑 𝑞
+ [𝑝(𝑥) − 𝑛(𝑥) − 𝜌𝑛 + 𝜌𝑝 − 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐷 ] (1)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜀
1 𝑑𝐽𝑝
= 𝐺𝑜𝑝 (𝑥) − 𝑅(𝑥) (2)
𝑞 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝐽𝑛
= 𝐺𝑜𝑝 (𝑥) + 𝑅(𝑥) (3)
𝑞 𝑑𝑥
where 𝐑 indicates the electron charge, 𝜀 the dielectric constant, and 𝜑 the electrostatic potential. Acceptor
type is represented by 𝑁𝐴, and donor type density by 𝑁𝐷. Hole (electron) concentration is denoted by
𝑝(𝑛). Hole (electron) distribution is denoted by 𝜌𝑝 (𝜌𝑛). The current densities of the hole and electron
are denoted by 𝐽𝑝 and 𝐽n, respectively. The optical generation rate is denoted by 𝐺op, while the net
recombination, which includes both direct and indirect recombination, is represented by 𝑅. The location
coordinate x determines all of these factors.
To comprehend the physical characteristics of and implement the highly efficient photoelectronic device,
numerical modelling is a crucial first step. The TiS3 layer with a narrow band gap serves as an absorber.
One transparent conductive oxide layer that is used is the fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) layer. The
FTO/CdSe/TiS3/Ag thin-film heterojunction architecture photodetector is diagrammatically represented
in Figure. The GaAs/TiS3 heterojunctions are built within the device that was intended. It is evident that,
in comparison to the TiS3 layer, the CdSe layer's conduction band is approximately 0.6 eV higher.
Photogenerated electrons would be encouraged to approach the Ag electrode by the conduction band
offset. Moreover, the TiS3 layer's valence band maximum is extremely similar to the CdSe's. At the

29
CdSe /TiS3 interface, the predicted valence band offset is ~0.2 eV, which would facilitate the transport
of photo-generated holes to the FTO substrate.

Figure 4.1: Structure of FTO/CdSe/TiS3 based Self-Powered Photodetector

Table 1 displays the physical properties of the GaAs and TiS3 layers employed in this simulation. These
parameters are all derived from other studies and hypotheses. To make the numerical computation easier,
the approximate thermal velocity of electrons and holes in GaAs and TiS3 semiconductors at room
temperature is fixed at 107 cm/s. It is expected that the surface recombination velocity of holes and
electrons at the Ag electrode or FTO is 107 cm/s. Both the electron and hole capture cross-sections are
set at 10−14 cm2. In the GaAs/TiS3 heterojunction device simulation, the interface defect parameters were
1012 cm−3. In order to maximize the simulation inquiry, we employ AM 1.5G illuminations in all of our
investigations, employing 1000 W/m2 from the GaAs layer side. It is crucial to consider
photoresponsivity (R) and photo detectivity (D*) when evaluating a device's performance and detector
sensitivity.
Table 4.1: Parameters set for the simulation of TiS3-based photodetector.

Properties FTO CdSe TiS3

Thickness (nm) 300 200 500

Band gap (eV) 3.6 1.4 1.0

30
 Electron
4 4.35 4.8
affinity (eV)

Dielectric
permittivity 9 10 9.98
(relative)

Electron
thermal velocity 1 × 107 1 × 107 1 × 107
(cm/s)

Hole thermal
1 × 107 1 × 107 1 × 107
velocity (cm/s)

CB effective DOS
2.2 × 1018 1 × 1018 1 × 1018
(cm−3)

VB effective DOS
1.8 × 1019 1 × 1018 1.8 × 1019
(cm−3)

Donor density
1 × 1017 0 1 × 1018
ND (cm−3)

Acceptor
0 1 × 1017 0
density NA (cm−3)

Electron
100 50 200
Mobility (cm2/Vs)

Hole mobility
25 10 94
(cm2/Vs)

31
 CHAPTER-5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1. Influence of p-CdSe and n-TiS3 Layer Thickness on Device
Performance

The detector's performance is largely dependent on the thicknesses of the n-TiS3 and p-CdSe layers. The
goal of factor optimization is to achieve the best possible device performance. The impact of CdSe and
TiS3 layer thickness on the proposed photodetector performance is shown in Figure 5.1. The thickness
of the CdSe layer was varied from 0.1 to 1 μm, while the TiS3 layer remained constant at 0.5 μm. The
short circuit photocurrent (JSC) clearly rose from 14.33 to 27 mA/cm2 as the thickness of the CdSe layer
increased from 0.1 μm to 0.7 μm, as seen in Figure 5.1(a). This is explained by the fact that a significant
leakage current is caused by the incredibly thin CdSe layer. This decreased the amount of photogenerated
carriers that were produced. The open circuit voltage (VOC) variation trend is comparable to the JSC
trend, as Figure 5.1(d) illustrates. A higher concentration of carriers resulting from an adequate thickness
of the CdSe layer can increase the depletion region of TiS3 and improve its performance. Figure 5.1(g)
illustrates the responsivity at 0.7 μm CdSe layer thickness, which is 0.3 A/W respectively. The findings
suggest that 0.6 μm is the ideal CdSe layer thickness.

32
 Figure 5.1: (a) J–V characteristic curves for varying the CdSe layer thickness. (b) Quantum Efficiency for varying the CdSe layer
thickness (c) thickness vs efficiency curve (d) thickness vs Voc Curve (e)Thickness vs Fill Factor Curve (f) thickness vs Jsc Curve
(g) Responsivity variation with respect to the CdSe Layer thickness

33
As shown in Figure 5.3, simulation research was conducted using a thickness range of 0.1 μm to 2 μm to
examine the impact of TiS3 layer thickness. It has been noted that as the thickness of the TiS3 layer
increased, the simulated device's VOC and JSC improved. The photocurrent was 16.47 mA/cm2 at 0.1 μm
thickness of the TiS3 layer. Low photocurrent resulted from the thin TiS3 layer's inability to completely
absorb the incoming light, but nearly all of the photogenerated electron-hole was able to reach the
matching electrode. JSC rises as a result of increased photon absorption brought on by a thicker coating
of TiS3. At 1.5 μm, the thickness of the TiS3 layer caused the photocurrent to increase to 35.53 mA/cm2.
However, despite the saturation of light absorption, there was no discernible change in the performance
metrics as the thickness was increased further. The photo-generated carriers have a long propagation
path, which causes the carrier recombination rate in the inner TiS3 layer to increase. A very efficient
performance may be achieved by the simulated device when the thickness of the TiS3 layer is 1.5μm.

Figure 5.2: (a)J–V characteristic curves for varying the TiS3 layer thickness. (b)QE(%) curve for varying TiS3 thickness (c)thickness vs
Fill Factor (d)Thickness vs Jsc (e)Thickness vs Voc (f) Thickness vs EfficiencyCurve Of Tis3 Layer

34
 Figure 5.3: TiS3 Simulation Panel

5.2. Influence of the Concentration of Defect Density

The defect density of each layer affects the device's performance as well. More photo-generated carrier
recombination is caused by an increase in defect density, which significantly lowers the device's
efficiency. The CdSe and TiS3 layer defect densities in the investigation are adjusted within the ranges
of 1012–1022 cm−3 and 1012–1020 cm−3, respectively. The photoelectric performance of the simulated
photodetector changed very little when the defect density of CdSe was adjusted from 1012 to 1017, as
shown in Figure. Figure 4 shows that VOC and JSC deteriorate with a continual increase in the CdSe layer's
defect density. As illustrated in Figure, the JSC decreased to 22.24 mA/cm2 and the corresponding
responsivity quenched to 0.22 A/W when the CdSe layer's defect density grew to 1022 cm−3. This is
explained by the increased carrier recombination rate brought about by the defects' localized energy
levels. The findings demonstrate that the device's performance was only quenched by a mass
concentration of faults in the CdSe layer. The CdSe layer's ideal defect density falls between 1012 and
1017. The photocurrent is maintained at about 29.38 mA/cm2 when the defect density of the TiS3 is varied
between 1012 and 1014. JSC changed from 29.38 mA/cm2 to 21.45 mA/cm2 when the defect density was
enlarged from 1014 cm−3 to 1020 cm−3. It shows that both detectivity and responsivity had a downward
trend. When the CdSe and TiS3 layer defect densities are between 1012 and 1014 cm−3 and 1017 and 1017
cm−3, respectively, the best responsivity and detectivity are 0.29 A/W and 3.2 × 1013 Jones.

35
Figure 5.4: (a) J–V characteristic curves for varying theCdSe defect density (b) Defect Density vs Jsc Variation (c) Defect Density vs
Voc Variation (d) Defect Density vs Efficiency (e)Defect Density vs Fill Factor Variation (f) Defect Density Simulation Panel

36
5.3. Influence of Doping Concentration of p-CdSe Layer and n-TiS3 Layer
A key factor in raising photodetectors' efficiency is shallow acceptor density (NA). The CdSe layer's
doping concentration was changed in the simulation study from 1012 cm−3 to 1017 cm−3, while all other
parameters stayed the same. Figure 5.5(a,b) illustrates how the JSC and VOC improve when the CdSe
carrier concentration rises, but stays below 1015 cm−3, suggesting a decrease in minority charge carrier
recombination. Figure illustrates how the photodetector's overall performance, comprising JSC, VOC,
responsitivity, and detectivity, was severely quenched when the CdSe layer's doping density grew to 1017
cm−3. This was caused by an increase in carrier recombination. Figure 3c shows that at 1015 cm−3, the
highest detectivity and responsivity are 0.29 A/W and 3.2 × 1013 Jones, respectively. The findings imply
that a more effective performance is obtained through appropriate doping of the CdSe layer. The donor
density (ND) of the TiS3 layer ranges from 1014 to 1022 cm−3. It is evident that when the TiS3 layer's
doping density increased, so did all of the simulated photodetector's performances. It is concluded that a
considerable built-in potential at the CdSe/TiS3 interface is caused by the high doping density. As a
result, there is a noticeable inhibition of photo-generated carrier recombination. Based on the numerical
investigation, the optimal doping concentration of 1022 cm−3 is selected to achieve the optimum
detectivity and responsivity of the developed photodetector (Figure 5.5).

Figure 5.5: (a)J-V Characteristic Curve (b)Responsivity Curve

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 CHAPTER-6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

6.1 Conclusion

To sum up, a numerical investigation is conducted on a self-powered CdSe/TiS3 heterostructure

photodetector. Here, SCAPS-1D software is used to model and optimize the CdSe/TiS3 photodetector.
The energy bands, rate of electron-hole creation or recombination, current density–voltage (J–V), and
spectrum response characteristics of the suggested device have all been investigated. Investigated are the
effects of thickness, defect density, and shallow acceptor or donor density. Consequently, the
heterojunction-based photodetector with ideal settings shows a good photo response between 300 and
1300 nm. The ideal short-circuits current under AM 1.5G illuminations is 29.57 mA/cm2, and the open
circuit voltage is roughly 870 mV. The simulated photodetector has a responsivity of 0.36 A W−1
respectively. The simulation's outcome offers a viable path for expanding the TiS3-based optoelectronic
device's potential applications.

6.2 Future Scope

We firmly believe that significant work still has to be done in order to arrive at the ideal Self-powered
Photodetector architecture. This perspective is based on the knowledge that photodetector research and
development is still in its infancy, constantly changing, and full of room for more innovation. Our recent
experiment ignored the investigation of external elements, such as how variations in the external electric
field can affect the efficiency of solar cells, in favor of concentrating primarily on internal characteristics
and mechanisms.

Our method mostly made use of 1-D and 2-D simulations, which offered insightful information about
the behavior and efficiency of Photodetector in simplified settings. Nevertheless, we are aware that
switching to 3-D simulations will surely produce more precise and thorough outcomes. This improved
accuracy is ascribed to the 3-D simulations' capacity to concurrently take into account a wide range of
intricate interactions and sophisticated models within the structure of the solar cell, including minute
changes in external parameters such as the electric field.

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We would like to explore 3-D simulations more in the future and include them into our study approach.
By doing this, we hope to open the door to a better understanding of the ways in which external influences
affect the efficiency of solar cells, which will lead to breakthroughs in photodetector technology and
further the continued pursuit of the most efficient use of solar energy.

39
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PLAGIARISM REPORT

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